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Lniv.of  III.  Library 

51 


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yC  M * '**//&//<£. 


>1-4. 


THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  ILLINOIS 
LIBRARY 


From  the  collection  of 
Julius  Doerner,  Chicago 
Purchased,  1918. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

library 

in  2016  with  funding  from 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/collierscycloped00robL1 


L^oiNg  Columbus. 


The  Cent emmal 


PPOMATOX 


Collier’s  Cyclopedia 


OF 


COMMERCIAL  AND 
SOCIAL  INFORMATION 


AND 


TREASURY  OF  USEFUL  AND  ENTERTAINING 

KNOWLEDGE. 


COMPILED  BY 

NUGENT  ROBINSON. 


This  Edition  has  been  carefully  Revised  and  considerably 

Enlarged  by  the  Author. 


NEW  YORK : 

P.  F.  COLLIER,  PUBLISHER. 

1 887. 


4 


I 


Ccwrai&fj, 

1882, 

Rv  P.  F.  COL  LIEF 


no  period  in  the  history  of  the  United  States  has  the  necessity 
for  a cheap  but  perfect  Cyclopedia  of  Useful  Knowledge  been 
so  imperative. 

So  keen  is  the  competitive  spirit  of  the  age,  that  the  advan- 
tage of  knowledge  in  the  struggle  for  advancement  is  apparent 
to  all. 

A good  education  is  the  best  legacy  we  can  leave  to  our  children. 
It  is  the  best  investment  we  can  make  for  ourselves.  The  educated  man,  in  every 
walk  of  life,  carries  with  him  his  own  capital — a capital  unaffected  by  monetary 
crises — an  investment  whose  interest  is  not  regulated  by  the  success  of  specula- 
tion— a legacy  which  none  can  dispute,  and  of  which  none  can  deprive  him. 

This  is  essentially  a practical  book.  Its  aim  and  object  is  to  enable  people 
to  educate  themselves.  The  ambition  of  the  Publisher  is  to  place  in  every 
American  home  this  treasury  of  knowledge,  invaluable  as  a manual  of  study  and 
a work  of  reference;  and  while  it  is  simple,  progressive  and  interesting  in  style, 
is  a veritable  power,  from  the  manner  in  which  it  enforces  education.  A reference 
to  the  list  of  contents  will  show,  that  under  various  heads  are  included  those 
numerous  branches  of  study  essential  to  the  varied  walks  of  life,  while  its  social 
forms  convey  those  instructions  which  so  qualify  persons  of  both  sexes  for  appear- 
ing to  the  highest  advantage  in  society. 

Collier’s  Cyclopedia  and  Veritable  Treasury  of  Knowledge  contains  a 
complete  digest  of  Merca?itile  Law,  together  with  forms  of  Legal  Documents, 
Government  Bonds,  and  a dictionary  of  law  terms,  enabling  every  man  to  become 
his  own  lawyer.  The  newest  and  best  system  of  Phonography  is  copiously 
illustrated.  Bookkeeping  in  all  its  branches  ; arithmetic  and  algebra,  together 
with  a lightning  calculator,  form  prominent  features  in  this  invaluable  work. 


s — 


803071 


4, 


PREFACE. 


The  Complete  Letter  Writer  is  a gem  in  its  way;  and  the  selections  of  English 
prose  and  verse,  from  the  works  of  the  most  renowned  authors,  are  as  chaste 
as  they  are  elegant  and  classical.  A very  important  section  in  this  Treasury  of 
Knowledge  is  the  self  teaching  of  French  and  German,  and  the  self  instructor — 
illustrated — for  the  Piano  and  the  singing  voice. 

The  Golden  Rules  of  Etiquette  will  prove  invaluable  to  those  desirous  of 
entering  into,  and  shining  in  society;  and  the  indoor  games,  parlor  magic,  etc., 
will  serve  to  render  the  winter  nights  “bright  as  day;”  while  the  outdoor,  com- 
prising gymnastics,  riding,  driving,  etc.,  cannot  fail  to  work  the  most  beneficial 
and  healthful  results  to  those  who  are  enabled  to  profit  by  the  instruction. 

The  laws  of  health  also  form  a portion  of  the  Cyclopedia  ; nor  have  the  all 
important  items  of  agriculture  or  gardening  been  omitted.  A glance  at  the  Index 
will  convey  some  slight  idea  of  the  numerous  and  varied  subjects  which  the 
compiler  has  dealt  with. 

Never  within  the  scope  of  any  one  volume  have  so  many  subjects  been  so 
skilfully  compressed,  each  of  which  is  handled  in  so  able  a manner  as  to  render 
its  study  a source  of  intense  enjoyment,  while  affording  the  most  advanced 
information. 

The  Publisher  has  spared  no  expense  in  editing  and  illustrating,  while  the 
volume,  for  beauty,  finish  and  cheapness,  is  a marvel  of  taste  and  progress. 


4 


PAGE 

Grammar I 

PAGE 

Games  of  Cards T 391 

A Compendious  English  Grammar 7 

Games  of  Skill 

Synonyms  of  Words  in  General  Use 33 

Select  Short  Prose  Quotations 52 

Poetical  Quotations 69 

French,  Self-Taught 96 

German,  Self-Taught 113 

A Guide  for  the  Piano-Forte  Player 127 

A Practical  Guide  for  Singers 154 

Hints  to  Stammerers 165 

Penmanship 167 

Parlor  Magic 431 

Physics  without  Appliances 444 

Astronomy 449 

The  Rules  of  Debate  and  How  to  Conduct  One 455 

Phrenology 471 

Knots  and  Splices 477 

A Full  Rigged  Ship . 482 

Home  Studies  for  Young  Ladies  483 

Phonography,  or  Short  Hand 176 

Languages 181 

The  Atmosphere 4gg 

The  Letter  Writer 183 

Various  Forms  of  Invitations 195 

Speeches 200 

Proverbs  and  Old  Sayings 509 

Agriculture 525 

Cattle ca  t 

Toasts  and  Sentiments 203 

The  Horse r 

Bookkeeping 207 

Arithmetic 221 

Poultry 563 

Arithmetical  Amusements 228 

Carving r 

The  Lightning  Calculator 234 

Algebra 242 

Gymnastics 249 

Riding 262 

Driving 268 

Etiquette  for  Ladies 583 

Etiquette  for  Gentlemen 537 

Etiquette  for  Party  and  Ball-room 

Etiquette  of  Courtship  and  Matrimony 617 

Lessons  in  Bicycle  Riding 272 

Golden  Rules Aor 

Swimming 277 

Drowning ?sT 

The  Language  of  Flowers ^6 

Rowing 283 

Mercantile  Law c>ss 

Forms  of  Legal  Documents 304 

Commerce 

Government  Bonds jT  j 



Dictionary  of  Law  Terms 3x7 

Miscellaneous  Tables 330 

Banks  and  Banking arr 

Brief  History  of  the  United  States 351 

Declaration  of  Independence 366 

Constitution  of  the  United  States 368 

Out-Door  Games  3-r 

Parlor  Games 

Our  Next  Door  Neighbors,  Canada  and  Mexico 700 

Tables  of  Population  ; United  States 707 

Tables  of  Rainfall  and  Mortality 70S 

CONTENTS. 


A Digest  of  the  L:iws  Relating  to  the  Rights  of 


American  Women 709 

Sculpture — Modelling 717 

Brass  Work 720 

Civil  Service  Rules 724 

Civil  Service  Regulations 726 


Instruction  to  Ladies  Desirious  of  Entering  the 


Civil  Service 729 

Photography  for  Girls 731 

Painting 737 

Index 741 


GRAMMAR. 


GRAMMAR  is  the  sci- 
ence of  language,  and 
its  principal  use  is  to  en- 
able those  who  study  it 
to  express  their  thoughts 
with  correctness  and 
propriety,  so  as  to  be  under- 
stood by  those  whom  they 
address. 

It  must  always  be  remem- 
bered that  grammars  can 
only  define , but  cannot  de- 
termine, the  correct  use  of 
language.  This  depends,  in 
every  instance,  upon  the 
forms  of  thought  and  meaning  to  be  conveyed ; 
and  in  all  languages  was  settled  and  employed 
long  before  the  studies  of  grammarians  commenced. 
And  at  this  very  time  it  may  be  seen  how  com- 
pletely powerless  are  all  the  grammatical  treatises 
on  our  own  tongue,  now  existing,  to  prevent  such 
changes  as  the  disuse  of  the  subjunctive  mood  of 
verbs,  etc.,  from  being  made  in  the  forms  of  the 
English  language  ; by  which  the  power  of  express- 
ing some  finer  shades  of  meaning  must  be  greatly 
circumscribed,  if  not  entirely  lost. 

The  best  method,  therefore,  to  be  pursued  by 
any  one  who  desires  to  become  practically  and  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  his  mother-tongue,  is  care- 
fully to  read  some  select  works  of  our  best  authors, 
in  the  manner  now  to  be  described,  with  the  help  of 
such  a compendious  grammar  as  that  contained  in 
the  following  pages.  This  method,  by  the  peculiar 
interest  it  excites,  relieves  the  study  of  all  drudg- 
ery ; and  at  the  same  time  furnishes  one  of  the  most 
satisfactory  means  of  intellectual  training,  and  an 
available  introduction  to  the  study  of  any  other 


language  to  which  the  attention  may  afterward  be 
directed. 

2.  The  following  paragraphs  form  the  commence- 
ment of  Lord  Bacon’s  Essay, 

“OF  STUDIES. 

“ I.  Studies  serve  for  delight,  for  ornament,  and 
for  ability. 

“ II.  Their  chief  use  for  delight  is  in  privateness 
and  retiring  ; for  ornament,  is  in  discourse  ; and  fo: 
ability,  is  in  the  judgment  and  disposition  of  busi- 
ness. 

“ III.  For  expert  men  can  execute  and  perhaps 
judge  of  particulars,  one  by  one  ; but  the  general 
counsels  and  the  plots,  and  marshaling  of  affairs, 
come  best  from  those  that  are  learned. 

“ IV.  To  spend  too  much  time  in  studies  is  sloth  : 

• 7 
to  use  them  too  much  for  ornament  is  affectation  ; 

to  make  judgment  only  by  their  rules  is  the  humor  of 
a scholar. 

“V.  They  perfect  nature,  and  are  perfected  by 
experience ; for  natural  abilities  are  like  natural 
plants,  that  need  pruning  by  study,  and  studies  them- 
selves do  give  forth  directions  too  much  at  large, 
except  they  be  bounded  in  by  experience. 

“ VI.  Crafty  men  contemn  studies;  simple  men  ad- 
mire them  ; and  wise  men  use  them,  for  they  teach 
not  their  own  use  ; but  that  is  a wisdom  without 
them  and  above  them,  won  by  observation. 

“VII.  Read  not  to  contradict  and  confute;  nor  to 
believe  and  take  for  granted  ; nor  to  find  talk  and 
discourse  ; but  to  weigh  and  consider.” 

3.  In  the  first  paragraph  we  find  something  spoken 
of , “ studies,”  and  something  said  about  them,  viz.,  that 
they  “ serve  ” for  certain  purposes,  as  “ for  delight," 


2 


GRAMMAR. 


“ ornament,”  and  “ ability.”  The  several  parts  may 
be  arranged  thus  : 


Studies serve.... 


for  delight, 
for  ornament 
and 

for  ability. 


They  are  thus  distinguished  according  to  their 
offices  in  the  paragraph,  which  can  readily  be  no- 
ticed, when  thus  arranged,  without  the  employment 
of  any  names  for  them. 

4.  The  paragraph  numbered  (2)  may  be  arranged 
in  this  manner  : — 


for  delight is. ...in-: 


Their  chief  use.. . 


I privateness 
and 

( retiring ; 
for  ornament,  .is.  ...in  discourse  ; 

and  l 

for  ability is in  the  ^ 


j judgment  1 o{ 

( disposition  (business. 


Here  the  three  purposes  mentioned  in  the  former 
paragraph  are  the  things  spoken  of  j and  certain 
things  are  said  about  each  of  them,  though  not  ex- 
actly in  the  same  manner  as  those  purposes  were 
said  to  be  answered  by  “ studies,”  above.  These 
two  parts,  therefore — something  spoken  of,  and  some- 
thing said  about  it — we  may  note  as  essential  to  a 
complete  and  intelligible  sentence  of  the  kind  before 
us  ; and  we  may  adopt  the  names  given  to  them  by 
grammarians — subject  and  predicate;  which, 
signifying  precisely  what  has  just  been  said,  require 
no  further  explanation. 

5.  Paragraph  (3)  we  arrange  thus  : 


( execute  ) 

For . . . expert  men . . .can  -j  and 


( particulars, 
. j one  by  one, 


but. . 

the  general  counsels 
and 

( plots 
the  ■<  and 

( marshaling 


(judge  of)  perhaps; 


of  affairs 


j- 


( from  those  that  are 
j learned  best. 


Both  subjects  and  predicates  here  are  somewhat 
complex.  “ Expert  ” is  prefixed  to  “ men  ; ” “ gen- 
eral ” to  “ counsels  ; ” and  to  “ the  plots  and  mar- 
shalling ” are  appended  the  words  “ of  affairs  ; ” just 
as  in  paragraph  (2)  “ chief  ” was  prefixed  to  “ use,” 
and  “ for  delight,  for  ornament,  and  for  ability  ” 
added  to  the  same  word,  with  the  evident  intention 
of  circumscribing  and  defining  it.  And  with  a simi- 
lar intention,  the  meaning  of  “ can  execute  and 
judge  of  ” is  carried  out  and  completed  by  “ particu- 
lars ” and  “ one  by  one ; ” and  that  of  the  latter 
predicate,  “ can  judge  of,”  is  further  limited  by  the 
word  “ perhaps  ” being  attached  to  it.  In  the  sec- 
ond part  of  the  paragraph,  also,  “ from  those  that  are 


learned,”  and  “best,” are  appended  to  the  predicate 
“ come.”  And  so  in  paragraph  (1),  “ for  delight,  for 
ornament,  and  for  ability,”  follow  the  word  “ serve  ; ” 
and  in  paragraph  (2),  after  “ is,”  comes  “in  private- 
ness and  retiring,  in  discourse,”  etc. 

It  is  evident  that  these  appended  words  and 
phrases,  although  they  are  of  the  highest  moment  to 
the  full  and  precise  expression  of  the  thoughts,} 
when  regard  is  had  to  the  structure  of  the  sentences 
alone,  are  not  essential,  but  subordinate  parts  there- 
of. And  they  have  accordingly  received  from  gram- 
marians distinct  names  ; those  employed  to  describe 
and  define  subjects  being  designated  attributives ; 
and  those  employed  with  predicates,  for  the  purpose 
of  modifying  and  supplementing  their  meaning — 
objects  ; which  terms  we  will  use  for  the  future,  to 
avoid  trouble  and  confusion. 

s'  6.  But  we  may  observe  further,  that  the  attribu- 
tives, which  have  occurred  in  these  paragraphs,  are 
of  two  kinds.  One  kind  (like  the  subjects)  consists 
of  names  of  things,  called  by  grammarians  nouns ; 
as  “delight,”  “ornament,”  “ability,”  “business,” 
“ affairs  ; ” and  these  have  before  them  the  little 
words  “ of  ” and  “ for,”  which  are  known  as  prepo- 
sitions, to  attach  them  to  the  subjects.  The  other 
kind  consists  of  epithets  merely,  and  not  of  names, 
as  “ chief,”  “ expert,”  “ general ; ” and  they  are 
called  adjectives. 

In  paragraph  (3)  we  find  another  word,  “ the,” 
used  very  much  in  the  same  way  as  adjectives  are 
used  ; except  that  its  sole  force  is  to  point  to  the 
subject  particularly  spoken  of  ; whence  it  has  been 
named  the  demonstrative.  And  in  paragraph  (2) 
there  is  a word,  “ their,”  in  form  closely  resembling 
it ; but  (in  this  instance)  meaning,  “of  studies.”  It 
is  plainly  an  adjective  ; but  it  is  also  called  a pro- 
noun, from  its  being  thus  used  instead  of  a noun. 

One  other  word,  “ and,”  which  occurs  in  the  sub- 
jects of  these  paragraphs,  requires  a passing  glance. 
Its  use  is  obvious  ; it  connects  certain  parts  of  sen- 
tences together,  so  as  to  save  much  repetition,  and 
the  inconveniences  that  must  result  from  it,  and  it  is 
designated  a conjunction. 

7.  Before  we  speak  of  the  different  kinds  of  object- 
ive words  and  phrases  which  we  meet  with  in  these 
paragraphs,  some  further  notice  should  be  taken  of 
the  predicates.  In  paragraph  (1),  and  in  the  second 
example  in  paragraph  (3),  they  are  perfectly  simple, 
consisting  of  the  words  “ serve  ” and  “ come  ” alone ; 


GRAMMAR. 


3 


words  which  convey  assertions,  and  speak  of  some 
sort  of  action,  and  are  called  verbs.  “ Can  execute 
and  judge  of  ” (observe  the  use  of  the  conjunction) 
are  also  verbs,  but  the  latter  has  a preposition  at- 
tached to  it,  to  bring  it  into  a particular  relation 
with  the  objects  that  follow  ; and  to  both  of  them  is 
prefixed  the  word  “ can,”  which  alters  their  force 
from  the  assertion  of  action  to  the  assertion  of  the 
mere  capability  of  it.  In  paragraph  (2),  again,  we 
have  for  predicates,  “ in  privateness  and  retiring,” 
in  “ discourse,”  etc., — which  are  plainly  nouns  with 
prepositions  ; and  the  quality  of  predicates  is  given 
to  them  by  the  employment  of  the  word  “ is  ” with 
each,  which  changes  them  from  attributives  into  as- 
sertions. “ Is  ” must  consequently  be  called  a verb, 
although  it  only  expresses  being  and  not  action. 
The  complex  character  of  these  predicates  must  be 
observed;  and  the  conjunctions,  the  demonstrative, 
and  the  addition  of  the  attributive,  “ of  business,”  to 
one  of  them  (which  happens  because  they  are  actu- 
ally nouns)  carefully  noted. 

8.  Turning  now  to  the  objects,  we  see  in  para- 
graph (1)  that  they  indicate  the  purpose  or  effect  of 
the  action  expressed  by  the  verb  ; and,  in  this  ex- 
ample, are  nouns  attached  to  the  verb  by  the  help  of 
prepositions, — “ for  delight,”  “ for  ornament,”  etc. 
In  paragraph  (3)  the  first  object,  “particulars,” 
which  is  also  a noun,  indicates  that  on  which  the 
action  represented  by  the  verbs  “ execute  and  judge 
of,”  takes  effect.  Observe,  also,  that  just  as  in  the 
words  “studies,”  “plots,”  and  “ affairs,”  the  fact 
that  more  than  one  of  the  kind  is  meant,  is  shown 
by  the  addition  of  the  letter  “ s ” to  the  ordinary 
word  ; whilst  in  the  instance  of  “ men,”  the  same 
fact  is  indicated  by  the  change  of  the  vowel  sound 
from  “ a ” in  man. 

The  second  object,  “ one  by  one,”  is  of  a dif- 
ferent kind.  It  indicates  the  manner  of  execution 
and  judgment  ; and  consists  of  a word  signifying 
number,  called  a numeral,  repeated,  with  a preposi- 
tion. “ Perhaps,”  which  is  the  third  object,  belongs 
to  the  predicate,  “judge  of,”  only  ; and  is  inserted 
for  the  purpose  of  lessening  the  strength  of  the 
assertion  conveyed  by  the  predicate.  Words  like  it 
are  called  by  grammarians  adverbs.  The  second 
object  in  the  other  example  contained  in  this  para- 
graph, “ best,”  is  of  the  same  class  of  words  ; but, 
instead  of  lessening  the  force  of  the  predicate,  it  is 
employed  to  intensify  it. 


9.  “ From  those  that  are  learned,”  is  a very  re- 
markable kind  of  object  ; for  it  contains  a complete 
sentence  in  itself.  The  actual  object  is  “ those,” 
attached  to  the  predicate  by  the  preposition 
“from;”  and  indicating  the  source  and  origin  of 
the  action  expressed  by  the  verb.  “ Those  ” is  not, 
however,  the  name  of  anything  ; but  it  stands  here 
for  “ those  men  ; ” and  thus  partakes  of  the  nature 
of  pronouns,  while  it  also  serves  demonstratively 
to  point  out  the  specific  description  of  men  spoken 
of.  In  consequence  of  its  being  in  part  a pronoun, 
it  can  have  an  attributive  attached  to  it,  and  the 
sentence,  “ that  are  learned,”  serves  as  an  attribu- 
tive, to  define  and  describe  the  “ men  ” particularly 
intended. 

The  predicate  of,  this  sentence,  “ are  learned,” 
is  of  the  same  kind  as  those  in  paragraph  (2),  only 
an  adjective  takes  the  place  of  the  nouns  there 
used.  The  subject  is  neither  a name  nor  an  epi- 
thet, but  a kind  of  pronoun,  since  it  stands  for 
“ men,”  and  plainly  for  the  same  men  as  “ those  ” 
did  ; and,  from  its  having  relation  thus  to  a noun 
already  known,  is  called  a relative  pronoun.  Sen- 
tences used  in  this  manner  are  called  accessory 
sentences,  to  mark  their  subordinate  character, 
and  their  connection  with  the  sentences  of  which 
they  form  parts,  distinguished  as  principal  sen- 
tences. 

Only  two  words  remain  to  be  spoken  of.  “ For,” 
at  the  commencement  of  this  paragraph,  shows  its 
connection  in  meaning  with  the  preceding  para- 
graph ; or,  more  correctly,  with  the  last  sentence  in 
it  ; for  which  it  assigns  a reason.  “ But,”  on  the 
other  hand,  separates  the  two  parts  of  this  para- 
graph, by  way  of  contrast  ; so  that  it  is  manifest 
that  not  the  first,  but  the  second  part  of  it,  contains 
the  reason  for  the  assertion  made  in  the  foregoing 
paragraph.  Both  words  are  called  conjunctions, 
from  their  thus  serving  to  connect  otherwise  dis- 
joined and  independent  sentences  together  ; yet  it 
is  evident  that  they  are  not  conjunctions  of  the 
same  nature  as  “ and.” 

10.  Paragraph  (4)  contains  the  principal  sen- 
tences : 


To  spend 


to  use 


to  make 


(too  much  time)  is  sIoth 

/ m studies  ( ’ 

( them  ) 

for  ornament,  >■ is affectation ; 

I too  much  1 

l judgment  ) 

J by  their  rules  V ....  is  ....  the  humor  of  a scholar 
( only  i 





4 


GRAMMAR. 


Of  these  predicates,  since  they  so  nearly  resemble 
those  of  paragraph  (2),  we  only  need  to  observe, 
that  the  nouns  are  used  without  prepositions  to 
modify  their  meaning  ; and  the  word  “ a ” (before 
“ scholar  ”),  contracted  from  “ an,”  is  a numeral, 
and  merely  means  “ one,”  but  in  what  we  may  call  a 
«omewhat  general  way. 

The  remarkable  character  of  these  sentences 
lies  in  the  subjects,  which,  as  we  can  perceive  at 
the  first  glance,  are  verbs  with  objects, — and  yet 
are  not  accessory  sentences,  since  no  assertions  are 
made.  This  form  of  the  verb,  with  the  preposi- 
tion “ to  ” prefixed,  differs  entirely  from  the  forms 
we  have  seen  employed  in  the  predicates.  Gram- 
marians distinguish  all  verbs  used  in  this  last-named 
way,  as  being  in  the  indicative  mood  ; and  those 
with  “ to  ” before  them  as  being  in  the  infinitive 
mood.  They  are,  in  fact,  as  we  see,  used  like 
nouns,  only,  being  verbs,  instead  of  attributives 
to  define  them,  they  have  objects  to  complete 
them. 

11.  Some  of  these  objects  are  in  forms  which 
we  have  already  noticed  ; “ time  ” and  “ judgment  ’’ 
are  like  “ particulars  ” in  paragraph  (3),  the  direct 
objects  of  the  action  of  the  verbs  they  follow ; 
“ in  studies  ” represents,  by  a very  natural  metaphor, 
that  of  place,  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  ac- 
tion spoken  of  ; “for  ornament  ” precisely  resembles 
the  “for  delight,”  &c.,  of  paragraph  (1)  ; but  the 
object,  “ by  their  rules,”  expresses  the  means  by 
which  the  action  of  the  verb  is  accomplished. 
“ Them,”  we  see,  is  a pronoun,  as  it  stands  for  the 
word  “ studies ; ” and  it  is  the  direct  object  of  the 
verb  “ use  ; ” it  is  one  of  the  very  few  words  in 
our  language  which  have  two  forms,  one  employed 
when  it  is  a subject,  “ they,”  and  another  when  it 
is  an  object,  as  we  find  it  here,  “ them.”  Here  are 
also  two  objects  belonging  to  the  class  of  words 
called  adverbs,  “ much  ” and  “ only,”  both  of  them 
expressive  of  the  manner  in  which  the  action  of  the 
verbs  they  follow  is  performed  ; and  the  first  of 
them  has  the  adverb  “ too  ” prefixed,  for  the  purpose 
of  intensifying  the  meaning  of  “much.” 

The  first  object  has  the  words  “too  much” 
prefixed,  as  an  attributive  ; “ too  ” being  here,  as  in 
the  instance  last  noted,  an  adverb  expressive  of 
intensity  ; but  “ much,”  what  is  termed  an  indefinite 
numeral,  expressing  quantity  merely  in  a general 
way.  There  is  another  of  the  series  with  an  attribu- 


tive prefixed,  “ their  rules  ; ” but  of  this  we  have 
spoken  in  connexion  with  paragraph  (2). 

12.  We  find  the  next  paragraph  (5)  rather  com- 
plex, as  this  arrangement  of  it  shows  : 


(perfect nature, 

They ■<  and 

I are  perfected . .by  experience;  [by  study  • 

f natural  abilities are.  .like,  .natural  plants,  .that,  need . .pruning 


and 

studies  themselves,  .do  give. 


directions 

forth, 

too  much  at  large,  ( in  by 

except.they.be  bounded. -(  experi- 
( ence. 


In  the  first  part  of  this  paragraph  we  find  the  same 
pronoun  used  as  a subject,  which  we  have  just  seen 
in  its  objective  form.  Grammarians  call  these  dif- 
ferent forms  cases  ; and  that  now  before  us,  the 
nominative  or  subjective  case  ; that  in  the  last  para- 
graph, the  accusative  or  objective  case. 

13.  The  first  predicate  and  object  are  in  the 
same  form  as  several  we  have  seen  above  ; but  the 
second  predicate  is  quite  new  to  us.  It  signifies 
that  “experience  perfects  studies,”  just  as  “they 
perfect  nature  ; ” but  we  find  what  should  be  the 
subject  following  the  predicate,  and  the  real  object 
in  the  place  appropriated  to  the  subject ; the  form 
of  the  predicate,  too,  is  changed,  and  a preposition 
is  inserted  between  it  and  the  word  “ experience.” 
We  must  admit,  however,  that  the  passage  would 
lose  immensely  in  compactness,  vivacity,  and  force 
if  it  were  written  thus:  “ They  perfect  nature,  and 
experience  perfects  them  ; ” so  that  the  reason  for 
using  this  peculiar  form  is  manifest. 

It  is  distinguished  by  grammarians  thus  : When 
the  agent  of  the  verb  is  the  subject,  the  verbal  form 
employed  is  called  active  ; but  when  the  immediate 
object  of  the  verb  is  the  agent,  the  form  employed  is 
called  passive.  And  in  our  tongue  all  passive  forms, 
just  as  in  this  instance,  consist  of  that  form  of  the 
verb  which  grammarians  call  the  perfect  participle — 
a form  resembling  an  adjective  in  this,  that  it  can 
be  used  as  an  attributive  ; but  also  partaking  of  the 
nature  of  a verb,  inasmuch  as  the  notion  it  conveys 
is  modified  so  as  to  express  the  completeness  of  the 
action.  The  object  following  this  verb  here  ex- 
presses the  means  by  which  what  is  spoken  of  the 
subject  is  effected  ; as  we  have  seen  before.  How 
the  two  sentences  are  combined  by  the  conjunc- 
tion, so  that  one  subject  serves  for  both,  we  need 
not  more  particularly  point  out. 

14.  “ For,”  prefixed  to  the  second  part  of  the 


GRAMMAR. 


5 


paragraph,  introduces  two  reasons  for  the  last  asser- 
tion respecting  the  influence  of  “ experience  ” upon 
“ studies  ; ” as  was  seen  in  paragraph  (3).  Of  the 
first  reason,  we  have  only  to  say,  that  the  real 
predicate  of  the  sentence  is  “ like,”  to  which  the 
words,  “natural  plants,”  are  added  as  an  object ; and 
that  in  the  accessory  sentence,  added  as  a second 
attributive  to  “ plants,”  whilst  “ pruning  ” is  the  im- 
mediate object  of  the  verb  “need  ; ” “ by  study  ” is 
an  object  annexed  to  “pruning.”  For  this  last  word 
is  another  of  the  participles,,  properly  the  imperfect 
one,  which,  like  the  verb,  at  times  requires  some 
attempering  object,  as  we  see  here. 

In  the  second  reason,  we  must  notice,  first,  an 
attributive  attached  to  the  subject,  which  we  have 
not  met  with  before, — “ themselves.”  It  is  un- 
doubtedly a pronoun,  and  it  is  here  used  as  a most 
emphatic  demonstrative.  The  objective  form  of  one 
part  of  it,  “them,”  does  not  concern  us  here.  Next, 
we  notice  the  predicate,  which  is  in  a form  we  have 
not  before  seen  ; but  which  is  only  equivalent  to  the 
word  “ give,”  alone,  except  that  it  is  rather  more 
emphatic.  Grammarians  call  these  words,  “do,” 
“ can,”  “ are,”  &c.,  when  employed  as  in  this  case, 
auxiliary,  or  helping  verbs.  The  first  and  second 
objects  to  this  sentence  do  not  require  particular 
notice  ; and  in  the  third,  “ too  much  at  large,”  it  is 
only  needful  to  observe  the  use  of  an  adjective  pre- 
ceded by  a preposition,  and  having  an  adverbial 
phrase,  which  we  have  met  with,  before  it,  to  express 
the  manner  of  the  action. 

Of  the  third  object,  which  is  an  accessory  sen- 
tence, more  is  to  be  said.  It  is  annexed  to  the  prin- 
cipal sentence  by  means  of  a conjunction,  “ except,” 
which  implies  some  limitation  to  the  meaning  of  the 
predicate  and  the  preceding  objects  ; but  the  form 
of  its  own  predicate  is  different  from  any  we  have 
yet  seen.  Comparing  it  with  the  second  predicate 
in  this  paragraph,  “are  perfected,”  we  find  that  it  is 
a passive  form;  but  the  employment  of  “be ’’in- 
stead of  “ are,”  shows  that  the  limitation  hinges 
upon  the  effect  of  “ experience”  upon  the  “ studies  ” 
spoken  of.  The  forms  of  verbs  which  are  thus  used, 
to  express  contingency,  have  been  called  by  gramma- 
rians the  subjunctive  mood  ; they  are  far  more  rarely 
used  now  than  they  once  were,  and  have,  indeed, 
almost  entirely  disappeared  from  our  spoken  language. 

15.  Paragraph  (6)  affords  us  an  opportunity  of 
remarking  some  other  facts  in  English  Grammar : 


Crafty  men  . . 
simple  men  .. 
and 

wise  men 

for  ..  they  


but  . that 


contemn  ..  studies; 
admire  them; 


use 

teach 


is  .. 


..  them; 

j their  own  use  ; 

• • • • | not ; 

f without  them, 

a wisdom  ja^e  them, 

[won  by  observation. 


In  the  first  three  sentences  there  is  nothing  new  to 
observe,  except  the  use  of  the  conjunction  “and,” 
without  any  abbreviation  or  condensation  ; it  here 
serves  only  to  combine  all  three  assertions  together, 
so  that  the  reasons  assigned  in  the  remainder  of  the 
paragraph  are  seen  to  apply  equally  to  all.  We  may, 
however,  notice  the  fact,  that  the  association  of  the 
several  attributives  with  their  objects  is  effected  en- 
tirely by  juxtaposition  ; there  being  nothing  in  the 
forms  of  the  words  specially  to  indicate  their  relation 
to  the  words  they  belong  to.  But  the  relation  of  the 
predicates  to  their  subjects  is  shown  by  the  agree- 
ment of  their  forms  in  one  essential  particular,  called 
by  grammarians  number.  Thus  in  paragraph  (2) 
the  noun  “ use,”  which  is  the  subject,  expresses  but 
one  thing  ; and  the  form  of  the  verb,  “ is,”  applies 
to  no  more  than  one;  whilst  in  paragraph  (5), 
“ they  ” (which  is  equivalent  to  “ studies  ”)  and 
“ abilities,”  referring  to  more  things  than  one,  have 
the  form  of  the  verb  “ are,”  which  also  applies  to 
more  than  one,  in  the  predicates  following  them. 
And  similarly  here,  the  subjects  being  in  the  plural 
number,  “ men,”  the  verbs  in  the  predicates  are  also 
in  the  plural,  “contemn,”  “admire,”  “use.” 

In  like  manner  the  place  occupied  by  the  word 
“ studies,”  shows  it  to  be  the  object  of  the  verb 
“ contemn  ; ” but  the  relation  of  the  objects  to  the 
predicates  in  the  other  two  sentences  is  indicated 
not  only  by  their  position,  but  (as  we  have  before 
observed)  also,  and  more  certainly,  by  the  form  em- 
ployed, “them.” 

16.  Little  needs  to  be  said  respecting  the  first  sen- 
tence, which  is  introduced  by  the  conjunction  “for,” 
most  of  its  forms  being  familiar  ; but  we  may  note 
the  use  of  the  word  “ own,”  an  adjective  rendering 
the  pronoun,  “ their,”  emphatic.  In  the  last  sentence 
the  subject  is  not  a relative,  but  a demonstrative 
pronoun,  and  its  reference  to  the  “use”  of  “stud- 
ies ” is  shown  by  the  order  of  the  words,  or,  as  the 
grammarians  say,  by  the  construction.  Besides  this, 
only  the  attributives  to  the  predicate,  which  is  here  a 
noun,  require  remark  ; for  two  of  them,  “ without 
them,  and  above  them,”  are  pronouns  attached  by 


GRAMMAR. 


prepositions,  exactly  as  we  have  seen  nouns  attached, 
in  paragraphs  (2),  (3),  and  (4),  but  showing  their 
subordinate  position  to  the  subject,  by  being  in  the 
objective  or  accusative  case  ; and  the  third,  “ won 
by  observation,”  is  a participle  with  an  object  ex- 
pressive of  means. 

This  participle  is  not  formed  in  the  same  way  as 
those  were  formed  which  we  have  before  met  with. 
“ Perfect-ed”  and  “bound-ed  ” have  been  made  by 
the  addition  of  the  final  syllable ; but  “ won  ” is 
formed  by  the  change  of  the  vowel  in  the  verb  “ win.” 

17.  The  last  paragraph  (7)  we  thus  arrange  : 

( contradict 

f not  to  ■<  and 

1 confute ; 

believe 
and 

take  for  granted ; 
l talk 

nor  to  find  ■<  and 

( discourse ; 

( weigh 

but  to  ■<  and 

( consider. 

Here  we  have  a predicate  “read,”  and  a consider- 
able number  of  objects,  but  there  is  no  subject  ; yet 
the  sense  is  complete.  There  is,  however,  no  assertion 
made  by  the  verb  ; on  the  contrary,  it  conveys  a 
command  ; and  the  subject,  if  expressed,  would  not 
occupy  the  customary  place  to  the  left  of  the  predi- 
cate, but  would  come  between  it  and  the  objects. 
Grammarians  distinguish  the  forms  of  verbs  which 
signify  commands  as  the  imperative  mood.  The 
four  principal  groups  of  objects  belong  to  one  and 
the  same  class,  that  which  expresses  the  purpose  or 
design  of  the  action  ; and  they  are  so  combined  by 
the  conjunctions,  “nor”  and  “but,”  as  to  enable  a 
single  verb  to  act  as  predicate  to  them  all.  The 
conjunction,  “ nor,”  serves  to  give  to  the  second  and 
third  groups  the  same  negative  character  that  is  im- 
parted to  the  first  by  the  negative  object  “ not ; ” 
and  the  fourth  is  contrasted  with  all  the  preceding 
groups,  as  stating  the  design  that  should  be  kept  in 
view  in  reading,  by  the  use  of  “but.” 


Read 


In  the  expression,  “ to  take  for  granted,”  we 
have  a participle  attached  to  a verb  by  means  of  a 
preposition,  as  an  object  needful  to  complete  it ; and 
the  next  group  shows  two  nouns,  “ talk  and  dis- 
course,” combined  by  the  conjunction  “and,”  so  as 
to  spare  the  repetition  of  the  verb  “ to  find,”  to 
which  they  both  serve  as  “ objects.” 

18.  From  this  illustration,  extending  only  to 
seven  paragraphs — and  those  neither  long  nor  very 
greatly  complicated — may  be  seen,  both  what  Eng- 
lish grammar  actually  is,  and  what  a large  and  clear 
knowledge  of  its  facts  and  laws  may  be  attained  by 
the  plan  of  study  which  we  have  recommended.  It 
may  also  be  seen  how  completely  language  is  the 
product  and  representation  of  the  thought  or  mean- 
ing of  those  who  speak  or  write  ; and  how  subordi- 
nate is  the  office  of  the  grammarian — limited,  in  fact, 
to  the  elucidation  and  interpretation  of  the  forms 
and  principles  of  language,  by  the  most  general  laws 
and  forms  of  thought.  For  not  only  cannot  the 
grammarian  determine  what  forms  shall  be  used,  and 
what  discountenanced  and  avoided  ; but  he  cannot 
possibly  frame  his  declensions  and  conjugations,  his 
concords  and  governments,  so  as  to  provide  a place 
for  every  combination  and  inflexion  and  mode  of 
giving  expression  to  the  infinitely  diversified  shades 
of  meaning,  even  in  the  language  of  common  life. 

19.  The  following'  example  will  show  how  easy 
it  is  to  analyze  and  arrange  the  most  complicated 
paragraphs,  so  as  to  exhibit,  without  the  employ- 
ment of  a single  technical  term,  every  fact  both  of 
Etymology  and  Syntax  contained  in  it.  The  pas- 
sage is  from  Locke’s  “ Essay  concerning  Human 
Understanding.”  Book  iv.,  chap,  i.,  § 1. 

“ God,  having  designed  man  for  a sociable  creat- 
ure, made  him  not  only  with  an  inclination,  and 
under  a necessity,  to  have  fellowship  with  those  of 
his  own  kind,  but  furnished  him  also  with  language, 
which  was  to  be  the  great  instrument  and  common 
tie  of  society.” 


not  only 
I made. . . 


God  ..  -/ 


f him 

made' *' y J with  an  inclination,  J 

I under  a nec 


clination,  1 
cessity,  ) 


to  have  { ^-^Those  of  his  own  kind, 


but  also  [ having  designed  {^"a  sociable 


creature, 


furnished 


(him 

l with  language,  . . . which  . . . was  to  be  ...  the  -(  and 

| common  tie 


( instrument  ) 

< and  > of  society. 

( common  tie  ) 


RAMMAR  is  divided  into  two  parts — 
one  which  treats  of  the  classification, 
formation,  derivation,  and  inflection  of 
words  by  themselves,  and  is  called  Ety- 
mology ; — and  another,  which  treats  of  the 
combination  of  words  into  sentences,  &c., 
and  is  called  Syntax. 

When  languages  are  analyzed  in  any  state  already 
reached,  and  not  in  a state  of  transition,  they  be- 
come the  subject  of  special  grammar  belonging  to 
the  province  of  linguistics.  Comparative  grammar 
seeks,  by  comparing  the  grammars  of  several  lan- 
guages, to  reach  the  laws  of  inflection  and  construc- 
tion common  to  them,  and  finally  to  all  languages. 
General  or  historic  grammar  attempts  to  explain  the 
growth  of  language  within  a specified  group. 

In  this  short  treatise  the  formation  and  derivation 
of  words  are  not  included  under  Etymology,  but  are 
added  by  way  of  illustration  to  the  concise  History 
of  the  English  Language,  which  forms  the  conclud- 
ing portion  of  it.  By  this  means,  not  only  is  some 
repetition  spared,  but,  being  disencumbered  of  that 
which  is  rather  curious  than  useful,  this  Etymology 
is  rendered  more  serviceable  to  those  for  whom  it  is 
specially  intended. 

Both  Etymology  and  Syntax,  it  must  be  ob- 
served, are  arranged,  in  the  first  place,  with  a view 
to  assist  in  a study  of  the  English  language  ; and 
next,  to  present  such  an  elucidation  of  its  principal 
facts,  and  such  an  interpretation  of  its  most  impor- 
tant laws,  as  shall  give  to  those  who  consider  them 
attentively,  some  real  and  practical  knowledge  of 
their  own  tongue.  And  with  the  same  intent,  those 
technicalities  only  have  been  introduced,  and  those 
examples  selected,  which  might  be  expected  to  aid 
in  the  simplification  and  explanation  of  the  subject. 


LETTERS,  ETC. 

2.  There  are  twenty-six  letters  in  the  English  Al- 
phabet ; which  have  always  been  arranged  in  the 
following  order,  and  are  of  these  forms  in  Roman 
type  : A a,  B b,  C c,  D d,  E e,  F f,  G g,  H h,  I i, 
J j,  K k,  LI,  Mm,  N n,  O o,  P p,  Q q,  R r,  S s, 
T t,  U u,  V v,  W w,  X x,  Y y,  Z z. 

The  number  of  sounds  to  be  represented  by  these 
letters  is  estimated  at  about  forty  ; and,  in  conse- 
quence, several  of  them  have  to  stand  for  more 
sounds  than  one.  It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that 
since  this  is  the  case,  the  letters  c,  q,  and  x should 
be  superfluous  ; the  two  sounds  of  c being  repre- 
sented by  s and  k,  as  in  zell,  .rell ; calends,  /falends  ; 
q,  being  always  followed  by  u,  with  the  sound  ex- 
pressible by  kw ; and  the  sounds  of  x differing  in  no 
respect  from  those  of  ks , gzf  and  z (in  some  words 
borrowed  from  the  French).  It  would  be  of  con- 
siderable advantage,  if  symbols  for  the  sounds  repre- 
sented now  by  the  combinations  of  letters,  ch,  sh,  th , 
ng,  &c.,  could  be  devised  and  introduced  ; but  this 
is  a matter  of  such  great  difficulty,  as  to  be  almost 
impossible. 

3.  The  twenty-six  letters  are  divided  into 
two  classes — Vowels  and  Consonants.  The  vowels 
are,  a , e,  i,  o,  u ; and  with  them  w and y ought  to  be 
placed.  They  represent  the  sounds  which  are  pro- 
duced by  the  transmission  of  the  voice  through  the 
mouth,  whilst  the  cavity  is  more  or  less  enlarged  in 
different  directions.  All  the  rest  are  named  con- 


GRAMMAR. 


S 

1 6*  <rv 
+ 0 «rr*<* 

t[  -Hyv^.  vtr 

V-  jr* 4 


<*<v 

VA 


sonants,  and  represent  the  sounds  produced  when 
the  voice  is  interrupted  by  the  voluntary  action  of 
the  throat,  tongue,  palate,  nose,  teeth,  and  lips. 

Our  vowel  sounds  differ  from  those  of  all  other 
languages  of  Europe  ; one  of  the  sounds  which  we 
express  by  a , they  express  by  e ; where  we  write  e, 
they  write  ij  where  we  use  t,  they  employ  ei  j and 
our  u corresponds  with  their  eu.  The  natural  series 
of  vowel  sounds,  expressed  in  letters  of  our  alpha- 
bet, is 

ee,  ay,  ah,  oh,  oo. 

The  combinations  of  vowel  sounds,  called  diph- 
thongs  ancUtriphthongs,  such  as  ae,  ai,  au,  ei,  ie,  oe , oi, 
ou , eau,  &c.,  express  the  intermediate  sounds  of  this 
series,  but  they  also  do  not  correspond  with  those  of 
the  other  European  languages. 

4.  Consonants  are  divided  into  three  orders, 
Mutes,  Sibilants  and  Liquids  ; and  these  are  further 
subdivided  according  to  the  organs  employed  in 
giving  utterance  to  them.  Thus  the  mutes,  are 
classified  first  as  Smooth  or  Aspirated,  and  next  in 
the  following  manner  ; the  sounds  for  which  we 
have  no  symbols  being  inserted  in  their  proper 
places  : — 

Smooth.  Aspirated. 

Sudden.  Gradual  Sudden.  Gradual. 

Guttural  k,c,  q g ch  (not  English)  gh  (not  English) 

Dental  t d th(  in)  th(  ine) 

Labial  p b f,ph  v 

The  ch  here  is  the  terminal  sound  of  the  Scotch 
word  “ loch  and  the  gh,  that  of  the  Irish  word 
“ lough.  ” The  letter  h finds  no  place  in  this  scheme, 
because  it  is,  in  fact,  nothing  but  a sign  of  the 
transmission  of  the  breath  called  “ aspiration,”  and 
not  of  a sound  at  all. 

The  sibilants  may  be  classified  thus  : — 

Sudden.  Gradual. 

Dental  s,  c z 

Dental  and  Palatal  sh  r4(est) 

Dental  and  Guttural  (a)z(ure)  j 

And  the  liquids  may  be  arranged  in  this  manner: 

c; j Guttural  r 

Simple  \ palatal  l 

I Guttural  (ki )ng 

Nasal  -(  Dental  n 

( Labial  m 

The  letter  x represents  the  sounds  of  ks,  gs,  and 
sometimes  of  z. 

5.  Of  the  sounds  expressed  by  the  composition 
of  various  letters,  both  vowels  and  consonants, 
nothing  more  can  be  said,  than  that  some  of  them 
are  identical  with  sounds  treated  of  above  ; and 


others  are  compounded  of  such  sounds.  Thus  the 
sound  of  the  word  buoy  is  identical  with  that  of  boy  ; 
and  in  “ adhesive,”  the  sound  d is  pronounced  dis 
tinctly,  and  followed  by  the  aspirate,  or  hard  breath- 
ing h s 

DERIVATION  AND  FORMA- 
TION OF  WORDS. 

With  the  History  of  our  Tongue,  which  follows 
>i  this  Grammar,  the  subject  is  illustrated  so  as  to  show 
the  relation  of  the  English  language  to  other  lan- 
guages, which  have  formerly  existed,  or  are  spoken 
at  the  present  day.  Here  only  the  “ internal  rela- 
tions ” of  words  are  regarded  ; and  the  sole  purpose 
is  the  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which,  from  the 
radical  words,  wherein  may  be  traced  the  ethnologi- 
cal connections  of  the  English  race,  other  words 
have  in  various  ways  been  formed  by  the  natural  vi- 
tality and  pqwer  of  the  language. 

7.  Radical  words  (called  by  etymologists 
“ roots,”  simply)  are  either  nouns,  verbs,  adjectives, 
or  pronouns  ; expressive  of  common  things,  condi- 
tions, actions,  &c.,  &c.  Primary0  Derivatives  are 
constructed  by  slight  changes  in  the  vowel  sounds, 
or  in  the  consonants  or  in  both  ; and  are  sometimes 
designated  “ stems.”  Secondary  Derivatives  are 
formed  by  means  of  prefixes  and  affixes,  from  both 
roots  and  primary  derivatives.  Ex. — 


Roots. 

Prim.  Deriv. 

Second.  Deriv. 

Bake 

batch 

baker,  baxter 

Bear 

bier,  birth 

barrow,  forbear 

Bind 

band, bond, bound 

bandage,  bondage,  bundle 

Bite 

bit 

biter 

Bless 

bliss 

blessing 

Blood 

bleed 

bloody 

Brood 

breed 

Child 

childish 

Choose 

choice 

Chop 

chip 

Deal 

dole 

Die 

dead,  death 

deadly 

Drive 

drove 

drover 

Duck 

duckling 

Fall 

fell,  foal 

(De)file 

foul,  filth 

filthy,  fulsome 

Find 

foundling 

Flee 

fleet,  fly,  flight 

Flow 

flood 

Forth 

further,  furtherance 

Gape 

gap 

Gird 

girder,  girdle 

Gold 

gild,  gilt 

golden,  gilding 

Good 

God 

goodness,  godly,  godlinesj 

Guile 

guilt 

guilty 

Heal  {to cover  oxhide)  hell,  hole,  hale,  health 

hellish,  hollow,  healer 

Lead 

lode 

leader,  mislead 

e>  f-r.tr.  c 

a u 


GRAMMAR. 


Roots. 

Prim.  Dt — 

Second.  Deriv. 

lend 

loan 

Lie 

lay,  law 

lien,  lawyer,  layer 

Lose 

loss,  loose 

loser,  unloose 

Man 

mannikin,  manhood 

Milk 

milch 

Pin 

pen, pound 

Pride 

proud 

(Be)reave 

raven 

ravenous 

Rise 

raise,  rouse 

arise,  arouse 

See 

sight 

sightly 

Shake 

shock 

shocking 

Sing 

song 

singer,  songster 

Sit 

set,  seat 

settle,  settler 

Speak 

speech 

speaker,  bespeak 

Stick 

stake,  stitch 

Strike 

stroke 

Strong 

strength 

Tell 

tale 

Trow 

truth 

truthfulness 

Wake 

watch 

waken,  watchful 

Weave 

woof,  web 

weaver,  webster 

Win 

winsome 

Work 

wright 

Wring 

wrench,  wrong 

wrongful 

Wry 

writhe,  wreath 

8.  Derivative  words  are  also  formed  by  composi- 
tion ; that  is,  by  the  construction  pf  a single  word 
out  of  two  or  more  words,  each  capable  of  being 
used  independently.  These  compounds  differ  en- 
tirely from  the  secondary  derivatives,  and  are  found 
in  every  class  of  English  words.  They  are  not, 
however,  so  numerous  in  our  tongue  as  in  the  Ger- 
man ; and  in  that  they  are  less  common  than  in  the 
Greek  language.  Ex.  Sunshine,  fairhaired,  thun- 
derstorm, harvestman,  daybreak,  nevertheless,  therefore, 
into,  everlasting,  tnidnight,  noontime , elsewhere,  how- 
ever, undersell,  overturn,  because,  hedgerow,  ware- 
houseman, earthquake,  steamengine,  railroad. 


CLASSES  OF  WORDS. 


t > 

i % 

*•1  r ■ 


'n  ed*™- 1, 
"A  t 


9.  The  classification  of  words  depends  upon  their 
signification  as  parts  of  sentences,  which  will  be 
treated  of  under  the  head  of  “Syntax.”  The  fol- 
lowing will,  however,  suffice  as  an  introduction  to 
this  part  of  the  Grammar  ; and  the  nature  of  Sub- 
jects  and  Predicates,  Attributives  and  Objects,  with 
the  various  means  of  expressing  the  relations  between 
them,  will  be  treated  of  in  the  succeeding  division. 

Names  of  things,  persons,  and  of  whatever  exists, 
even  in  imagination,  are  called  Nouns,  and  sometimes 
Substantives.  Ex.  Tree,  stotie  ; man,  boy  ; Ccesar, 
Wellington  ; virtue,  hope. 

Words  expressing  an  assertion  respecting  an  ac- 
tion or  condition,  or  the  reception  of  the  conse- 
quences of  an  action,  or  simply  respecting  existence, 


| are  called  Verbs.  Ex.  To  run;  to  strike;  to  sleep; 
to  be;  to  be  beaten. 

Attributives  which  can  only  in  figurative  language 
be  used  without  a noun  (which  they  qualify  in  some 
way)  are  called  Adjectives.  Ex.  Good,  bad,  green, 
high,  everlasting. 

These  are  the  three  principal  classes  of  words, 
which  represent  distinct  notions  of  things,  persons, 
actions,  qualities,  &c.,  &c.,  formed  in  the  mind. 
Other  words  express  not  so  much  the  notions  we 
have  formed,  as  the  connection  of  those  notibns 
with  each  other,  or  their  relations  to  us,  or  some  of 
the  infinitely  various  associations  of  thoughts. 

10.  Pronouns  serve  not  only  to  prevent  the  too 
frequent  repetition  of  the  same  nouns,  but  yet  more 
to  indicate  the  relation  of  the  persons  or  things 
spoken  of  to  the  speaker.  Such  are  the  Personal 
Pronouns.  Others  are  used  as  attributives,  but  they 
also  show  the  relations  of  the  subjects  they  charac- 
terize to  the  speaker.  Ex.  I,  thou,  he,  they;  mine, 
thine;  this,  those;  whom,  what. 

Whatever  exists,  or  acts,  or  is  acted  upon,  is  re- 
garded as  being,  or  acting,  or  being  acted  on,  in 
some  particular  time,  place,  manner,  &c.;  and  these 
modifications  of  the  simple  notions  indicated  by  the 
verb  are  expressed  by  a class  of  words  called  Ad- 
verbs. Ex.  Now,  where,  so,  seldom,  perhaps. 

Many  of  the  relations  of  notions  one  to  another, 
also,  are  those  of  place,  time,  manner,  means,  &c.; 
and  these  are  expressed  by  words  called  Preposi- 
tions, which  serve  to  connect  nouns  and  pronouns 
with  other  nouns  and  pronouns,  and  with  verbs.  Ex. 
From , by,  of,  to,  after. 

The  connection  of  things,  &c.,  with  each  other, 
and  of  thoughts  with  other  thoughts,  is  shown  by 
means  of  Conjunctions.  Ex.  And,  or,  but , though, 
for. 

Numerals  are  in  part  names,  and  in  part  attribu- 
tives and  adverbs;  and  therefore  do  not  properly 
form  a class  by  themselves.  Ex.  Tzvo,  four,  six; 
first,  tenth,  hundredth;  firstly,  secondly,  lastly. 

Interjections,  which  are  expressions  of  emotion, 
such  as  fear,  joy,  pain,  wonder,  &c.,  and  not  of 
thought,  and  the  greater  number  of  which  are  rather 
sounds  than  words,  cannot  be  noticed  in  a grammar  ; 
although  it  is  convenient  to  have  such  a class  to 
which  certain  expressions  which  occur  in  the  Dic- 
tionary may  be  referred.  Ex.  Ah!  O!  Ha! 

ix.  Nouns.  The  Gender  of  Nouns  is  determined 


GRAMMAR. 


by  the  sex  of  the  persons  or  beings  they  represent, 
being  called  Masculine  or  Feminine,  as  they  are  the 
names  of  males  or  females.  Beings  without  natural 
sex,  things  without  life,  and  abstractions  are  called 
Neuter. 

Figuratively,  sex  is  attributed  to  many  beings 
naturally  having  no  such  distinction,  and  to  abstrac- 
tions. Ex.  The  sun,  he  is  setting  ; the  moon,  she  is 
rising;  Charity,  she  is  the  child  of  heaven.  Very 
small  beings,  whatever  sex  they  may  be  of,  and  those 
whose  sex  is  not  their  distinctive  characteristic,  are 
spoken  of  as  neuter.  Ex.  The  ant,  it  is  a patron  of 
foresight  and  prudence  ; the  child,  it  knows  not 
what  it  does. 

Very  few  words,  in  English,  have  terminations,  or 
other  specialties  of  form.,  indicative  of  their  gender  ; 
the  following  are  examples  of  the  only  kinds,  and 
they  are  not  numerous.  Ex.  Arbiter , Arbitressj 
Prosecutor,  Prosecutrix  ; Margrave , Margravine  ; 
he-bear , she-bear;  Alan- servant,  M aid-servant.  In 
other  instances  different  words  are  appropriated  to 
the  two  sexes,  but  without  any  peculiarity  of  termin- 
ation. Ex.  Brother,  Sister;  Horse,  Alare;  King, 
Queen. 

12.  The  only  distinction  of  Number  is  that  be- 
tween one  and  more  than  one  ; the  ordinary  forms 
expressing  the  former,  and  being  called  Singular  ; 
and  special  forms  being  used  for  the  latter,  called 
Plural. 

Most  commonly,  s or  (when  it  ends  in  a sibilant 
or  .r)  es  is  added  to  the  singular.  Ex.  Sword, 
swords  ; fish,  fishes.  Words  ending  in  f or  fie  gen- 
erally make  their  plurals  in  ves.  Ex.  Calf,  calves; 
life , lives.  But  all  words  ending  in  ff,  except  staff, 
staves,  and  several  words  in  f or  fie,  add  j without 
any  change  of  letters  for  the  plural.  Ex.  Whiff, 
whiffs  ; grief,  griefs  ; fife,  fifes.  Those  ending  in 
o , preceded  by  a vowel,  add  s only  ; but  if  a conso- 
nant precede  the  o,  s or  es  is  added.  Ex.  Cameo , cameos; 
ratio,  ratios;  cargo,  cargoes;  volcano,  volcanoes;  por- 
tico,porticoes ; solo,  solos.  Words  ending  in  y after  a 
consonant  have  ies  in  the  plural.  Ex.  fly,  flies; 
history,  histories. 

A very  few  change  the  vowel  sound  of  the  singu- 
lar. Ex.  Boot,  feet ; goose,  geese  ; tooth,  teeth  ; woman, 
women  (pronounced  wimmen).  One  adds  en  to  the 
singular — ox,  oxen.  One  both  changes  the  vowel 
and  adds  en — brother,  brethren. 

Besides  these,  the  following  must  be  noted  : Child 


makes  children  in  the  plural.  Mouse  has  mice,  and 
louse,  lice;  but  it  is  the  spelling  only  which  is  pecul- 
iar. Penny  has  two  plurals  ; when  coins  are  meant, 
pennies,  but  when  money  is  spoken  oi,  pence.  In  like 
manner  die,  signifying  a stamp  for  coining,  has  dies; 
but  when  it  means  a cube  used  in  play,  dice.  Pea 
has  peas  and  pease,  the  latter  signifying  peas  collect- 
ively, or  used  for  food.  Kine  is  sometimes  used  as 
a plural  to  cow. 

Deer,  sheep,  swine,  are  used  in  both  numbers  ; and 
(when  spoken  of  as  food)  fish,  cod , salmon,  arc. 
The  names  of  metals  are  made  plural  only  when 
employed  to  signify  some  particular  things  composed 
of  them.  Ex.  Irons,  coppers,  brasses.  Articles  of 
trade  and  commerce  which,  in  ordinary  language, 
are  never  used  in  the  plural  form,  have  plural  forms 
in  the  market.  Ex.  Cloth,  oil,  sugar,  tea,  arc.  On 
the  other  hand,  beast,  which  has  a regular  and  com- 
monly used  plural,  is  employed  in  the  singular  form 
alone  by  Smithfield  salesmen.  Words  signifying 
abstract  qualities  seldom  take  the  plural  form,  be- 
cause they  cannot  have  a plural  meaning,  except 
when  used  figuratively.  Ex.  The  honors  of  the 
world;  the  decencies  of  life.  Names  of  measures, 
weights,  of  some  numbers,  and  of  terms  employed 
numerically,  are  in  some  instances  used  in  the  singu- 
lar form,  with  a plural  meaning.  Ex.  A ten  -pound 
note,  eighteen  hundred  and  fifty-eight,  an  army  of 
eighty  thousand  men,  twelve  dozen  of  wine,  three 
brace  of  dogs,  a fleet  of  twenty  sail,  twelve  thousand 
foot  and  three  thousand  horse , fifteen  thousand  stand 
of  arms,  a hundred  head  of  cattle,  each  weighing 
thirty  stone. 

Alms,  means,  news,  pains,  and  riches , which  are 
plural  in  form,  are  used  both  as  singulars  and  as 
plurals.  Ashes,  bellows,  breeches,  cates,  dregs,  gallows , 
pincers,  scissors,  and  tongs,  have  no  singulars,  either 
in  form  or  meaning.  The  names  of  some  sciences, 
derived  from  the  Greek  language,  are  plural  in  form, 
but  in  meaning  singular.  Ex.  Ethics,  hydrostatics, 
mathematics,  mechanics,  politics.  And  so  is  the  term 
morals.  Suds,  and  wages,  plural  in  form,  are  singu- 
lar in  signification  ; and  pulse  (leguminous  seeds), 
also  plural  in  form,  is  simply  collective  in  its  mean- 
ing. 

13.  Almost  all  nouns,  which  have  been  simply 
adopted  from  foreign  languages,  retain  their  original 
plurals  ; but  some  have  also  plurals  formed  in  the 
English  fashion,  and  in  a few  instances  with  a dif- 


GRAMMAR. 


ii 


! ferent  meaning.  The  following  is  nearly  a complete 
list  of  these  words  : — 

Singular.  Plural. 


Abacus, 

Acroterion  (not  used). 
Addendum, 

Alluvion,  alluvium. 
Alto-relievo, 

Alumnus, 

Amanuensis, 

Amphibium  (not  used). 
Amphora, 

Analysis, 

Animalculum  (not  used). 
Antenna, 

Anthropophagus  (not  used). 
Antithesis, 

Apex, 

Aphelion, 

Aphis, 

Apparatus  («  shorty,  ' 
Appendix, 

Aquarium, 

Arcanum, 

Asylum, 

Automaton, 

Axis, 

Bandit, 

Basis, 

Basso-relievo, 

Beau, 

Bonvivant, 

Calculus, 

Calx, 

Candelabrum, 

Catachresis, 

Census  (a  short), 

Chateau, 

Cherub, 

Cheval-de-frise, 

Chrysalis, 

Cicerone, 

Cilium, 

Colossus, 

Convolvulus, 

Corps, 

Crisis, 

Criterion. 

Datum, 

Desideratum, 

Diaeresis, 

Dictum, 

Dilettante, 

Dogma, 

Effluvium, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Emporium, 

Encomium, 

Ephemeris, 

Erratum, 

Eulogium, 

Fasciculus, 

Flambeau, 

Focus, 

Foramen, 

Formula, 

Forum, 

'•’uneus. 


abaci. 

acroteria. 

addenda. 

alluvia. 

alti-relievi. 

alumni. 

amanuenses, 

amphibia. 

amphorae. 

analyses. 

animalcula. 

antennae. 

anthropophagi. 

antitheses. 

apices. 

aphelia. 

aphides. 

apparatus  ( u long),  apparatuses, 
appendices,  appendixes, 
aquaria,  aquariums, 
arcana. 

asyla,  asylums. 

automata,  automatons. 

axes. 

banditti. 

bases. 

bassi-relievi. 

beaux. 

bonsvivans. 

calculi. 

calces. 

candelabra. 

catachreses. 

census  (u  long),  censuses. 

chateaux. 

cherubim,  cherubs. 

chevaux-de-frise. 

chrysalides,  chrysalises. 

ciceroni. 

cilia. 

colossi. 

convolvuli. 

corps, 

crises. 

criteria. 

data. 

desiderata. 

diaereses. 

dicta. 

dilettanti. 

dogmata,  dogmas. 

effluvia. 

ellipses. 

emphases. 

emporia,  emporiums, 
encomia,  encomiums, 
ephemerides. 
errata. 

culogia,  eulogiums. 
fasciculi, 
flambeaux, 
foci,  focuses, 
foramina. 

formulae,  formulas, 
fora. 

lungi,  funguses. 


Singular. 

Fulcrum, 

Genius, 

Genus, 

Gymnasium, 

Hiatus  ( u short). 

Hippopotamus, 

Hypothesis, 

Inamorato, 

Ignis-fatuus, 

Incubus, 

Index, 

Improvisatore, 

Jeu-d’esprit, 

Lamina, 

Larva, 

Lusus-  (»  short)  naturm, 
Lyceum, 

Macula, 

Madame  (not  used). 
Magus, 

Mausoleum, 

Medium, 

Memorandum, 
Memorabile  (not  used), 
Menstruum, 

Mephitis, 

Metamorphosis, 

Miasma, 

Millennium, 

Minutia  (not  used), 
Momentum, 

Morceau, 

Monsieur, 

Narcissus, 

Nautilus, 

Nebula, 

Nidus, 

Nimbus, 

Nostrum, 

Novus  homo. 

Nucleus, 

Oasis, 

Orchis, 

Ovum, 

Parenthesis, 

Parhelion. 

Perihelion, 

Phasis, 

Phenomenon, 

Polypus, 

Premium, 

Proboscis, 

Prima  donna, 

Radius, 

Ranunculus, 

Regale  (not  used), 
Rhombus. 

Sarcophagus, 

Savant, 

Scholium, 

Scoria, 

Seraph, 

Series, 

Species. 

Spectrum, 

Speculum. 

Sphinx, 

Spicula, 


Plural. 

fulcra. 

{genii,  aerial  beings. 
geniuses,  persons  of  genius. 
genera, 
gymnasia, 
hiatus  iu  long), 
hippopotami, 
hypotheses, 
inamorati. 
ignes-fatui. 
incubi. 

j indices,  algebraic  exponents. 
i indexes,  pointers,  tables  of  contend 
improvisatori. 
jeux-d’esprit. 
laminae, 
larvae. 

lusus-  ( u long),  naturae. 

lycea,  lyceums. 

maculae. 

mesdames. 

magi. 

mausolea. 

media. 

memoranda,  memorandums 

memorabilia. 

menstrua. 

mephites. 

metamorphoses. 

miasmata. 

millennia. 

minutiae. 

momenta. 

morceaux, 

messieurs. 

narcissi. 

nautili. 

nebulae 

nidi. 

nimbi. 

nostra. 

novi  nomines. 

nuclei. 

oases. 

orchides,  orchises, 
ova. 

parentheses. 

parhelia. 

perihelia. 

phases. 

phenomena. 

polypi. 

premia,  premiums, 
proboscides, 
prime  donne. 
radii. 

ranunculi,  ranunculuses 

regalia. 

rhombi. 

sarcophagi. 

savans. 

scholia. 

scoriae. 

seraphim,  seraphs. 

series. 

species. 

spectra. 

specula. 

(sphinges,  hawk-moths. 

(sphinxes,  in  mythology. 
soiculoe. 


12 


GRAMMAR. 


Of 


Plural. 
stadia. 

stamens,  parts  of  flowers. 
stamina,  the  solids  of  the  human 
body. 

stigmata,  in  botany  and  surgery. 
stigmas,  marks  of  reproach. 
stimuli, 
strata, 
striae. 

succedanea. 
symposia, 
synopses, 
syntheses, 
tableaux, 
termini, 
theses. 

triumviri,  triumvirs, 
tumuli, 
vertebrae, 
vertices, 
virtuosi, 
viscera, 
vortices. 

14.  When  a noun  is  the  subject  of  a sentence  it 
is  said  to  be  in  the  nominative  case,  and  when  it 
immediately  follows  a verb  or  a preposition  it  is  said 
to  be  in  the  objective  case,  but  its  form  is  precisely 
the  same  in  both  cases.  Ex.  Nom.  The  man 
walks;  trees  grow.  Obj.  I pity  the  man j he  fells 
the  trees  j— with  the  man  j under  the  trees. 

When  one  noun,  in  either  the  singular  or  plural 
number,  is  used  along  with  another  attributively,  and 
indicating  its  possessor  or  origin,  ’s  (with  an  apos- 
trophe before  it,  which  shows  that  a vowel  sound 
has  been  dropped)  is  added  to  the  former,  except 
when  it  ends  in  a sibilant,  when  most  frequently  only 
the  apostrophe  is  added.  Ex.  A soldier's  life;  the  sol- 
diers' friend  ; the  jury's  verdict ; the  judges'  sen- 
tence ; Thomas's  horse  (r.ad  “Thomases”);  the 
fox'  (read  “ foxes  ”)  brush  ; “ He  that  despised  Mo- 
ses' law,  died  ; ” “ If  ye  suffer  for  righteousness'  sake, 
happy  are  ye.” 

Declension  of  a Noun. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nominative  Case , \ __ 

Objective  Case.  \ Kln&’  KlnSS' 

Possessive  Case.  King’s,  Kings’. 

15.  In  order  to  individualize  the  application  of 
common  nouns,  two  words  usually  designated  arti- 
cles, one  a demonstrative  pronoun,  the , the  other  a 
numeral,  an  (or,  as  abbreviated  before  a consonant 
sound,  a),  almost  universally  precede  them.  The 
former,  which  is  called  the  definite  article,  is  used 
before  nouns  of  both  numbers.  Ex.  The  man , the 
men  ; the  horse , the  horses.  The  latter  is  called  the 
indefinite  article,  and  is  used  before  nouns  in  the 
singular  number  only.  Ex.  A man , an  hour,  a tree , 
an  enemy. 


Proper  names,  abstract  nouns,  names  of  mate* 
rials,  and  some  other  classes  of  nouns,  take  the  ar- 
ticles only  when  they  are  used  as  common  nouns. 
Ex.  Solon , Brutus,  hope,  fear,  water , wood  j the  Solon 
of  his  country  ; he  is  a Brutus  ; the  hopes  and  fears 
of  youth  ; the  water's  edge  ; the  wood  of  the  ark. 

16.  Verbs.  When  the  action  signified  by  a verb 
takes  effect  immediately  on  any  person  or  thing  as  its 
object,  the  verb  is  called  transitive  or  active  ; but 
when  the  action  is  completely  described  by  the  verb 
itself,  or  when  the  verb  signifies  a condition,  it  is 
called  intransitive  or  neuter.  Ex.  We  suspect  deceit, 
he  loves  truth  j I walk  or  run,  they  sleep,  you  stand. 
Many  verbs,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  English  Diction- 
ary, are  both  active  and  neuter.  Ex.  To  abate  a nui 
sance,  the  storm  abated  j to  account  a man  wise,  to 
account  for  one's  conduct. 

Transitive  verbs  are  conjugated  in  two  ways: 
one  form,  called  active,  is  used  when  the  agent  is 
the  subject  of  the  verb.  Ex.  I esteem  him  ; they 
speak  both  French  and  German  ; the  Allies  defeated 
the  Russians.  The  other  is  used  when  the  agent  is 
the  immediate  object  of  the  verb,  and  is  called  pas- 
sive. Ex.  He  is  esteemed  by  me  j both  French  and 
German  are  spoken  by  them  j the  Russians  were  de- 
feated by  the  Allies. 

In  the  conjugation  of  verbs,  four  moods  are  dis- 
tinguished— the  indicative,  the  subjunctive,  the  im- 
perative, and  the  infinitive — and  another  class  of 
forms,  called  participles.  The  indicative  is  used 
when  the  speaker  asserts  something  as  actually  ex- 
isting or  acting.  Ex.  He  reads,  we  walked,  they  will 
consent , thou  art  punished,  I was  exalted,  you  will  be 
confounded.  The  subjunctive  is  used  when  some 
possible  or  probable  action  or  state  of  being  is 
spoken  of.  Ex.  “ If  I be  a father,  where  is  mine 
honor  ?”  “ Though  thou  detain  me,  I will  not  eat  ; ” 
“If  he  were  a prophet,  he  would  have  known  who 
touched  him  ; ” “ Though  these  three  men  were  ir  it, 
they  should  deliver  neither  son  nor  daughter.” 
When  a command  is  given,  the  imperative  is  em- 
ployed. Ex.  “ Honor  all  men.  Love  the  brother- 
hood. Fear  God.  Honor  the  king.”  The  infini- 
tive mood  consists  of  the  substantive  forms,  and  the 
participles  of  the  attributive  forms,  of  the  verb  to 
which  they  belong.  The  preposition  to  is  prefixed 
to  all  infinitives,  except  those  which  follow  auxiliary 
verbs,  and  such  verbs  as  see,  hear,  etc.,  in  the  active 
voice.  Ex.  “To  err  is  human  : to  forgive,  divine  : " 


Singular. 

Stadium, 

Stamen, 

Stigma, 

Stimulus, 

Stratum, 

Stria. 

Succedaneum, 

Symposium, 

Synopsis, 

Synthesis, 

Tableau, 

Terminus, 

Thesis, 

Triumvir, 

Tumulus, 

Vertebra, 

Vertex, 

Virtuoso, 

Viscus, 

Vortex, 


GRAMMAR. 


13 


to  have  praised,  to  have  been  blamed ; I saw  him  weep , 
he  was  seen  to  weep;  erring , forgiven;  “ having  noth- 
ing, and  yet  possessing  all  things.” 

17.  The  three  tenses  of  verbs,  or  the  times 
in  which  an  action  or  event  may  be  said  to  take 
place,  are  the  present,  the  past,  and  the  future  ; and 
in  each  of  them,  it  may  be  considered  as  indefinite- 
ly, or  imperfectly,  or  perfectly  accomplished.  Ex. 
(Indef.  pres.)  I read,  (imperf.  pres.)  I am  reading, 
(perf.  pres l)  I have  read;  (indef.  past)  I read,  (im- 
perf. past)  I was  reading,  (perf.  past)  I had  read; 
(indef.  fut.)  I shall  read,  (imperf.  fut.)  I shall  be  read- 
ing, (perf.  fut.)  / shall  have  read.  In  the  subjunc- 
tive mood,  the  tense  forms  express  the  probability 
or  improbability  of  the  event  or  action  spoken  of. 
Ex.  (Prob.)  “What  matter  where,  if  I be  still  the 
same?”  “ Though  thou  detain  me,  I will  not  eat.” 
(Improb.)  “ If  ye  were  of  the  world,  the  world 
would  love  his  own.”  “If  ye  loved  me,  ye  would  re- 
joice.” 

The  imperative  mood  admits  of  no  distinctions  of 
time,  but  only  of  the  completeness  or  incomplete- 
ness of  the  action  commanded.  Ex.  (Imperf.)  Read 
thou,  (perf.)  Have  done  ! 

In  the  infinitive  mood  the  only  tense  is  the  pres- 
ent. Ex.  (Indef.  pres.)  to  read,  (imperf.  pres.)  to 
be  reading,  (perf.  pres.)  to  have  read.  And  the  par- 
ticiples admit  only  of  the  distinctions  of  complete- 
ness and  incompleness  of  the  action  spoken  of.  Ex. 
(Imperf.)  reading,  (perf.)  read. 

18.  By  means  of  a class  of  verbs,  called  Auxiliary 
verbs,  the  capability  of  expressing  the  several  rela- 
tions of  mood,  tense,  etc.,  is  greatly  extended  and 
refined.  Those  tenses  which  are  formed  without 
the  assistance  of  auxiliaries  are  called  simple  tenses* 
and  the  others,  compound.  Ex.  We  hope,  you  fear, 
they  fled;  I am  hoping,  thou  hast  feared,  he  has  fled, 
we  shall  learn. 

The  auxiliary  verbs  of  mood  are  such  as  may  and 
can,  which  express  possibility;  must,  ought,  and  shall, 
which  express  obligation;  shall  and  will,  expressing 
determination  of  will ; might,  coidd,  and  would,  ex- 
pressing desire  ; let  and  may,  implying  permission  ; 
do,  which  adds  emphasis  to  assertion,  and  is  em- 
ployed in  negatives  and  questions,  etc.,  etc.  Ex.  It 
may  be  so,  he  can  do  it,  you  ?nust  see  that  you  should 
obey,  “ these  things  ought  not  so  to  be,”  we  shall  see  to 
that,  I will  be  heard,  might  it  but  be  so  ! could  we  but 
know  it,  would  he  were  here  ! let  him  do  what  he  will, 


you  may  do  as  you  please,  we  do  like  simplicity,  it  does 
not  signify,  do  you  see  the  meaning  ? 

The  auxiliary  verbs  of  tense  are  such  as  be,  be 
about,  be  going,  begin,  do,  have,  keep,  shall,  will,  etc. 
Ex.  You  are  chosen,  they  were  laughing,  we  are  about 
to  depart,  we  are  going  to  learn  French,  I did  once 
think,  he  has  seen  too  much,  they  kept  expecting  what 
was  impossible,  he  would  dance  and  sing  the  whole 
day  long. 

All  the  moods,  tenses,  etc.,  of  the  passive  forms  of 
verbs  are  made  by  the  help  of  the  verb  be.  Ex.  1 
am  praised,  we  were  loved,  they  shall  be  beaten,  to  be 
afflicted,  having  been  disappointed. 

19.  The  only  distinctive  personal  forms  are  those 
of  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  pres- 
ent indefinite  tense,  and  the  second  person  singular 
of  the  past  indefinite ; all  the  other  persons  in  each 
of  the  simple  tenses  are  alike.  Ex.  I lead,  thoulead- 
est,  he  leads  ( leadeth ),  we  lead,  you  lead,  they  lead.  1 
led,  thou  leddest,  he  led,  we  led,  you  led,  they  led. 

Impersonal  Verbs,  of  which  there  are  but  two 
in  our  language  (strictly  so  to  be  called),  are  found 
only  in  the  third  person  singular.  Ex.  “Meseems  I 
hear  her  singing  loud,”  meseemed ; “ methinks  he 
breaks  it,”  “ methought  I saw  my  late  espoused  wife.” 
But  other  verbs  are  often  used  impersonally.  Ex. 
It  rained  last  night,  it  liked  him  well,  it  behoved  him 
to  do  the  same. 

20.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  English  verbs, 
including  all  that  have  been  recently  introduced, 
and  almost  all  derivatives,  are  of  the  class  called 
weak  verbs,  that  is,  they  form  their  past  indefinite 
tenses,  and  their  perfect  participles,  by  the  addition 
of  d (or  t)  to  the  present,  or  ed  when  the  present 
ends  in  d or  t.  Ex.  Hope,  hoped;  light,  lighted. 
But  it  must  be  observed,  there  is  a great  difference 
between  our  spoken  and  our  written  language  in 
this  particular  ; the  forms  of  the  latter  having  de- 
parted widely  from  the  sounds  of  the  former.  Ex. 
Walk,  walked  (pron.  walkd);  step,  stepped  (pron. 
stept)\  stab,  stabbed  (pron.  stabd ) ; bar,  barred  (pron. 
bard). 

The  remainder  form  their  past  indefinite  tenses 
and  perfect  participles  either  by  modifying  the  ver- 
bal sound,  and  adding  n or  (en)  for  the  participle 
(being  of  the  class  called  strong  verbs)  ; by  modify- 
ing the  vowel,  and  adding  t for  the  participle  ; by 
changing  the  terminal  d into  t;  or  by  retaining  the 
present  form  for  both  the  tense  and  the  participle. 


I *4 


GRAMMAR. 


But  the  tendency  to  uniformity  is  so  strong  that 
many  of  these  verbs  have  lost  one  or  both  of  their 
peculiar  forms,  and  others  have  two  forms  for  the 
past  indefinite  and  perfect  participle. 

21.  The  following  is  a complete  list  of  these  verbs, 
classified  mainly  by  their  present  forms,  yet  not  with- 
out regard  to  their  original  forms  in  the  Anglo-Sax- 
on. It  must  be  observed  that  the  original  forms 
of  many  of  these  verbs  are  obsolete,  or  preserved  in 
provincial  usage  only  (and  such  forms  are  enclosed 
in  parentheses)  ; and  that  sometimes  the  past  tense 
is  used  for  the  participle,  and  sometimes  the  termi- 
nal n or  en  has  been  dropped. 

First  Division.  Verbs  which  change  their  vowel 
sounds,  and  form  their  perfect  participles  by  adding 
en  or  n,  or  strong  verbs. 


1st  Class.  Vowels  e and  a , becoming  e,  a , or  o. 


Present  Indef.  Tense. 

. Past  Indef . Tense. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Delve 

(dolve,  dalf)  delved 

delved 

Get 

got  (gat) 

(gotten)  got 

Help 

(holp,  halp)  helped 

(holpen)  helped 

Melt 

(molt)  melted 

molten,  melted 

Sweat  -j 

(swote,  swat)  sweat, 
sweated 

(sweaten)  sweated 

Swell 

(swoll)  swelled 

swollen,  swelled 

Yell 

(yoll)  yelled 

yelled 

Burst 

(brast)  burst 

(borsten)  burst 

Beat 

beat 

beaten,  beat 

Eat 

eat,  ate 

eaten,  eat 

Bear  (bring forth) 

bore  (bare) 

born 

Bear  (carry) 

bore  ( baroj 

borne 

Break 

broke  (brake) 

broken,  broke 

Cleave  (adhere) 

(clave)  cleaved 

cleaved 

Cleave  (split) 

(clove,  clave)  cleft 

cloven,  cleft 

Creep 

(crope)  crept 

crept 

(Falde)  fold 

folded 

(folden)  folded 

Freeze 

froze 

frozen 

Heave 

(hove)  heaved 

(hoven) heaved 

(Queath) 

quoth 

Lead 

(lode,  lad)  led 

led 

Leap 

(lope)  leapt,  leaped 

leapt,  leaped 

Seethe 

(soth)  sod,  seethed 

sodden 

Shear 

(shore)  sheared 

shorn 

Speak 

spoke  (spake) 

spoken 

Steal 

stole  (stale) 

stolen 

Swear 

swore  (sware) 

sworn 

Tear 

tore  (tare) 

torn 

Tread 

trode,  trod,  (trade) 

trodden,  trod 

Wear 

wore  (ware) 

worn 

Weave 

wove 

woven 

Weep 

(wope)  wept 

wept 

Wreak 

(wroke)  wreaked 

(wroken)  wreaked 

W reathe 

wreathed 

wreathen,  wreathed 

Yield 

(yolde)  yielded 

yielded 

(Be) 

been 

See 

saw 

seen 

Awake,  wake 

awoke 

awaked 

Bake 

(boke)  baked 

(baken)  baked 

Forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

Grave 

(grove)  graved 

graven,  graved 

Lade 

(lode)  laded 

laden, loaden 

Shake 

shook, shaked 

shaken,  shaked 

Present  Indefinite  Past  Indefinite 


Tense. 

Tense. 

Perfect  Participle . 

Shape 

(shope)  shaped 

shapen, shaped 

Shave 

shaved 

shaven, shaved 

Stave 

stove 

Take 

took 

taken 

Stand 

stood 

stood 

Wax 

(wox,  wex)  waxed 

(waxen)  waxed 

id  Class. 

Vowel  *,  becoming  a 

, o,  u,  or  ou. 

Begin 

began (begon) 

begun 

Cling 

clung  (clong) 

clung 

Dig 

dug,  digged 

dug,  digged 

Drink 

drank  (drunk,  dronk) 

drunken,  drunk 

Fling 

flung  (flang,  (long) 

flung 

Hang  (hing) 

hung,  hanged 

hung,  hanged 

Ring 

rang,  rung  (rong) 

rung 

Run  (rin) 

ran 

run 

Shrink 

shrank,  shrunk  (shronk)  shrunken,  shrunk 

Sing 

sang,  sung  (song) 

sung 

Sink 

sank,  sunk  (sonk) 

sunken, sunk 

Sling 

(slang)  slung  (slong) 

slung 

Slink 

(slank)  slunk  (slonk) 

slunk 

Spin 

(span)  spun  (spon) 

spun 

Spring 

sprang,  sprung  (sprong)  sprung 

Stick 

stuck  (stoke) 

stuck 

Sting 

(stang)  stung  (stong) 

stung 

Stink 

stank,  stunk  (stonk) 

stunk 

String 

(strang)  strung 

strung 

Swim 

swam,  swum  (sworn) 

swum 

Swing 

(swang)  swung  (swong)  swung 

Swink 

(swank,  swonk)  swink 

(swonk)  swinkt 

Win 

(wan)  won 

won 

Wring 

wrung,  wringed 

wrung 

Bid 

bade  (bode),  bid 

bidden,  bid 

Give 

gave  (gove) 

given 

Sit 

sate 

sitten,  sate 

Slit 

(slat)  slit,  slitted 

slitten,  slit,  slitted 

Spit 

spat,  spit , 

spitten,  spit,  spat 

Betide 

betid 

betid 

Hide 

hid 

hidden,  hid 

Light 

lit,  lighted 

lit,  lighted 

Slide 

slid 

slidden,  slid 

Abide,  bide 

abode 

abode 

Arise,  rise 

arose  (aris) 

arisen 

Bite 

(bote,  bat)  bit 

bitten,  bit 

•Chide 

(chode)  chid 

chidden,  chid 

Climb 

(clomb,  clamb)  climbed  climbed 

Dive 

(dove)  dived 

dived 

Drive 

drove  (drave) 

driven 

Glide 

(glode,  glid)  glided 

glided 

Hight 

(hote,  hete) 

Lie 

lay 

lien,  lain 

Ride 

rode,  rid 

ridden,  rid 

Rive 

(rove)  rived 

riven 

Shrive 

(shrove)  shrived 

shriven 

Smite 

smote  (smate),  smit 

smitten,  smit 

Stride 

strode,  strid 

stridden 

Strive 

strove 

striven 

Thrive 

throve,  thrived 

thriven 

Write 

wrote  (wrate)  writ 

written,  writ,  wrote 

Writhe 

writhed 

writhen,  writhed 

Shine 

shone,  shined 

shone, shined 

Wit  (wite) 

(wote)  wot 

Strike 

(stroke)  struck 

stricken,  struck 

Bind 

bound  (bond) 

bounden,  bound 

Fight 

fought 

foughten,  fought 

GRAMMAR. 


r5 


Present  Indefinite  Past  Indefinite 

Tense. 

Tense. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Find 

(fand,  fond)  found 

found 

Grind 

ground 

ground 

Wind 

wound  (wond),  winded 

wound 

31 1 Class.  Vowel  a,  becoming  e 

in  past  tense. 

Draw 

drew 

drawn 

Fall 

fell 

fallen 

Saw 

sawed 

sawn,  sawed 

Wash 

(wesh)  washed 

washen,  washed 

Blow 

blew 

blown 

Crow 

crew,  crowed 

crowed 

Fly 

flew 

flown 

Grow 

grew 

grown 

Hew 

hewed 

hewn,  hewed 

Hold 

held 

holden,  held 

Know 

knew 

known 

Mow 

(mew)  mowed 

mown,  mowed 

Show 

(shew)  showed 

shown,  showed 

Snow 

(snew)  snowed 

snowed 

Sow 

(sew)  sowed 

sown,  sowed 

Strow,  strew  (straw)  strewed,  strowed 

strewn,  strown,  strewed 

Throw 

threw 

thrown 

Let  Gate) 

let 

let 

Slay 

slew 

slain 

Laugh 

(loghe,  leugh)  laughed 

laughed 

4 th  Class.  Vowel  0,  shortened. 

Choose 

chose  (chase) 

chosen 

Go 

gone 

Lose 

lost 

(lorn)  lost 

Shoot 

shot 

shotten,  shot 

Do 

did 

done 

5 th  Class. 

Come 

came 

come 

Note , that  the  participle  “ sawn  ” seems  to  have  been  formed  analog- 
ically after  “ drawn  : ” also,  that  the  word  did  is  a contracted  form  ; 

and  the  vowel  i 

docs  not  represent  the  0 of  the  present,  but  is  the  short 

vowel  sound  of 

a reduplication  of  the  d.  It  is  the  only  instance  in  our 

language. 

22.  Second  Division.  Verbs  which  change  their  vowel  sound,  but 
form  their  perfect  participles  in  d or  t ; and  are  therefore  weak  verbs. 

1st  Class.  Vowels  shortened. 

Bleed 

bled 

bled 

Breed 

bred 

bred 

Feed 

fed 

fed 

Meet 

met 

met 

Read 

read 

read 

Speed 

sped 

sped 

Bereave,  reave 

bereft,  bereaved 

bereft,  bereaved 

(Clepe) 

y-clept 

Deal 

dealt 

dealt 

Deem 

(dempt)  deemed 

deemed 

Dream 

dreamt,  dreamed 

dreamt,  dreamed 

Feel 

felt 

felt 

Flee 

fled 

flad 

Hear 

heard 

heard 

Keep 

kept 

kept 

Kneel 

knelt,  kneeled 

knelt,  kneeled 

Lean 

leant,  leaned 

leant,  leaned 

Mean 

meant 

meant 

Sleep 

slept 

slept 

Sweep 

swept 

swept 

Shoe 

shod 

shod 

2 d Class.  Vowels,  a,  e,  i,  and  o,  changed  into  o,  an,  ou. 


Present  Indefinite 

Past  Indefinite 

Tense. 

Tense. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Sell 

sold 

sold 

Tell 

told 

told 

Catch 

caught,  catched 

caught,  catched 

Reach 

(raught)  reached 

(raught)  reached 

Stretch 

(str aught,  streight)  stretched 
stretched 

Teach 

taught 

taught 

Distract 

distracted 

(distraught)  distracted 

Freight 

freighted 

fraught,  freighted 

Shall 

should 

Will 

would  (woll) 

May 

(mought)  might 

Beseech 

besought 

besought 

Bring 

brought 

brought 

Buy 

bought 

bought 

Own 

ought,  owed 

owed 

Seek 

sought 

sought 

Think 

thought 

thought 

Work 

wrought,  worked 

wrought,  worked 

Note , that  the  y in  “ y-clept  ” is  the  old  participial  prefix,  of  which  only 
one  other  instance  remains  in  occasional  use  in  our  language,  “ y-clad." 

Note , also,  that  both  “ distraught"  and  “ fraught ” are  formed  from 
words  derived  from  other  languages. 


23. 

Third  Division.  Contracted 

Weak  Perks. 

Have 

had 

had 

Make 

made 

made 

Lay 

laid 

laid 

Pay 

paid 

paid 

Say 

said 

said 

Dwell 

dwelt,  dwelled 

dwelt,  dwelled 

Pen 

penned 

pent,  penned 

Spill 

spilt,  spilled 

spilt,  spilled 

(Wis) 

(wist) 

Bend 

bent,  bended 

bent,  bended 

Build 

built,  builded 

built,  builded 

Gild 

gilt,  gilded 

gilt,  gilded 

Gird 

girt,  girded 

girt,  girded 

Lend 

lent 

lent 

Rend 

rent 

rent 

Send 

sent 

sent 

Shend 

shent 

shent 

Spend 

spent 

spent 

(Wend) 

went 

Cast 

cast 

cast 

Cost 

cost 

cost 

Cut 

cut 

cut 

Hit 

hit 

hit 

Hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

Knit 

knit,  knitted 

knit,  knitted 

Lift 

lift,  lifted 

lift,  lifted 

Put 

put 

put 

Quit 

quit,  quitted 

quit,  quitted 

Rid 

rid 

rid 

Roast 

roasted 

roast,  roasted 

Set 

set 

set 

Shed 

shed 

shed 

Shred 

shred 

shred 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

Split 

split,  splitted 

split,  splitted 

Spread 

spread 

spread 

Thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

Wet 

wet,  wetted 

wet,  wetted 

6 


GRAMMAR. 


Present  Indefinite 
Tense. 

Am 

Clothe 

Go 


24.  Defective  Verbs. 

Past  Indefinite 
Tense. 

was 

clad,  clothed 
went 


Perfect  Participle. 
been 

(y-clad)  clothed 
gone 


In  the  first  of  these,  each  part  belongs  to  a differ- 
ent verb;  in  the  second,  “ clad"  and  “ y-clad” 
are  derived  from  some  word  not  greatly  unlike 
“ clothe;  ” and  both  forms  in  this  kind  have  appeared 
in  the  preceding  lists. 


25.  Irregular  Verbs. 
Can  could 

Dare,  durst  durst 


It  is  the  introduction  of  the  l into  “could,”  which 
makes  the  former  of  these  irregular.  The  other 
appears  to  have  adopted  its  original  past  tense 
as  an  additional  form  for  the  present  ; when  used 
transitively,  in  the  meaning  of  “ to  challenge  or  pro- 
voke,” its  past  tense  and  perfect  participles  are 
“ dared.  ” h 1 ' , 

26.  Conjugation  of  Auxiliary  Verbs. 

1.  To  Be. 

Indicative  Mood.  Present  Indefinite  Tense. 


Sing. 

I. 

I am, 

2.  Thou  art, 

3.  He  is, 

Plur. 

I. 

We  are, 

2.  You  are, 

3.  They  are. 

Past  Indefinite  Tense. 

Sing. 

I. 

I was, 

2.  Thou  wast, 

3.  He  was, 

Plur. 

I. 

We  were, 

2.  You  were. 

3.  They  were. 

Subjunctive  Mood.  Form  implying  probability. 

Sing,  and  plur.  (If)  I,  thou,  he,  we,  you,  they  be. 

Form  implying  improbability. 

Sing  and  plur.  (If)  I wert  ; thou  wert  ; he,  we,  you,  they 
were. 


Imperative  Mood. 

Sing.  Be  thou.  Plur.  Be  ye. 

Infinitive  Mood.  Present  Indefinite  Tense. 
To  be. 


Participles. 

Imperfect.  Being.  Perfect.  Been. 

2.  To  Have. 


Indicative  Mood.  Present  Indefinite  Tense. 
Sing.  1.  I have,  2.  Thou  hast,  3.  He  hath  or  has, 

Plur.  1.  We  have,  2.  You  have,  3.  They  have. 


Past  Indefinite  Tense. 

Sing.  I.  I had,  2.  Thou  hadst,  3.  He  had, 

Plur.  1.  We  had,  2.  You  had,  3.  They  had. 

r>.  , pt'V  * 1 t Tx-  ^ Wv-n-’t'Lt/-'-- 

v Subjunctive  Mood.  Probable  form. 

Sing,  and  plur.  (If)  I,  thou,  he,  we,  you,  they  have. 


Improbable  form. 

Sing,  and  plur.  (If)  I had  ; thou  hadst ; he,  we,  you,  they  had. 


Infinitive  Mood.  Present  Indefinite  Tense. 

To  have. 

Participles. 

Imperfect.  Having.  Perfect.  Had. 

3.  To  Do. 

Indicative  Mood.  Present  Indefinite  Tense. 

Sing.  1.  I do,  2.  Thou  dost,  3.  He  doth  or  does, 

Plur.  1.  We  do,  2.  You  do,  3.  They  do. 


Sing.  1.  I did, 
Plur.  x.  We  did. 


Past  Indefinite  Tense. 

2.  Thou  diddest  or  didst,  3.  He  did, 

2.  You  did,  3.  They  did. 


Subjunctive  Mood.  Probable  form. 

Sing  and  plur.  (If)  I,  thou,  he,  we,  you,  they  do. 

Improbable  form. 

Sing,  and  plur.  (If)  I did  ; thou  didst  ; he,  we,  you,  they  did. 

Infinitive  Flood.  Present  Indefinite. 

To  do 


Participles. 

Imperfect.  Doing.  Perfect.  Done. 

In  the  auxiliaries,  may,  can,  shall,  will,  the  only 
change  of  form  is  in  the  second  person  singular, 
which  are  mayest,  mightest ; canst,  couldst ; shalt, 
shouldst ; wilt,  wouldst ; in  the  present  and  past 
tenses  respectively.  Let  and  must  have  no  inflexions, 
and  ought  (which  admits  of  no  distinction  of  time) 
has  oughtest  in  the  second  person  singular. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

I might,  could,  would,  or  should  We  might,  could,  would,  or  should 
be.  be, 

Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst, or  Year  you  might,  could,  would,  or 
shouldst  be,  should  be, 

He  might,  could,  would,  or  should  They  might,  could,  would,  orshould 
be.  be. 


Pluperfect. 


I might,  could,  would,  or  should 
have  been, 

Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or 
shouldst  have  been, 

He  might,  could  would,  or  should 
have  been. 

Perfect 

Singular. 

I might,  could,  would,  or  should 
have, 

Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst 
or  shouldst  have, 

He  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  have. 


We  might,  could,  would,  or  should 
have  been, 

Ye  or  you  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  have  been, 

They  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  have  been. 

Tense. 

Plural. 

We  night,  could,  would,  or 
should  have, 

Ye  or  you  might,  could,  would, 
or  should  have, 

They  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  have. 


Pluperfect. 


I might,  could,  would,  or  should 
have  had, 

Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst, 
or  shouldst  have  had, 

He  might,  could, would, orshould 
have  had . 


We  might,  could,  would . or  should 
have  had, 

Ye  or  you  might,  could,  would, or 
should  have  had, 

They  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  have  had. 


GRAMMAR. 


17 


27.  Conjugation  of  the  Verb,  To  See. 


8 \ 

§ 2 
s £ 


Indefinite. 


ACTIVE  FORMS. 

Imperfect. 


Perfect. 


bi 

> 

h 


< 

U 

5 

z 


I 

1 


> 

B 

z 

P 

o' 

p 

j: 


f 


L 


•o 

!! 


2. 

3- 


2. 

3- 


Sing.  Plur. 

I see,  We  see, 

Thou  seest,  You  see, 

He  seeth,  or  sees.  They  see. 


I saw, 

Thou  sawest, 
He  saw. 

I shall  see. 
Thou  shalt  see, 
He  shall  see. 


(If)  I see, 

(If)  Thou  see, 
(If)  He  see. 


We  saw. 

You  saw, 

They  saw. 

We  shall  see, 
You  shall  see, 
They  shall  see. 

We  see. 

You  see, 

They  see. 


(If)  I saw,  We  saw, 

(If)  Thou  sawest,  You  saw, 
(If)  He  saw.  They  saw. 


Sing. 

I am  seeing. 

Thou  art  seeing. 

He  is  seeing. 

I was  seeing 
Thou  wast  seeing, 

He  was  seeing. 

I shall  be  seeing, 
Thou  shalt  be  seeing, 
He  shall  be  seeing. 

(If)  I be  seeing, 

(If)  Thou  be  seeing, 
(If)  He  be  seeing. 

(If)  I were  seeing, 

(If)  Thou  wert  seeing, 
(If)  He  were  seeing. 


Plur. 

We  are  seeing, 

You  are  seeing, 

They  are  seeing. 

We  were  seeing, 

You  were  seeing, 
They  were  seeing. 

We  shall  be  seeing, 
You  shall  be  seeing, 
They  shall  be  seeing. 

We  be  seeing, 

You  be  seeing, 

They  be  seeing. 

We  were  seeing, 

You  were  seeing, 
They  were  seeing. 


Sing. 

I have  seen, 

Thou  hast  seen, 

He  has  seen. 

I had  seen, 

Thou  hadst  seen, 

He  had  seen. 

I shall  have  seen, 
Thou  shalt  have  seen, 
He  shall  have  seen. 

(If)  I have  seen, 

(If)  Thou  have  seen, 
(If)  He  have  seen. 

(If)  I had  seen, 

(If)  Thou  hadst  seen, 
(If)  He  had  seen. 


Plur. 

We  have  seen. 

You  have  seen. 

They  have  seen. 

We  had  seen, 

You  had  seen. 

They  had  seen. 

We  shall  have  seen, 
You  shall  have  seen, 
They  shall  have  seen 

We  have  seen. 

You  have  seen, 

They  have  seen. 

We  had  seen, 

You  had  seen. 

They  had  seen 


Imperative.  See  thou.  See  you. 

Infinitive  Present.  To  see. 
Participle. 


Be  thou  seeing.  Be  ye  seeing. 

To  be  seeing. 

Seeing. 


To  have  seen. 
Seen. 


PASSIVE  FORMS. 


Indefinite.  Perfect. 


Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

' » 

u 

I am  seen. 

We  are  seen, 

I have  been  seen. 

We  have  been  seen, 

>- 

1 2- 

Thou  an  seen, 

You  are  seen. 

Thou  hast  been  seen, 

You  have  been  seen, 

S 

3- 

He  is  seen. 

They  are  seen. 

He  has  been  seen. 

They  have  been  seen. 

j> 

(1. 

I was  seen, 

We  were  seen, 

I had  been  seen. 

We  had  been  seen, 

< 

3 

2. 

Thou  wast  seen, 

You  were  seen, 

Thou  hadst  been  seen, 

You  had  been  seen. 

0 

0 

3- 

He  was  seen. 

They  were  seen 

He  had  been  seen. 

They  had  been  seen. 

z 

. 

(x. 

I shall  be  seen, 

We  shall  be  seen, 

I shall  have  been  seen. 

We  shall  have  been  seen. 

2. 

Thou  shalt  be  seen, 

You  shall  be  seen, 

Thou  shalt  have  been  seen, 

You  shall  have  been  seen, 

3- 

He  s.,all  be  seen. 

They  shall  be  seen. 

He  shall  have  been  seen. 

They  shall  have  been  seen 

rt 

1. 

(If)  I be  seen, 

We  be  seen. 

(If)  I have  been  seen, 

We  have  been  seen, 

w 

•§< 

2. 

(If)  Thou  be  seen, 

You  be  seen. 

(If)  Thou  have  been  seen, 

You  have  been  seen, 

> 

g 

* 

3- 

(If)  Hebe  seen. 

They  be  seen. 

(If)  He  have  been  seen. 

They  have  been  seen. 

z • 
5 

■§ 

1. 

(If)  I were  seen. 

We  were  seen, 

(If)  I had  been  seen, 

We  had  been  seen, 

CQ 

2. 

(If)  Thou  wert  seen, 

You  were  seen, 

(If)  Thou  hadst  been  seen, 

You  had  been  seen, 

D 

</) 

tr 

3- 

(If)  He  were  seen. 

They  were  seen. 

(If)  He  had  been  seen. 

They  had  been  seen. 

Imperative. 

1^ 

Be  thou  seen. 

Be  ye  seen. 

Infinitive  Present. 

To  be 

seen. 

To  have  been  seen. 

Participle. 

Being 

seen. 

Having  been 

seen. 

Note.  That  by  means  of  the  various  auxiliaries  a 
great  number  of  additional  tenses,  in  all  the  moods, 
might  be  formed. 

Note  also,  that  in  the  passive,  the  imperfect  tenses 
cannot  be  formed  except  for  a few  verbs,  and  then 
only  in  the  past  and  present,  and  in  two  ways — “ the 
house  is  building ,”  or  11  the  house  is  being  built”  “ the 
books  were  printing”  or  u were  being  printed.”  For- 
merly the  first  of  these  forms  was  different.  Ex. 
The  ark  was  a-preparing. 

28.  Adjectives. — There  are  no  changes  of  forms 
in  the  adjectives,  to  show  their  relations  to  the 
nouns  they  qualify,  as  to  gender,  number  or  case. 
Ex.  A wise  man , wise  men;  a tall  man,  a tall  woman, 


a tall  tree;  they  saw  the  powerful  king's  golden 
crown;  he  defeated  three  great  emperors'  vast  armies. 
But  the  degree  of  intensity  in  which  any  quality  is 
regarded  as  characterizing  one  or  more  persons  or 
things,  when  compared  with  others,  is  expressed  by 
the  addition  of  er  (or  r)  and  est  (or  si)  to  the  simple 
(or  positive)  form  of  the  adjective; — the  former 
(called  the  comparative  degree)  being  employed 
where  only  two  subjects  are  compared,  the  latter 
(named  the  superlative)  when  a subject  is  compared 
with  more  than  one  other  in  respect  of  the  same 
quality.  Ex.  This  tree  is  taller  than  that,  but  the 
next  is  the  tallest  of  the  three,  and  those  trees  are 
the  tallest  in  the  wood  ; this  man  is  wiser  than  those 


/8 


GRAMMAR. 


and  those  men  are  the  wisest  in  our  country  ; pla- 
tinum is  the  heaviest  metal,  or  platinum  is  heavier 
than  any  other  metal. 

Instead  of  using  these  inflexions,  with  adjectives 
of  more  than  one  syllable,  the  comparative  is  fre- 
quently formed  by  prefixing  more,  and  the  superla- 
tive by  prefixing  most,  to  the  simple  form.  Ex.  A 
more  prudent  man,  the  most  prudent  conduct  ; more 
seasonable  weather,  most  unseasonable  importunities. 

29.  Some  adjectives  are  defective,  or  have  com- 
paratives and  superlatives  formed  from  other  words  ; 
and  some  do  not  form  them  according  to  the  common 
rule.  The  following  are  the  principal  adjectives  to 
which  these  remarks  apply: — 


Bad 

Far 

Fore 

Good 

Late 

Little 

Much,  many 
Near,  nigh 
Old 


worse  (worser) 

farther 

further 

better 

later,  latter 

less,  lesser 

more 

nearer,  nigher 
older,  elder 


worst 
farthest 
furthest,  first 
best 

latest,  last 

least 

most 

nearest,  next 
oldest,  eldest. 


Another  class  of  adjectives  differ  from  the  com- 
mon rule  in  having  a positive  signification  with  the 
comparative  form  (as  is  the  case  with  the  compara- 
tives, superior , inferior,  exterior,  and  interior,  bor- 
rowed from  the  Latin),  and  only  a superlative  degree 
of  comparison  beside.  Ex.  Fortner,  foremost ; 
hinder , hindmost , and  hindermost;  hither,  hithermost ; 
inner,  inmost,  and  innermost;  nether,  tiethermost; 
outer , outmost,  and  outermost;  under,  undermost; 
upper , upmost,  and  uppermost;  utter,  utmost,  and  ut- 
termost. The  following  superlatives  also  occur: 
midmost  for  midst,  nothernmost  and  southernmost. 

Different  degrees  of  intensity  are  also  more  gener- 
ally expressed  by  the  use  of  some  adverbs.  Ex. 
Too  hot,  very  cold,  exceedingly  angry.  “Less  ” and 
“least"  are  employed  when  the  comparison  regards 
lower  degrees  of  intensity.  Ex.  Less  scrupulous, 
least  scrupulous. 

30.  Numerals. — When  the  cardinal  numerals  are 
employed  to  signify  abstract  numbers,  they  are 
nouns.  Ex.  Four  and  three  are  seven,  two  and  one 
are  three.  But  when  used  to  express  concrete  quanti- 
ties they  are  adjectives.  Ex.  Four  horses,  ten  men, 
a hundred  pounds. 

The  ordinal  numerals  (which  signify  position  in  a 
series)  are  most  frequently  adjectives.  Ex.  The 


first  man,  the  tenth  sheep,  the  thirtieth  day.  But 
they  are  sometimes  used  objectively,  and  then  are 
adverbs.  Ex.  He  stands  first,  I am  tenth  on  the 
list.  There  are  also  the  regularly  formed  adverbial 
ordinal  numerals,  firstly,  secondly,  thirdly,  &c. 

Fractional  numerals  are  the  same  as  ordinals,  but 
they  are  nouns,  and  are  so  because  they  are 
abbreviations.  Ex.  One-third  (for  “ one  third  part") 
three-fourths  (for  “ three  fourth  parts  ”) , {our- fifths, 
two -tenths  of  an  inch.  In  this  series  first  is  omitted, 
half  is  used  for  second , and  quarter  is  cTen  substi- 
tuted for  fourth. 

Beside  these  there  are  the  reiterative  p.u  rnerals, 
once,  twice,  thrice,  four  times,  arc.;  the  mu:tiplica- 
tives,  single,  double  or  two-fold,  triple  or  three-fold, 
quadruple  or  four -fold,  &c.; — the  distributives, 
singly  or  one  by  one,  tiuo  by  two,  arc.;  and  other 
classes. 

The  words  neither,  either,  other,  both,  next,  again, 
then , and  some  others,  which  are  also  called  pronouns, 
are  frequently  employed  as  numerals,  to  signify  not 
one,  one,  second,  two,  secondly,  &rc. 

Indeterminate  numerals  express  number  and  quan- 
tity, but  not  definitely.  They  are  such  words  as 
more,  some,  none,  few,  many,  several,  much,  all,  drc. 

31.  Pronouns. — Those  which  are  used  as  nouns 
only,  are  the  personal  pronouns,  L,  thou,  he,  she,  it. 
and  their  plurals.  They  are  thus  declined. 


Nominative  Case, 
Objective  Case, 
Possessive  Case, 


First  Person 
Sing.  Plur. 

I we 

me  us 

my,  mine 


Second  Person. 
Sing.  Plur. 

we  thou  you,  ye 

us  thee  you,  ye 

our,  ours  thy,  thine  your,  yours 


Third  Person. 


Mcisc. 

Nominative  Case,  he 
Objective  Case,  him 

Possessive  Case,  his 


Sing. 

Petti.  Neut. 
she  it 

her  it 

her,  hers  its 


Plur. 

All  genders. 
they 
them 

their,  theirs. 


The  possessive  cases  of  these  pronouns  are  some- 
times spoken  of  as  a class  by  themselves,  and  called 
possessive  (adjective)  pronouns.  In  the  first  and 
second  persons,  the  possessive  cases,  and  in  the  third 
person,  the  objective  cases,  with  self  or  selves  affixed, 
constitute  the  reflective  pronouns.  Ex.  Know  thy- 
self, he  loves  himself,  they  were  ashamed  of  them- 
selves. And  these  and  the  possessives  are  rendered 
emphatic  by  the  insertion  of  own.  Ex.  “ I scarcely 
coveted  what  was  my  own  ;"  “ Thou  owest  unto  me 
even  thine  own  self." 


GRAMMAR. 


19 


32.  The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  this  and  that, 
with  the  plurals  these  and  those j such,  the  same , yon 
and  yonder,  here,  there,  hence,  thence,  then,  crc.,  most  of 
which  are  adverbs.  Ex.  “ This  same  shall  comfort 
us,”  “ after  this  or  that  determinate  manner,”  “it 
makes  a greater  show  in  these  months  than  in  those,” 
“ such  are  the  cold  Riphean  race,  and  such  the  savage 
Scythian,”  “ darkness  there  might  well  seem  twilight 
here,”  “ now  shaves  with  level  wing  the  deep,  then 
soars,”  “ useless  and  thence  ridiculous,”  u yon  flower- 
ing arbors,  yonder  alleys  green.”  The,  commonly 
called  the  definite  article,  is  properly  a demon- 
strative pronoun. 

Pronouns  used  in  questions,  called  interrogative, 
and  those  used  in  subjective  and  adjective  acces- 
sory sentences,  called  relative,  are  who  (in  the  ob- 
jective whom,  and  the  possessive  whose,  in  both 
numbers),  which  (occasionally  with  a possessive  case, 
whose ) 7 vhat,  where,  whither , whence,  when,  how  ; 
some  of  them  being  adverbs.  Ex.  Who  art  thou  ? 
Which  is  it  ? What  do  you  mean  ? “ Whose  dog  are 
you  ? ” “ Whom  dost  thou  serve  ? ” Whence  come 
you  ? “ Whither  goest  thou  ? ” “ How  can  these 
things  be  ? ” “.The  son  of  Duncan,  from  who?n  the 
tyrant  holds  the  due  of  birth,  lives  in  the  English 
court.”  “ The  handsel  or  earnest  of  that  which  is  to 
come.”  “ See  what  natures  accompany  the  several 
colors.”  “ In  Lydia  born,  where  plenteous  harvests 
the  fat  fields  adorn.”  “ Grateful  t’acknowledge  whence 
his  good  descends.”  “ I strayed  I knew  not  whither.” 
Note,  that  the  relative  pronoun  what  is  in  significa- 
tion equivalent  to  the,  that,  or  those  which. 

33.  Whoever,  whosoroer  (and  whomsoever,  whose- 
soever) whichever,  whichsoever,  whatever,  whatsoever, 
wherever,  whencesoever,  however,  herein,  therein, 
therefore,  wherefore,  whereof,  whereas,  6nc.r  are 
compounded  or  contracted  pronouns  and  pronomi- 
nal phrases.  Ex.  “ I will  follow  thee  whithersoever 
thou  goest.”  “ I think  myself  beholden,  whoever  snows 
me  my  mistakes.”  “ Whomsoever  else  they  visit,  with 
the  diligent  only  do  they  stay.”  “ In  whatsoever  shape 
he  lurk,  I’ll  know.”  “ Thy  very  stones  prate  of  my 
whereabout.”  “You  do  take  the  means  whereby  I 
live.”  “ Herein  is  a wonderful  thing.”  “ Hcrwbeit , this 
wisdom  saved  them  not.” 

In  addition  to  these  various  classes  of  pronouns, 
there  are  some  which  are  called  indefinite,  such  as 
one,  aught,  naught,  (sometimes  spelt  ought,  nought), 
each,  every,  either,  neither,  any,  other  (which  has  a 


plural  when  used  as  a noun,  but  not  when  used  at- 
tributively),  they  (when  used  to  signify  “ people  in 
general  ”),  &c.  Ex.  “ One  may  be  little  the  wiser 
for  reading,”  “ for  aught  that  I can  understand,” “it 
cometh  to  naught,”  “ are  there  any  with  you  ? ” “ the 
virtue  and  force  of  every  of  these  three  is  shrewdly 
allayed,”  “ they  say  that  he  has  died  immensely  rich.” 

34.  Adverbs. — These  words  do  not  admit  of  inflex- 
ion, and  of  them  some  are  found  only  in  the  adverbial 
form,  others  are  used  as  prepositions  or  conjunctions 
also  ; some  are  pronouns  or  adjectives  ; and  many 
are  derived  from  adjectives  and  even  from  substan- 
tives. 

They  are  employed  to  express  the  relations  of 
place — as  here,  there,  where,  hither,  thither,  whither, 
hence , thence , whence , above , below,  before,  behind,  in, 
out,  off , on,  near , afar,  backwards,  forwards,  aside, 
arc., — of  time,  as,  then,  when,  now,  after , before,  still, 
soon,  already,  lately,  daily, hitherto,  crc. , — of  manner,  as 
how,  thus,  so,  as,  otherwise,  well,  fluently,  kindly,  blind- 
ly, lovingly,  bravely,  brightly,  &c., — of  mood,  as  yes, 
no,  riot,  if,  perhaps,  probably, possibly,  likely,  really,  &c., 
— of  degree  or  intensity,  as  frequently , seldom,  often, 
again,  very,  quite,  even,  nearly,  only,  too,  altnost,  muck, 
rather,  once,  twice,  thrice,  <Tc., — of  causality,  as  where- 
fore, therefore , however,  nevertheless,  &c. 

Some  of  those  of  manner,  degree,  and  mood,  ad- 
mit of  degrees  of  comparison,  which  they  form  after 
the  manner  of  adjectives.  Ex.  Soon,  sootier,  soonest, 
bravely,  more  bravely,  most  bravely. 

35.  Prepositions. — These  also  are  uninflected 
words,  and  besides  the  prepositions,  properly  so- 
called,  nouns,  adjecti.es,  verbs,  participles,  and  ad- 
verbs, and  even  combinations  of  words,  are  employed 
as  prepositions.  Almost  all  the  real  prepositions  ad- 
mit of  being  used  to  express  every  variety  of  rela- 
tion between  the  predicate  and  its  objects,  and  be- 
tween a subject  and  its  attributes  ; but  originally 
they  all  expressed  the  relation  of  place  alone. 

The  prepositions,  properly  so  called,  and  other 
words  used  for  prepositions,  are  such  as  above,  about, 
across,  after,  against,  along,  among,  at,  before,  behind, 
beside,  between,  beyond,  by,  concerning,  dorm,  during, 
from,  in,  into,  of,  off,  on,  over,  save,  since,  through,  till, 
to,  towards,  up,  upon , with,  &c. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  combinations  of 
words  used  as  prepositions  : — because  of,  by  means  of, 
on  account  of,  in  behalf  of,  instead  of,  according  to,  ad- 
jacent to,  contrary  to,  with  respect  to,  dnc. 


20 


GRAMMAR. 


Verbs  frequently  have  prepositions  as  affixes,  to 
modify  their  signification  ; and  sometimes  preposi- 
tions are  used  as  adverbial  objects  in  our  language, 
which  in  other  tongues  are  compounded  with  the 
verb.  Ex.  He  undertook  that  business  willingly ; 
they  have  overcome  their  enemies ; what  would  I not 
undergo  for  you  ? “ they  went  over  to  the  enemy  ; ” 
“ the  poet  passes  it  over  as  hastily  as  he  can  ; ” “ to 
set  forth  great  things  by  small ; ” “I  shall  set  out  for 
London  to-morrow.” 

36.  Conjunctions,  like  adverbs  and  prepositions, 
are  indeclinable  words.  Some  words  are  used  only 
as  conjunctions,  and  are  called  conjunctions  proper  ; 
others  are  really  pronouns,  adverbs,  & c. 

Coordinative  conjunctions  are  simply  copulative, 
as,  and , also,  besides,  moreover,  too,  not  only — but  also, 
both — and,  as  well  as,  neither — nor,  then,  arc.  ; adver- 
sative, as,  else,  either — or,  not — but,  on  the  contrary , 
still,  nevertheless,  &c.  j or  causative,  as,  therefore, 
hetice,  so,  consequently,  for,  accordingly.  Subordina- 
te conjunctions  connect  adverbial  and  subjective 
accessory  sentences  with  their  principal  sentences ; 
and  are  such  as,  that,  but  that,  but,  whether,  if,  since, 
although,  unless,  so,  when,  while,  whilst,  where,  whence , 
6rc. 

37.  Amongst  these  indeclinable  classes  of  words 
may  be  found  many  very  interesting  examples  of 
ancient  forms  and  inflexions  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, some  of  which  have  been  lost  in  all  but  these 
instances,  and  in  these  the  original  signification  is  no 
longer  preserved.  Ex.  Possessive  cases,  else,  una- 
wares, needs  ; dative  cases,  seldom,  whilom  j neuter 
objective  cases,  little,  less,  well,  nigh,  athwart  j com- 
parative degrees,  after,  yonder,  over,  ere j superlative 
degrees,  erst,  next,  almost. 

Note,  that  indeclinable  words,  which  are  used  only 
as  adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  interjec- 
tions, are  frequently  called  particles — and  also,  that 
the  direct  affirmative,  yes,  and  the  direct  negative, 
no,  are  by  some  grammarians  placed  in  a distinct 
class,  as  not  being  properly  adverbs. 

The  great  cause  of  the  varied  appearances  or  pro- 
nunciations of  words  originally  the  same  in  the  speech 
of  several  races,  is  loss  of  care  in  utterance.  The 
reasons  for  preferring  one  form  to  another  are  not 
always  exactly  definable,  but  as  a rule  the  linguistic 
laws  of  phonetic  alteration  conform  to  the  physical 
laws  of  articulation.  Loss  of  care  in  utterance  is 
ever  to  be  avoided. 


38.  For  the  purpose  of  rendering  this  compen- 
dium of  English  Grammar  more  serviceable  in  such 
a study  as  that  recommended  in  the  first  part,  the 
examples  in  illustration  of  the  Syntax  are  taken  from 
casually  opened  pages  of  the  English  Bible,  Shake- 
speare, the  quotations  in  Dr.  Johnson’s  English  Dic- 
tionary, and  one  or  two  other  books.  In  the  same 
manner,  the  student  should  select  examples  by  way 
of  exercise,  and  to  demonstrate  to  himself  that  he  un- 
derstands the  grammatical  principles  exhibited  here. 

Words  are  combined  in  the  formation  of  sentences 
in  three  ways  ; as  subjects  and  predicates,  as  attrib- 
utives to  subjects,  and  as  objects  to  predicates.  And 
sentences  are  combined  coordinately,  or  subordi- 
nate^ ; subordinate  or  accessory  sentences  occupy- 
ing the  positions  of  nouns,  adjectives,  or  adverbs, 
in  the  principal  sentences  of  which  they  form  part. 

39.  Subject  and  Predicate. — In  every  sen- 
tence of  perfectly  expressed  thought,  these  two  ele- 
ments are  absolutely  requisite — some  person  or  thing 
spoken  of,  or  a subject ; and  something  asserted  re- 
specting it,  or  a predicate.  If  either  subject  or 
predicate  be  wanting,  the  expression  in  itself  is  un- 
intelligible. 

For  subjects,  nouns  (which  stand  for  persons  or 
things)  or  pronouns  (used  in  the  place  of  nouns,  and 
always  in  the  nominative  case),  adjectives,  participles 
or  infinitive  moods  (representing  qualities,  actions, 
&c.),  single  words  or  letters  (in  which  the  thing  and 
the  name  are  identical),  or  subjective  accessory  sen- 
tences, may  be  used.  Ex.  “All  tongues  speak  of 
him;”  11  action  is  eloquence;  ” “my  praises  made  the 
first  a soldier;”  “ you  are  a traitor;”  “ here  he  comes;” 
“ they  say,  she 's  mad;  ” “ the  dead  shall  rise  and  live 
again;”  “ the  wise  shall  inherit  glory;”  “in  him  spar- 
ing would  show  a worse  sin  than  its  doctrine;”  “ to 
err  is  human,  to  forgive,  divine;”  “ who  is  now  used 
in  relation  to  persons,  and  which  to  things;”  “A  has. 
in  the  English  language,  three  different  sounds;” 
“ that  you  have  wronged  me,  doth  appear  in  this;” 
“ who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash;  ” 11  for  a holy  per- 
son to  be  humble  is  as  hard  as  for  a prince  to  submit 
himself  to  tutors.” 


GRAMMAR. 


21 


The  strictly  impersonal  verbs  have  no  subject  ex- 
pressed. Ex.  “ Methinks  already  I your  tears  sur- 
vey,” “ methought  I saw  the  grave  where  Laura  lay.” 
Actions  or  conditions  which  are  not  assignable  to 
any  subject,  have  the  pronoun  it,  as  a formal  sub- 
ject. Ex.  “It  thunders,  it  lightens,”  “it  snows  at 
the  top  of  them,  oftener  than  it  rains,”  “it  was 
freezing,”  “it  is  very  cold,”  “it  is  hot  to-day,”  “it 
seems.”  And  similarly,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  or 
animation,  it  and  there  are  used  formally  as  subjects, 
the  real  subjects  being  placed  after  their  predicates. 
Ex.  “ It  is  excellent  to  have  a giant's  strength,  but  it 
is  tyrannous  to  use  it  as  a giant,”  “ it  is  good  to  be 
here,”  “it  is  I”  “it  was  you  who  did  this,”  “it  be- 
hoved him  to  suffer,”  “it  is  said  that  parliament  is 
dissolved,”  “ it  repented  the  Lord  that  he  had  made 
man,”  “ it  doth  not  yet  appear  what  we  shall  be,” 
“ there  be  many  that  say,”  “there  was  in  a city  a 
judge,”  “ once  upon  a time  there  lived  a ?nan,”  “there 
arose  a mighty  famine  in  that  land,”  “ there  were  that 
thought  it  a part  of  Christian  charity  to  instruct  them.” 
40.  The  essential  characteristic  of  the  predicate 
being  assertion,  a verb  is  indispensable  in  this  part 
of  a sentence.  But  besides  verbs  of  all  kinds,  the 
verb  to  be,  with  nouns  or  pronouns  (and  that  not  only 
in  the  nominative  case,  but  in  the  possessive  also, 
and  in  the  objective  with  a preposition),  adjectives, 
participles,  the  infinitive  mood,  adverbs  (and  adverbs 
with  prepositions),  single  words  or  letters,  and  acces- 
sory sentences,  may  be  used  as  predicates.  In  the 
latter  cases,  the  form  of  the  verb  to  be,  which  is  em- 
ployed, is  called  the  copula,  or  link,  which  unites 
the  predicate  to  the  subject.  Ex.  “ He  ran  this 
way,  and  leaped  this  orchard  wall,”  “ he  hath  hid  him- 
self among  those  trees,’’  “I  'll  believe  thee,”  “Juliet 
is  the  sun,”  “I  am  a villain,”  “you  'll  be  the  bear” 
“ her  mother  is  the  lady  of  the  house,”  “ ye  are  Christ's, 
and  Christ  is  God’s,”  “oh,  he  A even  in  my  mistress' 
case,  just  in  her  case,”  “ the  haughty  prelate,  with 
many  more  confederates  are  in  arms,”  “ of  noble  race 
was  Shenkin,”  “ they  were  to  the  number  of  three 
hundred  horse,”  “ they  shall  be  mine,”  “ you  shall  be 
ours,”  “ he  is  not  of  us,”  “ the  sky  is  red,"  “ you  are 
meek,”  “you  are  excused,”  “ they  are  running  this 
way,”  “ you  are  not  to  be  taught,”  “ the  holy  treasure 
was  to  be  reserved,"  “ the  woman  will  be  out,”  “ ye  are 
from  beneath,”  “the  preterit  of  creep  is  crept,”  “the 
ending  of  the  genitive  case  is  s,”  “ this  is  what  I 
said,"  “ thou  art  whom  I fear,”  “ men  should  be  what 


they  seem."  Nevertheless,  in  poetry  and  oratory, 
when  peculiar  emphasis  or  effect  is  desired,  the  cop- 
ula is  omitted,  and  the  other  predicative  word  placed 
before  the  subject.  Ex.  “ Vain,  all  in  vain,  the 
weary  search  “ sweet  the  moments , rich  in  blessing. 

The  connection  between  the  predicate  and  the  sub- 
ject in  a sentence  is  shown  by  the  predicate  being 
in  the  same  number  as  the  subject.  Ex.  He  loves, 
they  love,  the  tree  falls,  trees  grow,  I am  afraid,  we 
are  satisfied.  Two  or  more  singular  subjects  con- 
nected by  the  conjunction  “and”  (which,  however, 
is  often  omitted),  so  as  to  form  either  a compound 
or  a single  subject,  have  their  predicate  in  the  plural. 
Ex.  “ Bacon  and  Shakespeare  are  the  greatest  gen- 
iuses that  England  has  produced;  ” “ now  abide  faith, 
hope , charity  j”  one  and  one  are  two.”  And  similarly, 
collective  nouns  have  their  predicates  in  the  singular 
when  they  are  thought  of  in  the  aggregate,  but  the 
plural  when  their  component  parts  are  most  regarded. 
Ex.  “ Parliament  is  sitting,”  “a  cluster  of  mob  were 
making  themselves  merry  with  their  betters,”  “ the 
people  are  the  city,”  “ my  people  doth  not  consider.” 
But  when  the  predicate  is  a singular  noun,  the  copula 
is  often  singular.  Ex.  “ Bread  and  cheese  is  fit  diet 
for  a prince.”  And  when  the  conjunction  or  or  nor 
is  used,  unless  the  last  subject  be  plural,  the  predi- 
cate is  singular.  Ex.  “ Either  you  or  your  brother  has 
deceived  me,”  “ neither  shall  the  sun  light  on  them, 
nor  any  heat,”  “ either  he  or  they  have  carried  her 
off.” 

41.  When  the  speaker  makes  the  assertion  re- 
specting himself,  the  subject  is  a personal  pro- 
noun of  the  first  person,  and  the  verb  is  also  in 
the  first  person ; when  the  assertion  is  addressed  to 
him  respecting  whom  it  is  made,  the  personal  pro- 
noun of  the  second  person,  and  the  form  of  the  verb 
to  correspond  with  it,  are  employed  ; and  when  it 
relates  to  any  other  person  or  thing,  the  third  person 
of  the  verb  (with  the  pronoun  to  correspond,  if  re- 
quisite), is  used.  Ex.  “/,  that  speak  unto  thee,  am 
he,”  “ I know  in  whom  I have  believed,”  “we  speak 
that  we  do  know,”  “ thou  art  the  man,”  “ thou  knewest 
that  I was  an  austere  man,”  “ye  believe  not,  because 
ye  are  not  of  my  sheep.”  “ Hamlet,  thou  hast  thy 
father  much  offended. — Mother,  you  have  my  father 
much  offended.”  “ He  planteth  an  ash,  and  the  rain 
doth  nourish  it,”  “ he  drinketh  no  water,  and  is  faint,’ 
“the  great  duke  came  to  the  bar,”  “gentlemen,  the 
penance  lies  on  you,”  “ heavenly  blessings  follow  such 


r 


22 


GRAMMAR. 


creatures,”  “ the  hearts  of  princes  kiss  obedience,  so 
much  they  love  it.”  In  commands,  the  subject  is 
very  commonly  omitted.  Ex.  “ Observe , observe,  he 
is  moody,”  “ believe  it,  this  is  true,”  “ pray  hear  me.” 
The  subject  is  also  very  frequently  omitted  in  ani- 
mated discourse,  before  the  verbs  pray,  please,  &c., 
when  used  in  accessory  sentences.  Ex.  “ Pray  hear 
me,”  “ give  it  me,  please." 

42.  When  the  assertion  is  general,  or  refers  to  the 
time  at  which  it  is  made  generally,  the  present  indefi- 
nite sense  is  used.  Ex.  “ Man  wants  but  little  here 
below.”  “ I am  the  most  unhappy  woman  living.” 
“ My  lords,  you  speak  your  pleasures.  What  he  de- 
serves ot  you  and  me,  I know ; what  we  can  do  to 
him  (though  now  the  time  gives  way  to  us)  I much 
fear."  When  it  refers  to  the  actual  point  of  time  at 
which  the  assertion  is  made,  the  present  imperfect  is 
used.  Ex.  “The  duke  is  coming,”  “his  grace  is 
entering,"  “ from  all  parts  they  are  coming,"  “ Eng- 
land is  not  wanting  in  a learned  nobility.” 
And  when  it  is  made  respecting  an  action  re- 
garded at  the  time  as  completed,  the  present  perfect 
is  employed.  Ex.  “/  have  heard  one  of  the  greatest 
geniuses  this  age  has  produced,"  “ the  gods  have 
placea  labor  before  interest,”  “ this  observation  we 
have  made  on  man.”  The  present  perfect  sometimes 
appears  with  a different  auxiliary.  Ex.  “ 1 am  come , 
they  are  gone."  “ Cardinal  Campeius  is  stolen  away  to 
Rome.’’  The  indefinite  tense  is  frequently  used  in- 
stead of  the  imperfect.  Ex.  He  bites  his  lip,  and 
starts,  stops  on  a sudden,  looks  upon  the  ground.” 
And  the  present  perfect  is  sometimes  employed  to 
indicate  past  time,  or  in  a sense  equivalent  to  that  of 
the  past  indefinite  tense.  Ex.  “ We  have  done  that 
which  it  was  our  duty  to  do,”  “ we  have  heard  with 
our  ears,  and  our  fathers  have  declared  unto  us  the 
noble  works  thou  didst  in  their  days.” 

In  animated  historical  narrative,  and  in  narrative 
poetry,  the  present  indefinite  is  often  employed. 
Ex.  “ The  boy  starts  to  his  feet,  and  his  keen  eye 
looks  along  the  ready  rifle  . . . . Lo  ! a deer  from 
Dalness,  hound-driven,  or  sullenly  actray,  slowing, 
bearing  his  antlers  up  the  glen,  then  stopping  for  a 
moment  to  snuff  the  air,  then  away — away  ! The 
rifle-shot  rings  dully  from  the  scarce  echoing  snow- 
cliff,  and  the  animal  leaps  aloft  struck  by  a certain 
but  not  sudden  death-wound.” 

'*  Her  lover  sinks — she  sheds  no  ill-timed  tears  ; 

Her  chief  is  slain — she  fills  his  fatal  post  ; 


Her  fellows  flee — she  checks  their  base  career  ; 

Her  foe  retires — she  heads  the  sallying  host. 

“ My  General  descends  to  the  outer  staircase,  and  harangues ; 
once  more  in  vain. . . Lafayette  mounts  the  white  charger  ; and 
again  harangues,  and  reharangues,  . . .so  lasts  it,  hour  after 
hour,  for  the  space  of  half  a day.” 

43.  In  like  manner,  actions,  &c.,  are  referred  to 
the  past  generally,  or  as  proceeding  and  incomplete, 
or  as  completed,  by  the  use  of  the  past  indefinite, 
imperfect,  and  perfect  tenses.  Ex.  “ My  father 
loved  you,  he  said  he  did,”  “ / thrice  presented  him  a 
kingly  crown,”  “ you  wronged  yourself  ; ” — “ they  of 
Bethshemesh  were  reaping,"  “ Israel  were  fighting 
with  the  Philistines,”  “ they  were  eating , and  drink- 
ing, and  dancing;' — “when  Boaz  had  eaten  and 
drunk,  he  went  to  lie  down,”  “ Elihu  had  waited  till 
Job  had  spoken."  The  emphatic  form  is  commonly 
used  interchangeably  with  the  indefinite.  Ex. 
“ Thus  did  my  master  bid  me  kneel,  and  thus  he  bade 
me  say.”  The  indefinite  is  often  employed  definitely 
when  any  particular  past  time  is  indicated  in  the 
sentence.  Ex.  “ I saw  him  yesterday.  ” 

And  in  the  same  way  actions,  &c.,  in  time  become 
discriminated  by  the  employment  of  the  future  in- 
definite, imperfect,  and  perfect  tenses.  Ex.  “ A 
weighty  secret  will  work  a hole  through  them,”  “ he 
will  not  stoop  till  he  falls,”  “ I shall  never  forget ; ” — 
“ thy  people  shall  be  willing  in  the  day  of  thy  power," 
“ they  will  be  still  praising  thee  ; ” — “ we  shall  have 
cotnpleted  our  task  before  you  commence  yours," 
“ then  cometh  the  end,  when  he  shall  have  delivered 
up  the  kingdom  to  God.”  Instead  of  the  future,  the 
indefinite  present  is  often  used.  Ex.  I leave  Eng- 
land to-morrow,  we  sail  next  week.  Other  forms 
for  expressing  future  time  are  mentioned  above. 
Ex.  “ We  are  going  to  spend  some  time  on  the  conti- 
nent,” “ I was  about  to  write!’ 

44.  When  simple  assertion,  or  denial,  is  in- 
tended, the  predicate  is  always  in  the  indicative 
mood.  Ex.  “/w/  glad  to  see  your  lordship  abroad,” 
“ the  mouse  gnawed  the  threads  to  pieces,  and  set  the 
lion  at  liberty,”  “ he  goeth  in  company  with  the 
workers  of  iniquity,  and  walkcth  with  wicked  men,” 
“you  did  wish  that  I would  wake  her  then,”  “ she 
may  go  to  bed  when  she  list;  all  is  as  she  will,” 
“ thou  must  run  to  him,”  “ flatter  him  it  may,  I con- 
fess!' 

In  principal  sentences,  when  a wish  is  to  be  ex- 
pressed, or  a concession  to  be  made  for  the  sake  of 


GRAMMAR. 


23 


argument,  the  subjunctive  mood  is  used.  Ex.  “ Now, 
all  my  joy  trace  the  conjunction  ! ” “ the  Lord  for- 
bid! ” the  Lord  increase  this  business  ! ” “ be  it  so, 
my  argument  remains  unshaken.” 

Commands  are  conveyed  by  means  of  the  impera- 
tive mood.  Ex.  “ Know  thyself,”  “follow  thou  me,” 
“ cease  to  do  evil,  learn  to  do  well,”  “ rejoice,  you  men 
of  Angiers,  ring  your  bells.”  The  auxiliary  let  is 
employed  for  the  first  and  third  persons.  Ex.  “Ac- 
knowledge then  the  king,  and  let  me  in,"  “ let  none 
of  them  escape,"  “rise,  let  us  go,"  “ let  the  soldiers 
seize  him,”  “let  Euclid  rest,  and  Archimedes  pause," 
“let  him  be  known  among  the  heathens.” 

45.  The  distinction  between  the  use  of  the  active 
and  the  passive  forms  of  verbs  has  been  pointed  out 
and  illustrated  above  (p.  11);  and  from  that  it  will 
appear  that  whatever  has  been  said  here  respecting 
predicates  applies  as  much  to  the  latter  as  to  the  for- 
mer, with  this  exception— there  being  no  (or  but  few) 
imperfect  tenses  in  the  passive,  the  indefinite  tenses 
are  in  all  cases  (except  the  few  referred  to)  used  to 
express  actions  still  in  progress,  or  incomplete.  Ex. 
“ The  colors  are  changed  by  viewing  them  at  differ- 
ent obliquities,’’  “I  am  determined  to  prove  a villain,” 
“ you  shall  be  new  christened  in  the  town,”  “to  that 
sweet  region  was  our  voyage  bent “ Hector  was 
dragged  about  the  walls  of  Troy,”  “ the  Irish  horse- 
boys should  be  cut  off,"  “ after  all  that  cati  be  said 
against  it,  this  remains  true,”  “ it  /nay  be  occasioned 
thus,”  “ it  shall  be  reported  to  the  king,”  “ the  Pres- 
byterian sect  was  established  in  all  its  forms,”  “ it  was 
said,  that  the  elder  should  serve  the  younger.” 

46.  In  questions  the  same  grammatical  forms  are 
employed  as  in  assertions  ; but  the  order  of  the 
words  is  generally  inverted,  and  when  compound 
tenses  are  used  (as  they  most  frequently  are),  the 
subject  follows  the  auxiliary,  whilst  the  verb  itself 
occupies  its  usual  place.  Interrogative  pronouns 
are  put  at  the  beginning  of  questions.  Ex.  “ Where 
is  he  ? ’ “ Shall  I live  in  hope  ? ” “ What,  do  you  tremble, 
are  you  all  afraid,”  “ Saw  you  the  king  to-day  ? ” 
“ When  have  I injured  thee  ? ” “ Why  look  you  so 
pale  ? ” “ Who  hath  believed  our  report  ? ” “ To  whom 
will  ye  liken  God  ? ” “ Lucentio  is  your  nai/ie  ? ” 
u What,  you  mean  my  face  ? ” “ You  saw  this  and  op- 
posed it  not  ? ” 

The  grammatical  construction  of  negative  sen- 
tences differs  not  at  all  from  that  of  affirmative  ones, 
such  as  have  been  chiefly  selected  for  examples  ; 


the  relation  of  the  negative  words  no,  not,  &c.,  being 
either  that  of  the  attributive  to  its  subject,  or  of  the 
object  of  manner  to  its  predicate,  as  may  be  seen 
below. 

47.  Subject  and  Attributive.  In  order  to  de- 
scribe the  subjects  respecting  which  assertions  are 
made  in  sentences,  more  accurately  than  their  mere 
names  are  sufficient  to  do  ; and  to  define  them,  so 
that  the  assertions  may  not  become  ambiguous  by 
reason  of  the  vagueness  of  the  subjects  they  relate 
to,  words,  phrases,  and  accessory  sentences  are  em- 
ployed, which  are  called  attributives. 

The  commonest  attributives  are  adjectives  ; with 
which  may  be  included  participles  (which  are  the 
adjective  forms  of  verbs),  numerals,  some  kinds  of 
pronouns,  nouns  used  as  adjectives,  and  a few  ad- 
verbs, which  are  also  occasionally  used  attributively. 
The  only  sign  of  the  relation  between  these  attribu- 
tives and  their  subjects  is  their  position,  which  is  im- 
mediately before  the  words  they  refer  to,  except  in 
cases  where  peculiar  emphasis  or  animation  is  aimed 
at,  when  they  immediately  follow  their  subjects, 
Ex.  “The  wierd  sisters,”  “my  dread  exploits,” 
“from  this  moment,”  “my  dearest  coz,”  “my  pretty 
cousin,”  “ to  offer  up  a weak,  poor , innocent  lamb,” 
“ O nation  miserable  ! ” “ a most  miraculous  work  in 
this  good  king,"  “ thy  royal  father  was  a more  sainted 
king,”  “ each  several  crime,”  “ many  ways,”  “the  heal- 
ing benediction,”  “ all  my  pretty  chickens,”  “ an  ac- 
customed action,”  “ curses,  not  loud,  but  deep,”  “ those 
linen  cheeks  of  thine  are  counsellors  to  fear,”  “ a 
rooted  sorrow,”  “ the  written  troubles  of  the  brain,” 
“ what  wood  is  this,”  “ within  this  three  mile,”  “a 
moving  grove,”  “lead  our  first  battle,  “hateful  to 
mine  ear,”  “ thou  shalt  have  none  assurance  of  thy 
life,”  “ there  was  no  day  like  that  before,”  “it  is  no 
good  report  that  I hear,”  “ in  that  very  day  his 
thougl/s  perish,”  “ to  poor  we  thine  enmity’s  most 
capital,”  “ a hundred  altars  in  her  temples  smoke,  a 
thousand  bleeding  hearts  her  power  invoke,  ” “ some 
men  with  swords  may  reap  the  field,”  “ see  where 
the  victor  victim  bleeds,”  “ his  knowledge  of  good 
lost,"  “ man’s  first  disobedience,”  “ these  are  the 
martyr  spirits  of  mankind,”  “ which  way  went  he  ? ” 
“ what  man  is  he  ? ” “ on  the  hither  side,”  “ yon 
flowery  arbors,  yonder  alleys  green,”  “in  russet  gear 
and  honest  kersey  hose,”  “ a hundred  upon  poor  four 
us  ! ” “ an  everlasting  now.” 

In  some  cases  where  a noun  is  compounded  with 


GRAMMAR. 


an  attributive  word,  in  the  plural  number,  the  noun 
assumes  the  plural  form.  Ex.  Attorney  general, 
Attorneys  general;  Lord  lieutenant,  Lords  lieutenant. 
But  where  the  compound  word  expresses  an  insepa- 
rable notion  the  plural  ending  is  added  to  the  at- 
tributive, if  that  is  the  second  element  in  the  word. 
Ex.  Two  spoonfuls. 

48.  Nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  possessive  case 
are  exceedingly  common  as  attributives.  But  it 
must  be  noted  that  there  is  no  distinction  between 
the  possessive  cases  of  personal  pronouns,  and  cer- 
tain adjective  pronouns  called  possessive  ; examples 
of  which  are  given  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 
Sometimes  the  subject  to  these  attributives  is  omitted ; 
and  frequently  the  preposition  of  is  inserted  before 
the  possessive  case.  Ex.  I am  not  yet  of  Percy's 
mind,”  “ the  roaring  of  the  lion's  whelp,”  “ a herald's 
coat  without  sleeves,”  “ hearts  no  bigger  than  pins' 
heads,”  “ I did  pluck  allegiance  from  men's  hearts,” 
“ a fair  queen  in  a summer's  bower,”  “ I must  to  the 
barber's , monsieur,”  “ the  knight  came  to  the  tailor's ," 
“ I saw  thee  late  at  the  Count  Orsino's,”  “which  is 
the  way  to  Master  few's  ? ” “ let  ours  also  learn  to 
maintain  good  works,”  “ I seek  not  yours  but  you,” 
“ the  king  is  now  in  progress  towards  St.  Alban's," 
“a  friend  of  mine  on  his  journey,”  “ if  e’er  those 
eyes  of  yours  behold  another  day,”  “a  seal  ring  of 
my  grandfather’ s,"  “ this  dotage  of  our  general's 
o’erflows  the  measure.” 

49.  The  objective  case  of  nouns  and  pronouns, 
with  various  prepositions,  but  especially  with  the 
preposition  of  (which  combination  is  equivalent  to 
the  possessive  case),  is  used  attributively.  Ex.  “ I 
speak  in  behalf  of  my  daughter,  in  the  minority  of 
them  both,”  “ the  wicked  ministry  of  arms,"  “ the  in- 
strument of  Providence,”  “the  customs  of  the  Irish," 
“ thou  art  a soul  in  bliss,"  “a  wholesome  law  time 
out  of  mind,"  ‘ compassion  on  the  king  commands 
me  stoop,”  “ travels  by  sea  and  land’’  “ the  mes- 
senger from  our  sister,"  “ our  duty  to  God,"  “ sons 
to  Cymbelinef  “four  rogues  inbuckram."  Imperfect 
participles  are  also  employed  with  the  preposition  of 
as  attributives.  Ex.  “A  famine  of  hearitig  the  word 
of  the  Lord,”  “ he  hath  a bad  habit  of  frowning," 
“the  greatest  care  of  fulfilling  the  Divine  will.” 
Another  attributive  use  of  this  preposition  (with  one  or 
two  others)  with  nouns  and  pronouns  is  called  parti- 
tive, from  its  evident  force  and  signification.  Ex. 
“The  most  diminutive  of  birds,"  “ I have  peppered 


two  of  them,"  “seven  of  the  eleven,  I paid,”  “every 
one  of  them,"  “ all  of  us,"  “ it  contained  the  whole 
of  religion,"  “ for  which  of  these  works  do  ye  stone 
me  ? ” “ one  a??iongst  a thousand." 

50.  Subjects  are  further  defined  and  described  by 
means  of  the  words  expressing  subjects,  in  the  same 
number,  and  immediately  preceding  or  following 
them,  and  said  to  be  in  apposition  with  them.  Ex. 
“Fulvia  thy  wife  came  first  into  the  field,  against 
my  brother  Lucius,”  “ the  false  house-wife  Fortune,” 
“ thou,  my  brother , my  competitor , my  mate  in  empire, 
friend  and  companion  in  the  part  of  war,”  uKing  Co- 
phetua  wooed  the  beggar  maid,”  “ Hamlet,  Prince  of 
Denmark,”  His  royal  highness,  Prince  Albert ; Lord 
fohn  Russell,  Mr.  Smith.  When  several  persons  of 
the  same  name  are  spoken  of,  or  addressed  by  letter, 
the  honorary  title  is  put  in  the  plural,  whilst  the 
name  is  in  the  singular  number.  Ex.  Messieurs 
Smith,  Cheeryble  Brothers , the  Mesdames  Robinson. 

In  some  cases  the  noun  in  apposition  is  connected 
by  means  of  the  preposition  of.  Ex.  The  empire  of 
Russia,  the  city  of  St.  Petersburg,  the  university  of 
Ca?nbridge,  the  county  of  Kent,  the  port  of  London, 
the  month  of  fuly,  the  province  of  fudea. 

When  two  nouns  in  apposition  are  attributives  to 
another,  the  latter  only  is  put  into  the  possessive  case. 
Ex.  “ Our  neighbor  Shepherd's  son,”  “ King  Henry's 
head,”  “ Dr.  Johnsons  Dictionary,”  "Duke  Hum- 
phrey's deeds,”  “ The  Lord  Protector's  wife,”  “ my 
Lord  Cardinal's  man,”  “ Saint  Alban’s  shrine.” 

Accessory  sentences  are  employed  as  attribu- 
tives. Ex.  “ Whose  hand  is  that  the  forest  bear  doth 
lick  l Not  his  that  spoils  her  young  before  her  face," 
“ a day  will  come,  when  York  shall  claim  his  own," 
“ in  that  chair,  where  kings  and  queens  are  crowned." 

51.  Many  of  the  illustrations  given  above  show 
how  common  it  is  for  a single  subject  to  be  described 
and  defined  by  means  of  many  attributives.  The  fol- 
lowing examples  will  show  some  of  the  ways  in  which 
the  repetition  of  the  same  word  as  subject  to  several 
attributives,  or  as  attributive  to  several  subjects,  is 
prevented.  Ex.  “ I thought  the  king  had  more  af- 
fected the  Duke  of  Albany  than  Cornwall,"  “ the 
princes,  France  and  Burgnndy,”  “ here  I disclaim  all 

. . . propinquity  and  property  of  blood,  and  as  a 

stranger  to  my  heart  and  me,  hold  thee,”  “ we  still  re- 
tain the  name  and  all  the  additions  to  a king,"  “thy 
dowerless  daughter  is  queen  of  us,  of  ours , and  our 
fair  France"  “ he  wrote  this  but  as  an  essay  or  taste 


GRAMMAR. 


of  my  virtue ; " “ menaces  and  maledictions  against  king 
and  nobles ; ” “ the  marks  of  sovereignty,  knowledge,  and 
reason;  ” “ my  train  are  men  of  choice  and  rarest 
parts;  " “ the  messengers  from  our  sister  and  the  king;” 
“ he,  the  sacred  honor  of  himself,  his  queen's,  his 
hopeful  son's,  his  babe’s  betrays  to  slander;  ” “ uncles 
of  Glo’ster  and  of  Winchester;  " “ the  Dukes  of  Or- 
leans, Calaber,  Bretaigne,  and  Alenfon." 

52.  Predicate  and  Object. — The  signification 
of  predicates  is  modified  or  completed  by  means  of 
words,  phrases,  and  accessory  sentences,  which  are 
called  objects.  And  not  only  are  all  parts  of  verbs 
followed  by  these  adjuncts,  but  adjectives  also  fre- 
quently require  them. 

Objects  which  complete  or  supplement  the  mean- 
ing of  their  predicates  are  of  three  kinds  : — (1.)  The 
immediate  or  direct  object  of  the  predicate  ; (2.) 
the  remoter,  or  mediate  and  indirect  object  ; (3.) 
the  remotest  object,  or  that  which  indicates  the  ef- 
fect or  result  of  what  is  asserted  in  the  predicate. 


Ex. 

“ I will  take 
* This  opinion  gave 


1st  obj.  2 cl  obj. 

you  to  me 

2d  obj.  1st  obj. 
them  courage 


3d  obj. 
for  a people.” 

3d  obj. 

to  all  adventures.  ” 


Those  which  modify  or  attemper  the  signification 
of  their  predicates  are  six  in  number  : — (1.)  Those 
which  indicate  the  cause  or  origin  of  whatever  is  as- 
serted in  the  predicate  ; (2.)  those  which  tell  its  de- 
sign or  purpose  ; (3.)  those  which  declare  the  means 
by  which  it  is  brought  about ; (4.)  those  which  show 
the  manner  of  its  existence  or  action  ; (5.)  and  (6.) 
'.hose  indicating  the  time  and  place  of  its  occurrence, 
ft  must,  however,  be  observed,  that  it  is  not  easy  in 
all  instances  to  determine  to  which  class  an  object 
belongs — those  expressing  cause,  purpose,  or  means 
frequently  being  distinguishable  by  exceedingly 
evanescent  characteristics.  But  this  is  not,  practi- 
cally, either  inconvenient  or  productive  of  ambi- 
guity ; as  may  be  seen  in  the  examples  of  these  and 
other  kinds  of  objects.  Ex.  (1.)  “ My  soul  grows 
sad  with  troubles  ; " “ by  that  sin  fell  the  angels.”  (2.) 
“ She  went  to  glean  Palcemon's  fields;  ” “ one  man 
pursues  power  in  order  to  wealth,  and  another  wealth 
in  order  to  power.”  (3.)  “Judge  the  event  by  what 
has  passed ;”  “the  strong  through  pleasure  falls 
soonest.”  (4.)  “They  act  wisely;”  “ beware  and  gov- 
ern well  thy  appetite.”  (5.)  “We  lacked  your  coun- 
sel and  your  help  to-night;  ” “ it  hath  been  sung  at 


festivals,  on  ember  eves,  and  holy  ales.”  (6.)  “The 
lion’s  foe  lies  prostrate  on  the  plain;  ” “ I am  with 
thee,  by  and  before,  about  and  in  thee,  too.” 

53.  Nouns,  pronouns,  and  other  words  used  as 
nouns, — such  as  the  infinitive  mood  of  verbs,  and 
participles, — most  commonly  without,  but  also  with 
prepositions  before  them,  serve  as  immediate  ob- 
jects of  predicates  ; and  also  of  the  infinitive  mood 
of  verbs,  and  participles,  and  of  adjectives,  when 
they  are  not  the  predicates  of  sentences.  And  the 
personal  pronouns,  whether  with  or  without  preposi- 
tions, are  in  the  objective  case.  Ex.  “ Do  you  not 
hear  him  l”  “you  mar  our  labor;”  “keep  your 
cabins ;"  “you  do  assist  the  storm;”  “ ’t  is  time  I 
should  inform  thee  further  ; ” “wipe  thou  thine  eyes ; 
have  comfort ;”  “you  have  often  begun  to  tell  me 
what  I am,  but  stopped,  and  left  me  to  a bootless  in- 
quisition “ he  whom,  next  thyself,  of  all  the  world 
I loved,  and  to  him  put  the  matiage  of  my  state  ; ” 
“ the  government  I cast  upon  my  brother  ; ” “ the  ivy 
which  had  hid  my  princely  trunk,  and  sucked  the 
verdure  out  on’t  ; ” “ triumphing  over  death,  and 
chance,  and  time ;”  “ on  mine  arm  shall  they  trust  * ” 
“ victorious  over  temptation.” 

The  common  exclamations,  “ ah  me  ! ” and  “woe 
is  me  ! ” are  contractions  ; the  latter  was  originally, 
“ woe  becomes  or  befits  me,”  and  the  former  is  equiv- 
alent to  it  in  meaning,  and  may  have  been  derived 
from  it. 

54.  The  more  remote  object  is  also  expressed 
by  nouns,  and  most  commonly  preceded  by  the 
preposition  to ; but  this  is  often  omitted;  and  there 
are  other  prepositions  which  serve  to  connect  this 
object  with  its  predicate.  Whenever  the  remoter  ob- 
ject is  expressed,  but  the  immediate  object  left  out, 
the  sense  is  imperfect.  The  personal  pronouns,  as 
in  the  last,  are  always  in  the  objective  case.  Ex. 
“ Three  great  ones  of  the  city  oft  capp’d  to  him;  ” 
“ whip  me  such  honest  knaves  ; ” “ throwing  but 
shows  of  service  on  their  lords,  do  themselves  hom- 
age ; ” “I  am  beholden  to  you;”  “forgive  us  our 
trespasses  ; ” “ he  makes  a supper,  and  a great  one,  to 
many  lords  and  ladies  ;"  “ I need  not  add  more  fuel 
to  your  fire  ; ” “comparing  spiritual  things  with  spir- 
itual; ” “ I have  charged  thee  not  to  haunt  about  my 
doors  ; ” “ fetch  me  an  iron  crow  ; ” “ O continue 
thy  loving-kindness  unto  me  ; ” “ the  services,  which 
I have  done  the  signiory ; ” “ the  goodness  of  the 
night  upon  you,  friends ; " “ I’ll  refer  me  to  all  things 


20 


GRAMMAR. 


of  sense  ;”  “good-night  to  every  one!”  “it  cannot 
be  that  Desdemona  should  long  continue  her  love  to 
the  Moor , nor  he  his  to  her ; ” “ I have  told  thee  often, 
and  I re-tell  thee  again  and  again,  I hate  the  Moor.” 

55.  For  the  remotest  object,  which  expresses 
the  result  or  effect  of  the  predicate,  nouns  (with  or 
without  prepositions,  or  preceded  by  the  conjunction 
as ),  pronouns,  adjectives,  participles,  the  infinitive 
mood  of  verbs,  and  to  be  with  nouns,  adjectives,  and 
adverbs,  are  employed.  Ex.  “ He,  in  good  time, 
must  his  lieutenant  be,  and  I,  his  Moor  ship's  ancient ;” 
“ the  king,  your  father,  was  reputed  for  a prince  most 
prude7it;”  “whom  I hold  my  most  malicious  foe , 
and  think  not  at  all  a friend  to  truth;  bade  me  enjoy 
it ; ” “ man  became  a living  soul;  ” “ why  should 
damage  grow  to  the  hurt  of  the  king  ? ” “ they  looked 
upon  themselves  as  the  happiest  people  of  the  uni- 
verse;” “ things  were  just  ripe  for  a war;”  “those 
pearls  of  dew  she  wears  prove  to  be  presaging  tears;  ” 

“ his  servants  ye  are  to  whom  ye  obey,  whether  of 
sin  unto  death,  or  of  obedience  unto  righteousness;  ” 
“we  take  a falling  meteor  for  a star;  ” “ it  were  not 
for  your  quiet,  nor  your  good,  nor  for  my  manhood, 
honesty,  ana  wisdom,  to  let  you  know  my  thoughts  ; ” 

“ I believe  him  to  be  a very  honest  man  ; ” “ whom  do 
you  suppose  it  to  be  ? ” 

56.  Of  the  objects  which  modify  the  meaning 
of  the  predicate,  those  which  do  so  by  indicating  its 
origin  or  cause  are  expressed  by  nouns  (and  all 
words  and  combinations  of  words  that  can  be  used 
instead  of  them),  preceded  by  certain  prepositions, 
and  by  some  adverbs.  Oaths  are  included  under 
this  head,  as  indicating  the  ground  of  the  assertion, 
though  not  of  what  is  asserted.  Ex.  “ I would  not 
follow  him  then;  ” “ therefore  to  our  best  mercy 
give  yourselves  ; ” “ whom  from  the  flow  of  gall  I 
name  not,  but  from  sincere  motions ; ” “ you  lost 
your  office  on  the  co7nplaint  of  the  te/iants  ; ” “ men 
are  pleased  with  variety;  ” “ astonished  at  the  voice , 
he  stood  ; ” “ they  were  jealous  of  her  beauty;  ” 

“ guilty  of  high  treaso7i;  ” “ I can  tell  you  why ; ” 

“ thou  hast  forced  me  out  of  thy  honest  truth  to  play 
the  woman;”  “they  boast  themselves  of  idols;” 

“ Sempronius  gives  no  thanks  071  this  account ;" 

“ you  are  good,  but  from  a nobler  cause,  fro7n  your 
own  k7iowledge,  not  fro77i  7iature's  laws;  ” “ by  the 
faith  of  a man,  I know  my  prince  ; ” “ by  heaven,  1J 
rather  would  have  been  his  hangman  ; ” “ on  7/iy 
honor,  it  is  so.” 


57.  Those  objects  which  point  out  the  design  and 
purpose  of  the  predicate  are  expressed  by  the  infini- 
tive mood  of  verbs,  most  commonly,  and  also  by 
nouns,  &c.,  with  prepositions.  Ex.  “ I follow  him 
to  serve  7>iy  turn  upon  him;  ” “ wears  out  his  time 
for  nought  but  prove7ider;  ” “ in  following  him,  I 
follow  but  myself,  7iot  I for  love  and  duty,  but  seem- 
ing so,  for  77iy  peculiar  e7id;  ” “ I come  to  bury  Cce- 
sar,  not  to  praise  him ; ” “ he  traveled  the  world, 
07i  pitrpose  to  co7iverse  with  the  7nost  learned  men;  ” 
“ with  this  design  I have  visited  all  the  most  cele- 
brated schools  in  Europe  ; ” “ he  writes  not  for 
77i07iey  nor  for  praise;  ” “ there  is  a time  to  weep, 
and  a time  to  laugh;  ” “ be  swift  to  hear,  slow  to 
speak;  ” “ one  man  pursues  power  in  order  to  wealth, 
and  another  wealth  in  order  to  potver;  ” “ thou  art 
not  able  to  go  against  this  Philistine  to  fight  with 
him.” 

58.  Objects  by  which  the  means  employed  in  pro- 
ducing any  result  are  declared  are  generally  ex- 
pressed by  nouns,  &c.,  with  prepositions.  Ex.  “ I 
must  be  be-lee’d  and  calm’d  by  debtor  and  creditor, 
this  countercaster ; ” “ preferment  goes  by  letter  a7id 
affection,  7iot  by  the  old  gradation  ; ” “ plague  him 
with  flies;  ” “ we  may  outrun  by  viole7it  swift7iess  that 
which  we  run  at,  and  lose  by  overrunning;  ” “ my 
soul  grows  sad  with  troubles  ; the  strong  through 
pleasure  soonest  falls,  the  weak  through  s7nart ;” 
“ you  must  think  we  hope  to  gain  by  you;  ” “ thus, 
by  the  i7iusic  we  may  know  when  noble  wits  a-hunting 
go  ; ” “ you  absolved  him  with  an  axe  ; ” “ some  he 
killed  with  his  gun,  others  by  poison.” 

59.  Manner  is  expressed  by  adjectives,  partici- 
ples, adverbs,  and  nouns,  &c.,  with  prepositions  or 
the  conjunction  as.  Ex.  “ He,  as  loving  his  own 
pride  and  purposes,  evades  them,  with  a bombast  cir- 
cu77ista7ice  ; ” “ wears  out  his  time,  7nuch  like  his  mas- 
ter's ass;  ” “ wide  was  spread  their  fame  in  ages 
past ; ” “ in  madness,  being  fidl  of  supper  a7id  distem- 
pering draughts,  dost  thou  come  to  start  my  quiet;  ” 
“he,  zvith  his  father,  is  going  home;”  “a  Puritan 
amongst  them  sings  psalms  to  hor77pipes;  ” “ we  are 
not  to  stay  all  together,  but  to  come  by  him,  where 
he  stands,  by  ones,  by  twos,  and  by  threes ;”  “seize 
her  by  force,  and  bear  her  hence  U7iheard ;”  “so 
frown’d  the  mighty  combatants  ; ” “ thus  he  spake  ; ” 
“ quit  yourselves  like  men;  ” “ ye  shall  be  as  gods  ; " 
“come  quickly;”  “he  answered  well;”  “they 
that  sow  in  tears  shall  reap  in  joy  ;”  “ he  that  goeth 


GRAMMAR. 


27 


forth  weeping , bearitig  precious  seed,  shall  doubtless 
come  again  with  rejoicing,  bringing  his  sheaves  with 
him  ; ” “ they  act  wisely .” 

60.  All  the  various  ways  in  which  objects  indicate 
the  time  of  an  action,  &c.,  are  expressed  by  nouns, 
&c.,  with  or  without  prepositions,  adjectives,  parti- 
ciples, and  adverbs.  Ex.  “ He  in  good  time  must 
his  lieutenant  be  ; ” “ we  rose  both  at  an  instant, 
and  fought  a long  hour  by  Shrewsbury  clock;  ” “ then 
have  sat  the  livelong  day;  ” “ he  came  by  night;  ” 
“ doomed  for  a certain  time  to  walk  the  night,  and 
for  the  day  confined  to  fast  in  fires  ; ” “ he  did  them 
meditate  all  his  life  long;  ” “ till  then,  who  knew  the 
force  of  those  dire  arms  ? ” “I  have  not  wept  this 
forty  years;”  “ morning  by  morning  shall  it  pass 
over  ; ” “ yet  in  her  sanguine  gown  by  night  and  day;  ” 
“ depart  immediately  ; ” “ I was  never  pleased  ; ” “ thy 
servants’  trade  hath  been  about  cattle  from  our  youth 
even  until  now  ; ” “ sometimes  walking  ; ” “ novo  is  the 
time.” 

61.  Place  where,  and  direction  whence  and 
whither,  are  expressed  by  nouns,  &c.,  with  or  with- 
out prepositions,  and  by  adverbs.  Ex.  “ I will  wear 
my  heart  upon  my  sleeve;  ” “ his  eyes  had  seen  the 
proof  at  Rhodes,  at  Cyprus,  and  on  other  grounds;  ” 
“ proclaim  him  i?i  the  streets;  ” “ I,  upon  my  frontiers 
here,  keep  residence  ; ” “I  saw  hereabout  nothing 
remarkable  ; ” “ let  them  hence  away;  ” “ a puissant 
and  mighty  power  is  marching  hitherward  in  proud 
array  ; ” “ if  they  come  to  sojourn  at  my  house,  I'll 
not  be  there  ; ” “ darkness  there  might  well  seem 
twilight  here;"  “ ah  \ where  was  Eloise  ? ” “the 
good  man  is  gone  a long  journey  ; ” “ come  a little 
nearer  this  way;  ” “ the  eyes  of  the  Lord  are  in  every 
place  ;”  “we  must  measure  twenty  miles  to-day  ; ” 
“ he  looked  this  way  and  that  way  ; ” “ come  hither , 
child,  to  me.” 

62.  Accessory  sentences  are  sentences  com- 
plete in  themselves  as  to  syntax,  but  occupying  sub- 
ordinate places  in  other  sentences,  which  stand  to 
them  in  the  relation  of  principals.  They  are  of  three 
kinds,  named  (after  the  offices  'they  discharge  in 
their  principal  sentences)  subjective,  attributive,  and 
objective  sentences.  Their  relation  to  their  princi- 
pals is  shown  by  their  position,  and  by  the  use  of 
relative  pronouns  and  certain  conjunctions,  and  in 
many  cases  by  the  employment  of  the  subjunctive 
mood. 

63.  Subjective  accessory  sentences  are  found 


in  every  relation  in  which  a noun  could  stand  *, 
and  may  be  either  subjects,  predicates  (both  of 
which  have  been  illustrated  above),  or  completing 
objects  to  predicates  (with  or  without  prepositions); 
but  being  equivalent  to  nouns,  they  are  named  after 
that  part  of  the  sentence  which  is  especially  taken 
by  the  noun.  Ex.  “ See  that  thou  do  it;  ” “ I take 
it  much  unkindly,  that  thou,  Iago,  shouldst  know  of 
this;  ” “ thou  toldst  me,  thou  didst  hold  him  in  thy 
hat > ; ” “ be  judge  yourself,  whether  I in  any  just  term 
am  affined  to  love  the  Moor ; ” “ right  glad  I am,  he 
was  not  in  this  fray;  ” “ I have  forgot  why  I did  call 
thee  back;"  “ what  you  would  work  me  to  I have  some 
aim  ; ” “ mark  me  with  what  violence  she  loved  the 
Moor;"  “I  could  well  wish  courtesy  would  invent 
some  other  custom  of  entertainment ; ” “you  must  not 
think,  then,  that  I am  drunk;  ” “ what  you  can  make 
her  do,  I am  content  to  look  on  ; what  to  speak,  1 
am  content  to  hear  ; ” “ mark  what  it  is  his  mind  aims 
at  in  the  question,  and  not  what  words  he  expresses;  ” 
“ she  said,  Say  on  ; ” “ as  when  we  say,  Plato  was 
no  fool." 

64.  Attributive  accessory  sentences  occur 
wherever  adjectives  might  be  used  as  attributives. 
The  relation  between  these  sentences  and  their  sub- 
jects is  shown  by  their  position,  by  their  predicates 
assuming  the  same  personal  forms  as  those  of  their 
subjects,  and  by  the  employment  of  the  relative 
pronouns  who,  which,  and  that,  in  them.  Where  no 
confusion  is  possible,  these  pronouns  may  be  omit- 
ted. Ex.  “ Thou,  Iago,  who  hast  had  my  purse;  ” “ a 
fellow  that  never  set  a squadron  in  the  field,  nor  the 
division  of  a battle  knows,  more  than  a spinster;  ” “ I 
hold  him  to  be  unworthy  of  his  place  that  does  those 
things ;”  “ I fear  the  trust  Othello  puts  him  in  will 
shake  this  island  ; ” “ honest  Iago,  that  lookst  dead 
with  grieving  j”  “ every  otic  hears  that,  which  can  dis- 
tinguish sound ; ” “ that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal 
taste  brought  death  into  the  world;  ” “ the  son  of  Dun- 
can, from  whom  this  tyrant  holds  the  due  of  birth;  ’’ 
“ fruits  that  blossom  first,  will  first  be  ripe  ; ” “ he 
that  is  of  God,  heareth  God’s  words  ;"  “unto  me, 
who  am  less  than  the  least  of  all  saints;  ” “ thinkest 
thou  this,  O man,  that  judgest  them  which  da  such 
things,  and  doest  the  same,  that  thou  shalt  escape  the 
judgment  of  God  ? ” “ /,  that  speak  unto  thee,  am 
he.” 

Note,  that  whether  the  relative  be  subject,  attrib- 
utive, or  object,  in  its  own  sentence,  it  is  always 


I 28  GRAMMAR. 

— 


placed  at  the  very  commencement  of  it,  because  it 
has  so  few  inflexions,  that  otherwise  its  connection 
with  the  subject  (or  antecedent)  it  refers  to  might 
be  obscure. 

These  sentences  frequently  stand  as  attributives 
to  other  sentences,  which  are  related  to  them  as 
subjects.  Ex.  “ They  shall  obey,  unless  they  seek 
for  hatred  at  my  hands,  which  if  they  do , they  shall 
feel  the  vengeance  of  my  wrath  ; ” “ he  was  unsat- 
isfied in  getting,  which  was  a sin;  ” “ as  he  spoke,  a 
braying  ass  did  sing  most  loud  and  clear,  whereat 
his  horse  did  start.” 

65.  Objective  accessory  sentences  are  those 
which  serve  instead  of  objects  of  cause,  purpose, 
means,  manner  (including  degree  or  intensity),  time, 
and  place  ; and  those  expressing  a condition  or  con- 
cession, which  are  distinguished  by  the  employment 
of  the  probable  or  improbable  forms  of  the  subjunc- 
tive mood,  according  to  the  amount  of  contingency 
affecting  the  condition  or  concession,  and  generally 
after  certain  conjunctions.  Tlie  indicative  mood  is, 
however,  now  tery  commonly  used  instead  ; always, 
indeed,  where  no  contingency  or  uncertainty  is  to  be 
expressed.  Ex.  “ Because  we  come  to  do  you  service , 
you  think  we  are  ruffians  ; ” “ since  neither  love,  nor 
sense  of  pain , nor  force  of  reason  can  persuade,  then 
let  example  be  obeyed  ; ” “ be  ye  steadfast,  immov- 
able, . . . forasmuch  as  ye  know  that  your  labor  is  not  in 
vain  in  the  Lord;”  “ he  makes  it  his  care  both  to 
write  and  to  speak  plainly,  so  that  he  may  be  under- 
stood ;”  “treat  it  kindly,  that  it  may  wish,  at  least, 
unth  us  to  stay  ; ” “ judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged;  ” 
“ as  will  appear  by  what  follows;  ” “ from  what 
has  been  said,  you  may  perceive  the  hopelessness  of 
your  undertaking  ; ” “ be  taught  by  what  I am  suffer- 
ing; ” “ who,  he  knew,  would  be  willing  ; ’ “ thou 
hast  used  my  purse,  as  if  the  strings  were  thine y ” 
“ it  is  as  sure  as  you  are  Roderigo;  ” “ throw  such 
changes  of  vexation  on’t,  as  it  may  lose  some  color;  ” 
“ the  longer  L am  acquainted  with  him,  the  more  I like 
him  ; ” “ so  great  was  the  cold,  that  the  deepest  rivers 
were  frozen ;”  “ he  is  as  merry  as  the  day  is  long;” 
“I'll  see,  before  I doubt;”  “kings  may  take  their 
advantage,  when  and  how  they  list ; ” “ use  physic,  or 
ever  thou  be  sick;  ” “ while  I was  protector,  pity  was 
all  the  fault  that  was  in  me  ; ” “ he  is  the  most  im- 
proved mind,  since  you  saw  him,  that  ever  was  ; ” 

“ where  your  treasure  is,  there  will  your  heart  be 
also  : ” “ I will  follow  thee  whithersoever  thou  goest  ; ” 

4,. 


“ I have  shown  whence  the  understanding  may  get  all 
the  ideas  it  has;  ” “ the  noise  pursues  me,  whereso- 
e'er I go;”  “ despise  me,  if  I do  not;”  “ were  I the 
Moor,  I would  not  be  Iago  ; ” “ you  will  not  serve 
God,  if  the  devil  bid  you  ! ” “ think  we,  or  think  we 
not,  time  hurries  on  ; ” “ thou  dost  conspire  against 
thy  friend,  if  thou  but  thinkst  him  wronged,  and  makest 
his  ear  a stranger  to  thy  thoughts;  ” “ though  thou  de- 
tain me,  I will  not  eat ; ” “ wert  thou  an  oracle  to  tell 
me  so,  I'd  not  believe  it  ; ” “ had  fate  so  pleased,  I 
had  been  eldest  born;”  “I  had  been  happy,  so  I 
had  nothing  known  ; ” “ unless  I look  on  Sylvia  in  tics 
day,  there  is  no  day  for  me  to  look  upon  ; ” “ though 
he  was  rich,  yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor  ; ” 

“ many  things  are  believed,  although  they  be  intricate , 
obscure,  and  dark.” 

66.  Contracted  and  compound  sentences. — 

Two  or  more  sentences  having  the  same  subjects,  or 
the-same  predicates  or  objects,  and  two  or  more  sub- 
jects having  the  same  attributives,  or  viceversd,  are  fre- 
quently contracted  into  one  compound  sentence,  or 
phrase,  by  the  use  of  conjunctions.  Examples  of  sev- 
eral kinds  may  be  found  in  the  former  parts  of  this 
Compendium  ; others  are  such  as  these  : Ex.  “ With 
fairest  flowers,  whilst  summer  lasts,  and  I live  here, 
Fidele,  I’ll  sweeten  thy  sad  grave  ; ” “ his  honesty 
got  him  small  gains,  but  shameless  flattery,  and  filthy 
beverage,  and  unseemly  thrift,  and  borrow  base,  and 
some  good  lady’s  gift ; ” “ it  shall  ever  be  my  study 
to  make  discoveries  of  this  nature  in  human  life, 
and  to  settle  the  proper  distinctions  between  the  vir- 
tues and  perfections  of  mankind,  and  those  false 
colors  and  resemblances  of  them,  that  shine  alike  in 
the  eyes  of  the  vulgar.” 

In  contracted  sentences,  where  a comparison  is 
expressed,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  ambiguity. 

Ex.  “ He  would  make  a better  soldier  than  scholar’ 
expresses  the  greater  aptitude  of  the  person  spoken 
of  for  the  arts  of  war,  than  for  the  pursuit  of  learn- 
ing. “ He  would  make  a better  soldier  than  a scholar ,” 
expresses  that  the  person  spoken  of  displays  greater 
aptitude  for  war"  than  a student  would.  “ He  likes 
them  better  than  I,”  signifies  that  his  liking  for  the 
persons  spoken  of  is  greater  than  my  liking  for 
them  ; whilst  “ he  likes  them  better  than  me  ” signi- 
fies that  his  liking  for  them  is  greater  than  his  liking 
for  me. 

Similarly,  wherever  two  or  more  subjects  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  attributive  adjectives  only,  unless 

tf 


GRAMMAR. 


29 


in  cases  where  no  ambiguity  can  arise,  they  should 
be  distinguished  by  the  repetition  of  the  demonstra- 
tive. Ex.  “ The  red  and  blue  vestments  were  most 
admired,”  should  be,  “ the  red  and  the  blue  vest- 
ments,’ if  two  kinds  are  intended.  But  we  may  say, 
“ the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal , because  the  at- 
tributives are  incompatible  in  their  signification. 

67.  Construction  is  the  arrangement  of  words  in 
sentences,  and  of  sentences  in  relation  to  each  other, 
so  as  to  indicate  the  subordination  of  the  several 
parts,  and  their  connection  and  union;  and  the  uni- 
versal rule  is  to  place  the  subordinate  words,  or 
phrases,  before  the  principal  ones.  Yet  for  the  sake 
of  imparting  special  significance  to  some  words  or 
sentences,  the  form  of  this  rule  is  often  violated,  and 
particularly  in  poetry.  Thu  is  called  inverted  con- 
struction, to  distinguish  it  from  the  ordinary  arrange- 
ment, which  is  designated  direct. 

Ex.  Direct.  “ The  orator  had  the  honor  of  ha- 
ranguing Pope  Clement  the  Sixth,  and  the  satisfac- 
tion of  conversing  with  Petrarch,  a congenial  mind  ; 
but  his  aspiring  hopes  were  chilled  by  disgrace  and 
poverty  ; and  the  patriot  was  reduced  to  a single 
garment,  and  the  charity  of  an  hospital  ! ” “ The 

apartments,  porticoes,  and  the  courts  of  the  Lateran 
were  spread  with  innumerable  tables  for  either  sex, 
and  every  condition  ; a stream  of  wine  flowed  from 
the  nostrils  of  Constantine’s  brazen  horse  ; no  com- 
plaint, except  the  scarcity  of  water,  could  be  heard  ; 
and  the  licentiousness  of  the  multitude  was  curbed 
by  discipline  and  fear.” 

Inverted.  “ At  last,  after  much  fatigue,  through 
dull  roads,  and  bad  weather,  we  came,  with  no  small 
difficulty,  to  our  journey’s  end.”  “ Unto  the  French, 
the  dreadful  judgment-day  so  dreadful  will  not  be, 
as  was  his  sight.”  “ So  shaken  as  we  are,  so  wan 
with  care,  find  we  a time  for  frighted  peace  to  pant.” 
“ Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians  ! ” “ Fallen,  fallen 
is  Babylon,  that  great  city  ! ” “Silver  and  gold  have 
I none:  but  such  as  I have,  give  I unto  thee.”  “ Go 
I must,  whatever  may  ensue.”  “Up  rose  the  sun, 
and  up  rose  Emily.” 

68.  Accentuation. — In  order  to  show  the  subor- 
dination of  the  less  important  phrases  in  sentences,  to 
the  principal  ones  in  each  of  the  several  combina- 
tions treated  of  above,  and  to  give  prominence  to 
the  most  important  elements  in  words,  a particular 
stress  of  voice  (called  accent)  is  customarily  laid 
upon  the  radical  part  of  all  inflected  words,  and 


upon  the  principal  words  or  phrases  in  each  of  those 
combinations.  Ex.  Golden,  disgraceful,  gratitude, 
kingdom,  truthfulness,  wakeful  ; they  read  ; the  men 
were  astonished,  my  suspicions  were  correct ; the  se 
crets  of  the  grave  this  viperous  slander  enters ; the 
mighty  dead  ; all  his  golden  words  are  spent ; king 
David ; here  is  one  Lucianus,  nephew  to  the  king ; 
the  kingdom  of  England  ; the  world  hateth  you  ; I 
joy  to  meet  thee  ; give  the  book  to  me;  I crave  your 
pardon. 

69.  Emphasis  is  distinguished  from  accent  by 
this  ; the  latter  serves  to  indicate  the  connection  of 
the  words,  &c.,  and  to  give  unity  to  the  meanings  of 
the  several  parts  which  enter  into  the  different  com- 
binations that  make  up  sentences,  &c.  ; whilst  em- 
phasis shows  some  special  meaning  which  the  speaker 
desires  to  give  to  his  words,  and  which  they  would 
not  ordinarily  bear.  Ex.  “ They  read,  we  write  ; 
the  men  were  astonished,  and  the  woman  fled  ; my 
suspicions  were  correct,  but  my  knowledge  was  no 
more  than  yours;  the  kingdom  of  England,  not  that 
of  Scotland  ; no,  sir,  I do  not  bite  my  thumb  at 
you,  sir  ; but  I bite  my  thumb,  sir  ; be  not  afraid, 
she  shall  not  harm  thee  ; I'  scorn  you  not,  it  seems 
that  you  scorn  me.” 

70.  Punctuation. — The  pauses  which,  in  speak- 
ing, are  used  to  impart  greater  accuracy  and  clear- 
ness to  our  expressions,  in  writing  are  represented 
by  characters  called  stops ; and  the  notes  of  interro- 
gation and  admiration,  the  parenthesis  and  the  dash, 
as  well  as  the  breaking  up  of  composition  into  para- 
graphs, are  employed  for  similar  purposes.  In  poe- 
try they  are  more  used  than  in  prose  ; and  the  fewest 
number  possible  should  always  be  employed. 

The  full  point,  or  period,  indicates  the  termina- 
tion of  a passage  which  is  complete  both  in  meaning 
and  in  syntax.  The  colon  marks  the  end  of  a gram- 
matical combination,  but  shows  that  what  follows  is 
required  to  complete  the  meaning.  The  semicolon 
shows  that,  both  in  meaning  and  in  syntax,  the  ex- 
pression it  follows  is  incomplete.  And  the  comma 
is  used  to  distinguish,  rather  than  to  divide,  the  parts 
of  grammatical  combinations,  so  that  the  connection 
between  them,  and  their  signification  when  combined, 
may  be  more  clear.  But  where  the  passages  are  not 
very  long,  and  no  mistake  would  arise,  the  comma  is 
used  for  the  semicolon,  and  even  for  the  colon;  and 
the  semicolon  is  employed  instead  of  the  colon. 
The  period  is  frequently  employed,  also,  where  we 


3° 


GRAMMAR. 


should  expect  only  the  colon.  Ex.  “ The  Roman 
senators  conspired  against  Julius  Caesar  to  kill  him  : 
that  very  next  morning  Artemidorus,  Caesar’s  friend, 
delivered  him  a paper  (desiring  him  to  peruse  it) 
wherein  the  whole  plot  was  discovered  : but  Caesar 
complimented  his  life  away,  being  so  taken  up  to 
return  the  salutations  of  such  people  as  met  him  in 
the  way,  that  he  pocketed  the  paper,  among  other 
petitions,  as  unconcerned  therein  ; and  so,  going  to 
the  Senate-house,  he  was  slain.” 

“ The  noble  Brutus 
Hath  told  you,  Caesar  was  ambitious  : 

If  it  were  so,  it  was  a grievous  fault ; 

And  grievously  has  Caesar  answered  it.” 

71.  Parentheses  indicate  either  an  explanatory  re- 
mark, or  a thought  related  to  what  has  been  said, 
which  is  noted  but  not  pursued  ; and  instead  of  the 
common  sign,  two  commas,  or  two  semicolons,  or 
two  dashes,  are  often  employed.  Ex.  “Traveling 
on  the  plain  (which  notwithstanding  hath  its  risings 
and  fallings),  I discovered  Salisbury  steeple  many 
miles  off.”  “I  find  two  (husband  and  wife),  both 
stealing,  and  but  one  of  them  guilty  of  felony.” 
“Spill  not  the  morning  (the  quintessence  of  the 
day  !)  in  recreation.”  “ Raleigh  had  (besides  his 
own  merits)  two  good  friends.” 

In  general  the  dash  is  used  to  show  that  a pause 
should  be  made,  because  the  sense  is  broken  off 
abruptly ; or  whilst  the  sense  is  not  interrupted, 
something  unexpected  follows  ; or  to  call  for  greater 
attention  to  what  is  about  to  be  said.  Ex. 

To  die, — to  sleep, — 

No  more  ; — and,  by  a sleep,  to  say  we  end 
The  heart-ache,  and  the  thousand  natural  shocks 
That  flesh  is  heir  to, — ’tis  a consummation 
Devoutly  to  be  wished.” 

“ O thou  invisible  spirit  of  wine,  if  thou  hast  no  name  to  be 
known  by,  let  us  call  thee — devil ! ” 

“ ‘ Thou  art  a villain.’ 

‘ You  are — a senator.’  ” 

“ Some  people,  handsome  by  nature,  have  willfully 
deformed  themselves  ; — such  as  wear  Bacchus’  col- 
ors in  their  faces,  arising  not  from  having — but  be- 
ing— bad  livers." 

“ Romeo,  the  hate  I bear  thee  can  afford 

No  better  term  than  this — Thou  art  a villain.” 

Other  artifices  are  employed,  such  as  italics  and 
small  capitals,  in  typography  to  represent  some 
of  the  effects  of  the  tones  and  inflexions  of  the  voice. 


UHETOPI 


_ , • - * m 


72.  Some  modes  of  expression,  called  tropical,  or 
figurative,  which  are  strictly  amongst  the  matters  re- 
specting which  rhetoric  is  conversant,  should  be 
noticed  here  ; as  they  serve  to  account  for  some  of 
the  forms  which  have  been  noticed  above. 

Personification,  or  prosopopoeia,  is  the  treating 
of  things  and  subjects  without  life,  even  abstrac- 
tions, as  though  they  were  living  persons.  Ex. 
“ Confusion  heard  his  voice.”  “ I have  no  spur  to 
prick  the  sides  of  my  intent , but  only  vaulting  ambi- 
tion,  which  o’erleaps  itself.”  “ Doth  not  wisdom  cry, 
and  understanding  put  forth  her  voice  ? ” “ Make 

te?nperance  thy  companion,  so  shall  health  sit  on  thy 
brow.” 

Ellipsis,  or  omission,  is  the  suppression  of  some 
word,  which  from  the  nature  of  what  is  spoken  of, 
or  from  the  context,  can  be  readily  supplied.  Ex. 
“ All  in  vain  [is]  my  frantic  calling,  all  in  vain  [are] 
my  falling  tears  ! ” “ [There  is]  no  way  to  fly,  nor 

strength  to  hold  out  flight  ! ” “ The  knight  came  to 
the  tailor’s  [shop].”  “ Are  you  going  to  the  House 
[of  Parliament]  ? ” 

Pleonasm,  or  redundancy,  is  the  introduction  of 
some  words  not  actually  required,  but  often  exceed- 
ingly effective,  as  a means  of  giving  peculiar  empha- 
sis, or  expressing  a particular  feeling.  Ex.  “ The 
skipping  king,  he  ambled  up  and  down.”  “They 
returned  back  again  to  the  same  city  from  whence 
they  came  forth."  “ The  dawn  is  overcast,  the  morn- 
ing lowers , and  heavily  with  clouds  brings  on  the  day." 

Zeugma,  or  syllepsis,  is  the  suppression  of  a 
verb  or  a noun,  in  positions  in  which  it  will  readily 
be  suggested  by  another  verb  or  noun,  which  is  ex- 
pressed ; and  with  which  the  object,  or  attributive 
belonging  to  the  suppressed  words,  appears  to  be 
connected.  Ex.  “ And  his  mouth  was  opened  im- 
mediately, and  his  tongue  [loosed]  ; ” “ forbidding 
to  marry,  and  [commanding]  to  abstain  from 
meats  ; ” “ my  paternal  house  is  desolate,  and  he 
himself  [my  father]  destitute  and  in  exile.” 

These  examples  illustrate  the  working  of  the 
zeugma,  or  syllepsis. 


GRAMMAR. 


31 


73.  Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of  metrical  compo- 
sitions, regarding  accent,  quantity,  rhythm,  rhyme, 
alliteration,  &c.,  &c. 

Accent  is  the  stress  laid  upon  one  or  more  sylla- 
bles of  a word.  Monosyllables  are  capable  of  ac- 
cents only  when  they  are  uttered  with  other  words. 
Ex.  Father,  Industry,  nightingale,  himself,  dissever, 
exquisitely,  whatsoever,  voluptuous  ; — “ there  is  that 
in  his  face  which  leads  one  to  trust  him.” 

Quantity  is  the  time  required  to  pronounce 
a syllable,  and  is  either  long,  marked  (-),  or  short, 
marked  (~).  Seeing,  upright,  personable,  tutelary, 
peerage,  translation,  not,  note,  at,  ate,  ten,  tEnd,  full, 
cull. 

Rhythm  is  the  harmonious  arrangement  of  words 
in  lines  of  various  definite  lengths  ; and  is  one  of 
the  chief  elements  of  metre.  Ex. 

‘ The  poetry  of  earth  is  never  dead.” 

“ The  willow  le'aves  that  danced  in  the  breeze." 

“ Full  many  a glorious  morning  have  I seen 
Flatter  the  mountain-tops  with  sovereign  eye.” 

“See  the  day  begins  to  break.” 

“Lessons  sweet  of  spring  returning.” 

“ At  the  close  of  the  day,  when  the  hamlet  is  still.” 

74.  Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  final 
sound  in  a metrical  line,  with  those  of  one  or  more 
other  lines  preceding  or  following,  immediately  or 
alternately.  It  is  distinguished  into  assonance  and 
consonance  ; the  former  being  the  correspondence 
of  the  vowel  sounds  alone,  the  latter  of  both  vowels 
and  consonants.  Ex. 

“ The  baron  he  stroakt  his  dark-brown  clwke, 

And  turned  his  heade  asyde; 

To  whipe  away  the  starting  teare 
He  proudly  strave  to  hyde.” 

“ Have  owre,  have  owre  to  Aberd our. 

It’s  fiftie  fadom  drip, 

And  thair  lies  guid  Sir  Patrick  Spence, 

Wi’  the  Scots  lords  at  his  f«‘t.” 

“ My  cloake  it  was  a very  good  doake, 

It  hath  been  alwayes  true  to  the  weare 
But  now  it  is  not  worth  a groat ; 

I have  had  it  four-and-twenty  yeere.” 


Single  and  double  rhymes  are  also  to  be  distin- 
guished. Ex. 

“ The  Abbot  had  preached  for  many  years. 

With  clear  articu lation. 

As  ever  was  heard  in  the  House  of  Peers 
Against  Emancipation. 

His  words  had  made  battalions  quake , 

Plad  roused  the  zeal  of  martyrs; 

Had  kept  the  Court  an  hour  awake. 

And  the  king  himself  three-quarters.” 

Alliteration  is  the  commencement  of  two  or 
more  words,  in  the  same  or  adjoining  lines,  with  the 
same  or  closely  allied  sounds.  Ex. 

“ The  parted  bosom  rlings  to  wonted  /;ome, 

If  aught  that’s  kindred  cheer  the  welcome  dearth  ; 

He  that  is  /onely,  either  let  him  roam, 

And  gaze  rcwplacent  on  rcwgenial  earth, 

Greece  is  no  lightsome  /and  of  social  mirth  : 

But  he  whom  .Sadness  rootheth  may  abide, 

And  scarce  regret  the  region  of  his  birth, 

T17ien  wandering  slow  by  Delphi’s  sacred  ride, 

Or  gazing  o’er  the  /lains,  where  (7reek  and  /’ersian  died,” 

75.  Specimens  of  the  principal  English  me- 
ters.— In  order  to  distinguish  the  different  kinds  of 
metre,  certain  names  are  borrowed  from  the  prosody 
of  Latin  and  Greek.  Thus,  an  accented  syllable 
preceded  by  one  unaccented  is  regarded  as  equiva- 
lent to  a long  syllable  following  a short  one,  and  is 
called  an  Iambic.  Ex.  “ Awdy,  or  away  ; rejoice, 
or  rdjolce.”  An  accented  or  long  syllable  before  an 
accented  or  short  one,  is  called  a Trochee.  Ex. 
“Wretched,  or  wretched;  rising,  or  rising.”  An 
accented  syllable  followed  by  two  unaccented  is 
called  a Dactyl.  Ex.  “ I ndustry,  or  Industry  ; Ex- 
quisite, or  exquisite.”  An  accented  syllable  follow- 
ing two  unaccented  is  called  an  Anapest.  Ex. 
“ Lochinvar’  or  Lochlnvar  ; cavalier,  or  cSvMier.” 
The  most  common  metres  are  varieties  of  the 
Iambic,  the  Trochaic,  and  the  Anapestic  ; the  dif- 
ferences consisting  in  the  number  of  Iambics,  &c., 
in  each  line.  Further  differences  arise  out  of  the 
various  kinds  of  lines,  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  grouped  so  as  to  form  the  stanzas.  Our 
examples  principally  illustrate  the  composition  of 
single  lines. 

i.  Iambic  meter.  Four  syllables . 

“With  rdvisht  ears, 

The  monarch  h^ars  ; 

Assumes  the  g6d, 

AfTdcts  the  n6d.” 


i 32 


GRAMMAR. 


Six  syllables. 

“ What  though  light  Phae'bus’  bedms 
Refresh  the  southern  grdund. 

And  thdugh  the  princely  thrdnes 
With  beauteous  ny'mphs  abound.” 

Eight  syllables. 

“ And  mdy  at  last  my  wdary  age 
Find  out  the  peiceful  hdrmitige, 

The  hdiry  gown  and  missy  rill.” 

Ten  syllables.  (Heroic.) 

“ Such  swdet  compulsion  ddth  in  music  lie, 

To  lull  the  ddughter  of  necessity, 

And  keep  unsteady  nature  td  her  1 a w , 

And  the  slow  world  in  measured  motion  drdw.” 

Twelve  syllables.  (Alexandrine.) 

" A constant  mdiden  still  she  inly  did  remdin, 

The  list  her  genuine  ldws  which  stoutly  did  retdin.” 

Fourteen  syllables. 

As  whin  abotit  the  silver  mdon,  when  air  is  frde  from  wind, 

Ar.d  stirs  shine  cldar : to  whdse  sweet  bdams,  high  prdspects,  dnd  the 
brdws 

Of  dll  steep  hills  and  pinnacles,  thrust  lip  themsdlves  for  shdws.” 

The  most  frequent  combinations  of  Iambic  meters 
are  those  exemplified  in  the  following  stanzas : 

i.  Short. 

“ Thou  kndw’st  that  twice  a ddy 
I’ve  brought  thee,  in  this  cdn, 

Fresh  wdter  from  the  running  brodk, 

As  cledr  as  dver  rdn.” 

2.  Common. 

“ Of  d’  the  dirts  the  wind  can  bldw, 

I ddarly  like  the  wdst  ; 

For  thdre  the  bdnnie  ldssie  lives, 

The  ldssie  V lo’e  best.” 

3-  Long. 

“ O thou  by  whdse  expressive  drt 
Her  perfect  image  ndture  sees, 

In  union  with  the  Grdces  stdrt. 

And  sweeter  by'  reflection  pledse.” 

2.  Trochaic  meter.  Three  syllables. 

“ Here  we  mdy 
Think  and  prdy 
Before  dedth 
Stdps  our  bredth.” 

Four  syllables. 

“ Rich  the  tredsure, 

Swdet  the  pledsure.” 

Five  and  six  syllables. 

“ Fill  the  bumper  fdir, 

E'very  drop  we  sprinkle 
O'n  the  brdw  of  cdre, 

Smoothes  awdy  a wrinkle.” 

Seven  syllables. 

Ldve  is  hurt  with  jdr  and  fret, 

Ldve  is  mdde  a vdin  regret. 

Eyes  with  idle  tedrs  are  wdt. 

I'dle  hdbit  links  us  yet.” 


Eight  syllables. 

“ Bind  the  sda  to  slumber  stilly. 

Bind  its  ddor  t6  the  lily, 

Bind  the  dspen  ne’er  to  quiver, 

Thdn  bind  Love  to  ldst  for  ever.” 

The  most  common  use  of  this  meter  is  in  qua 
trains  (or  stanzas  of  four  lines)  of  seven  syllables. 

There  is  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  meters  and 
of  stanzas,  produced  by  the  intermixture  of  Iambics 
and  Trochees,  and  of  Iambic  with  Trochaic  metres. 

3.  Dactylic  meter. — The  following  specimen 
will  suffice  for  the  illustration  of  the  varieties  of 
this  meter. 

“ Hdd  I a cdve  on  some  wild  distant  shdre, 

Whdre  the  winds  hdwl  to  the  wdves’  dashing  rodr; 

Thdre  would  I wedp  my  woes, 

There  seek  my  Idst  repose, 

Till  grief  my  eyes  should  close, 

Ne’dr  to  wake  more.” 

4.  Anapestic  meter. — The  effect  of  this  meter 
can  be  learned  from  this  illustration : 

“ I have  ldst  for  that  faith  more  than  th  ou  canst  bestdw, 

As  the  Gdd  who  permits  thee  to  prosper  doth  kndw 
In  his  hdnd  is  my  hedrt  and  my  hope  ; and  in  thine. 

The  ldnd  and  the  life  which  for  him  I resign.” 

Of  the  imitations  of  classical  meters  little  needs  to 
be  said,  except  that  they  are  not  adapted  to  the 
genius  of  our  language.  Many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  render  them  acceptable,  some  with  consid- 
erable success  ; but  the  great  number  of  our  mono- 
syllables will  always  prevent  them  from  coming  into 
general  use  or  favor. 

76.  Beside  the  kinds  of  stanza  given  already, 
which  are  principally  used  in  Divine  service,  somo 
other  kinds  may  be  exemplified  here. 

1.  Elegiac. 

“ Here  rdsts  his  hdad  updn  the  lap  of  edrth, 

A youth  to  fortune  dnd  to  fdme  unkndwn , 

Fair  science  smiled  not  6n  his  humble  birth, 

And  mdlanclidly  mdrk’d  him  fbr  her  dwn.” 

2.  Ottava  rima. 

“ ’Tis  swedt  to  hedr  the  wdtchdog’s  hdnest  bdrk 

Bay  deep-mouth’d  wdlcome  is  wedrdw  near  hdme  , 

’Tis  swedt  to  kndw  there  is  an  dye  will  mirk 
Our  cdming,  dnd  look  brighter  whdn  we  cdme ; 

’Tis  swdet  to  bd  awdkened  by'  the  ldrk, 

Or  lull’d  by  filling  wdters  ; swdet  the  hum 
Of  bdes,  the  voice  of  girls,  the  sdng  of  birds, 

The  lisp  of  children  dnd  their  edrliest  wdrds.” 

3.  Spenserian. 

“ The  Niobd  of  ndtions ; thdre  she  stdnds, 

Childldss  and  crdwnless,  in  her  voiceless  wde  t 
An  dmpty  urn  within  her  wither’d  hinds. 

Whose  hdly  diist  was  scdtter’d  ldng  agd  ; 

Her  Scipio’s  tdmb  contains  no  dshes  ndw ; 

Her  vdry  sdpulchrds  lie  tdnantldss 
Of  thdir  herdic  dwdllers  : ddst  thou  fldw, 

Old  Tiber,  thrdugh  a mdrble  wildemdss  ? 

Rise,  with  thy  ydllow  wdves,  and  mdntle  hdr  distrdss!v 

i 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


33 


c cs 


Synonyme  is  a term  applied  to  different  words,  whose  meaning  is  so 

nearly  the  same,  that  the  one  may  be  substituted  for  the  other,  without 

altering  the  sense  of  the  sentence,  in  order  to  avoid  the  inelegant  repe- 
tition of  the  same  word  : 

ANDON,  leave,  forsake,  desert,  renounce,  relinquish, 
quit,  forego,  let  go,  waive. 

Abandoned,  wicked,  reprobate,  dissolute,  profligate, 
flagitious,  corrupt,  depraved,  vicious. 
Abandonment,  leaving,  desertion,  dereliction,  renun- 
ciation, defection. 

Abasement,  degradation,  fall,  degeneracy,  humilia- 
tion, abjection,  debasement,  servility. 

Abash,  bewilder,  disconcert,  discompose,  confound, 
confuse,  shame. 

Abbreviate,  shorten,  abridge,  condense,  contract,  curtail, 
reduce. 

Abdicate,  give  up,  resign,  renounce,  abandon,  forsake,  relinquish,  quit, 
forego. 

Abet,  help,  encourage,  instigate,  incite,  stimulate,  aid,  assist. 

Abettor,  assistant,  accessory,  accomplice,  promoter,  instigator,  parti- 
ceps  criminis , coadjutor,  associate,  companion,  cooperator. 

Abhor,  dislike  intensely,  view  with  horror,  hate,  detest,  abominate, 
loathe,  nauseate. 

Ability,  capability,  talent,  faculty, capacity,  qualification,  aptitude,  apt- 
ness, expertness,  skill,  efficiency,  accomplishment,  attainment. 

Abject,  grovelling,  low,  mean,  base,  ignoble,  worthless,  despicable, 
vile,  servile,  contemptible. 

Abjure,  recant,  forswear,  disclaim,  recall,  revoke,  retract,  renounce. 

Able,  strong,  powerful,  muscular,  stalwart,  vigorous,  athletic,  robust, 
brawny,  skillful,  adroit,  competent,  efficient,  capable,  clever,  self- 
qualified,  telling,  fitted. 

Abode,  residence,  habitation,  dwelling,  domicile,  home,  quarters, 
lodging. 

Abolish,  quash,  destroy,  revoke,  abrogate,  annul,  cancel,  annihilate, 
extinguish,  vitiate,  invalidate,  nullify. 

Abominable,  hateful,  detestable,  odious,  vile,  execrable. 

Abortive,  fruitless,  ineffectual,  idle,  inoperative,  vain,  futile. 

About,  conccmi  ig,  regarding,  relative  to,  with  regard  to,  as  to,  respect- 
ing, with  respect  to,  referring  to,  around,  nearly,  approximately. 

Abscond,  run  off,  steal  away,  decamp,  bolt. 

Absent,  a.,  inattentive,  abstracted,  not  attending  to,  listless,  dreamy. 

Absolute,  entire,  complete,  unconditional,  unqualified,  unrestricted, 
despotic,  arbitrary,  tyrannous,  imperative,  authoritative,  imperious. 

Absolve,  set  free,  loose,  clear,  acquit,  liberate,  release,  forgive. 

Absorb,  engross,  swallow  up,  engulf,  imbibe,  consume,  merge,  fuse. 

Absurd,  silly,  foolish,  preposterous,  ridiculous,  irrational,  unreasona- 
ble, nonsensical,  inconsistent. 

Abuse,  v.,  asperse,  revile,  vilify,  reproach,  calumniate,  defame,  slander, 
scandalize,  malign,  traduce,  disparage,  depreciate,  ill-use. 

Abuse,  «.,  scurrility,  ribaldry,  contumely,  obloquy,  opprobrium,  foul 
invective,  vituperation. 

Accede,  assent  to,  consent,  acquiesce,  comply  with,  agree,  coincide, 
concur,  approve. 


Accelerate,  hasten,  hurry,  expedite,  forward,  quicken,  despatch. 

Accept,  receive,  take,  admit. 

Acceptable,  agreeable,  pleasing,  pleasurable,  gratifying,  welcome. 

Accident,  casualty,  incident,  contingency,  adventure,  chance. 

Acclamation,  applause,  plaudit,  exultation,  joy,  shouting,  cheering, 
triumph,  jubilation. 

Accommodate,  adapt,  adjust,  fit,  suit,  serve,  supply,  furnish. 

Accomplice,  confederate,  accessory,  abettor,  coadjutor,  assistant,  ally, 
associate,  particeps  criminis. 

Accomplish,  do,  effect,  finish,  execute,  achieve,  complete,  perfect,  con- 
summate. 

Accomplishment,  attainment,  qualification,  acquirement. 

Accord,  grant,  allow,  admit,  concede. 

Accost,  salute,  address,  speak  to,  stop,  greet. 

Account,  v.,  assign,  adduce,  reckon,  compute,  calculate,  estimate. 

Account,  n.,  narrative,  description,  narration,  relation,  detail,  recital 
moneys,  reckoning,  bill,  charge. 

Accountable,  punishable,  answerable,  amenable,  responsible,  liable. 

Accredited,  authorized,  commissioned,  empowered,  intrusted. 

Accumulate,  bring  together,  amass,  collect,  gather. 

Accumulation,  collection,  store,  mass,  congeries,  concentration. 

Accurate,  correct,  exact,  precise,  nice,  truthful. 

Achieve,  do,  accomplish,  effect,  fulfill,  execute,  gain,  win. 

Achievement,  feat,  exploit,  accomplishment,  attainment,  perform, 
ance,  acquirement,  gain. 

Acknowledge,  admit, confess,  own,  avow,  grant,  recognize,  allow,  con- 
cede. 

Acquaint,  inform,  enlighten,  apprise,  make  aware,  make  known,  no- 
tify, communicate. 

Acquaintance,  familiarity,  intimacy,  cognizance,  fellowship,  compan- 
ionship, knowledge. 

Acquiesce,  agree,  accede,  assent,  comply,  consent,  give  way,  coincide 
with. 

Acquit,  pardon,  forgive,  discharge,  set  free,  clear,  absolve. 

Act,  do,  operate,  make,  perform,  play,  enact. 

Action,  deed,  achievement,  feat,  exploit,  accomplishment,  battle,  en- 
gagement, agency,  instrumentality. 

Active,  lively,  sprightly,  alert,  agile,  nimble,  brisk,  quick,  supple, 
prompt,  vigilant,  laborious,  industrious. 

Actual,  real,  positive,  genuine,  certain. 

Acute,  shrewd,  intelligent,  penetrating,  piercing,  keen. 

Adapt,  accommodate,  suit,  fit,  conform. 

Addicted,  devoted,  wedded,  attached,  given  up  to,  dedicated. 

Addition,  increase,  accession,  augmentation,  reinforcement. 

Address,  tact,  skill,  ability,  dexterity,  deportment,  demeanor. 

Adhesion,  adherence,  attachment,  fidelity,  devotion. 

Adjacent,  near  to,  adjoining,  contiguous,  conterminous,  bordering, 
neighboring. 

Adjourn,  defer,  prorogue,  postpone,  delay. 

Adjunct,  appendage,  appurtenance,  appendency,  dependency. 

Adjust,  set  right, fit,  accommodate,  adapt,  arrange,  settle,  regulate,  or- 
ganize. 

, . .mirable,  striking,  surprising,  wonderful,  astonishing. 


34 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE 


Admonition,  warning,  notice,  caution. 

Adopt,  take,  assume,  appropriate,  choose. 

Adorn,  beautify,  decorate,  embellish,  ornament. 

Adroit,  skillful,  clever,  dexterous,  expert. 

Advance,  bring  forward,  adduce,  assign,  allege. 

Advancement,  preferment,  promotion,  progress. 

Advantage,  benefit,  good,  profit,  avail,  utility,  service. 

Advantageous,  beneficial,  profitable,  salutary. 

Adventure,  incident,  occurrence,  casualty,  contingency,  accident, 
event. 

Adventurous,  bold,  enterprising,  daring,  chivalrous,  rash,  precipitate, 
foolhardy. 

Adversary,  opponent,  antagonist,  enemy,  foe. 

Adverse,  opposed  to,  contrary,  opposite,  counteractive,  hostile,  re- 
pugnant. 

Adversity,  misfortune,  affliction,  calamity,  disaster. 

Advertise,  publish,  announce,  proclaim,  promulgate. 

Advice,  warning,  counsel,  instruction,  information,  deliberation,  con- 
sultation, reflection,  consideration. 

Advise,  acquaint,  inform,  communicate,  notify,  tell. 

Advocate,  counsel,  defender,  upholder. 

Affability,  courteousness,  courtesy,  urbanity,  politeness. 

Affect,  influence,  act  upon,  interfere  with,  feign,  pretend,  assume. 
Affecting,  touching,  pathetic,  melting,  moving. 

Affection,  fondness,  attachment,  kindness,  love,  tenderness,  endear- 
ment. 

Affectionate,  loving,  attached  to,  fond,  kind,  tender,  filial. 

Affinity,  relationship,  alliance,  union,  kin,  kindred,  relation. 

Affirm,  swear,  assert,  asseverate,  declare,  aver,  protest. 

Affirmation,  asseveration,  protestation,  declaration. 

Affix,  attach,  annex,  subjoin,  connect,  adjoin. 

Afflict,  grieve,  give  pain,  distress,  trouble,  torment,  agonize. 
Afflicting,  grievous,  unhappy,  painful,  disastrous,  calamitous. 
Affluence,  opulence,  wealth,  riches,  abundance,  luxuriance. 

Afford,  give,  impart,  communicate,  produce,  bestow,  grant,  confer, 
spare. 

Affright,  frighten,  terrify,  appall,  overawe,  dismay,  scare,  daunt,  cow. 
Affront,  injury,  wrong,  insult,  offence,  outrage. 

Afraid,  timid,  fearful,  timorous,  faint-hearted. 

Age,  period,  time,  date,  generation,  era,  epoch,  decade,  century. 
Agency,  instrumentality,  influence,  operation,  management. 
Aggrandize,  exalt,  promote,  prefer,  advance,  elevate. 

Aggravate,  tantalize,  irritate,  inflame,  provoke,  chafe,  nettle,  embitter, 
exasperate,  increase,  enhance,  heighten,  make  worse. 

Aggregate,  «.,  total,  entire,  complete,  the  whole. 

Aggregate,  v.,  heap  up,  amass,  accumulate,  get  together. 

Agitate,  convulse,  disturb,  stir,  move,  shake,  oscillate,  toss,  upheave. 
Agitation,  perturbation,  emotion,  trepidation,  throb,  thrill,  tremor. 
Agonize,  distress,  rack, torture,  writhe,  excruciate,  pain. 

Agony,  anguish,  pang,  throe,  pain,  distress,  suffering,  woe. 

Agree,  consent,  assent,  accede,  acquiesce,  comply,  coincide,  tally. 

Aid,  k.,  assistance,  support,  sustenance,  succor,  relief,  help,  coopera- 
tion. 

Ailing,  unwell,  sickly, diseased;  ill. 

Aim,  z>.,  direct,  point,  level,  endeavor  to  attain. 

Aim,  ».,  endi  purpose,  object,  drift,  scope,  design,  intent,  intention, 
tendency. 

Alarm,  terror,  fright,  affright,  dismay,  consternation,  disquietude. 
Alienate,  estrange,  take  off,  withdraw  from,  transfer,  assign,  convey. 
Allay,  appease,  assuage,  mitigate,  soothe,  alleviate,  solace,  compose, 
calm,  pacify,  tranq-filize,  repress. 

Allege,  affirm,  declare,  maintain,  adduce,  advance,  assign. 

Alleviate,  assuage,  mitigate,  soothe,  solace,  relieve,  abate,  allay,  di- 
minish, extenuate,  soften. 

Alliance,  affinity,  union,  connection,  relation,  confederacy,  combina- 
tion, coalition,  league,  confederation. 

Allot,  assign,  apportion,  appropriate,  appoint,  distribute. 

Allow,  admit,  concede,  yield,  grant,  give,  permit,  tolerate,  suffer, sanc- 
tion, authorize. 

Allude,  hint,  refer,  insinuate,  imply,  glance  at,  intimate,  suggest. 
Allure,  entice,  attract,  decoy,  tempt,  seduce,  abduce. 


Alteration,  change,  variation,  shifting,  transition,  changeableness,  mu 
tability. 

Altercation,  contention,  dispute,  dissension,  variance,  affray,  brawx 
feud,  quarrel. 

Altitude,  height,  elevation,  ascendant. 

Always,  continually,  ever,  perpetually,  constantly,  incessantly,  un 
ceasingly,  forever,  eternally. 

Amass,  accumulate,  collect,  gather,  heap  up,  pile  up,  hoard,  store  up. 

Amazing,  astonishing,  wondrous,  surprising,  marvelous,  stupendous. 

Ameliorate,  improve,  amend,  better. 

Amend,  mend,  better,  improve,  correct,  rectify,  ameliorate. 

Amends,  compensation,  recompense, restoration,  reparation, atonement 

Amicable,  friendly,  social,  sociable. 

Ample,  complete,  full,  wide,  spacious,  capacious,  extensive,  liberal,  'x- 
pansive,  diffusive. 

Amplification,  enlargement,  exegesis,  expansion,  development. 

Amusement,  recreation,  pastime,  entertainment,  diversion,  sport. 

Ancient,  old-fashioned,  old,  antique,  antiquated,  obsolete. 

Anger,  w.,  vex,  exasperate,  enrage,  inflame,  irritate,  kindle,  provok 
imbitter,  incense. 

Anger,  n.,  wrath,  passion,  rage,  fury,  indignation,  ire,  choler,  bile,  ex 
asperation,  irritation,  resentment,  incensement,  pique,  displeasure 

Angry,  passionate,  irascible,  choleric,  touchy,  hasty,  hot,  sullen,  moody 
incensed,  irritated,  enraged,  provoked,  galled,  chafed,  nettled, 
piqued,  exasperated,  wrathful. 

Anguish,  woe,  agony,  pain,  distress,  suffering. 

Animosity,  enmity,  feeling  against,  malignity,  hostility,  antagonism. 

Annex,  add,  attach,  affix,  append,  subjoin,  adjoin. 

Annihilate,  destroy,  annul,  extinguish,  nullify. 

Announce,  make  known,  publish,  advertise,  proclaim,  report,  notify, 
give  out. 

Annoy,  vex,  tease,  chafe,  molest,  incommode,  discommode,  inconveni- 
ence, disaccommodate. 

Annoyance,  trouble,  uneasiness,  discomfort. 

Annul,  revoke,  abolish,  abrogate,  repeal,  cancel,  destroy,  extinguish, 
quash,  nullify. 

Answerable,  responsible,  accountable,  amenable,  suitable. 

Anterior,  preceding,  antecedent,  previous,  prior,  foregoing,  former. 

Anticipate,  forestall,  foretaste,  prejudge. 

Antipathy,  dislike,  aversion,  repugnance,  contrariety,  opposition 
hatred,  antagonism,  hostility,  feeling  against. 

Antithesis,  contrast,  opposition. 

Anxiety,  care,  solicitude,  attention,  intentness,  eagerness. 

Apathetic,  insensible,  impassive,  insensitive,  indifferent. 

Apocryphal,  uncertain,  unauthentic,  legendary. 

Appall,  affright,  dismay,  terrify,  frighten,  scare,  daunt,  cow. 

Apparent,  easily  seen,  visible,  palpable,  clear,  plain,  transparent,  un 
mistakable,  unambiguous,  evident,  manifest,  distinct,  self-evident. 

Appease,  pacify,  quiet,  calm,  compose,  sooth,  tranquilize,  assuage. 

Appellation,  name,  denomination,  cognomen. 

Applaud,  praise,  extol,  commend,  approve. 

Appoint,  assign,  allot,  ordain,  depute,  order,  prescribe,  constitute, 
settle,  determine. 

Apportion,  distribute,  allot,  appropriate. 

Apprehend,  take,  arrest,  seize,  think,  feel,  conceive,  imagine,  fancy, 
anticipate,  fear,  dread,  understand. 

Apprise,  make  known,  acquaint,  notify,  inform,  make  aware,  make 
cognizant,  disclose,  communicate. 

Appropriate,  z>.,  take  to,  adopt,  assume,  arrogate,  usurp,  allot,  assign. 

Approval,  assent,  approbation,  concurrence,  consent. 

Apt,  fit,  meet,  suitable,  pertinent,  prompt,  ready,  quick,  dexterous,  ap- 
propriate. 

Arbitrary,  despotic,  imperious,  domineering,  tyrannous,  tyrannical. 

Arbitrator,  arbiter,  judge,  umpire,  referee. 

Ardent,  eager,  fervid,  hot,  fiery,  glowing,  passionate. 

Arrange,  put  in  order,  place,  assort,  classify,  regulate,  dispose,  adjust 

Arrest,  stop,  apprehend,  withhold,  keep  back,  restrain. 

Arrogance,  assumption,  haughtiness,  pride,  loftiness. 

Art,  skill,  tact,  aptitude,  adroitness,  expertness,  cunning,  subtilty. 

Artifice,  trick,  stratagem,  machination,  deception,  cheat,  imposture 
delusion. 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


35 


Artless,  fair,  honest,  ingenuous,  frank,  candid,  unsophisticated,  open. 

Ascendency,  superiority,  influence,  authority,  sway,  mastery. 

Ask,  request,  entreat,  solicit,  beg,  claim,  demand,  invite,  question. 

Aspect,  light,  view,  appearance,  complexion,  feature,  lineament,  air, 
look,  mien,  countenance. 

Asperity,  acrimony,  acerbity,  harshness,  smartness,  pungency,  poign- 
ancy, tartness,  roughness. 

Asperse,  accuse  falsely,  malign,  slander,  traduce,  defame,  scandalize, 
disparage,  depreciate. 

Assault,  v.,  assail,  attack,  invade,  encounter,  storm. 

Assemble,  congregate,  collect,  gather,  muster,  bring  together. 

Assembly,  assemblage,  collection,  group,  company,  muster,  congrega- 
tion, convention,  congress,  diet,  council,  convocation,  conclave, 
synod,  meeting,  auditory,  audience. 

Assert,  affirm,  declare,  aver,  protest,  maintain,  vindicate,  defend. 

Assign  adduce,  allege,  advance,  bring  forward,  appoint,  allot,  appro- 
priate, apportion. 

Associate,  colleague,  ally,  partner,  coadjutor,  comrade,  companion. 

Association,  company,  society,  confederacy,  union,  partnership,  fellow- 
ship, companionship. 

Assuage,  compose,  calm,  pacify,  allay,  soothe,  conciliate,  appease, 
tranquilize,  mitigate,  alleviate,  palliate,  mollify. 

Assume,  pretend  to,  arrogate,  usurp,  appropriate,  affect. 

Assurance,  confidence,  certainty,  consciousness,  conviction,  effrontery, 
impudence. 

Athletic,  stalwart,  powerful,  brawny,  muscular,  robust,  able-bodied. 

Atrocious,  heinous,  enormous,  flagrant,  villainous,  notorious,  mon- 
strous, inhuman. 

Attach,  affix,  append,  subjoin,  annex,  adjoin,  connect,  stick,  distrain. 

Attachment,  affection,  devotedness,  devotion,  fondness,  love,  endear- 
ment. 

Attain,  gain,  get,  procure,  reach,  arrive  at,  acquire,  win,  obtain. 

Attempt,  effort,  exertion,  endeavor,  essay,  trial,  experiment. 

Attend,  go  with,  accompany,  escort,  wait  on,  listen,  nearken,  heed. 

Attest,  testify,  witness,  prove. 

Attire,  ».,  dress,  apparel,  garments,  clothes,  habiliments. 

Attitude,  posture,  gesture,  gesticulation,  action. 

Attract,  draw  to,  allure,  entice,  charm,  wheedle. 

Attribute,  quality,  property,  grace,  accomplishment,  attainment. 

Audacious,  assuming,  forward,  presumptuous. 

Augment,  increase,  enlarge,  extend,  stretch  out,  spread  out. 

Auspicious,  fortunate,  favorable,  propitious,  prosperous,  lucky, 
happy. 

Austere,  rigid,  severe,  rigorous,  stern,  harsh. 

Authoritative,  commanding,  swaying,  imperative,  imperious. 

Auxiliary,  assistant,  helping,  conducive,  furthering,  instrumental. 

Avail,  advantage,  profit, use,  benefit,  service,  utility. 

Available,  profitable,  advantageous,  useful,  beneficial; 

Avarice,  covetousness,  cupidity,  greediness. 

Averse,  adverse,  hostile,  reluctant,  unwilling,  backward. 

Aversion,  dislike,  antipathy,  hatred,  repugnance,  distaste. 

Avocation,  employment,  calling,  business,  occupation,  office,  engage- 
ment, function,  profession,  trade. 

Award,  adjudge,  adjudicate,  judge,  determine. 

Awkward,  rough,  clumsy,  unpolished,  untoward,  backward. 

Awry,  crooked,  wry,  bent,  curved,  inflected,  oblique. 

BAD,  wicked,  evil,  unsound,  unwholesome,  baneful,  deleterious,  per- 
nicious, noisome,  noxious. 

Baffle,  defeat,  discomfit,  bewilder. 

Balance,  poise,  weigh,  neutralize,  counteract,  equalize. 

Balmy,  fragrant,  sweet-scented,  odoriferous,  odorous,  perfumed. 

Baneful,  hurtful,  destructive,  pernicious,  noxious,  deleterious. 

Barbarous,  savage,  Ijrutal,  cruel,  inhuman,  ruthless,  merciless,  re- 
morseless, unrelenting,  uncivilized.  » 

Bargain,  agreement,  convention,  compact,  stipulation,  covenant,  con- 
tract. 

Base,  bad,  low,  mean,  sordid,  grovelling,  ignoble,  ignominious,  dis- 
honorable, vile,  counterfeit. 

Battle,  combat,  engagement,  action,  conflict,  contest,  fight. 

Bear,  hold  up,  sustain,  support,  endure, carry,  maintain,  convey,  trans- 
port, waft,  suffer,  tolerate,  undergo,  put  up  with. 


Bearing,  manner,  deportment,  demeanor,  behavior,  conduct. 

Beat,  strike,  knock,  hit,  belabor,  thump,  dash,  vanquish,  overpower, 
conquer,  defeat. 

Beau,  sweetheart,  wooer,  lover,  suitor,  fop,  dandy,  coxcomb. 
Beautiful,  elegant,  beauteous,  handsome,  fair,  pretty. 

Beautify,  adorn,  decorate,  embellish,  deck,  ornament. 

Becoming,  befitting,  comely,  decent,  fit,  proper,  suitable. 

Beg,  ask,  entreat,  crave,  solicit,  beseech,  implore,  supplicate. 

Beguile,  amuse,  entertain,  deceive,  mislead,  impose  upon. 

Belief,  faith,  credence,  credit,  trust,  confidence,  reliance  conviction 
persuasion. 

Below,  underneath,  beneath,  under,  lower,  inferior,  subordinate. 
Bend,  lean,  incline,  distort,  stoop,  descend,  condescend. 

Beneficent,  benevolent, bountitul,  bounteous,  munificent,  libera],  gen- 
erous. 

Benefit,  advantage,  good,  profit,  service,  ability,  avail,  use. 
Benevolence,  beneficence,  benignity,  kindness,  generosity. 

Benign,  benignant,  benevolent,  kind,  gracious,  bland,  tender,  good. 
Bent,  n . , inclination,  disposition,  tendency,  bias,  prepossession,  pro- 
pensity, predilection,  proneness. 

Bereave,  deprive,  strip,  dispossess,  disarm,  divest. 

Better,  improve,  amend,  ameliorate,  reform,  rectify. 

Bewail,  wail,  bemoan,  lament,  mourn  over. 

Bewilder,  confound,  perplex,  embarrass,  entangle,  puzzle. 

Bewitch,  entrance,  enchain,  fascinate,  charm,  enchant,  enrapture,  cap 
tivate,  enamor. 

Bias,  bent,  inclination,  predilection,  tendency,  partiality,  prejudice. 
Bid,  offer,  proffer,  tender,  propose,  call,  invite,  summon. 

Bind,  tie,  restrain,  restrict,  connect,  link,  engage,  oblige. 

Binding,  astringent,  costive,  valid,  obligatory,  stringent,  constrain 
ing. 

Bitter,  harsh,  pungent,  poignant,  stinging. 

Black,  dark,  murky,  pitchy,  inky,  Cimmerian. 

Blacken,  defame,  calumniate,  slander,  scandalize,  asperse. 

Blamable,  culpable,  censurable,  reprehensible,  reprovable. 

Blame,  reprove,  reprehend,  censure,  condemn,  reprobate,  reproach. 
Blameless,  inculpable,  guiltless,  sinless,  innocent,  immaculate,  un 
sullied,  unblemished,  spotless. 

Bland,  soft,  gentle,  mild,  kind,  gracious,  benign,  benignant. 

Blast,  blight,  wither,  shrivel,  destroy. 

Blatant,  noisy,  clamorous,  braying,  bellowing,  vociferous. 

Blemish,  v.,  stain,  blur,  sully,  spot,  obscure,  dim,  ruin,  spoil,  mar. 
Blemish,  h.,  flaw,  speck,  spot,  blur,  defect,  imperfection,  fault. 

Bliss,  ecstacy,  felicity,  blessedness,  blissfulness. 

Bloodshed,  carnage,  slaughter,  butchery,  massacre. 

Bloody,  gory,  sanguinary,  ensanguined,  murderous. 

Bloom,  blossom,  bud,  sprout,  germinate,  shoot  forth. 

Blot,  stain,  blur,  speck,  flaw,  blemish,  defect. 

Blot  out,  wipe  out,  erase,  expunge,  delete,  obliterate,  cancel,  efface, 
annihilate. 

Bluff,  blustering,  burly,  swaggering,  hectoring,  bullying. 

Blunt,  pointless,  obtuse,  cdgeless,  unpolite,  rough,  rude. 

Boast,  glory,  triumph,  vaunt,  brag. 

Boisterous,  violent,  furious,  impassioned,  impetuous,  vehement, 
stormy,  turbulent. 

Bold,  fearless,  undaunted,  dauntless,  brave,  daring,  adventurous,  in- 
trepid, audacious,  impudent,  contumacious. 

Bondage,  slavery,  thraldom,  vassalage,  servitude,  serfdom,  captivity- 
imprisonment,  confinement. 

Bound,  limit,  circumscribe,  confine,  restrict,  restrain,  terminate. 
Boundless,  unlimited,  unbounded,  infinite,  interminable. 

Bounty,  munificence,  liberality,  generosity,  benevolence,  beneficence, 
charity,  benignity,  humanity. 

Brand,  stigmatize,  denounce,  mark. 

Brave,  courageous,  gallant,  chivalrous,  daring,  adventurous,  valorous, 
heroic,  valiant,  bold,  dauntless,  intrepid,  magnanimous,  fearless. 
Brawny,  muscular,  athletic,  sinewy,  powerful,  robust,  stalwart,  able- 
bodied,  strong. 

Break,  burst,  rend,  rack,  violate,  infringe,  transgress,  demolish,  d© 
stroy. 

Breed,  hatch,  brood,  incubate,  beget,  engender,  generate,  produce. 
Brevity,  shortness,  conciseness,  succinctness. 


3<5 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


Brief,  short,  concise,  compendious,  succinct,  summary. 

Bright  clear,  lucid,  transparent,  limpid,  lustrous,  translucent,  shining, 
brilliant,  luminous,  radiant,  gleaming. 

Brisk,  active,  agile,  nimble,  lively,  quick,  sprightly,  prompt,  alert,  as- 
siduous, vigorous,  vigilant. 

Broad,  wide,  large,  ample,  expanded,  extensive. 

Brotherly,  fraternal,  affectionate,  kind. 

Bruise,  break,  crush,  squeeze,  pulverize,  levigate,  triturate. 

Brutality,  savageness,  ferocity,  barbarity. 

Brutish,  cruel,  inhuman,  merciless,  ferocious,  remorseless,  ruthless, 
barbarous,  savage,  irrational,  sensual. 

Bud,  sprout,  germinate,  blossom,  bloom,  shoot  forth. 

Build,  erect,  construct,  raise,  found. 

Bulk,  size,  dimension,  magnitude,  greatness,  bulkiness,  bigness,  large- 
ness, massiveness. 

Buoyancy,  lightness,  elasticity,  animation,  spirit,  vivacity. 

Burst,  break,  crack,  split,  rend. 

Bury,  inter,  inhume,  entomb,  immure. 

Bystander,  onlooker,  spectator,  beholder,  observer. 

CAJOLE,  coax,  wheedle,  flatter,  fawn. 

Calamitous,  disastrous,  fatal,  unfortunate,  unlucky,  hapless,  luckless, 
ill-fated,  ill-starred. 

Calculate,  reckon,  guess,  suppose,  compute,  estimate. 

Call  together,  convene,  convoke,  assemble,  muster,  collect,  gather. 

Called,  named,  termed,  designated,  denominated,  ycleped. 

Calling,  n. , employment,  business,  avocation,  vocation,  pursuit, 
engagement,  occupation,  trade,  profession,  office,  duty,  func- 
tion. 

Callous,  hard,  obdurate,  impenitent,  unfeeling,  insensible,  insensitive, 
unsusceptible. 

Calm,  v.,  tranquillize,  allay,  appease,  quiet,  hush,  pacify,  assuage, 
soothe,  compose. 

Calm,  quiet,  undisturbed,  serene,  placid,  composed,  collected,  im- 
perturbable, tranquil,  pacific,  unruffled,  still. 

Calumniate,  vilify,  revile,  accuse  falsely,  asperse,  traduce,  malign, 
slander,  defame,  scandalize,  disparage. 

Calumny,  slander,  false  accusation,  aspersion,  defamation. 

Cancel,  blot  out,  obliterate,  expunge,  efface,  wipe  out,  rub  out,  erase, 
quash,  abolish,  annul,  repeal,  abrogate,  revoke,  destroy,  invalidate, 
nullify. 

Candid,  fair,  sincere,  honest,  open,  artless,  ingenuous,  frank,  plain. 

Canvass,  discuss,  dispute,  contest,  controvert,  sift,  examine,  solicit, 
apply  for. 

Capable,  able,  qualified,  competent,  efficient,  fitted,  susceptible,  clever, 
skillful. 

Capacious,  roomy,  ample,  spacious. 

Capacity,  capability,  skill,  ability,  faculty,  power,  talent,  efficiency. 

Caprice,  freak,  whim,  humor,  crotchet,  fancy. 

Captious,  touchy,  testy,  cross,  petulant,  peevish,  fretful. 

Captivate,  charm,  enchant,  fascinate,  enrapture,  bewitch,  entrance 
enchain,  enamor,  confine,  imprison. 

Captivity,  imprisonment,  confinement,  bondage,  slavery,  thraldom 
servitude,  serfdom. 

Care,  anxiety,  solicitude,  concern,  attention,  regard,  circumspection, 
caution. 

Career,  history,  course,  race,  passage,  life. 

Careful,  attentive,  anxious,  solicitous,  heedful,  provident,  circum- 
spect. 

Careless,  negligent,  heedless,  supine,  inattentive,  incautious,  thought- 
less, remiss,  indolent,  listless. 

Caress,  fondle,  hug,  embrace. 

Carnage,  butchery,  bloodshed,  slaughter,  massacre. 

Carnal,  fleshly,  sensual,  voluptuous,  luxurious,  secular,  worldly. 

Carry,  bear,  sustain,  convey,  transport. 

Casualty,  accident,  contingency,  incident,  occurrence,  event,  adven- 
ture. 

Catch,  overtake  lay  hold  on,  grasp,  seize,  capture,  grip,  clutch,  snatch, 
arrest,  apprehend. 

Catching,  infectious,  contagious,  pestilential,  miasmatic,  insidious. 

Cause,  ».,  motive,  reason,  incentive,  inducement,  incitement,  impulse, 
effort,  work,  operation. 


Cause,  z/.,  occasion,  make,  induce,  originate,  give  rise  to,  evoke,  pro 
voke,  incite. 

Caution,  care,  vigilance,  circumspection,  admonition,  warning,  notice 

Cautious,  careful,  watchful,  prudent,  wary,  vigilant,  circumspect. 

Celebrate,  commend,  applaud,  laud,  extol,  magnify,  glorify. 

Celebrated,  famous,  renowned,  far-famed,  illustrious,  glorious. 

Celerity,  quickness,  .speed,  rapidity,  velocity,  swiftness,  fieetness. 

Celestial,  heavenly,  divine,  godlike,  seraphic,  angelic. 

Censure,  v.,  blame,  reprove,  reprehend,  reprobate,  condemn  upbraid 

Ceremony,  form,  observance,  rite,  solemnity. 

Certain,  sure,  indubitable,  unquestionable,  unfailing,  secure,  real, 
actual,  positive. 

Certify,  testify,  vouch,  declare. 

Cessation,  intermission,  rest,  pause,  discontinuance. 

Champion,  leader,  chieftain,  head. 

Chance,  accident,  fortune,  casualty,  hazard,  luck. 

Change,  v.,  alter,  vary,  transform,  exchange,  barter. 

Change,  «.,  variety,  alteration,  alternation,  vicissitude. 

Changeable,  variable,  unsteady,  undecided,  wavering,  hesitating,  vac- 
illating, fluctuating,  inconstant,  unsteadfast,  unstable,  fickle,  ver- 
satile, restless,  fitful,  capricious. 

Character,  cast,  turn,  tone,  description,  nature,  disposition,  reputa- 
tion. 

Charge,  z/.,  accuse,  impeach,  arraign,  inculpate. 

| Charge,  care,  custody,  ward,  trust,  management,  cost,  price,  ex- 
pense, account,  fee,  bill,  assault,  shock,  onset,  attack,  accusation, 
impeachment,  imputation. 

Charity,  kindness,  benignity,  beneficence,  benevolence,  tenderness. 

Charm,  enchant,  fascinate,  bewitch,  enrapture,  captivate,  enamor. 

Chat,  chatter,  prattle,  prate,  babble,  gossip. 

Cheat,  v.,  defraud,  gull,  dupe,  trick,  beguile,  deceive,  delude,  hood- 
wink. 

Cheat,  n. , deception,  imposture,  fraud,  delusion,  artifice,  deceit,  trick, 
imposition. 

Check,  curb,  restrain,  repress,  control,  counteract,  chide,  reprimand, 
reprove,  rebuke. 

Cheer,  exhilarate,  animate,  inspirit,  inspire,  enliven,  gladden,  comfort, 
solace. 

Cheerfulness,  gayety,  sprightliness,  merriment,  mirth,  liveliness,  vi- 
vacity, joviality. 

Cheerless,  broken-hearted,  comfortless,  disconsolate,  inconsolable,  des- 
olate, forlorn. 

Cherish,  nourish,  nurture,  nurse,  foster,  sustain. 

Choose,  prefer,  select,  elect,  call,  pick. 

Circuitous,  roundabout,  tortuous,  flexuous,  tiresome. 

Circulate,  spread,  diffuse,  disseminate,  propagate. 

Circumspection,  caution,  watchfulness,  vigilance,  deliberation, 
thoughtfulness,  wariness. 

Circumstance,  situation,  condition,  position,  fact,  incident. 

Cite,  quote,  adduce,  summon,  call. 

Civil,  polite,  complaisant,  affable,  courteous,  obliging,  urbane,  well- 
bred. 

Claim,  z/.,  ask,  demand,  challenge,  call  for,  plead. 

Clamor,  outcry,  fuss,  noise,  hubbub,  uproar. 

Clandestine,  hidden,  secret,  private. 

Class,  «.,  order,  rank,  degree,  grade,  category,  caste,  tribe. 

Clause,  stipulation,  proviso,  term,  article. 

Clean,  z/.,  cleanse,  clarify,  purify. 

Clear,  z/.,  absolve,  acquit,  liberate,  deliver,  release,  set  free,  unbind. 

Clear,  a., apparent,  palpable,  visible,  obvious,  plain,  evident,  manifest, 
unmistakable,  distinct,  intelligible,  lucid,  transparent,  limpid. 

Clemency,  leniency,  mercy,  mildness,  mitigation. 

Clever,  skillful,  expert,  dexterous,  adroit. 

Cling,  hold,  stick,  adhere,  attach. 

Close,  z/.,  conclude,  shut,  end,  terminate,  finish.’ 

Close,  a .,  compact,  solid,  firm,  dense. 

Clothes,  garments,  vestments,  dress,  habiliments,  apparel,  attire,  array 
raiment,  vesture,  drapery. 

Cloudy,  dim,  obscure,  dark,  dusky,  murky,  indistinct,  shadowy,  mvs 
terious. 

Clumsy,  awkward,  unpolished,  uncourtly,  ponderous. 

Clutch,  grasp,  lay  hold  on,  catch,  seize,  grip. 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


37 


Coalition,  union,  alliance,  confederacy,  league,  combination. 

Coarse,  rough,  rude,  rugged,  gruff,  harsh. 

Coeval,  contemporaneous,  cotemporary,  contemporary. 

Cogent,  forcible,  strong,  valid,  irresistible,  resistless. 

Colleague,  fellow,  compeer,  companion. 

Collect,  y.,  gather,  assemble,  muster,  congregate,  accumulate,  hoard. 
Colossal,  large,  gigantic,  huge,  enormous,  immense,  vast. 

Color,  hue,  tint,  tinge,  complexion. 

Combat,  engagement,  conflict,  contest,  fight,  action,  battle. 
Combat,  z>.,  oppose,  resist,  withstand,  thwart. 

Combination,  alliance,  union,  league,  confederacy,  coalition,  con- 
spiracy. 

Comfort,  solace,  console,  encourage,  revive. 

Comfortless,  cheerless,  forlorn,  disconsolate,  inconsolable,  desolate, 
wretched. 

Comic,  funny,  laughable,  droll,  ludicrous. 

Command,  order,  decree,  injunction,  mandate,  precept,  behest. 
Commence,  begin,  enter  upon. 

Commend,  v. , praise,  applaud,  extol,  eulogize,  recommend. 

Comment,  observation,  remark,  annotation,  elucidation. 

Commerce,  dealing,  trade,  traffic,  intercourse,  interchange,  reciproc- 
ity. 

Commit,  perpetrate,  do,  intrust,  confide,  consign. 

Commodious,  convenient,  useful,  suitable. 

Common,  vulgar,  low,  mean,  frequent,  ordinary,  usual,  general. 
Communicate,  make  known,  divulge,  disclose,  reveal,  impart. 
Communication,  intercourse,  correspondence,  commerce,  inter- 
change. 

Community,  society,  commonwealth,  social  state. 

Commute,  change,  alter,  exchange,  barter. 

Companion,  comrade,  coadjutor,  partner,  ally,  associate,  confederate, 
fellow,  colleague. 

Company,  association,  society,  assemble,  assemblage,  audience,  audi- 
tory, corporation,  body,  troop,  horde,  crew. 

Comparison,  simile,  similitude,  illustration. 

Compassion,  pity,  commiseration,  sympathy,  condolence. 

Compatible,  consistent,  consonant,  accordant. 

Compel,  force,  constrain,  coerce,  enforce,  oblige,  necessitate. 
Compendious,  brief,  short,  succinct,  concise. 

Compensate,  recompense,  make  amends,  remunerate,  requite. 
Competent,  able,  capable,  efficient,  qualified,  fitted,  clever,  skillful, 
sufficient,  adequate. 

Complete,  v.,  accomplish,  fulfil,  realize,  execute,  effect,  achieve,  con- 
clude, consummate,  finish,  end,  fill  up,  terminate. 

Complexion,  aspect,  appearance,  feature,  lineament,  look. 
Complicated,  complex,  compound,  involved,  intricate. 

Compliment,  praise,  flatter,  adulate,  applaud. 

Comply,  yield,  accede,  assent,  consent,  acquiesce. 

Compose,  form,  compound,  put  together,  constitute,  soothe,  calm,  quiet, 
lull,  hush,  frame,  indite. 

Composed,  serene,  placid,  calm,  collected. 

Comprehend,  comprise,  take  in,  embrace,  contain,  embody,  include, 
conceive,  imagine,  apprehend,  understand. 

Comprehension,  capacity,  capability,  knowledge,  intelligence,  under- 
standing. 

Compress,  condense,  press,  squeeze. 

Comprise,  contain,  include,  comprehend,  embody. 

Compromise,  concede,  implicate,  involve,  entangle,  embarrass. 
Compulsion,  constraint,  force,  coercion. 

Compute,  calculate,  count,  sum,  number,  account,  reckon,  estimate, 
rate,  measure. 

Comrade,  associate,  companion,  ally. 

Conceal,  hide,  secrete,  disguise,  dissemble. 

Concede,  give  up,  deliver,  yield,  compromise,  allow,  grant,  admit. 
Conceited,  proud,  vain,  egotistical. 

Conceive,  think  of,  imagine,  suppose,  comprehend,  understand. 
Concern,  affair,  business,  matter,  care,  regard,  interest. 

Concerted,  joint,  cooperative,  designed,  wrought  out,  studied,  elabo- 
rate. 

Concise,  brief,  short,  succinct. 

Conclude,  end,  close,  finish,  terminate. 

Conclusion,  end,  upshot,  event,  inference,  deduction. 


; Concord,  concert,  chorus,  harmony,  unity. 

Concourse,  crowd,  confluence,  conflux. 

Concur,  acquiesce,  agree,  coincide. 

Condemn,  blame,  reprobate,  reprove,  reproach,  upbraid,  censure,  rep 
rehend,  doom,  sentence. 

Condense,  compress,  press,  squeeze,  concentrate,  epitomize. 
Condition,  state,  plight,  case,  predicament,  category,  stipulation,  cove 
nant,  article,  term. 

Condolence,  sympathy,  commiseration,  compassion. 

Conduce,  contribute,  subserve,  lead,  tend,  incline. 

Conduct,  k.,  behavior,  demeanor,  carriage,  walk,  deportment. 
Conduct,  y.,  guide,  lead,  direct,  manage. 

Confer,  bestow,  give,  discourse,  converse. 

Conference,  meeting,  conversation,  talk,  colloquy,  dialogue,  parley. 
Confess,  acknowledge,  avow,  own,  recognize. 

Confide,  trust,  repose,  depend,  rely. 

Confidence,  assurance,  trust,  faith,  reliance,  hope. 

Confident,  dogmatical,  positive,  absolute,  bold,  presumptuous,  san- 
guine. 

Confine,  limit,  bound,  circumscribe,  restrict,  restrain,  shut  up. 
Confirm,  ratify,  establish,  substantiate,  corroborate,  settle. 
Conflicting,  jarring,  discordant,  irreconcilable. 

Confused,  muddled,  mixed,  promiscuous,  indistinct,  deranged,  disor- 
dered, disorganized,  bewildered. 

Confusion,  disorder,  derangement,  disorganization,  chaos,  anarchy, 
misrule. 

Confute,  refute,  disprove,  belie. 

Conjure,  y.,  adjure,  beseech,  entreat,  implore. 

Connect,  join,  link,  bind. 

Connection,  union,  alliance,  coalition,  junction,  intercourse,  com- 
merce, affinity,  relationship. 

Conquer,  vanquish,  subdue,  overcome,  subjugate,  surmount. 
Consecrate,  sanctify,  hallow,  devote,  dedicate. 

Consent,  «.,  assent,  acquiescence,  concurrence,  approval. 
Consequence,  effect,  result,  event,  issue,  sequence. 

Consider,  reflect,  regard,  weigh,  ponder,  deliberate. 

Consistent,  consonant,  compatible  accordant. 

Console,  solace,  comfort,  soothe. 

Conspicuous,  distinguished,  noted,  marked,  prominent,  eminent,  pre- 
eminent, illustrious,  famed. 

Constancy,  firmness,  stability,  steadiness. 

Constantly,  ever,  always,  continually,  perpetually,  incessantly,  ever- 
lastingly. 

Constitute,  make,  form,  compose,  mould. 

Constitutional,  legal,  regulated,  organized,  radical,  rooted,  funda- 
mental. 

Consult,  advise  with,  take  counsel,  deliberate,  debate. 

Cc-nsume,  burn,  absorb,  spend,  swallow,  imbibe,  engulf,  devour. 

! Consumption,  decay,  decline,  waste. 

Contagious,  infectious,  pestilential,  miasmatic. 

Contain,  comprise,  comprehend,  include,  embrace,  hold,  incorporate, 
embody. 

Contemplate,  meditate,  muse,  think, 
j Contemporary,  contemporaneous,  coeval,  simultaneous. 
Contemptible,  mean,  vile,  despicable,  pitiful,  paltry. 

Contend,  contest,  debate,  argue,  dispute,  cope,  strive,  vie. 

I Contingency,  casualty,  accident,  incident,  occurrence,  adventure, 
event. 

Continual,  unceasing,  incessant,  continuous,  perpetual,  uninterrupted. 

unremitting,  endless,  everlasting. 

Contort,  distort,  twist,  writhe,  wrest,  wrench. 

Contract,  v.,  abbreviate,  curtail,  shorten,  condense,  abridge,  retrench 
reduce. 

Contract,  agreement,  compact,  bargain,  stipulation,  covenant. 
Contradict,  oppose,  deny,  gainsay,  controvert. 

Contrary,  adverse,  opposite,  antagonistic,  repugnant,  hostile. 
Contribute,  give  to,  cooperate,  conspire. 

Contrition,  repentance,  penitence,  remorse. 

Control,  check,  curb,  repress,  restrain,  govern. 

Convene,  call  together,  bring  together,  convoke,  assemble,  congregate 
muster. 

j Convention,  assembly,  meeting,  convocation,  company. 


38 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


Conventional,  usual,  ordinary,  fashionable. 

Conversant,  acquainted  with,  familiar,  relating  to,  concerning. 
Converse,  v.,  speak,  talk,  discourse,  commune. 

Convert,  change,  turn,  transform. 

Convey,  carry,  transport,  bear,  take,  waft. 

Convivial,  joyous,  festal,  social,  sociable. 

Convulse,  upheave,  upturn,  shake. 

Cool,  cold,  frigid,  dispassionate,  unimpassioned,  calm,  undisturbed, 
composed. 

Co-operate,  work  with,  conspire,  conduce,  contribute. 

Copious,  ample,  abundant,  rich,  affluent,  exuberant,  plentiful,  plente- 
ous, full. 

Corpulent,  portly,  stout,  lusty,  plethoric. 

Correct,  v.,  put  right,  mend,  amend,  rectify,  better,  reform,  improve. 
Correct,  a .,  accurate,  exact,  precise,  proper,  faultless,  punctual,  strict. 
Corrupt,  v.y contaminate,  defile,  taint,  pollute,  infect, adulterate,  demor- 
alize, deprave. 

Corrupt,  a.,  depraved,  debased,  vitiated,  demoralized,  profligate. 
Corruption,  defilement,  contamination,  pollution,  infection,  adultera- 
tion, vice,  depravity,  corruptness. 

Cost,  price,  charge,  expense. 

Costly,  expensive,  valuable,  precious,  sumptuous. 

Council,  assembly,  company,  congress,  meeting,  diet,  convocation. 
Counsel,  advice,  instruction,  intelligence,  consultation,  deliberation. 
Count,  calculate,  compute,  reckon,  number,  sum,  estimate,  rate. 
Counterfeit,  spurious,  forged,  imitated,  suppositious,  false. 
Counterpart,  converse,  reverse,  correlative,  correspondent,  answer- 
able. 

Countless,  innumerable,  numberless,  incalculable,  unnumbered. 
Courage,  resolution,  fortitude,  fearlessness, prowess,  bravery,  chivalry, 
intrepidity,  boldness,  firmness. 

Courteous,  affable,  urbane,  conciliating,  kind. 

Covenant,  agreement,  contract,  bargain,  stipulation. 

Cover,  shelter,  screen,  hide,  overspread,  overshadow. 

Covert,  secret,  clandestine,  concealed,  hidden,  latent,  cabalistic,  mys- 
terious. 

Crafty,  cunning,  artful,  sly,  subtle,  wily. 

Crazy,  crack-brained,  imbecile,  foolish,  brainless. 

Create,  make,  form,  cause,  produce,  generate,  engender. 

Credence,  belief,  faith,  confidence. 

Credit,  belief,  trustworthiness,  reputation,  security,  honor,  praise. 
Credulity,  gullibility,  simplicity. 

Crime,  offence,  misdeed,  misdemeanor,  felony. 

Cripple,  weaken,  impair,  curtail,  cramp. 

Criterion,  test,  touchstone,  proof. 

Critical,  nice,  exact,  fastidious,  precarious,  ticklish,  crucial,  important, 
hazardous. 

Criticise,  examine,  scan,  analyze,  discuss,  anatomize. 

Cross,  ill-tempered,  fretful,  ill-humored,  crusty,  peevish,  fractious. 
Crude,  raw,  undigested,  unconsidered,  half-studied,  harsh,  unshaped, 
unfinished,  unrefined,  ill  prepared. 

Curb,  restrain,  hold,  check,  moderate. 

Curiosity,  inquisitiveness,  interest,  rarity,  celebrity,  oddity,  lion. 
Curious,  inquiring,  inquisitive,  searching,  interrogative,  prying,  peep- 
ing, peering,  rare,  odd. 

Curse,  malediction,  anathema,  bane,  blight. 

Cursory,  summary,  rapid,  superficial. 

Custody,  keeping,  guardianship,  conservation,  care. 

Custom,  manner,  habit,  use,  prescription. 

Cut,  sever,  slice,  sunder,  avoid,  elude. 

Cynical,  sarcastic,  snarling,  sneering,  cross-grained, 

DAINTY,  choice,  rare,  refined,  tasty,  exquisite,  luxurious,  epicurean, 
fastidious. 

Danger,  peril,  hazard,  risk,  jeopardy. 

Dare,  venture,  face,  brave,  hazard,  risk,  defy. 

Dark,  black,  dusky,  sable,  swarthy,  opaque,  obscure,  abstruse,  unin- 
telligible, blind,  ignorant,  shadowy,  dim,  sombre,  joyless,  mourn- 
ful, sorrowful. 

Dash,  hurl,  cast,  throw,  drive,  rush,  send,  fly,  speed,  course. 

Dead,  defunct,  deceased,  departed,  gone,  inanimate,  lifeless,  insensible, 
heavy,  unconscious,  dull,  spiritless. 


Death,  departure,  demise,  decease,  dissolution,  mortality,  expiration. 
Debase,  degrade,  lower,  depress,  deprave,  deteriorate,  corrupt,  alloy. 
Debate,  contend,  dispute,  argue,  discuss,  deliberate,  question,  ven 
tilate. 

Debility,  weakness,  feebleness,  lassitude,  languor. 

Decay,  decline,  wane,  dwindle,  waste,  ebb,  decrease. 

Decayed,  rotten,  corrupt,  unsound,  decomposed,  faded,  unprosperous, 
impoverished. 

Deceit,  cheat,  imposition,  trick,  delusion,  guile,  beguilement,  treach- 
ery, sham. 

Decide,  determine,  settle,  adjudicate,  terminate,  resolve. 

Decipher,  read,  spell,  interpret,  solve. 

Decision,  determination,  conclusion,  resolution,  firmness. 
Declamation,  oratory,  elocution,  harangue,  effusion,  debate. 

Dec  aration,  avowal,  manifestation,  statement,  profession. 

Decrease,  diminish,  lessen,  wane,  decline,  retrench,  curtail,  reduce. 
Dedicate,  devote,  consecrate,  offer,  set,  apportion,  assign,  apply,  sepa 
rate. 

Deed,  act,  action,  commission,  achievement,  instrument,  document 
muniment. 

Deem,  judge,  estimate,  consider,  think,  suppose,  conceive. 

Deep,  profound,  subterranean,  submerged,  designing,  abstruse,  learned. 
Deface,  mar,  spoil,  injure,  disfigure. 

Default,  lapse,  forfeit,  omission,  absence,  want,  failure. 

Defect,  imperfection,  flaw,  fault,  blemish. 

Defence,  excuse,  plea,  vindication,  bulwark,  rampart. 

Defend,  guard,  protect,  justify. 

Defer,  delay,  postpone,  put  off,  prorogue,  adjourn. 

Deficient,  short,  wanting,  inadequate,  scanty,  incomplete. 

Defile,  v .,  pollute,  corrupt,  sully. 

Define,  fix,  settle,  determine,  limit. 

Defray,  meet,  liquidate,  pay,  discharge,  quit. 

Degree,  grade,  extent,  measure,  mark,  range,  quantity,  amount,  limit 
Deliberate,  z/.,  consider,  meditate,  consult,  ponder,  debate. 

Deliberate,  a .,  purposed,  intentional,  designed,  determined. 

Delicacy,  nicety,  dainty,  refinement,  tact,  softness,  modesty. 

Delight,  enjoyment,  pleasure,  happiness,  transport,  ecstacy,  gladness 
rapture,  bliss. 

Deliver,  liberate,  free,  rescue,  pronounce,  hand  to,  give. 

Demonstrate,  prove,  show,  exhibit,  illustrate. 

Depart,  leave,  quit,  go,  decamp,  start,  sally,  retire,  withdraw,  remove. 

vanish. 

Deprive,  strip,  bereave,  despoil,  rob,  divest. 

Depute,  appoint,  commission,  charge,  intrust,  delegate,  authorize,  ac- 
credit. 

Derision,  scorn,  contempt,  contumely,  disrespect. 

Derivation,  origin,  source,  beginning,  cause,  etymology,  root,  spring 
analysis. 

Describe,  draw,  delineate,  portray,  explain,  illustrate,  define,  picture. 
Desecrate,  profane,  secularize,  misuse,  abuse,  pollute. 

Deserve,  merit,  earn,  justify,  win. 

Design,  k.,  delineation,  sketch,  drawing,  cunning,  artfulness,  contriv- 
ance. 

Desirable , expedient,  advisable,  valuable,  acceptable,  proper,  judicious, 
beneficial,  profitable,  good. 

Desire,  «.,  longing,  affection,  craving. 

Desist,  cease,  stop,  discontinue,  drop,  abstain,  forbear. 

Desolate,  bereaved,  forlorn,  forsaken,  deserted,  wild,  waste,  bare, 
bleak,  lonely. 

Desperate,  wild,  daring,  audacious,  determined,  reckless. 
Destination,  purpose,  intention,  design, consignment,  object, end,  fate 
doom,  use,  scope,  goal,  aim. 

Destiny,  fate,  decree,  doom,  end. 

Destructive,  detrimental,  hurtful,  noxious,  injurious,  deleterious,  bale- 
ful, baneful,  subversive. 

Desultory,  rambling,  discursive,  loose,  unmethodical,  superficial,  un- 
settled, erratic,  fitful. 

Detail,  particularize,  enumerate,  specify. 

Deter,  warn,  stop,  dissuade,  dispirit,  discourage,  dishearten,  terrify, 
scare. 

Detriment,  loss,  harm,  injury,  deterioration. 

Develop,  enunciate,  amplify,  expand,  enlarge. 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


Device,  k.,  artifice,  expedient,  contrivance. 

Devoid,  void,  wanting,  destitute,  unendowed,  unprovided. 

Devolve,  impose,  place,  charge,  commission,  befall,  fall  on. 

Devoted,  attached,  fond,  absorbed,  dedicated,  given,  abandoned. 
Dictate,  prompt,  suggest,  enjoin,  order,  command. 

Dictatorial,  imperative,  imperious,  domineering,  arbitrary,  tyrannical, 
overbearing. 

Die,  expire,  depart,  perish,  decline,  languish,  wane,  sink,  fade,  decay. 
Diet,  food,  victuals,  nourishment,  nutriment,  sustenance,  fare,  cheer, 
regimen. 

Difference,  separation,  disagreement,  discord,  dissent,  estrangement, 
variety. 

Difficult,  hard,  intricate,  involved,  perplexing,  obscure,  unmanage- 
able. 

Diffuse,  discursive,  prolix,  diluted,  copious. 

Dignify,  agrandize,  elevate,  invest,  exalt,  advance,  promote,  honor. 
Dilate,  stretch,  widen,  expand,  swell,  distend,  enlarge,  descant,  ex- 
patiate. 

Dilatory,  tardy,  procrastinating,  behindhand,  lagging,  dawdling. 
Diligence,  care,  assiduity,  attention,  heed,  industry. 

Diminish,  lessen,  reduce,  contract,  curtail,  retrench. 

Diplomatic,  judicious,  knowing,  wise,  prudent,  sagacious. 

Disability,  unfitness,  incapacity. 

Discern,  descry,  observe,  recognize,  see,  discriminate,  separate,  per- 
ceive. 

Discernible,  visible,  conspicuous,  manifest,  palpable. 

Discernment,  discrimination,  far-sightedness,  clear-sightedness,  pene- 
tration, observation,  sagacity. 

Discipline,  order,  strictness,  training,  coercion,  punishment,  organiza- 
tion. 

Disclose,  discover,  reveal,  confess,  detect. 

Disconcert,  abash,  confuse,  confound,  upset,  baffle,  derange,  discom- 
pose, frustrate,  discomfit. 

Discover,  make  known,  find,  invent,  contrive,  expose,  reveal. 
Discreditable,  shameful,  disgraceful,  scandalous,  disreputable. 
Discreet,  cautious,  prudent,  wary,  judicious. 

Discrepancy,  disagreement,  difference,  variance. 

Discrimination,  acuteness,  discernment,  judgment,  caution. 

Disdain,  contempt,  scorn,  haughtiness,  disregard. 

Disease,  complaint,  malady,  disorder,  ailment,  sickness. 

Disgrace,  <«.,  disrepute,  reproach,  dishonor,  shame,  odium. 

Disgrace,  z/.,  debase,  degrade,  defame,  discredit. 

Disgust,  dislike,  distaste,  loathing,  abomination,  abhorrence. 
Dishonest,  unjust,  fraudulent,  unfair,  deceitful,  cheating,  deceptive, 
wrongful. 

Dishonor,  v.,  disgrace,  shame,  degrade,  ravish,  pollute. 

Dismay,  v.,  terrify,  frighten,  scare,  daunt,  appall,  dishearten. 

Dismay,  «.,  terror,  dread,  fear,  fright. 

Dismiss,  send  off,  discharge,  discard,  banish. 

Disorderly,  irregular,  confused,  lawless,  unruly. 

Dispel,  scatter,  drive  away,  disperse,  dissipate. 

Display,  show,  spread  out,  exhibit,  expose. 

Displease,  offend,  vex,  anger,  provoke,  irritate. 

Dispose,  arrange,  place,  order,  give,  bestow. 

Dispute,  v.,  argue,  contest,  contend,  question,  impugn. 

Dispute,  «.,  argument,  debate,  controversy,  quarrel,  disagreement. 
Disregard,  v.,  slight,  neglect,  despise,  disparage. 

Dissent,  disagree,  differ,  vary. 

Distinct,  clear,  plain,  obvious,  different,  separate. 

Distinguish,  perceive,  discern,  mark  out,  divide,  discriminate. 
Distinguished,  famous,  glorious,  far-famed,  noted,  illustrious,  eminent, 
celebrated. 

Distract,  perplex,  bewilder,  madden. 

Distribute,  allot,  share,  dispense,  apportion,  deal. 

Disturb,  derange,  discompose,  agitate,  rouse,  interrupt,  confuse,  an- 
noy, trouble,  vex,  worry. 

Divide,  part,  separate,  distribute,  deal  out,  sever,  sunder. 

Divine,  godlike,  holy,  heavenly,  sacred,  a parson,  clergyman,  minister. 
Do,  effect,  make,  perform,  accomplish,  finish,  transact. 

Docile,  tractable,  teachable,  compliant,  tame. 

Doctrine,  tenet,  articles  of  belief,  creed,  dogma,  teaching. 

Doleful,  dolorous,  woe-begone,  rueful,  dismal,  piteous. 




Doom,  «.,  sentence,  verdict,  judgment,  fate,  lot,  destiny. 

Doubt,  «.,  uncertainty,  suspense,  hesitation,  scruple,  ambiguity. 

Draw,  pull,  haul,  drag,  attract,  inhale,  sketch,  describe. 

Dread,  «.,  fear,  horror,  terror,  alarm,  dismay,  awe. 

Dreadful,  fearful,  frightful,  shocking,  awful,  horrible,  horrid,  terrific. 

Dress,  n.,  clothing,  attire,  apparel,  garments,  costume,  garb,  livery. 

Drift,  purpose,  meaning,  scope,  aim,  tendency,  direction. 

Droll,  funny,  laughable,  comic,  whimsical,  queer,  amusing. 

Drown,  inundate,  swamp,  submerge,  overwhelm,  engulf. 

Dry,  a.,  arid,  parched,  lifeless,  dull,  tedious,  uninteresting,  meagre. 

Due,  owing  to,  attributable  to,  just,  fair,  proper,  debt,  right. 

Dull,  stupid,  gloomy,  sad,  dismal,  commonplace. 

Durable,  lasting,  permanent,  abiding,  continuing. 

Dwell,  stay,  stop,  abide,  sojourn,  linger,  tarry. 

Dwindle,  pine,  waste,  diminish,  decrease,  fall  off. 

EAGER,  hot,  ardent,  impassioned,  forward,  impatient. 

Earn,  acquire,  obtain,  win,  gain,  achieve. 

Earnest,  ardent,  serious,  grave,  solemn,  warm,  pledge. 

Ease,  v.,  calm,  alleviate,  allay,  mitigate,  appease,  assuage,  pacify,  dis- 
burden, rid. 

Eccentric,  irregular,  anomalous,  singular,  odd,  abnormal,  wayward, 
particular,  strange. 

Economical,  sparing,  saving,  provident,  thrifty,  frugal,  careful,  nig- 
gardly. 

Edge,  border,  brink,  rim,  brim,  margin,  verge. 

Efface,  blot  out,  expunge,  obliterate,  wipe  out,  cancel,  erase. 

Effect,  k.,  consequence,  result,  issue,  event,  execution,  operation. 

Effect,  v.,  accomplish,  fulfill,  realize,  achieve,  execute,  operate,  com- 
plete. 

Effective,  efficient,  operative,  serviceable. 

Efficacy,  efficiency,  energy,  agency,  instrumentality. 

Efficient,  effectual,  effective,  competent,  capable,  able,  fitted. 

Eliminate,  drive  out,  expel,  thrust  out,  eject,  cast  cut,  oust,  dislodge 
banish,  proscribe. 

Eloquence,  oratory,  rhetoric,  declamation. 

Elucidate,  make  plain,  explain,  clear  up,  illustrate. 

Elude,  evade,  escape,  avoid,  shun. 

Embarrass,  perplex,  entangle,  distress,  trouble. 

Embellish,  adorn,  decorate,  bedeck,  beautify,  deck,  illustrate. 

Embolden,  inspirit,  animate,  encourage,  cheer,  urge,  impel,  stimulate. 
Eminent,  distinguished,  signal,  conspicuous,  noted,  prominent,  ele- 
vated,  renowned,  famous,  glorious,  illustrious. 

Emit,  give  out,  throw  out,  exhale,  discharge,  vent. 

Emotion,  perturbation,  agitation,  trepidation,  tremor,  mental  conflict. 
Employ,  occupy,  busy,  take  up  with,  engross. 

Employment,  business,  avocation,  engagement,  office,  function,  trade, 
profession,  occupation,  calling,  vocation. 

Encircle,  enclose,  embrace,  encompass,  surround,  gird,  begird,  engird, 
environ,  beset. 

Enclose,  v.,  fence  in,  confine,  circumscribe. 

Encompass,  v.,  encircle,  surround,  gird,  begird,  environ,  beset,  in- 
vest. 

Encounter,  attack,  conflict,  combat,  assault,  onset,  engagement,  battle, 
action. 

Encourage,  countenance,  sanction,  support,  foster,  cherish,  inspirit, 
embolden,  animate,  cheer,  incite,  urge,  impel,  stimulate. 

End,  «.,  aim,  object,  purpose,  result,  conclusion,  upshot,  close,  expira- 
tion, termination,  extremity,  sequel. 

Endeavor,  attempt,  try,  essay,  strive,  aim. 

Endorse,  superscribe,  ratify,  confirm. 

Endurance,  continuation,  duration,  fortitude,  patience,  resignation. 

Endure,  v.,  last,  continue,  support,  bear,  sustain,  suffer,  brook,  submit 
to,  undergo. 

Enemy,  foe,  antagonist,  adversary,  opponent. 

Energetic,  effectual,  efficacious,  powerful,  energetic,  binding,  strin- 
gent, forcible,  nervous. 

Engage,  employ,  busy,  occupy,  attract,  invite,  allure,  entertain,  en- 
gross, take  up,  enlist. 

Engross,  absorb,  take  up,  busy,  occupy,  engage,  monopolize. 

Engulf,  swallow  up,  absorb,  imbibe,  drown,  submerge,  bury,  entomb 
overwhelm. 

^ 


I 41 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


Enlarge,  increase,  extend,  augment,  broaden,  swell. 

Enlighten,  illumine,  illuminate,  instruct,  inform. 

Enliven,  cheer,  vivify,  stir  up,  animate,  inspire,  exhilarate. 

Enormous,  gigantic,  colossal,  huge,  vast,  immense,  prodigious. 
Enraged,  infuriated,  raging,  wrathful. 

Enrapture,  enchant,  fascinate,  charm,  captivate,  bewitch. 

Entangle,  perplex,  embarrass,  inveigle,  implicate,  involve,  compro- 
mise, ensnare,  entrap. 

Entertainment,  amusement,  divertisement,  diversion,  recreation,  pas- 
time, sport,  feast,  fete,  banquet,  treat. 

Enthusiasm,  zeal,  ardor,  fervor,  warmth,  fervency. 

Entice,  allure,  attract,  decoy,  lure,  tempt. 

Entire,  whole,  complete,  perfect,  total. 

Entrance,  ».,  entry,  inlet,  ingress,  porch,  portal. 

Entrance,  v.,  charm,  enchant,  fascinate,  bewitch,  enrapture,  captivate. 
Entreat,  beg,  crave,  solicit,  beseech,  implore,  supplicate. 

Enumerate,  tell  over,  relate,  narrate,  recount. 

Epitome,  abridgment,  compendium,  abstract,  summary. 

Equitable,  just,  fair,  even-handed,  honest,  impartial,  upright,  reason- 
able. 

Erase,  scratch  out,  blot  out,  expunge,  efface,  cancel. 

Erect,  set  up,  raise,  elevate,  construct,  establish,  institute,  found. 
Erring,  misguided,  misled. 

Error,  mistake,  fallacy,  blunder,  hallucination,  fault. 

Essay,  ».,  attempt,  trial,  endeavor,  effort,  tract,  treatise. 

Essential,  necessary,  indispensable,  requisite,  vital. 

Establish,  z/.,  institute,  found,  organize,  confirm,  fix,  settle. 

Esteem,  prize,  value,  appreciate,  respect,  regard,  reverence,  venerate, 
revet  e. 

Estimate,  value,  measure,  compute,  calculate,  appraise. 

Eternal,  everlasting,  endless,  infinite,  perpetual,  deathless,  immortal, 
undying,  never-dying,  ever-living,  imperishable. 

Event,  incident,  occurrence,  accident,  adventure,  issue,  result,  conse- 
quence. 

Ever,  always,  eternally,  everlastingly,  evermore,  aye,  forever,  perpet- 
ually, continually,  incessantly. 

Evidence,  «.,  testimony,  deposition,  proof,  declaration. 

Evidence,  w.,  manifest,  prove,  evince,  demonstrate,  exemplify. 
Evident,  clear,  plain,  manifest,  apparent,  obvious,  visible,  palpable. 
Evince,  show,  argue,  prove,  evidence,  demonstrate,  manifest. 

Evoke,  call  out,  invite,  summon,  challenge. 

Exact,  a.y  accurate,  correct,  definite,  precise,  literal,  nice. 
Exaggerated,  overstated,  heightened,  amplified,  enlarged. 

Exalt,  raise,  elevate,  erect,  lift  up,  dignify,  ennoble. 

Examination,  search,  inquiry,  research,  scrutiny,  investigation. 
Example,  pattern,  sample,  model,  specimen,  copy,  instance. 
Exasperate,  irritate,  inflame,  incense,  enkindle,  envenom,  nettle,  pro- 
voke, chafe. 

Except,  unless,  save,  saving,  but. 

Excessive,  exorbitant,  extortionate,  unreasonable,  immoderate,  inordi- 
nate, extravagant. 

Exchange,  z/.,  change,  barter,  truck,  commute,  interchange,  recipro- 
cate. 

Exchange,  «.,  barter,  dealing,  trade,  traffic. 

Excite,  incite,  arouse,  awaken,  stir  up,  disquiet,  disturb,  agitate,  pro- 
voke, irritate. 

Exclude,  shut  out,  debar,  preclude,  seclude. 

Excuse,  v.y  palliate,  mitigate,  acquit,  justify,  absolve,  dispense,  ex- 
empt. 

Excuse,  n.y  plea,  justification,  pretence,  pretext,  pretension. 
Execrable,  abominable,  detestable,  hateful,  accursed,  cursed,  con- 
founded. 

Execute,  accomplish,  effectuate,  fulfil,  effect,  realize,  achieve,  com- 
plete, finish. 

Exemption,  freedom,  immunity,  privilege. 

Exhale,  emit,  give  out,  smoke,  steam. 

Exhaust,  spend,  drain,  empty,  debilitate. 

Exile,  banishment,  deportation,  expatriation,  expulsion,  proscription. 
Exonerate,  clear,  acquit,  discharge,  absolve,  relieve,  justify. 
Exorbitant,  excessive,  extortionate,  unreasonable,  immoderate. 
Expand,  spread,  diffuse,  dilate,  extend,  enlarge,  amplify,  unfold,  de- 
velop. 


Expedient,  fit,  necessary,  essential,  requisite. 

Expedite,  accelerate,  quicken,  hasten,  facilitate,  forward,  advance. 
Expel,  drive  out,  eject,  dispossess,  dislodge,  oust. 

Expensive,  costly,  dear,  valuable,  sumptuous. 

Expert,  a.,  clever,  dexterous,  adroit,  skilful. 

Expiration,  end,  completion,  close,  termination. 

Explicit,  express,  plain,  definitive,  positive,  determinate. 

Exploit,  achievement,  feat,  deed,  accomplishment. 

Expound,  explain,  interpret,  unfold,  elucidate,  clear  up. 

Express,  a.,  explicit,  plain,  positive,  definite,  determinate,  categorical. 
Express,  z>.,  declare,  enunciate,  pronounce,  articulate,  denote,  utter, 
signify,  testify,  intimate. 

Expressive,  significant,  energetic,  emphatic. 

Extend,  enlarge,  amplify,  expand,  increase,  stretch  out,  spread  out, 
make  larger,  augment. 

Exterior,  outward,  outer,  external. 

Exterminate,  eradicate,  root  out,  annihilate,  extinguish. 

Extort,  exact,  wrest,  wring,  draw  from. 

Extraordinary,  remarkable,  signal,  eminent,  uncommon. 
Extravagant,  prodigal,  lavish,  profuse,  excessive. 

Extricate,  free,  disengage,  disentangle,  disembarrass,  liberate. 
Exuberant,  plenteous, plentiful,  luxuriant,  abundant,  profuse,  rich. 

FABRIC,  edifice,  structure,  pile. 

Fabricate,  invent,  frame,  feign,  forge,  coin. 

Facetious,  jocose,  jocular,  pleasant. 

Facile,  easy,  pliable,  flexible. 

Faculty,  ability,  gift,  talent,  endowment. 

Failing,  imperfection,  weakness,  frailty,  foible,  miscarriage,  mishap. 
Faint,  languid,  weak,  low. 

Faith,  belief,  assurance,  confidence,  trust,  credence,  credit,  fidelity. 
Faithless,  unfaithful,  false-hearted,  treacherous. 

Fallacious,  deceptive,  illusive,  fraudulent,  deceitful,  delusive. 
Falsehood,  untruth,  story,  lie,  fabrication,  fib,  falsity. 

F alter,  halt,  stammer,  stutter,  hesitate. 

Fame,  reputation,  glory,  renown,  celebrity,  honor,  credit. 

Famed,  famous,  far-famed,  renowned,  celebrated,  illustrious,  surpass 
ing,  eminent,  distinguished. 

Familiar,  free,  frank,  affable,  conversant,  intimate. 

Familiarity,  acquaintance,  intimacy,  courtesy,  affability,  fellowship. 
Fanciful,  imaginative,  ideal,  fantastical,  whimsical,  capricious. 

Fancy,  imagination,  notion,  conceit,  vagary,  frolic,  inclination,  liking, 
humor. 

Farthest,  most  distant,  extreme,  remotest,  utmost,  uttermost. 
Fascinate,  charm,  enchant,  bewitch,  enrapture,  captivate,  entrance. 
Fast,  firm,  solid,  constant,  steadfast,  staunch,  stable,  steady,  unyield- 
ing, inflexible,  unswerving,  gay,  wild,  dissipated. 

Fasten,  v.,  fix,  tie,  link,  stick,  hold,  affix,  attach,  annex. 

Fatal,  deadly,  mortal,  lethal,  inevitable. 

Fatigue,  weariness,  lassitude,  languor,  enervation,  exhaustion. 

Fault,  blemish,  defect,  imperfection,  vice,  failure,  omission. 

Favor,  benefit,  kindness,  civility,  grace. 

Fear,  fright,  terror,  dismay,  alarm,  dread,  trepidation,  consternation, 
apprehension. 

Fearless,  bravfc,  bold,  intrepid,  courageous,  undaunted,  dauntless,  dar- 
ing, gallant,  valorous,  valiant. 

Fearful,  afraid,  timid,  nervous,  timorous,  terrific,  dreadful,  awful, 
frightful,  horrible,  distressing,  shocking. 

Feast,  fete,  banquet,  treat,  entertainment,  festival. 

Feeble,  weak,  infirm,  nerveless,  forceless,  failing,  frail,  enfeebled,  de 
bilitated,  enervated,  impotent,  paralyzed,  palsied. 

Feeling,  emotion,  sentiment,  impression,  sensation,  consciousness,  sen- 
sibility. 

Feign,  pretend,  simulate,  dissemble,  invent,  forge,  devise. 

F elicity,  happiness,  bliss,  blessedness,  beatitude,  blissfulness. 
Ferocious,  fierce,  savage,  ravenous,  voracious,  cruel,  inhuman,  fell 
barbarous. 

Fertile,  fruitful,  prolific,  teeming,  pregnant,  productive,  rich,  luxu 
riant. 

Fervid,  growing,  ardent,  impassioned,  fervent,  warm. 

Festivity,  hilarity,  joviality,  jovialness,  gayety. 

Fickle,  unstable,  inconstant,  restless,  fitful,  variable,  changeable. 




SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


4i 


Fiction,  romance,  invention,  falsehood,  fabrication. 

Fidelity,  faithfulness,  honesty,  integrity. 

Fiendish,  diabolic,  demoniacal,  devilish. 

Fierce,  furious,  violent,  ferocious,  savage. 

Fiery,  hot,  glowing, ardent,  fervid,  impassioned,  passionate,  impassion- 
ate,  fervent,  vehement. 

Fight,  battle,  action,  engagement,  combat,  conflict,  contest,  encounter, 
contention,  s‘ruggle. 

Fill,  satisfy,  content,  store,  replenish,  glut,  gorge,  stuff. 

Filthy,  dirty,  dingy,  unclean,  gross. 

Final,  ending,  ultimate,  last,  latest,  conclusive,  decisive. 

Fine,  a.,  refined,  delicate,  pure,  nice,  handsome,  pretty,  beautiful,  ele- 
gant, showy. 

Firm,  strong,  robust,  sturdy,  fast,  steadfast,  stable,  solid. 

Fit,  v .,  suit,  adapt,  adjust,  equip,  prepare,  qualify. 

Fit,  a .,  apt,  suitable,  meet,  befitting,  becoming,  decent,  decorous,  ex- 
pedient. 

Fix,  v.,  fasten,  tie,  link,  enlink,  attach,  stick,  settle,  establish,  deter- 
mine, define. 

Flat,  level,  horizontal,  even,  downright,  absolute,  insipid,  mawkish, 
dull,  spiritless,  tasteless,  lifeless. 

Flattery,  adulation,  servility,  cajolery. 

Flaw,  blemish,  spot,  blur,  speck,  defect,  crack. 

Fleeting,  temporary,  transient,  transitory,  short-lived. 

Fling,  cast,  throw,  hurl,  toss. 

Flippancy,  pertness,  sauciness,  lightness. 

Flock,  throng,  crowd,  multitude,  swarm,  shoal. 

Flourish,  thrive,  prosper,  wave,  brandish. 

Fluctuate,  waver,  hesitate,  oscillate,  vacillate,  scruple,  change. 

Fluent,  flowing,  glib,  voluble,  unembarrassed,  ready. 

Folks,  persons,  people,  individuals,  fellows. 

Follow,  succeed,  ensue,  imitate,  copy,  pursue. 

Follower,  partisan,  disciple,  adherent,  retainer,  pursuer,  successor. 
Folly,  silliness,  foolishness,  imbecility,  weakness. 

F ond,  enamored,  attached,  affectionate. 

F ondness,  affection,  attachment,  kindness,  love. 

Foolhardy,  venturesome,  incautious,  hasty,  adventurous,  rash. 

Foolish,  simple,  silly,  irrational,  brainless,  imbecile,  crazy,  absurd. 

preposterous,  ridiculous,  nonsensical. 

F op,  dandy,  beau,  coxcomb,  puppy,  jackanapes. 

Forbear,  abstain,  refrain,  withhold. 

Force,  «.,  strength,  vigor,  dint,  might,  energy,  power,  violence,  army, 
host. 

Forecast,  forethought,  foresight,  premeditation,  prognostication. 
Forego,  quit,  relinquish,  let  go,  waive. 

Foregoing,  antecedent,  anterior,  preceding,  previous,  prior  former. 
Forerunner,  herald,  harbinger,  percursor,  omen. 

Foresight,  forethought,  forecast,  premeditation. 

Forge,  coin,  invent,  frame,  feign,  fabricate,  counterfeit. 

Forgive,  pardon,  remit,  absolve,  acquit,  excuse,  except. 

Forlorn,  forsaken,  abandoned,  deserted,  desolate,  lone,  lonesome. 

Form,  «.,  ceremony,  solemnity,  observance,  rite,  figure,  shape,  confor- 
mation, fashion,  appearance,  representation,  semblance. 

Form,  v.,  make,  create,  produce,  constitute,  arrange,  fashion,  mould, 
shape. 

Formal,  ceremonious,  precise,  exact,  stiff,  methodical,  affected. 

Former,  antecedent,  anterior,  previous,  prior,  preceding,  foregoing. 
Forsaken,  abandon,  forlorn,  deserted,  desolate,  lone,  lonesome. 
Forthwith,  immediately,  directly,  instantly,  instantaneously. 

Fortitude,  endurance,  resolution,  fearlessness,  dauntlcssncss. 

Fortunate,  lucky,  happy,  auspicious,  prosperous,  successful. 

Fortune,  chance,  fate,  luck,  doom,  destiny,  property,  possession, 
riches. 

Foster,  cherish,  nurse,  tend,  harbor,  nurture. 

F oul,  impure,  nasty,  filthy,  dirty,  unclean,  defiled. 

Fractious,  cross,  captious,  petulant,  touchy,  testy,  peevish,  fretful, 
splenetic. 

Fragile,  brittle,  frail,  delicate,  feeble. 

Fragments,  pieces,  scraps,  chips,  leavings,  remains,  remnants. 

Frailty,  weakness,  failing,  foible,  imperfection,  fault,  blemish. 

Frame,  v.,  construct, invent, coin,  fabricate,  forge,  mould,  feign,  make, 
compose.  I 


Franchise,  right,  exemption,  immunity,  privilege,  freedom,  suffrage. 
Frank,  artless,  candid,  sincere,  free,  easy,  familiar,  open,  ingenuous 
plain. 

Frantic,  distracted,  mad,  furious,  raving,  frenzied. 

Fraternize,  cooperate,  consort,  associate  with. 

Fraud,  deceit,  deception,  duplicity,  guile,  cheat,  imposition. 

Free,  a.,  liberal,  generous, bountiful,  bounteous,  munificent,  frank,  art- 
less, candid,  familiar,  open,  unconfined,  unreserved,  unrestricted, 
exempt,  clear,  loose,  easy,  careless. 

Free,  v.,  release,  set  free,  deliver,  rescue,  liberate,  enfranchise,  affran- 
chise, emancipate,  exempt. 

Freedom,  liberty,  independence,  unrestraint,  familiarity,  license, 
franchise,  exemption,  privilege. 

Frequent,  often,  common,  usual,  general. 

Fret,  gall,  chafe,  agitate,  irritate,  vex. 

Friendly,  amicable,  social,  sociable. 

Frightful,  fearful,  dreadful,  dire,  direful,  terrific,  awful,  horrible, 
horrid. 

Frivolous,  trifling,  trivial,  petty. 

Frugal,  provident,  economical,  saving. 

Fruitful,  fertile,  prolific,  productive,  abundant,  plentiful,  plenteous. 
Fruitless,  vain,  useless,  idle,  abortive,  bootless,  unavailing,  without 
avail. 

Frustrate,  defeat,  foil,  balk,  disappoint. 

Fulfil,  accomplish, effect,  complete. 

Fully,  completely,  abundantly,  perfectly. 

Fulsome,  coarse,  gross,  sickening,  offensive,  rank,  obscene. 

Furious,  violent,  boisterous,  vehement,  dashing,  sweeping,  rolling, 
impetuous,  frantic,  distracted,  stormy,  angry,  raging,  fierce. 

Futile,  trifling,  trivial,  frivolous,  useless. 

GAIN,  k.,  profit,  emolument,  advantage,  benefit,  winnings,  earnings. 
Gain,  v.,  get,  acquire, obtain,  attain,  procure,  earn,  win,  achieve,  reap, 
realize,  reach. 

Gallant,  brave,  bold,  courageous,  gay,  fine,  showy,  intrepid,  fearless, 
heroic. 

Galling,  chafing,  irritating,  vexing. 

Game,  play,  pastime,  diversion,  sport,  amusement. 

Gang,  band,  horde,  company,  troop,  crew. 

Gap,  breach,  chasm,  hollow,  cavity,  cleft,  crevice,  rift,  chink. 

Garnish,  embellish,  adorn,  beautify,  deck,  decorate. 

Gather,  pick,  cull,  assemble,  muster,  infer,  collect. 

Gaudy,  showy,  tawdry,  gay,  glittering,  bespangled. 

Gaunt,  emaciated,  scraggy,  skinny,  meagre,  lank,  attenuated,  spare, 
lean, thin. 

Gay,  cheerful,  merry,  lively,  jolly,  sprightly,  blithe. 

Generate,  form,  make,  beget,  produce. 

Generation,  formation,  race,  breed,  stock,  kind,  age,  era. 

Generous,  beneficent,  noble,  honorable,  bountiful,  liberal,  free. 

Genial,  cordial,  hearty,  festive,  joyous. 

Genius,  intellect,  invention,  talent,  taste,  nature,  character,  adept. 
Genteel,  refined,  polished,  fashionable,  polite,  well-bred. 

Gentle,  placid,  mild,  bland,  meek,  tame, docile. 

Genuine,  real,  true,  unaffected,  sincere. 

Gesture,  attitude,  action,  posture. 

Get,  obtain,  earn,  gain,  attain,  procure,  achieve. 

Ghastly,  pallid,  wan,  hideous,  grim,  shocking. 

Ghost,  spectre,  spright,  sprite,  apparition,  shade,  phantom. 

Gibe,  scoff,  sneer,  flout,  jeer,  mock,  taunt,  deride. 

Giddy,  unsteady,  flighty,  thoughtless. 

Gift,  donation,  benefaction,  grant,  alms,  gratuity,  boon,  present  fa c 
ulty,  talent. 

Gigantic,  colossal,  huge,  enormous,  vast,  prodigious,  immense. 

Give,  grant,  bestow,  confer,  yield,  impart. 

Glad,  pleased,  cheerful,  joyful,  gladsome,  gratified,  cheering. 

Gleam,  glimmer,  glance,  glitter,  shine,  flash. 

Glee,  gayety,  merriment,  mirth,  jovialty,  jovialncss,  catch. 

Glide,  slip  slide,  run,  roll  on. 

Glimmer,  v.,  gleam,  flicker,  glitter. 

Glimpse,  glance,  look,  glint. 

Glitter,  gleam,  shine,  glisten,  glister,  radiate. 

Gloom,  cloud,  darkness,  dimness,  blackness,  dulncss,  sadnsss. 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


Glorious,  famous,  renowned,  celebrated,  illustrious,  distinguished, 
conspicuous,  noble,  exalted,  grand. 

Glory,  honor,  fame,  renown,  splendor,  grandeur. 

Glowing,  hot,  intense,  fervid,  ardent,  fervent,  fiery. 

Glut,  gorge,  stuff,  cram,  cloy,  satiate,  block  up,  fill  to  repletion,  inun- 
date. 

Good,  a .,  virtuous,  righteous,  upright,  just,  true. 

Gorgeous,  superb,  grand,  magnificent,  splendid. 

Govern,  rule,  direct,  manage,  command. 

Government,  rule,  administration,  cabinet,  constitution,  state,  control, 
sway. 

Graceful,  becoming,  comely,  elegant,  beautiful. 

Gracious,  merciful,  kindly,  beneficent,  courteous,  civil. 

Gradual,  slow,  progressive. 

Grand,  majestic,  stately,  dignified,  lofty,  elevated,  exalted,  splendid, 
gorgeous,  superb,  magnificent,  sublime,  pompous. 

Grant,  v .,  bestow,  impart,  give,  yield,  cede,  allow,  confer,  invest. 
Grant,  «.,  pay,  wages,  salary,  stipend,  gift,  boon,  donation. 

Graphic,  forcible,  telling,  picturesque,  vivid,  pictorial. 

Gratification,  enjoyment,  pleasure,  delight,  reward. 

Grave,  a .,  serious,  sedate,  thoughtful,  solemn,  sober,  important, 
weighty,  pressing,  heavy. 

Gravity,  weight,  heaviness,  importance,  moment,  seriousness. 

Grief,  affliction,  sorrow,  trial,  woe,  tribulation. 

Grieve,  mourn,  lament,  sorrow,  pain,  hurt,  wound,  bewail. 

Gross,  coarse,  outrageous,  unseemly,  shameful,  indelicate. 

Ground,  z>.,  found,  rest,  base,  establish. 

Groundless,  unfounded,  baseless,  ungrounded,  gratuitous. 

Group,  assembly,  assemblage,  cluster,  collection,  clump,  order,  class. 
Grow,  increase,  vegetate,  expand,  advance. 

Grudge,  malice,  rancor,  spite,  pique,  hatred,  aversion. 

Gruff,  rough,  rugged,  blunt,  rude,  harsh,  surly,  bearish. 

Guard,  w.,  protect,  defend,  shield,  keep,  watch. 

Guard,  «.,  shield,  fence,  security,  defence,  sentinel,  sentry,  watchman, 
conductor. 

Guardian,  protector,  conservator,  preserver,  custodian,  warder. 

Guess,  conjecture,  divine,  surmise,  reckon,  fancy,  suppose. 

Guide,  zc,  lead,  conduct,  direct,  regulate,  manage,  superintend. 

Guile,  deceit,  fraud,  artifice,  trickery. 

Guilt,  crime,  sin,  offence. 

Gull,  dupe,  cheat,  trick,  cozen,  deceive,  beguile,  delude. 

Gush,  stream,  flow,  rush,  spout. 

HABILIMENTS,  clothes,  dress,  garb,  apparel,  vestments. 

Habit,  manner,  custom,  usage,  way. 

Habitation,  dwelling,  residence,  abode,  domicile. 

Habitual,  usual,  customary,  accustomed,  wonted,  regular,  ordinary. 
Hale,  hearty,  robust,  sound,  healthy,  strong. 

Hallow,  consecrate,  sanctify,  venerate,  dedicate,  enshrine. 

Handsome,  pretty,  elegant,  graceful,  ample,  beautiful,  fine. 

Hapless,  luckless,  unlucky,  unhappy,  unfortunate. 

Happiness,  felicity,  bliss,  prosperity,  contentment,  well-being,  wel- 
fare. 

Harass,  distress,  perplex,  weary,  tire  out,  worry,  vex,  fatigue. 

Hard,  firm,  solid,  flinty,  unfeeling,  harsh,  cruel,  difficult,  arduous. 
Hardihood,  audacity,  imprudence,  effrontery. 

Hardy,  manly,  manful,  masculine,  vigorous,  courageous,  brave,  he- 
roic, intrepid,  stout,  strong,  firm. 

Harm,  evil,  ill,  misfortune,  mischief,  mishap,  injury,  hurt. 
Harmonious,  symphonious,  consonous,  accordant. 

Harsh,  rough,  severe,  rigorous,  gruff,  rugged,  blunt,  grating,  jarring, 
sour. 

Hasty,  quick,  precipitate,  rash,  excitable,  hot,  fiery,  passionate,  angry, 
cursory,  slight. 

Hate,  detest,  abominate,  abhor,  loathe,  dislike. 

Hateful,  odious,  detestable,  execrable,  abominable,  loathsome,  repul- 
sive. 

Haughtiness,  arrogance,  vanity,  pride. 

Hazard,  v. , peril,  imperil,  jeopardize,  risk,  dare,  adventure,  conjecture. 
Headstrong,  obstinate,  dogged,  stubborn,  forward,  venturesome. 
Heal,  cure,  remedy,  reconcile. 

Healthy,  hearty,  hale,  sound,  strong,  wholesome 


Heap,  pile,  amass,  accumulate. 

Hearty,  hale,  healthy,  sound,  strong,  heart-felt,  warm,  cordial,  sincere. 
Heavenly,  celestial,  divine,  seraphic,  angelic. 

Heavy,  weighty,  massive,  dull,  drowsy,  insipid. 

Height,  top,  crisis,  acme,  apex,  climax,  zenith. 

Heighten,  amplify,  exaggerate,  raise,  enhance,  increase. 

Help,  v.,  aid,  assist,  cooperate,  succor,  relieve,  serve. 

Hesitate,  falter,  pause,  demur,  scruple. 

Hide,  v .,  conceal,  disguise,  secrete,  cover,  screen. 

Hide,  «.,  skin,  rind,  peel,  bark. 

Hideous,  ghastly,  grim,  grisly,  frightful,  horrible,  ugly. 

High,  tall,  lofty,  elevated,  proud,  conceited. 

Highly,  greatly,  exceedingly,  immeasurably,  preeminently. 

Hilarity,  mirth,  glee,  jollity,  merriment,  joviality. 

Hinder,  thwart,  retard,  stop,  prevent,  impede,  obstruct. 

Hint,  v.,  suggest,  allude  to,  refer  to,  glance  at,  intimate,  insinuate. 
Hit,  strike,  dash,  beat,  thump. 

Hold,  have,  possess,  keep,  detain,  retain. 

Holy,  sacred,  pious,  devout,  religious,  divine. 

Homage,  respect,  deference,  honor,  veneration. 

Home,  dwelling,  house,  domicile,  residence,  abode. 

Honest,  upright,  honorable,  conscientious,  virtuous. 

Honesty,  integrity,  purity,  probity,  sincerity,  veracity,  virtue,  justice. 
Honor,  v.,  reverence,  revere,  venerate,  respect,  dignify,  exalt. 
Horrible,  fearful,  dreadful,  dire,  direful,  frightful,  terrible,  terrific, 
horrid. 

Hot,  ardent,  fervent,  fiery,  burning,  glowing,  intense,  passionate. 
Huge,  vast,  enormous,  large,  great,  prodigious,  immense,  gigantic 
colossal. 

Humanity,  kindness,  benevolence,  philanthropy,  tenderness,  sensi- 
bility. 

Humble,  v.,  lower,  debase,  degrade,  disgrace,  humiliate. 

Humble,  a.,  lowly,  modest,  submissive,  unpretending,  unassuming. 
Humiliation,  fall,  abasement,  degradation,  degeneracy. 

Hurry,  v.,  hasten,  speed,  expedite,  precipitate. 

Hurt,  n. , harm,  injury,  damage,  mischief. 

Hurt,  v.,  annoy,  grieve,  vex,  wound. 

Hurtful,  pernicious,  baneful,  deleterious,  noxious,  detrimental,  preju 
dicial. 

IDEA,  imagination,  conception,  notion,  thought,  sentiment,  impression. 
Ideal,  fanciful,  imaginary,  imaginative. 

Identical,  same,  self-same,  particular. 

Idle,  lazy,  indolent,  inactive,  unemployed. 

Ignorant,  unlearned,  illiterate,  unlettered,  uninformed,  uneducated. 
Ill,  k.,  evil,  wickedness,  misfortune,  mischief,  harm. 

Ill,  a .,  sick,  indisposed,  unwell,  diseased. 

Illimitable,  boundless,  limitless,  measureless,  immeasurable,  unlimited, 
infinite. 

Illiterate,  unlettered,  unlearned,  untaught,  uninstructed. 

Illness,  sickness,  indisposition,  disease,  disorder,  malady,  ailment. 
Illusion,  fallacy,  deception,  phantasm. 

Illustrate,  explain,  elucidate,  clear. 

Illustrious,  celebrated,  glorious, noble,  eminent,  distinguished,  famous, 
renowned. 

Imbibe,  absorb,  swallow  up,  take  in,  engulf,  consume. 

Imbolden,  inspirit,  animate,  encourage,  incite. 

Imitate,  copy,  ape,  mimic,  mock,  counterfeit. 

Immediately,  instantly,  forthwith,  directly,  instanter,  presently 
straightway. 

Immense,  vast,  enormous,  huge,  prodigious,  monstrous,  immeasurable. 
Immunity,  privilege,  perogative,  exemption. 

Immure,  confine,  shut  up,  imprison. 

Impair,  injure,  diminish,  decrease. 

Impart,  communicate,  reveal,  divulge,  disclose,  discover,  give,  bestow 
afford. 

Impeach,  accuse,  charge,  arraign,  censure. 

Impede,  hinder,  retard,  obstruct,  prevent. 

Impel,  animate,  actuate,  induce,  move,  incite,  inspirit,  instigate,  en 
courage,  imbolden. 

Imperative,  commanding,  dictatorial,  authoritative,  despotic,  per 
emptorv. 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


Imperil,  peril,  endanger,  hazard,  jeopardize. 

Imperious,  commanding,  dictatorial,  authoritative,  imperative,  lordly, 
overbearing,  domineering. 

Impertinent,  intrusive,  meddling,  officious,  rude,  saucy,  impudent,  in- 
solent. 

Impervious,  unpassable,  impassable,  inaccessible,  impenetrable. 
Impetuous,  violent,  boisterous,  furious,  vehement,  rapid. 

Impious,  profane,  irreligious,  godless. 

Implicate,  involve,  entangle,  embarrass,  compromise. 

Imply,  involve,  comprise,  infold,  import,  denote,  signify. 

Importance,  signification,  significance,  avail,  consequence,  weight, 
gravity,  moment. 

Impose,  put,  place,  set,  fix,  lay. 

Imposing,  impressive,  striking,  majestic,  august,  noble,  grand. 
Impotence,  weakness,  incapacity,  infirmity,  frailty,  feebleness. 
Impotent,  weak,  feeble,  helpless,  enfeebled,  nerveless,  infirm. 

Impress,  v.,  engrave,  stamp,  print,  fix,  instil,  inculcate. 

Impression,  feeling,  sentiment,  sensation,  susceptibility,  stamp,  edi- 
tion. 

Impressive,  stirring,  forcible,  exciting,  affecting,  moving. 

Imprison,  incarcerate,  shut  up,  immure,  confine. 

Imprisonment,  incarceration,  captivity,  durance,  confinement. 
Improve,  amend,  better,  mend,  reform,  rectify,  ameliorate,  apply,  use, 
employ. 

Improvident,  careless,  incautious,  imprudent,  prodigal,  wasteful, reck- 
less, rash. 

Impudence,  assurance,  impertinence,  confidence,  insolence,  rudeness. 
Impudent,  saucy,  brazen,  bold,  impertinent,  forward,  rude,  insolent, 
immodest,  shameless. 

Impugn,  gainsay,  oppose,  attack,  assail. 

Impulse,  incentive,  incitement,  motive,  instigation. 

Impulsive,  rash,  hasty,  forcible,  violent. 

Imputation,  blame,  censure,  reproach,  charge,  accusation. 

Inability,  weakness,  impotence,  incapacity,  incapability. 
Inadvertency,  error,  oversight,  blunder,  inattention,  carelessness, 
negligence. 

Incapable,  unable,  inadequate,  incompetent,  insufficient,  unfit. 
Incapacity,  disability,  incapability,  inability,  incompetency. 
Incentive,  motive,  inducement,  impulse. 

Incite,  instigate,  excite,  provoke,  stimulate,  encourage,  urge,  impel. 
Inclination,  leaning,  slope,  disposition,  tendency,  bent,  bias,  affection, 
attachment,  wish, liking,  desire. 

Incline,  v.,  slope,  lean,  slant,  tend,  bend,  turn, bias,  dispose. 

Inclose,  surround,  shut  in,  fence  in,  cover,  wrap. 

Include,  comprehend,  comprise,  contain,  embrace,  take  in,  hold. 
Incommode,  annoy,  plague,  molest,  disturb,  inconvenience,  trouble. 
Incompetent,  incapable,  unable,  inadequate,  insufficient. 

Increase,  v.,  extend,  enlarge,  augment,  dilate,  expand,  amplify,  raise, 
enhance,  aggravate,  magnify,  grow, 
increase,  «.,  augmentation,  accession,  addition,  enlargement,  exten- 
sion. 

Incumbent,  obligatory,  morally  necessitated. 

Indefinite,  vague,  uncertain,  unsettled,  loose,  lax. 

Indicate,  point  out,  show,  mark. 

Indifference,  apathy,  carelessness,  listlessness,  insensibility. 
Indigence,  want,  neediness,  penury,  poverty,  destitution,  privation. 
Indignation,  anger,  wrath,  ire,  resentment. 

Indignity,  insult,  affront,  outrage,  obloquy,  opprobrium,  reproach, 
ignominy. 

Indiscriminate,  promiscuous,  chance,  indistinct,  confused. 
Indispensable,  essential,  necessary,  requisite,  expedient. 

Indisputable,  undeniaolc,  undoubted,  incontestable,  indubitable,  un- 
questionable, sure,  infallible. 

Indulge,  foster,  cherish,  fondle. 

Ineffectual,  vain,  useless,  unavailing,  fruitless,  abortive,  ineffective, 
inoperative. 

Inequality,  disparity,  disproportion,  dissimilarity,  unevenness,  protu- 
berance, prominence. 

Inevitable,  unavoidable,  not  to  be  avoided,  certain. 
fnf<*.,ous,  scandalous,  shameful,  ignominious,  opprobrious,  dis- 
graceful. 

Inference,  deduction,  corollary,  conclusion,  consequence. 


43 


Infernal,  diabolical,  fiendish,  devilish,  hellish. 

Infest,  annoy,  plague,  harass,  disturb. 

Infirm,  weak,  feeble,  enfeebled. 

Inflame,  anger,  irritate,  enrage,  chafe,  incense,  nettle,  aggravate,  im 
bitter,  exasperate. 

j Influence,  v.,  bias,  sway,  prejudice,  prepossess. 

Influence,  k.,  credit,  favor,  reputation,  character,  weight,  authority 
sway,  ascendency. 

Infraction,  infringement,  encroachment,  invasion,  intrusion,  contra 
vention,  breach. 

Infringe,  invade,  intrude,  contravene,  break,  transgress,  violate. 
Ingenuous,  artless,  candid,  generous,  open,  frank,  plain,  sincere. 
Inhuman,  cruel,  brutal,  savage,  barbarous,  ruthless,  merciless,  fero 
cious. 

Iniquity,  injustice,  wrong,  grievance. 

Injure,  damage,  hurt,  deteriorate,  wrong,  aggrieve,  harm,  spoil,  mar 
sully. 

Injurious,  hurtful,  baneful,  pernicious,  deleterious,  noxious,  prejudi- 
cial, wrongful,  damaging. 

Injustice,  wrong,  iniquity,  grievance. 

Inlet,  entrance,  entry,  ingress. 

Innocent,  guiltless,  sinless,  harmless,  inoffensive,  innoxious. 
Inordinate,  intemperate,  irregular,  disorderly,  excessive,  immoderate. 
Inquiry,  investigation,  examination,  research,  scrutiny,  disquisitior 
question,  query,  interrogation, 
j Inquisitive,  prying,  peeping,  curious,  peering. 

1 Insane,  mad,  deranged,  delirious,  demented. 

| Insanity,  madness,  mental  aberration,  lunacy,  delirium. 

Insinuate,  hint,  intimate,  suggest,  infuse,  introduce,  ingratiate. 
Insipid,  dull,  flat,  mawkish,  tasteless,  vapid,  inanimate,  lifeless. 
Insnare,  entrap,  decoy,  allure,  net,  enmesh,  entoil,  entangle,  inveigle 
Insolent,  rude,  saucy,  pert,  impertinent,  abusive,  scurrilous,  opprobri 
ous,  insulting,  offensive,  outrageous. 

Inspire,  animate,  exhilarate,  enliven,  cheer,  breathe,  inhale. 
Instability,  mutability,  fickleness,  mutableness,  wavering. 

Instigate,  stir  up,  persuade,  animate,  incite,  urge,  stimulate,  en 
courage. 

Instil,  implant,  inculcate,  infuse,  insinuate. 

Institute,  establish,  found,  erect,  begin,  form,  organize,  prescribe. 
Instruct,  inform,  teach,  educate,  enlighten,  initiate. 

Instrumental,  conducive,  assistant,  helping,  ministerial. 
Insufficiency,  inadequacy,  incompetency,  incapability,  deficiency, 
lack. 

Insult,  affront,  outrage,  indignity,  blasphemy. 

Insulting,  insolent,  rude,  saucy,  impertinent,  impudent,  abusive. 
Integrity,  uprightness,  honesty,  probity,  entirety,  entireness,  com- 
pleteness, rectitude,  purity. 

Intellect,  understanding,  sense,  brains,  mind,  intelligence,  ability 
talent,  genius. 

Intellectual,  mental,  ideal,  metaphysical. 

Intelligible,  clear,  obvious,  plain,  distinct. 

Intemperate,  immoderate,  excessive,  drunken,  nimious,  inordinate. 
Intense,  ardent,  earnest,  glowing,  fervid,  burning,  vehement,  strained, 
forced,  excessive,  extreme. 

Intent,  design,  purpose,  intention,  drift,  view,  aim,  purport,  meaning. 
J Intercourse,  commerce,  connection,  intimacy,  acquaintance. 

[ Interdict,  forbid,  prohibit,  inhibit,  proscribe,  debar  restrain  from. 

Interfere,  meddle,  intermeddle,  interpose, 
j Interminable,  endless,  interminate,  infinite,  unlimited,  illimitable 
boundless,  limitless. 

Interpose,  intercede,  arbitrate,  mediate,  interfere,  meddle. 

Interpret,  explain,  expound,  elucidate,  unfold,  decipher, 
j Intimate,  hint,  suggest,  insinuate,  express,  signify,  impart,  tell. 

Intimidate,  dishearten,  alarm,  frighten,  affright,  scare,  appall,  daunt 
cow,  quail,  browbeat. 

Intolerable,  insufferable,  unbearable,  insupportable,  unendurable. 
Intrepid,  bold,  brave,  daring,  fearless,  dauntless,  undaunted,  courage 
ous,  valorous,  valiant,  heroic,  gallant,  chivalrous,  doughty. 
Intrigue,  plot,  conspiracy,  combination,  artifice,  ruse,  amour. 
Intrinsic,  real,  true,  genuine,  sterling,  native,  natural. 

Inure,  habituate,  use,  train,  accustom,  familiarize. 

Invalidate,  quash,  cancel,  overthrow,  vacate,  nullify,  annul. 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


»4 


avective.  abuse,  reproach,  railing,  censure,  sarcasm,  satire. 
Inveterate,  confirmed,  chronic,  malignant. 

Invidious,  envious,  hateful,  odious,  malignant. 

Invincible,  unconquerable,  impregnable,  insuperable,  insurmountable. 
Invisible,  UEseen,  imperceptible,  impalpable,  unperceivable. 

Involve,  implicate,  entangle,  compromise,  envelop. 

Ire,  rage,  anger,  wrath,  indignation,  passion. 

Irksome,  wearisome,  burdensome,  tiresome,  tedious,  troublesome,  vex- 
atious, annoying. 

Irony,  sarcasm,  satire,  ridicule,  raillery. 

Irrational,  foolish,  silly,  imbecile,  brutish,  unreasonable,  absurd,  pre- 
posterous, ridiculous. 

Irreligious,  profane,  godless,  impious,  sacrilegious,  desecrating. 
Irreproachable,  blameless,  spotless,  irreprovable,  unblemished. 
Irresistible,  resistless,  opposeless,  irrepressible. 

Irresolute,  wavering,  undetermined,  undecided,  vacillating. 

Irritable,  excitable,  irascible,  susceptible,  sensitive. 

Irritate,  aggravate,  worry,  provoke,  imbitter,  madden,  exasperate,  dis- 
please. 

Issue,  n. , end,  conclusion,  upshot,  effect,  consequence,  result,  offspring, 
progeny,  children. 

JARRING,  conflicting,  discordant,  inconsonant,  irreconcilable,  incon- 
sistent, incompatible. 

Jeer,  sneer,  scoff,  mock. 

Jeopardize,  imperil,  hazard,  endanger. 

Jocose,  jocular,  jolly,  facetious,  witty,  pleasant. 

Join,  accompany,  go  with,  add,  unite,  append,  adjoin,  combine,  confed- 
erate, league,  band. 

Journey,  travel,  tour,  trip,  excursion,  voyage. 

Joy,  delight,  gladness,  charm,  pleasure,  ecstacy,  rapture,  transport. 
Judgment,  discernment,  discrimination,  sagacity,  intelligence,  sen- 
tence, decision,  order,  award. 

Juicy,  succulent,  bibulous,  spongy. 

Junction,  union,  alliance,  connection,  confederacy,  combination. 
Juncture,  contact,  touch,  conjuncture,  crisis. 

Just,  right,  proper,  fare,  equitable,  impartial. 

Justify,  excuse,  clear,  exonerate,  defend,  absolve. 

Juvenile,  yoiang,  youthful,  boyish,  infantile,  childish. 

KEEN,  sharp,  acute,  penetrating,  cutting,  biting,  stinging,  sarcastic, 
satirical. 

Keep,  retain,  hold,  detain,  preserve,  maintain,  sustain,  hinder. 

Kill,  murder,  assassinate,  slay,  massacre,  bu'.cher. 

Kind,  a .,  thoughtful,  affable,  gentle,  meek,  tender,  good,  gracious, 
compassionate,  indulgent,  forbearing. 

Kindle,  ignite,  enkindle,  awaken,  arouse,  stir  up,  excite. 

Kingly,  royal,  imperial,  regal,  sovereign. 

Knowledge,  learning,  scholarship,  acquirements,  attainments. 

LABOR,  work,  task,  toil,  exertion. 

Labored,  elaborate,  hard-wrought,  studied. 

Laborious,  hard-working,  industrious,  diligent,  assiduous,  active,  toil- 
some, wearisome. 

Lack,  want,  need,  require. 

Laconic,  short,  brief,  concise,  curt. 

Lament,  grieve,  mourn,  regret,  bewail,  deplore,  bemoan. 

Language,  speech,  tongue,  dialect,  phraseology. 

Languid,  weak,  faint,  drooping,  pining. 

Lank,  lean,  thin,  skinny,  meagre,  scraggy. 

Lassitude,  weariness,  fatigue,  languor. 

Lasting,  durable,  abiding,  permanent,  perpetual. 

Latent,  hidden,  secret,  occult,  inscrutable. 

Laud,  praise,  command,  applaud,  extol,  magnify,  eulogize 
Lavish,  profuse,  extravagant,  prodigal. 

Lax,  loose,  vague,  dissolute,  licentious. 

Lazy,  idle,  indolent,  slothful,  sluggish,  inactive. 

Lead,  conduct,  guide,  direct,  induce,  persuade,  influence. 

Leader,  chief,  director,  head,  guide. 

Lean,  a .,  thin,  scraggy,  lank,  skinny. 

Lean,  v.,  incline,  tend,  bend,  slope. 

Leave,  z/.,  quit,  relinquish,  renounce,  give  up,  retire. 


Legend,  fable,  myth,  memoir,  annal,  chronicle. 

Legitimate,  legal,  lawful,  genuine,  tair. 

Lengthen,  extend,  elongate,  protract,  prolong. 

Lessen,  abate,  diminish,  decrease,  lower,  subside. 

Level,  even,  plain,  smooth,  flat. 

Levity,  giddiness,  lightness,  flightiness. 

Liberal,  generous,  bountiful,  bounteous,  munificent,  plentiful. 
Liberty,  leave,  license,  permission,  freedom. 

Licentious,  loose,  lax,  dissolute,  rakish,  unbridled. 

Lie,  untruth,  falsehood,  falsity,  fabrication,  fiction,  invention,  story. 
Life,  animation,  vivacity,  buoyancy,  spirits,  history,  career,  existence 
Likelihood,  probability,  appearance. 

Likeness,  picture,  image,  effigy , carte  de  visite,  resemblance,  similai 
ity,  representation,  similitude. 

Limit,  «.,  extent,  boundary,  bound,  border. 

Limpm,  ciear,  transparent. 

Linger,  tarry,  loiter,  wait,  lag,  saunter. 

Link,  tie,  bind,  join,  chain. 

Liquidate,  clear  off,  extinguish,  pay  off,  lessen,  discharge. 

List,  roll,  roster,  catalogue,  register,  inventory. 

Listless,  indifferent,  indolent,  careless. 

Literal,  actual,  real,  positive,  true. 

Little,  small,  diminutive,  dwarf. 

Lively,  active,  brisk,  quick,  sprightly,  prompt,  buoyant,  racy,  viv*. 
cious. 

1 Loathe,  dislike,  nauseate,  abhor,  detest,  abominate. 

Lofty,  high,  tall,  elevated,  exalted. 

Loiter,  wait,  linger,  tarry,  saunter. 

Look,  manner,  appearance,  aspect,  feature,  giance,  peep. 

Look,  v.,  see,  witness,  view,  eye,  inspect. 

Loquacity,  talkativeness,  volubility,  glibness,  babbling. 

Lot,  destiny,  fate,  future,  doom. 

Loud,  noisy,  clamorous,  vociferous,  blustering,  riotous,  turbulen. 
tumultuous. 

Love,  endearment,  affection,  attachment,  fondness. 

Lovely,  charming,  amiable,  delightful. 

Lover,  suitor,  wooer,  sweetheart. 

Loyalty,  allegiance,  fealty. 

Luck,  chance,  fortune,  accident. 

Luckless,  hapless,  unlucky,  unprosperous,  unfortunate. 

Lucre,  gain,  profit,  emolument,  money. 

Ludicrous,  laughable,  ridiculous,  comic,  droll,  odd,  silly. 

Lurid,  gloomy,  murky,  lowering. 

Luscious,  honeyed,  sweet,  mellifluous. 

Lustre,  splendor,  brightness,  brilliancy,  effulgence,  refulgence. 

Lusty,  stout,  strong,  able-bodied,  stalwart,  robust,  muscular,  brawny 
Luxuriant,  overflowing,  exuberant,  superfluous,  redundant, abundant. 

MACHINATION,  stratagem,  cheat,  imposture,  fraud,  trick. 

Mad,  wild,  frantic,  distracted,  furious,  rabid. 

Madden,  irritate,  enrage,  exasperate. 

Madness,  mental  aberration,  insanity,  lunacy,  mania,  frenzy,  rage 
fury. 

Magnanimous,  august,  dignified,  noble,  exalted,  lofty. 

Magnificence,  splendor,  grandeur,  gorgeousness,  pomp. 

Magnify,  enlarge,  extol,  applaud,  laud. 

Magnitude,  greatness,  bigness,  size,  bulk. 

Main,  chief,  principal,  leading,  first. 

Maintain,  assert,  vindicate,  hold,  support,  sustain. 

Majestic,  dignified,  noble,  stately,  pompous,  splendid,  grand- 
Make,  create,  form,  produce,  mould,  shape. 

Malediction,  curse,  imprecation,  denunciation,  a-.cthema. 

Malefactor,  criminal,  culprit,  felon,  convict. 

Malice,  spite,  rancor,  ill-feeling,  grudge,  pique,  animosity,  ill-wiL’ 
Malicious,  virulent,  malignant,  wicked. 

Manage,  contrive,  concert,  direct. 

Management,  direction,  superintendence,  care,  economy. 

Mangle,  tear,  lacerate,  mutilate,  cripple,  maim. 

Manifest,  v .,  reveal,  prove,  evince,  exhibit,  display,  show. 

Manifest,  a.,  clear,  plain,  evident,  open,  apparent,  visible,  obvious. 
Manly,  masculine,  hardy,  vigorous,  courageous,  brave,  heroic,  fearless 
Manners,  morals,  habits,  behavior,  carriage. 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


45 


Many,  numerous,  several,  sundry,  divers,  various,  manifold 
Mar,  spoil,  ruin,  disfigure. 

March,  tramp,  tread,  walk, step,  space. 

Margin,  edge,  rim,  border,  brink,  verge. 

Mark,  «.,  sign,  note,  symptom,  token,  indication,  trace,  vestige,  track, 
badge,  brand. 

Mark,  v.,  impress,  print,  stall.,  , engrave,  note,  notice,  remark,  show, 
point  out,  indicate. 

Marriage,  wedding,  nuptials,  matrimony,  wedlock. 

Martial,  military,  warlike,  soldier-like. 

Marvel,  wonder,  miracle,  prodigy. 

Marvellous,  wondrous,  wonderful,  amazing,  miraculous. 

Masculine,  manly,  virile,  hardy,  vigorous,  brave,  courageous. 
Massive,  massy,  bulky,  heavy,  weighty,  ponderous. 

Masterly,  skilful,  clever,  expert,  dexterous,  adroit. 

Masterly,  dominion,  rule,  sway,  ascendency,  supremacy. 

Matchless,  unrivalled,  unequalled,  unparalleled,  peerless,  incompara- 
ble, inimitable,  surpassing,  unique. 

Material,  a.,  corporeal,  bodily,  physical,  temporal,  momentous. 
Matrimony,  marriage,  wedlock,  wedding,  nuptials,  espousals. 

Mature,  ripe,  ready,  mellow,  perfect,  fit. 

Maxim,  adage,  apophthegm,  proverb,  saying,  by-word,  saw. 

Meagre,  poor,  lank,  emaciated,  barren,  dry,  uninteresting. 

Mean,  a.,  stingy,  niggardly,  low,  abject,  vile,  ignoble,  degraded,  con- 
temptible, vulgar,  despicable. 

Mean,  v. , design,  purpose,  intent,  contemplate,  signify,  denote,  indi- 
cate. 

Meaning,  signification,  import,  acceptation,  sense,  purport. 

Medium,  mediocrity,  organ,  channel,  instrument,  means. 

Medley,  mixture,  variety,  diversity,  miscellany. 

Meek,  unassuming,  mild,  gentle. 

Melancholy,  low-spirited,  dispirited,  dreamy,  sad. 

Mellow,  ripe,  mature,  soft. 

Melodious,  tuneful,  musical,  silver,  dulcet,  sweet. 

Melt,  liquefy,  fuse,  dissolve,  moisten. 

Memoir,  narrative,  chronicle,  legend,  life,  history. 

Memorable,  signal,  distinguished,  marked. 

Memorial,  monument,  memento,  commemoration. 

Memory,  remembrance,  recollection. 

Menace,  «.,  threat,  threatening,  commination. 

Mend,  amend,  correct,  better,  ameliorate,  improve,  rectify. 

Mention,  tell,  name,  communicate,  impart,  divulge,  reveal,  disclose, 
inform,  acquaint. 

Merchandise,  goods,  wares,  commerce,  traffic. 

Merciful,  compassionate,  lenient,  clement,  tender,  gracious,  kind. 
Merciless,  hard-hearted,  cruel,  unmerciful,  pitiless,  remorseless,  unre- 
lenting. 

Mercy,  lenity,  mildness,  clemency,  compassion,  pity. 

Merited,  deserved,  condign,  suitable,  adequate,  proper. 

Merriment,  mirth,  joviality,  jollity,  hilarity. 

Merry,  cheerful,  mirthful,  joyous,  gay,  lively,  sprightly,  hilarious, 
blithe,  blithesome,  jovial,  sportive,  jolly. 

Metaphorical,  figurative,  allegorical,  symbolical. 

Method,  way,  manner,  mode,  process,  order,  rule,  regularity,  system. 
Mien,  air,  look,  manner,  aspect,  appearance. 

Migratory,  roving,  strolling,  wandering,  vagrant. 

Mimic,  imitate,  ape,  mock. 

Mindful,  observant,  attentive,  heedful,  thoughtful. 

Mingle,  mix,  blend,  compound,  amalgamate. 

Minute,  circumstantial,  particular. 

Mirth,  joy,  merriment,  gladness,  festivity,  joviality,  hilarity,  cheerful- 
ness, vivacity,  gayety,  fun,  jollity. 

Misapprehension,  misconception,  misunderstanding,  mistake,  error. 
Miscellaneous,  promiscuous,  indiscriminate,  mixed. 

Miscellany,  medley,  diversity,  variety,  mixture,  hotchpotch. 

Mischief,  injury,  harm,  damage,  hurt,  evil,  ill. 

Misconception,  misapprehension,  misunderstanding,  mistake. 
Miscreant,  caitiff,  villain,  ruffian. 

Miserable,  Unhappy,  wretched,  distressed,  afflicted. 

Miserly,  stingy,  niggardly,  avaricious,  griping. 

Misery,  wretchedness,  woe,  destitution,  penury,  privation,  beggary. 
Misfortune,  calamity,  disaster,  mishap,  catastrophe. 


Misguide,  mislead,  dazzle,  beguile,  deceive. 

Miss,  omit,  lose,  fail,  miscarry. 

Mistake,  «.,  error,  blunder,  delusion,  misapprehension,  misunderstand- 
ing. 

Misuse,  «.,  abuse,  perversion,  maltreatment. 

Mitigate,  alleviate,  relieve,  abate,  diminish. 

Moderate,  temperate,  abstemious,  sober,  abstinent. 

Moderation,  temperance,  sobriety,  abstemiousness. 

Modest,  chaste,  virtuous,  bashful,  reserved. 

Moist,  wet,  damp,  dank,  humid. 

Molest,  annoy,  incommode,  discommode,  incommodate,  vex, tease,  dis- 
turb. 

Momentous,  important,  significant,  weighty. 

Monotonous,  unvaried,  dull,  tiresome,  undiversified. 

Monstrous,  shocking,  dreadful,  horrible,  huge,  immense. 

Monument,  memorial,  record,  remembrancer,  cenotaph. 

Mood,  humor,  disposition,  vein,  temper. 

Morass,  bog,  quagmire,  slough,  marsh,  fen,  swamp. 

Morbid,  sick,  ailing,  sickly,  diseased,  corrupted. 

Morose,  gloomy,  sullen,  surly,  fretful,  crabbed,  crusty 
Mortify,  vex,  chagrin,  grieve,  hurt,  afflict,  annoy. 

Motion,  proposition,  proposal,  movement,  change,  action. 

Motionless,  still,  stationary,  torpid,  stagnant. 

Motive,  cause,  reason,  principle,  inducement,  incentive,  impulse,  spur, 
stimulus. 

Mount,  arise,  rise,  ascend,  soar,  tower,  climb,  scale,  embellish. 
Mournful,  sad,  sorrowful,  lugubrious,  grievous,  doleful,  heavy. 

Move,  actuate,  impel,  induce,  prompt,  instigate,  persuade,  stir,  agitate, 
propel,  push. 

Moving,  affecting,  touching,  pathetic,  melting. 

Multifarious,  divers,  many,  manifold. 

Multitude,  crowd,  throng,  host,  mob,  swarm. 

Munificent,  bounteous,  bountiful,  generous,  liberal. 

Murder,  z/.,  kill,  assassinate,  slay,  massacre,  despatch. 

Murky,  dark,  dusky,  dim,  cloudy,  misty,  shadowy. 

Muse,  v.,  meditate,  contemplate,  think,  reflect,  cogitate,  ponder. 
Music,  harmony,  melody,  symphony. 

Musical,  tuneful,  melodious,  harmonious,  dulcet,  sweet. 

Musty,  stale,  sour,  fetid. 

Mutable,  inconstant,  unsteadfast,  unstable,  fickle,  alterable,  restless, 
fitful,  variable,  changeable,  unsteady,  undecided. 

Mute,  dumb,  silent,  speechless. 

Mutilate,  maim,  cripple,  disable,  disfigure. 

Mutinous,  insurgent,  seditious,  tumultuous,  turbulent,  riotous. 
Mysterious,  dark,  obscure,  hidden,  secret,  dim,  mystic,  enigmatical, 
unaccountable. 

Mystify,  confuse,  perplex,  puzzle. 

NAKED,  nude,  bare,  uncovered,  unclothed,  rough,  rude,  simple. 
Name,  ».,  denominate,  entitle,  intitule,  style,  designate,  term,  call, 
christen,  specify. 

Name,  appellation,  designation,  denomination,  title,  cognomen, 
reputation,  character,  fame,  credit,  repute. 

Narrate,  tell,  relate,  detail,  recount,  describe,  enumerate,  rehearse, 
recite. 

Nasty,  filthy,  foul,  dirty,  unclean,  impure,  indecent,  gross,  vile. 
Nation,  people,  community,  realm,  state. 

Native,  real,  genuine,  indigenous,  vernacular,  mother. 

Natural,  original,  regular,  normal,  bastard. 

Near,  nigh,  neighboring,  close,  adjacent,  contiguous,  intimate. 
Necessary,  needful,  expedient,  essential,  requisite,  indispensable. 
Necessitate,  v.,  compel,  force,  oblige. 

Necessity,  need,  occasion,  exigency,  emergency,  urgency,  requisite. 
Need,  ti.y  necessity,  distress,  poverty,  indigence,  want,  penury. 

Need,  v.,  require,  want,  lack. 

Neglect,  v.y  disregard,  slight,  omit,  overlook. 

Neglect,  ».,  omission,  failure,  default,  negligence,  remissness,  care. 
Icssncss,  slight. 

Neighborhood,  environs,  vicinity,  nearness,  adjacency,  proximity. 
Nerveless,  feeble,  impuissant,  weak,  forceless,  enfeebled,  debilitated 
enervated,  impotent,  paralyzed,  palsied. 

Nervous,  timid,  timorous,  shaky. 


46 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


Neutralize,  counterbalance,  counteract. 

News,  tidings,  intelligence,  information. 

Nice,  exact,  accurate,  good,  particular,  precise,  fine,  delicate. 

Niggardly,  miserly,  griping,  stingy,  penurious,  saving,  greedy. 

Nimble,  active,  brisk,  lively,  alert,  quick,  agile,  prompt,  sprightly. 

Noble,  exalted,  elevated,  dignified,  illustrious,  great,  grand,  stately, 
lofty. 

Nocturnal,  nightly,  gloomy,  dark. 

Noise,  cry,  outcry,  clamor,  row,  din,  uproar,  tumult. 

Nonsensical,  irrational,  absurd,  preposterous,  silly,  foolish. 

Notable,  plain,  evident,  remarkable,  signal,  memorable,  striking,  rare. 

Note,  ».,  token,  symbol,  mark,  sign,  indication,  remark,  observation, 
comment,  memorandum. 

Noted,  distinguished,  remarkable,  eminent,  celebrated,  renowned,  well 
known,  famous. 

Notice,  «.,  advice,  notification,  intelligence,  information,  warning. 

Notice,  v.,  mark,  note,  observe,  attend  to,  regard,  heed. 

Noticeable,  striking,  observable,  remarkable. 

Notification,  notice,  declaration,  publication,  intelligence,  informa- 
tion. 

Notify,  publish,  acquaint,  communicate,  apprise,  inform,  declare. 

Notion,  conception,  idea,  belief,  opinion,  sentiment,  impression,  con- 
viction. 

Notorious,  noted,  well  known,  renowned,  famous. 

Novel,  modern,  new,  fresh,  recent,  unused,  strange,  uncommon,  rare. 

Noxious,  hurtful,  deadly,  poisonous,  deleterious,  baneful. 

Nullify,  annul,  vacate,  invalidate,  quash,  cancel,  repeal. 

Number,  v.y  calculate,  compute,  estimate,  reckon,  count,  enumerate. 

Number,  «.,  multitude,  many,  throng,  crowd,  swarm,  host,  figure, 
numeral. 

Numerous,  many,  sundry,  various,  several. 

Nurture,  nurse,  cherish,  nourish,  foster,  supply. 

Nutrition,  food,  diet,  nutriment,  nourishment. 

OBDURATE, .hard,  callous,  hardened,  unbending,  graceless,  unfeel- 
ing, insensible,  insusceptible. 

Obedient,  compliant,  submissive,  dutiful,  respectful. 

Obese,  corpulent,  fat,  adipose,  fleshy. 

Object,  n.y  aim,  end,  purpose,  design,  mark,  butt. 

Object,  7/.,  oppose,  except  to,  contravene,  impeach,  deprecate. 

Oblige,  compel,  bind,  engage,  coerce,  constrain,  force,  impel,  accom- 
modate. 

Obliterate,  erase,  blot  out,  expunge,  efface. 

Obloquy,  odium,  reproach,  censure,  abuse,  scurrility,  opprobrium, 
sname. 

Obnoxious,  hateful,  offensive,  liable,  exposed,  unpopular. 

Obscure,  a.,  dim,  misty,  cloudy,  shadowy,  dusky,  dark,  gloomy,  in- 
distinct, unknown,  humble,  unintelligible. 

Observance,  form,  etiquette,  ceremony,  solemnity,  rite,  celebration. 

Observant,  watchful,  mindful,  attentive,  heedful. 

Observe,  keep,  fulfil,  heed,  obey,  perform,  notice,  remark,  watch. 

Obsolete,  disused,  antiquated,  old-fashioned,  ancient,  old,  neglected. 

Obstacle,  difficulty,  impediment,  stumbling-block,  barrier,  hindrance, 
obstruction. 

Obstruct,  hinder,  prevent,  impede,  bar,  clog,  barricade,  choke,  inter- 
rupt. 

Obtain,  acquire,  attain,  secure,  achieve,  gain,  get,  procure,  win,  earn. 

Obtuse,  stolid,  heavy-headed,  dull,  stupid,  unintelligent. 

Obviate,  prevent,  preclude,  hinder,  provide  against. 

Obvious,  clear,  plain,  evident,  manifest,  open,  apparent,  visible, 
patent. 

Occult,  secret,  hidden,  unknown,  invisible,  dark,  mysterious. 

Occupation,  occupancy,  profession,  holding,  tenure,  business,  trade, 
avocation,  calling,  engagement,  office,  pursuit. 

Odd,  singular,  eccentric,  strange,  extraordinary,  whimsical,  comical, 
droll,  uneven. 

Odious,  hateful,  loathsome,  execrable,  detestable,  abominable,  disgust- 
ing, repulsive. 

Odor,  smell,  scent,  perfume,  fragrance. 

Offence,  affront,  insult,  outrage,  indignity,  misdeed,  trespass,  trans- 
gression, wrong,  misdemeanor,  injustice. 

Offend,  displease,  vex,  nettle,  irritate,  shock,  transgress,  err. 


Offensive,  insulting,  rude,  saucy,  impertinent,  distasteful,  obnoxious 
opprobrious. 

Offer,  present,  bid,  tender,  proffer,  extend,  propose,  volunteer. 
Officious,  obtrusive,  busy,  interfering,  meddling. 

Offspring,  issue,  progeny,  descendants,  children. 

Old,  aged,  elderly,  senile,  ancient,  antique,  antiquated,  obsolete. 
Omission,  oversight,  failure,  neglect,  default. 

Omit,  leave  out,  miss,  overlook. 

Onerous,  responsible,  burdensome,  heavy,  laborious,  oppressive,  toil- 
some. 

Only,  singly,  alone,  solely,  merely,  ba:ely,  simply,  exclusively. 
Opaque,  untransparent,  dull,  dark,  cloudy. 

Open,  a., candid,  frank,  unreserved,  free,  ingenuous, sincere, unaffected 
genuine,  undisguised,  unfolded. 

Open,  v.,  unclose,  unlock,  unseal,  exhibit,  dissolve,  spread,  expand 
begin. 

Operate,  act,  do,  make,  work,  labor. 

Operation,  action,  agency,  instrumentality,  force,  effort,  enterprise. 
Operative,  stringent,  effective,  serviceable,  binding. 

Opportunity,  occasion,  chance,  fit  opening. 

Oppose,  combat,  bar,  hinder,  resist,  withstand,  contradict. 

Opposite,  adverse,  diverse,  contrary,  hostile,  antagonistic,  repugnant 
incompatible,  inconsistent,  paradoxical,  facing. 

Opprobrious,  abusive,  scurrilous,  insulting,  offensive,  outrageous 
shameful. 

Opprobrium,  disgrace,  odium,  infamy,  ignominy,  obloquy. 

Option,  choice,  preference,  election. 

Opulent,  wealthy,  rich,  affluent,  moneyed. 

Oral,  verbal,  spoken,  parole. 

Oration,  address,  speech,  harangue,  discourse. 

Orderly,  regular,  systematic,  methodic,  methodical,  quiet,  peaceable. 
Ordinance,  decree,  law,  statute,  edict,  regulation. 

Ordinary,  common,  vulgar,  plain,  customary,  settled,  wonted,  conven 
tional,  habitual,  usual. 

Organization,  structure,  form,  instrumentality,  construction. 

Origin,  commencement,  original,  beginning,  rise,  source,  spring 
cause. 

Original,  first,  primary,  pristine,  primeval,  peculiar,  odd. 

Originate,  create,  form,  spring,  ooze,  issue,  proceed,  begin. 
Ornament,  «.,  embellishment,  adornment,  decoration. 

Over,  above,  upon,  across,  more  than. 

Overawe,  daunt,  intimidate,  affright,  cow. 

Overbearing,  bullying,  blustering,  imperious,  lordly,  domineering 
Overcharge,  oppress,  overload,  surcharge,  surfeit. 

Overlook,  inspect,  survey,  excuse,  forgive,  pardon,  neglect,  miss. 
Overplus,  excess,  surplus,  surplusage. 

Overreach,  cheat,  outwit,  circumvent,  cozen,  gull,  dupe,  defraud. 
Oversight,  inadvertence,  inattention,  neglect,  mistake,  error,  omission 
inspection,  superintendence. 

Overt,  open,  public,  notorious,  manifest,  patent. 

Overture,  proposal,  offer,  invitation,  resolution. 

Own,  z/.,  acknowledge,  admit,  confess,  recognize,  have,  possess. 
Owner,  proprietor,  possessor,  master,  holder. 

PACIFIC,  peaceful,  peaceable,  mild,  gentle,  calm,  quiet,  conciliato:y 
Pacify,  appease,  calm,  quiet,  still. 

Pain,  «.,  anguish,  agony,  distress,  suffering,  pang,  grief. 

Pain,  v. , agonize,  rack,  torment,  torture. 

Painful,  afflicting,  grievous,  torturing. 

Pair,  two,  couple,  brace. 

Palatable,  tasteful,  savory,  appetizing. 

Palate,  taste,  relish. 

Pale,  «.,  pallid,  wan,  whitish,  sallow,  faint. 

Palliate,  extenuate,  varnish,  cover,  allay,  soothe,  soften. 

Palpable,  clear,  distinct,  plain,  obvious,  evident.  . 

Paltry,  contemptible,  pitiful,  mean,  sorry,  despicable,  shabby,  tes> 
garly. 

Panegyric,  eulogy,  encomium,  eulogium,  praise. 

Pang,  throe,  twinge,  agony,  anguish,  pain,  distress. 

Paramount,  supreme,  principal,  chief. 

Pardon,  forgive,  absolve,  overlook,  excuse,  remit,  acquit,  discharge 
set  free,  clear,  liberate. 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


47 


Parsimonious,  stingy,  niggardly,  miserly. 

Partial,  biassed,  prejudiced,  limited,  incomplete. 

Participate,  share,  partake,  join  in. 

Particle,  jot,  tittle,  grain,  atom. 

Partition,  v.,  parcel,  divide,  apportion,  distribute. 

Partner,  colleague,  coadjutor,  associate,  sharer,  confederate,  spouse. 
Partnership,  union,  connection,  firm,  house,  association,  company, 
companionship,  society. 

Party,  faction,  confederacy,  combination,  detachment,  clique,  league. 
Passion,  anger,  rage,  fury,  vehemence,  impetuosity,  love,  affection. 
Passionate,  hot,  hasty,  irritable,  angry,  excitable,  fiery,  vehement,  im- 
petuous, glowing,  burning,  ardent. 

Passive,  unresisting,  unopposing,  submissive,  enduring,  patient. 
Pathetic,  moving,  touching,  affecting,  melting,  tender. 

Patience,  resignation,  endurance,  fortitude. 

Peculator,  defaulter,  delinquent,  offender,  thief. 

Peculiar,  appropriate,  particular,  exclusive,  remarkable,  signal,  special, 
singular,  uncommon. 

Peevish,  ill-natured,  touchy,  testy,  captious,  fractious,  cross,  fretful, 
petulant,  cynical,  irascible. 

Pellucid,  translucent,  lucid,  limpid,  transparent,  clear. 

Penetrate,  pierce,  perforate,  bore,  fathom,  reach. 

Penetration,  insight,  sharpness,  acuteness,  sagacity,  discernment,  dis- 
crimination. 

Penitence,  contrition,  repentance,  remorse. 

People,  commonalty,  populace,  mob,  mobility,  nation,  tribe,  race. 
Perception,  seeing,  sense,  taste,  perceptibility,  sensibility,  susceptibil- 
ity, sensation,  apprehension,  conviction. 

Percolate,  filtrate,  strain,  filter,  ooze. 

Peremptory,  absolute,  positive,  arbitrary,  despotic,  decisive,  impera- 
tive. 

Perennial,  imperishable,  undying,  immortal,  deathless,  enduring,  per- 
petual. 

Perfect,  complete,  whole,  entire,  finished,  unbroken,  thorough,  mature, 
ripe. 

Perfume,  odor,  scent,  fragrance,  aroma,  smell,  incense. 

Perhaps,  perchance,  possibly,  peradventure. 

Perish,  decay,  die,  expire,  dissolve. 

Permanent,  duraLle,  abiding,  enduring,  lasting,  fixed,  stable,  stead- 
fast, constant. 

Permission,  permit,  leave,  liberty,  license. 

Permit,  z>.,  admit,  allow,  let,  consent,  suffer,  tolerate,  license,  warrant. 
Pernicious,  destructive,  ruinous,  baneful,  deleterious,  hurtful. 
Perpetual,  constant,  continual,  continuous,  endless,  eternal,  lasting, 
incessant,  ceaseless,  unceasing,  uninterrupted. 

Perplex,  embarrass,  harass,  confuse,  bewilder,  entangle,  involve, 
puzzle. 

Pestilential,  contagious,  infectious,  epidemical,  mischievous,  perni- 
cious, nocent,  noxious,  baneful,  destructive,  pestiferous,  fatal, 
deadly. 

Petition,  prayer,  supplication,  entreaty,  request,  suit,  appeal. 

Petty,  trifling,  trivial,  frivolous,  insignificant,  small,  little. 

Petulant,  captious,  fractious,  cross,  peevish,  fretful,  splenetic,  excita- 
ble, ill-humored. 

Philanthropic,  charitable,  kind,  benevolent,  gracious,  benignant. 
Phlegmatic,  frigid,  cold,  heavy,  unfeeling,  apathetic. 

Phrase,  term,  style,  sentence,  proposition,  period,  phraseology,  dic- 
tion. 

Piercing,  thrilling,  ringing,  clangous. 

Piety,  religion,  sanctity,  holiness,  devotion,  grace,  godliness. 

Pile,  v.,  heap,  accumulate,  hoard,  amass,  collect. 

Pine,  v .,  flag,  droop,  languish,  sink,  fade,  wither,  decay,  decline. 
Pious,  holy,  godly,  saintly,  devout,  religious. 

Piquant,  pungent,  acrid,  smart,  keen,  biting,  harsh,  stinging,  cutting, 
racy. 

Pique,  spite,  grude,  umbrage,  resentment. 

Pithy,  terse,  concise,  forcible,  strong. 

Pitiful,  mean,  paltry,  sordid,  contemptible,  despicable. 

Pity,  ».,  compassion,  sympathy,  condolence,  mercy. 

Plea,  apology,  defence,  vindication,  entreaty. 

Plead,  defend,  vindicate,  exonerate,  justify,  exculpate,  excuse. 
Pleasant,  pleasing,  agreeable,  gratifying,  satisfactory,  delicious,  ex- 


quisite, delightful,  pleasurable,  jocular,  jocose,  witty,  smiling 
laughing. 

Please,  gratify,  satisfy,  content,  delight,  fascinate,  indulge. 

Pleasure,  comfort,  enjoyment,  gratification,  joy,  delight,  rapture, 
charm,  wish. 

Plight,  v. , pledge,  hypothecate,  vow. 

Plot,  v .,  concoct,  hatch,  frame,  contrive,  conspire. 

Pluck,  courage,  mettle,  spirit,  nerve. 

Plump,  fleshy,  round,  fat,  full,  chubby. 

Polite,  refined,  genteel,  civil,  accomplished,  well-bred. 

Politeness,  gentility,  civility,  urbanity,  courteousness,  courtesy,  affa- 
bility. 

Politic,  political,  civil,  judicious,  prudential. 

Pomp,  parade,  display,  gorgeousness,  splendor,  grandeur,  pageantry, 
show,  state. 

Pompous,  majestic,  stately,  grand,  august,  dignified,  lofty,  inflated, 
bombastic. 

Portray,  draw,  sketch,  paint,  depict,  delineate,  represent,  describe. 

Praise,  «.,  approval,  eulogy,  commendation,  applause,  exaltation, 
honor. 

Praise,  z/., commend,  extol,  eulogize,  panegyrize,  laud,  applaud,  glorify. 

Praiseworthy,  laudable,  honorable,  commendable,  meritorious, 
worthy. 

Prank,  frolic,  gambol,  freak,  trick,  escapade. 

Frecious,  valuable,  costly,  dear,  estimable. 

Precipice,  cliff,  crag. 

Precipitate,  v.,  hurry,  hasten,  cast  down,  expedite. 

Precipitate,  a.,  hasty,  hurried,  rash,  premature. 

Predicament,  situation,  condition,  state,  plight,  dilemma. 

Predict,  ».,  foretell,  prognosticate,  prophesy,  foreshadow. 

Predilection,  preference,  partiality,  bias,  prejudice. 

Predominant,  prevailing,  prevalent,  ascendant,  overruling. 

Pregnant,  prolific,  teeming,  replete,  enceinte. 

Prejudice,  prepossession,  bias,  partiality,  detriment,  harm,  hurt, 
damage. 

Preliminary,  prefatory,  introductory,  anterior,  previous,  antecedent. 

Preponderate,  z>.,  predominate,  prevail,  overbalance,  outweigh,  out- 
balance. 

Prepossessing,  charming,  engaging,  taking,  attractive,  winning. 

Preposterous,  irrational,  foolish,  absurd,  ridiculous. 

Prerogative,  privilege,  immunity,  right,  exemption. 

Presage,  foresee,  predict,  portend,  augur,  forebode,  prognosticate,  be. 
token, threaten. 

Prescribe,  appoint,  ordain,  dictate,  decree,  enjoin,  impose,  order. 

Presumptuous,  presuming,  over-confident,  forward,  arrogant,  bold 
rash,  foolhardy. 

Pretence,  cloak,  mask,  garb,  pretext,  excuse,  plea. 

Pretend,  feign,  affect,  simulate,  profess. 

Pride,  arrogance,  haughtiness,  vanity,  self-esteem,  lordliness,  conceit, 
loftiness,  vainglory. 

Principally,  chiefly,  essentially,  mainly. 

Principle,  ground,  reason,  motive,  impulse,  maxim,  rule,  rectitude,  in- 
tegrity. 

Print,  v.,  mark,  impress,  stamp,  imprint. 

Privilege,  immunity,  advantage,  favor,  prerogative,  exemption,  right, 
claim. 

Probity,  rectitude,  uprightness,  honesty,  integrity,  sincerity,  sound- 
ness. 

Problematical,  uncertain,  doubtful,  dubious,  questionable,  disputable, 
suspicious. 

Prodigious,  huge,  enormous,  vast,  amazing,  astonishing,  astounding, 
surprising,  remarkable,  wonderful,  portentous. 

Profession,  business,  trade,  occupation,  vocation,  office,  employment, 
engagement,  avowal. 

Proffer,  volunteer,  offer,  propose,  tender. 

Profligate,  abandoned,  dissolute,  depraved,  vicious,  degenerate,  cor. 
rupt,  demoralized. 

Profound,  deep,  fathomless,  penetrating, solemn,  abstruse,  recondite. 

Profuse,  extravagant,  prodigal,  lavish,  improvident,  excessive,  copi 
ous,  plentiful. 

Project,  shoot,  discharge,  throw,  hurl,  jut,  protrude,  bulge. 

Prolific,  productive,  generative,  fertile,  fruitful  teeming. 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


8R 


0 


Prolix,  diffuse,  long,  prolonged,  tedious,  tiresome,  wordy,  verbose, 
prosaic. 

Prominent,  eminent,  conspicuous,  marked,  jutting,  important,  leading. 
Promiscuous,  mixed,  unarranged,  mingled,  indiscriminate. 

Prop,  j/.,  maintain,  sustain,  support,  stay. 

Propagate,  spread,  circulate,  diffuse,  disseminate,  extend,  breed,  in- 
crease. 

Propensity,  inclination,  disposition,  bias,  proneness,  tendency,  bent, 
predilection,  proclivity. 

Proper,  legitimate,  right,  just,  fair,  equitable,  honest,  suitable,  fit, 
adapted,  meet,  becoming,  befitting,  decent,  pertinent,  appropriate. 
Prosper,  flourish,  succeed,  grow  rich,  thrive,  advance. 

Prosperity,  well-being,  weal,  welfare,  happiness,  good  luck. 
Prostrate,  oppressed,  trampled  on,  abject,  paralyzed. 

Proverb,  adage,  maxim,  aphorism,  saying,  byword,  saw. 

Proximate,  next,  immediate,  nearest,  closest. 

Proximity,  nearness,  vicinity,  neighborhood. 

Proxy,  agent,  representative,  substitute,  delegate,  deputy. 

Prudence,  carefulness,  judgment,  discretion,  wisdom. 

Prurient,  itching,  craving,  hankering,  longing. 

Puerile,  youthful,  juvenile,  boyish,  childish,  infantile,  trifling,  weak 
silly. 

Punctilious,  trifling,  nice,  particular,  formal,  precise. 

Punctual,  exact,  precise,  nice,  particular,  prompt,  timely. 

Pungent,  acrid,  acrimonious,  piquant,  smart,  keen,  stinging. 

Putrefy,  rot,  decompose,  corrupt,  decay. 

Puzzle,  ».,  perplex,  confound,  embarrass,  bewilder,  confuse,  pose, 
mystify. 

QUACK,  impostor,  pretender,  charlatan,  empiric,  mountebank. 
Quaint,  artful,  curious,  far-fetched,  fanciful,  odd,  singular. 

Querulous,  complaining,  fretting,  repining. 

Query,  question,  inquiry,  interrogatory. 

Quibble,  cavil,  evade,  equivocate,  shuffle,  prevaricate. 

Quick,  lively,  ready,  prompt,  alert,  nimble,  agile,  active,  brisk,  expe- 
ditious, adroit,  fleet,  rapid,  swift,  impetuous,  sweeping,  dashing, 
clever,  sharp. 

Quote,  note,  repeat,  cite,  adduce. 

RABID,  mad,  furious,  raging,  frantic. 

Race,  course,  match,  pursuit,  career,  family,  clan,  house,  ancestry, 
lineage,  pedigree. 

Rack,  agonize,  wring,  torture,  excruciate,  distress,  harass. 

Racy,  spicy,  pungent,  smart,  spirited,  lively,  vivacious. 

Radiance,  splendor,  brightness,  brilliance,  brilliancy,  lustre,  glare. 
Radical,  organic,  innate,  fundamental,  original,  constitutional,  inher- 
ent, complete,  entire. 

Rancid,  fetid,  rank,  stinking,  sour,  tainted,  reasty. 

Rancor,  malignity,  hatred,  hostility,  antipathy,  animosity,  enmity,  ill- 
will,  spite. 

Range,  7/.,  arrange,  class,  place,  rank,  wander,  stroll,  roam,  ramble, 
rove,  expatiate. 

Rapacious,  ravenous,  voracious,  greedy,  grasping. 

Rapidity,  quickness,  swiftness,  speed,  velocity,  celerity,  fleetness,  ac- 
tivity, expedition,  despatch. 

Rapture,  ecstacy,  transport,  delight,  bliss. 

Rational,  reasonable,  sagacious,  judicious,  wise,  intellectual,  sensible, 
sane,  sound. 

Raze,  demolish,  destroy,  overthrow,  ruin,  dismantle. 

Realize,  accomplish,  achieve,  effect,  gain,  get,  acquire. 

Reciprocal,  mutual,  alternate,  interchangeable. 

Recompense,  k.,  indemnity,  compensation,  remuneration,  requital, 
satisfaction,  reward. 

Record, k.,  chronicle, register,  note,  trace, vestige, minute,  memorandum. 
Rectitude,  justice,  uprightness,  integrity,  virtue,  equity. 

Redundant,  superfluous,  unnecessary,  excessive,  luxuriant. 

Refer,  appeal,  allude,  advert,  relate,  belong. 

Reformation,  improvement,  reform,  amendment. 

Refractory,  unruly,  perverse,  ungovernable,  obstinate,  stubborn. 
Regret,  «.,  grief,  sorrow,  lamentation,  repentance,  remorse. 

Regular,  orderly,  methodic,  systematical,  uniform,  unvaried,  custom- 
ary, ordinary,  stated,  periodical. 


Reimburse,  refund,  repay,  satisfy,  indemnify. 

Reiterate,  repeat,  reproduce,  renew. 

Relevant,  fit,  proper,  suitable,  appropriate,  pertinent,  apt. 

Reliance,  trust,  hope,  dependence,  confidence 
Relief,  succor,  aid,  help,  redress,  alleviation. 

Relinquish,  give  up,  forsake,  resign,  surrender,  quit,  leave,  forego. 
Remedial,  healing,  curative,  mitigating,  sanitary. 

Remedy,  help,  relief,  redress,  cure,  specific,  reparation. 

Remorseless,  pitiless,  relentless,  cruel,  ruthless,  merciless,  barbarous 
Remote,  distant,  far,  secluded,  indirect. 

Renown,  distinction,  reputation,  fame,  glory,  celebrity. 

Reproduce,  propagate,  imitate,  represent,  copy. 

Reprove,  chide,  rebuke,  reprimand,  scold. 

Repudiate,  disown,  discord,  disavow,  renounce,  disclaim. 

Repugnant,  antagonistic,  averse,  adverse,  hostile,  unwilling. 
Repulsive,  forbidding,  odious,  ugly,  disagreeable,  revolting. 
Reputable,  creditable,  estimable,  honorable,  respectable. 

Respite,  reprieve,  interval,  stop,  pause. 

Revel,  feast,  carouse,  luxuriate,  banquet,  wallow. 

Revenge,  vengeance,  retaliation,  requital,  retribution. 

Revenue,  produce,  income,  fruits,  proceeds,  wealth. 

Reverence,  «.,  honor,  respect,  awe.  veneration,  deference,  worship 
homage. 

Revise,  review,  reconsider. 

Revive,  refresh,  renew,  renovate,  animate,  resuscitate,  vivify,  cheer, 
codSfort. 

Rich,  wealthy,  affluent,  opulent,  copious,  ample,  abundant,  exuberant 
plentiful,  fertile,  fruitful,  superb,  gorgeous. 

Rival,  «.,  antagonist,  opponent,  competitor. 

Road,  way,  highway,  route,  course,  path,  pathway,  anchorage. 

Roam,  ramble,  rove,  wander,  stray,  stroll. 

Robust,  strong,  lusty,  vigorous,  sinewy,  stout,  sturdy,  stalwart,  able- 
bodied. 

Rout,  v.y  discomfit,  beat,  defeat,  overthrow,  scatter. 

Route,  road,  course,  march,  way,  journey,  path,  direction. 

Rude,  rugged,  rough,  uncouth,  unpolished,  harsh,  gruff,  impertinent, 
saucy,  flippant,  impudent,  insolent,  churlish. 

Ruinous,  destructive,  hurtful,  deleterious,  baneful,  wasteful. 

Rule,  sway,  method,  system,  law,  maxim,  precept,  guide,  formula,  reg- 
ulation, government,  standard,  test. 

Rumor,  hearsay,  talk,  fame,  report,  bruit. 

Ruthless,  cruel,  savage,  barbarous,  inhuman,  merciless,  remorseless 
relentless,  unrelenting. 

SACRED,  holy,  hallowed,  divine,  consecrated,  dedicated,  devoted. 
Sanction,  confirm,  countenance,  encourage,  support,  ratify,  authorize 
Sapient,  sagacious,  discerning,  knowing,  sage,  wise. 

Saturate,  steep,  soak,  imbue. 

Saucy,  impertinent,  rude,  impudent,  insolent,  flippant,  forward. 
Savory,  tasty,  piquant,  tasteful,  palatable. 

Scandalize,  shock,  disgust,  offend,  calumniate,  vilify,  revile,  malign 
traduce,  defame,  slander. 

Scanty,  bare,  pinched,  insufficient,  slender,  meagre. 

Scatter,  strew,  spread,  fling  around,  disseminate,  disperse,  dissipate 
disoel. 

Secret,  clandestine,  concealed,  hidden,  sly,  underhand,  latent,  private 
Secular,  worldly,  temporal,  civil,  lay,  profane. 

Seditious,  factious,  tumultuous,  turbulent,  insurgent,  mutinous,  rebel- 
lious, incendiary. 

Seduce,  allure,  attract,  decoy,  entice,  abduct,  inveigle,  deprave. 
Sensation,  perception,  apprehension,  sentiment,  feeling,  impression. 
Sense,  discernment,  appreciation,  view,  opinion,  feeling,  perception, 
sensibility,  susceptibility,  thought,  judgment,  signification,  import 
significance,  meaning,  purport,  wisdom. 

Sensibility,  feeling,  perception,  sensitiveness,  susceptibility. 

Sensible,  a.,  wise,  intelligent,  reasonable,  sober,  sound,  conscious 
aware. 

Sensual,  carnal,  fleshly,  voluptuous,  animal. 

Set,  put,  place,  lay,  arrange. 

Settle,  arrange,  adjust,  regulate,  organize,  conclude,  determine,  fix 
ratify,  confirm. 

Sever,  break,  disconnect,  dissever,  separate  detach. 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


49 


Share,  portion,  lot,  division,  quantity,  quota,  contingent. 

Shock,  v.,  offend,  disgust,  appall,  dismay,  scare,  stun,  terrify. 

Shudder,  shake,  tremble,  quake,  quiver. 

Signalize,  distinguish,  exalt,  dignify,  immortalize. 

Significant,  expressive,  indicative,  important,  momentous,  weighty. 
Signify,  express,  declare,  intimate,  imply,  denote,  mean. 

Simple,  silly,  imbecile,  foolish,  elementary,  unmixed,  mere,  plain, 
frank,  open,  shallow. 

Sin,  wrong,  wickedness,  iniquity,  crime,  ungodliness,  evil. 

Sincere,  unvarnished,  genuine,  honest,  unaffected,  upright,  true,  plain, 
frank,  candid,  cordial. 

Sinister,  unfair,  disingenuous,  dishonest,  bad,  evil,  left,  unlucky. 
Skulk,  sneak,  hide,  cover,  slink,  shroud,  shelter,  veil. 

Slight,  «.,  neglect,  contempt,  scorn,  disdain. 

Slippery,  smooth,  glossy,  unsafe,  deceptive,  evasive. 

Sly,  cunning,  astute,  crafty,  artful,  subtle,  wily,  underhand. 

Small,  little,  diminutive,  minute,  slight,  trivial,  slender. 

Smart,  quick,  keen,  brisk,  sharp,  caustic,  severe,  clever,  witty,  showy, 
spruce. 

Smartness,  acuteness,  keenness,  liveliness,  dexterity,  cleverness. 

Sneer,  «.,  scoff,  taunt,  gibe,  mock. 

Snub,  rebuke,  reprimand,  humiliate,  nip,  clip,  dock. 

Snug,  close,  compact,  concealed,  comfortable. 

Solemn,  grave,  impressive,  serious,  formal,  sacred,  religious,  devo- 
tional. 

Solicitude,  carefulness,  concern,  trouble,  anxiety,  care. 

Soothe,  soften,  allay,  appease,  relieve,  assuage,  compose,  calm,  quiet, 
still,  hush,  lull,  pacify,  mitigate. 

Sordid,  earthly,  selfish,  mean,  covetous,  niggardly,  greedy,  close, 
dirty,  foul,  gross,  vile,  base. 

Sorrow,  affliction,  distress,  grief,  trouble,  sadness,  mourning. 

Speak,  converse,  say,  tell,  talk,  discourse,  utter,  express. 

Special,  exceptionable,  peculiar,  specific,  particular,  distinctive. 
Specify,  particularize,  state,  designate,  mention. 

Spite,  rancor,  spleen,  malice,  malevolence,  ill-will,  grudge,  pique,  vin- 
dictiveness. 

Splendid,  magnificent,  grand,  brilliant,  showy,  superb,  sumptuous, 
pompous,  glorious,  illustrious,  signal. 

Spread,  extend,  disperse,  expand,  diffuse,  distribute,  circulate,  propa- 
gate, disseminate,  unfurl. 

Stable,  a.,  firm,  established,  solid,  substantial, constant,  staunch,  stead- 
fast, steady,  fast,  standing,  permanent,  perpetual. 

Staff,  mark,  impress,  impression,  print,  genus,  kind,  description,  make, 
mould,  type. 

Station,  standing,  position,  post,  office,  situation,  state,  rank,  location. 
Sterling,  genuine,  pure,  unalloyed,  unadulterated,  sound,  substantial. 
Stimulate,  spur,  goad,  animate,  incite,  encourage,  impel,  prompt, 
arouse,  rouse. 

Stingy,  close,  mean,  niggardly,  sparing. 

Stipend,  remuneration,  allowance,  pay,  wages,  salary,  hire. 

Stipulate,  bargain,  contract,  agree  on,  engage,  covenant. 

Strengthen,  fortify,  reenforce,  invigorate,  consolidate,  establish, 
substantiate. 

Strenuous,  vigorous,  zealous,  vehement, bold,  ardent,  strong,  resolute. 
Strong,  forcible,  cogent,  powerful,  fortified,  potent,  sturdy,  stalwart, 
hale,  robust,  brawny,  sinewy,  athletic,  hardy,  firm. 

Studious,  diligent,  thoughtful,  careful,  attentive,  mindful. 

Sturdy,  robust,  strong,  stalwart,  brawny,  muscular. 

Suavity,  mildness,  gentleness,  urbanity,  sweetness,  pleasantness. 
Subterfuge,  evasion,  shift,  quirk,  subtlety,  artifice,  dodge. 

Subtile,  fine,  thin,  rare,  delicate,  nice,  acute,  refined. 

Subtle,  cunning,  crafty,  astute,  sly,  wily,  artful,  shrewd. 

Succumb,  yield,  submit,  comply,  resign,  surrender,  give  in. 

Suffrage,  vote,  voice. 

Suggest,  bint,  allude,  refer,  intimate,  insinuate,  propose. 

Sully,  stain,  tarnish,  soil,  spoil,  blemish,  mar,  bedim,  disgrace,  dis- 
honor. 

Superficial,  shallow,  flimsy,  slight,  imperfect,  external,  outer. 

Supine,  indolent,  sluggish,  lazy,  listless,  dull,  apathetic,  torpid,  inac- 
tive, careless. 

Supple,  lithe,  flexible,  pliant,  bending,  yielding,  compliant. 

Support,  v .,  sustain,  prop,  uphold,  upbear,  maintain,  help,  befriend,  as- 

&r 


sist,  countenance,  patronize,  favor,  second,  further,  forward,  pro- 
mote, nurture,  nourish,  foster,  cherish,  endure,  suffer. 

Sure,  infallible,  certain,  indisputable,  unmistakable,  doubtless,  firm, 
safe,  secure,  confident,  positive,  assured. 

Surmise,  v. , presume,  conjecture,  guess,  suppose,  suspect. 

Surmount,  overcome,  subdue,  vanquish,  conquer,  surpass,  exceed 

Surreptitious,  underhand,  furtive,  stealthy,  clandestine. 

Susceptible,  sensible,  sensitive,  excitable,  tender. 

Swear,  declare,  affirm,  depose,  testify,  curse,  blaspheme. 

Symbol,  representation,  sign,  token,  emblem,  figure,  type. 

Sympathy,  commiseration,  condolence,  pity,  compassion,  agreement, 
fellow-feeling,  union,  concert. 

Synonymous,  like,  equivalent,  interchangeable,  identical,  tantamount. 

Synopsis,  epitome,  syllabus. 

System,  method,  arrangement,  regularity,  order,  rule,  plan,  scheme. 

TALE,  anecdote,  story,  fable,  legend,  memoir,  novel,  narrative,  inci- 
dent, romance. 

Talent,  ability,  faculty,  genius,  cleverness,  capability,  gift,  endow 
ment. 

Talk,  conversation,  chat,  gossip,  dialogue,  discourse,  report,  rumor. 

| Tantamount,  equivalent,  synonymous,  equal  to. 

Tardy,  slow,  dilatory,  tedious,  sluggish. 

Tarnish,  z/.,  stain,  blemish,  sully,  soil,  dim,  darken,  obscure,  taint. 

Tarry,  await,  stay,  remain,  continue,  linger,  lag,  loiter,  abide,  lodge, 
dwell. 

Tart,  sour,  acid,  sharp,  keen,  acrid,  bitter,  caustic,  acrimonious. 

Taste,  judgment,  discernment,  perception,  sensibility,  relish,  gusto, 
zest,  nicety,  elegance,  refinement. 

Tautology,  verbosity,  repetition,  reiteration. 

Tear,  rend,  break,  lacerate,  sever,  sunder. 

Tease,  z>.,  vex,  plague,  torment,  irritate,  disturb,  provoke. 

Tedious,  slow,  dilatory,  tardy,  wearisome,  irksome,  dreary,  tiresome 
prosy,  sluggish. 

Tell,  number,  enumerate,  count,  state,  mention,  communicate,  apprise 
impart,  reveal,  inform,  ascertain,  signify,  acquaint,  notify,  intimate 
report. 

Temporary.— See  Temporal. 

Temporize,  fence,  manoeuvre,  procrastinate. 

Tempt,  allure,  try,  test,  prove,  draw,  attract,  decoy,  entice,  seduce. 

Tenacity,  retentiveness,  fixity,  stubbornness. 

Tendency,  inclination,  leaning,  propensity,  proclivity,  proneness,  pre 
disposition,  scope,  direction,  bent,  drift,  aim,  bias. 

Tenderness,  delicacy,  softness,  beneficence,  benignity,  humanity,  sen 
sibility,  benevolence,  kindness,  pity,  clemency. 

Testify,  depose,  declare,  swear,  attest,  witness,  prove,  certify,  confirm 

Testimony,  witness,  confirmation,  attestation,  proof,  evidence,  corrob 
oration. 

Theme,  subject,  topic,  text,  essay. 

Theory,  speculation,  scheme,  plea,  hypothesis,  conjecture. 

Thought,  idea,  conception,  imagination,  fancy,  conceit,  notion,  suppo 
sition,  care,  provision,  consideration,  opinion,  view,  sentiment,  re- 
flection, deliberation. 

| Thraldom,  slavery,  enslavement,  servitude,  bondage,  vassalage,  serf 
ism,  captivity. 

Throb,  palpitate,  heave,  beat. 

Throng,  concourse,  host,  multitude,  crowd,  swarm,  horde,  shoa' 
myriad. 

Tie,  z/.,  bind,  restrain,  restrict,  oblige,  secure,  unite,  join. 

Tie,  «.,  band,  ligament,  ligature. 

Time,  duration,  season,  period,  era,  age,  date,  span,  spell. 

Tipsy,  drunk,  intoxicated,  inebriated,  fuddled. 

Tolerate,  allow,  admit,  receive,  suffer,  permit,  let,  endure,  abide. 

Tongue,  speech,  language,  idiom,  dialect,  talk,  discourse. 

Top,  summit,  apex,  head,  crown,  surface. 

Torpid,  benumbed,  numb,  dull,  stupid,  sluggish,  inert. 

Torrid,  burning,  hot,  parching,  scorching,  sultry. 

Tortuous,  twisted,  winding,  crooked,  indirect. 

Torture,  torment,  anguish,  agony. 

Touching,  tender,  affecting,  moving,  pathetic. 

Tractable,  docile,  manageable,  amenable. 

Trade,  traffic,  commerce,  dealing,  occupation,  employment,  office. 

-<« 


5° 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


Traditional,  oral,  uncertain,  transmitted. 

Traffic,  trade,  exchange,  commerce,  intercourse. 

Trammel,  ».,  fetter,  shackle,  clog,  bond,  chain,  impediment,  hinder- 
ance. 

Tranquil,  still,  unruffled,  peaceful,  quiet,  hushed. 

Transaction,  negotiation,  occurrence,  proceeding,  affair. 

Transgress,  pass,  exceed,  violate,  infringe,  contravene,  offend,  tres- 
pass. 

Trash,  nonsense,  twaddle,  trifles,  dross. 

Travel,  trip,  ramble,  peregrination, excursion,  journey,  tour,  voyage. 
Traverse,  cross,  pass,  thwart,  obstruct. 

Treacherous,  traitorous,  disloyal,  treasonable,  faithless,  false-hearted, 
perfidious,  sly,  false. 

Trenchant,  cutting,  sharp,  severe,  sarcastic. 

Trite,  stale,  old,  ordinary,  commonplace,  hackneyed. 

Triumph,  achievement,  ovation,  victory,  conquest,  jubilation. 

Trivial,  trifling,  petty,  small,  frivolous,  unimportant,  insignificant. 
Truculent,  fierce,  savage,  barbarous,  cruel,  ruthless. 

True,  genuine,  actual,  sincere,  unaffected,  true-hearted,  honest,  up- 
right, veritable,  real,  veracious,  authentic,  exact,  accurate,  correct. 
Tumult,  ferment,  outbreak,  brawl,  fray,  turbulence,  uproar,  commo- 
tion, hubbub,  disturbance,  riot. 

Tumultuous,  turbulent,  riotous,  disorderly,  disturbed,  confused,  un- 
ruly. 

Tune,  tone,  air,  melody,  strain. 

Turbid,  foul,  thick,  muddy,  impure,  unsettled. 

Turpitude,  depravity,  vileness,  baseness,  wickedness,  sin. 

Tutor,  teacher,  preceptor,  instructor,  guardian,  governor. 

Twit,  taint,  mock,  jeer,  gibe,  sneer,  scoff. 

Type,  emblem,  symbol,  figure,  sign,  kind,  sort,  letter. 

Tyro,  novice,  beginner,  learner. 

UGLY,  unsightly,  plain, homely,  ill-favored,  hideous. 

Ultimate,  farthest,  last,  latest,  final,  eventual. 

Umbrage,  offence,  dissatisfaction,  displeasure,  resentment. 

Umpire,  referee,  arbitrator,  judge,  arbiter. 

Unanimity,  accord,  agreement,  unity,  concord. 

Unadvised,  thoughtless,  indiscreet,  imprudent 
Unanimous,  agreeing,  like-minded. 

Unblemished,  pure,  spotless,  unspotted,  unsullied. 

Unbridled,  wanton,  licentious,  dissolute, loose,  lax. 

Uncertain,  doubtful,  dubious,  questionable,  fitful,  equivocal,  ambigu- 
ous, indistinct,  variable,  fluctuating. 

Uncivil,  rude,  discourteous,  disrespectful,  disobliging. 

Unclean,  dirty,  foul,  filthy,  sullied. 

Uncommon,  rare,  strange,  scarce,  singular,  choice,  unique,  unusual. 
Unconcerned,  careless,  indifferent,  apathetic. 

Uncouth,  strange,  odd,  clumsy,  ungainly. 

Uncover,  reveal,  strip,  expose,  lay  bare,  divest. 

Under,  below,  underneath,  beneath,  subordinate,  lower,  inferior. 
Undergo,  bear,  suffer,  endure,  sustain,  experience. 

Understanding,  knowledge,  intellect,  intelligence,  faculty,  comprehen- 
sion, mind,  reason,  brains. 

Undertake,  engage  in,  embark  in,  agree,  promise. 

Undo,  annul,  frustrate,  untie,  unfasten,  destroy. 

Uneasy,  restless,  disturbed,  unquiet,  stiff,  awkward. 

Unfair,  wrongful,  dishonest,  unjust. 

Unfit,  a .,  improper,  unsuitable,  inconsistent,  untimely,  incompetent. 
Unfortunate,  calamitous,  ill-fated,  unlucky,  wretched,  unhappy,  mis- 
erable. 

Unfounded,  false,  groundless,  baseless. 

Uniform,  regular,  symmetrical,  equal,  even,  alike,  unvaried. 
Uninterrupted,  continuous,  perpetual,  unceasing,  incessant,  endless. 
Union,  junction,  combination,  alliance,  confederacy,  league,  coalition, 
agreement,  concert. 

Unique,  unequalled,  uncommon,  rare,  choice,  matchless. 

Unison,  harmony,  concord,  agreement,  union. 

Unity,  oneness,  accord,  uniformity,  agreement. 

Universal,  general,  all,  entire,  total,  eatholic. 

Unlimited,  absolute,  undefined,  boundless,  infinite. 

Unreasonable,  foolish,  silly,  absurd,  preposterous,  ridiculous. 
Unrivalled,  unequalled,  unique,  unexampled,  incomparable,  matchless. 


Unroll,  unfold,  open,  discover. 

Unruly,  ungovernable,  unmanageable,  refractory. 

Unusual,  rare,  unwonted,  singular,  uncommon,  remarkable,  strange; 
extraordinary. 

Upbraid,  blame,  reproach,  taunt,  reprove,  rebuke,  chide,  censure. 
Uphold,  maintain,  defend,  sustain,  support,  vindicate. 

Upright,  vertical,  perpendicular,  erect,  just,  equitable,  fair,  pure,  hon 
orable. 

Uprightness,  honesty,  integrity,  fairness,  goodness,  probity,  virtue 
honor. 

Uproot,  eradicate,  exterminate,  weed  out. 

Urge,  incite,  impel,  push,  drive,  instigate,  stimulate,  press,  induce,  so 
licit. 

Urgent,  pressing,  important,  imperative,  immediate,  serious,  wanted. 
Usage,  custom,  fashion,  practice,  prescription. 

Use,  n. , usage,  practice,  habit,  custom,  avail,  advantage,  utility,  bene- 
fit, application. 

Use,  zc,  employ,  exercise,  occupy,  practise,  accustom,  inure. 

Useful,  advantageous,  serviceable,  available,  helpful,  beneficial,  good 
Useless,  unserviceable,  fruitless,  idle,  profitless. 

Usual,  ordinary,  common,  accustomed,  habitual,  wonted,  customary, 
general. 

Usurp,  arrogate,  seize,  appropriate,  assume. 

Utility,  benefit,  advantage,  profit,  service,  avail,  usefulness. 

Utmost,  farthest,  remotest,  uttermost,  greatest. 

Utter,  a .,  extreme,  excessive,  sheer,  mere,  pure. 

Utter,  v. . speak,  articulate,  pronounce,  express,  issue. 

Utterly,  totally,  completely,  wholly,  quite,  altogether,  entirely. 

VACANT,  empty,  unfilled,  unoccupied,  thoughtless,  unthinking. 
Vagrant,  «.,  wanderer,  beggar,  tramp,  vagabond,  rogue. 

Vague,  unsettled,  undetermined,  uncertain,  pointless,  indefinite. 

Vain,  useless,  fruitless,  empty,  worthless,  inflated,  proud,  unreal,  un 
availing. 

Valiant,  brave,  bold,  valorous,  courageous,  gallant. 

Valid,  weighty,  strong,  powerful,  sound,  binding,  efficient. 

Valor,  courage,  gallantry,  boldness,  bravery,  heroism. 

Value,  v.,  appraise,  assess,  reckon,  appreciate,  estimate,  prize,  esteem, 
treasure. 

Vanish,  disappear,  fade,  melt,  dissolve. 

Vanity,  emptiness,  conceit,  self-conceit,  affectedness. 

Vapid,  dull,  fiat,  insipid,  stale,  tame. 

Vapor,  fume,  smoke,  mist,  fog,  steam. 

Variable,  changeable,  unsteady,  inconstant,  shifting,  wavering,  fickie, 
restless,  fitful. 

Variety,  difference,  diversity,  change,  diversification,  mixture,  medley, 
miscellany, 

Vast,  spacious,  boundless,  mighty,  enormous,  immense,  colossal 
gigantic,  huge,  prodigious. 

Vaunt,  boast,  brag,  puff,  hawk,  advertise,  flourish,  parade. 

Vend,  sell,  retail,  dispose  of,  hawk. 

Venerable,  grave,  sage,  wise,  old,  reverend. 

Venial,  pardonable,  excusable,  justifiable. 

Venom,  poison,  virus,  spite,  malice,  malignity. 

Vent,  opening,  touch-hole,  outlet,  utterance. 

Venture,  «.,  speculation,  chance,  peril,  stake. 

Venture,  z/.,  dare,  adventure,  risk,  hazard,  jeopardize. 

Veracity,  truth,  truthfulness,  credibility,  accuracy. 

Verbal,  oral,  spoken,  literal,  parole,  unwritten. 

Verdict,  judgment,  finding,  decision,  answer. 

Versatile,  unsteady,  changeable,  unfixed,  wavering,  vacillating,  oscil- 
lating, fluctuating,  inconstant,  fickle,  restless,  manifold. 

Versed,  skilled,  practised,  conversant,  clever,  proficient. 

Vice,  «.,  vileness,  corruption,  depravity,  pollution,  immorality,  wick- 
edness, guilt,  iniquity,  crime,  fault,  defect,  blemish. 

Vigilant,  circumspect,  watchful,  wakeful,  observant,  cautious,  careful. 
Vigorous,  healthy,  strong,  powerful,  energetic,  stalwart,  robust,  hardy< 
firm,  spirited,  determined. 

Vile,  ignoble,  base,  low,  worthless,  abject,  sordid,  mean,  dishonorable 
sinful,  wicked,  vicious. 

Vilify,  debase,  degrade,  slander,  decry,  defame,  scandalize,  upbraid 
brand,  stigmatize,  denounce. 


SYNONYMES  OF  WORDS  IN  GENERAL  USE. 


Vindictive,  spiteful,  resentful,  revengeful,  unforgiving. 

Virtuous,  just,  upright,  moral,  chaste,  pure. 

Visible,  apparent,  obvious,  clear,  plain,  evident, manifest,  distinct,  pal- 
pable, patent. 

Vivid,  lively,  clear,  lucid,  bright,  sunny,  glowing,  graphic. 

Vocation,  profession,  calling,  trade,  business,  employment,  office,  mis- 
sion. 

Vogue,  usage,  way,  custom,  fashion,  use,  practice. 

Void,  null,  invalid,  unfilled,  empty,  hollow,  useless,  nugatory. 

WAFT,  transport,  bear,  convey. 

Wage,  make,  carry  on,  engage  in,  undertake. 

Wages,  salary,  hire,  allowance,  stipend,  pay,  remuneration,  earnings. 

Waggish,  frolicsome,  funny,  jocular,  sportive,  merry,  wanton. 

Wait,  await,  abide,  bide,  stay,  remain,  tarry. 

Waive,  forego,  relinquish,  let  go. 

Wanton,  licentious,  libertine,  unrestrained,  unbridled,  uncurbed,  dis- 
solute, loose, lax. 

Ward,  v.,  avert,  parry,  fend,  repel,  turn  aside,  guard,  defend. 

Warlike,  bellicose,  martial,  military,  soldier  like. 

Warm,  affectionate,  attached,  devoted,  ardent,  fervent,  fervid,  glow- 
ing. 

Warmth,  ardor,  fervency,  fervor,  cordiality,  vehemence,  heat,  fervid- 
ness, glow. 

Wary,  careful,  cautious,  circumspect,  guarded,  watchful,  heedful,  pru- 
dent, vigilant. 

Wash,  clean,  rinse,  wet, moisten,  stain,  tint. 

Waste,  v.,  squander,  dissipate,  lavish,  destroy,  decay,  dwindle,  wither. 

Way,  method,  plan,  system,  means,  manner,  mode,  form,  fashion, 
course,  process,  road,  route,  track,  path,  habit,  practice. 

Wayward,  forward,  obstinate,  stubborn,  unruly,  perverse,  disobedient. 

Weak,  feeble,  infirm,  enfeebled,  debilitated,  powerless,  helpless,  ema- 
ciated, prostrate,  thin,  watery,  diluted,  flimsy,  slight,  poor,  silly, 
defenceless. 

Weal,  prosperity,  welfare,  advantage,  well-being,  happiness. 

Wealth,  riches,  opulence,  affluence,  plenty,  mammon. 

Welfare,  good  fortune,  well-being,  prosperity,  happiness,  success. 

Wheedle,  coax,  cajole,  flatter,  entice,  decoy,  humor,  court. 

White,  snowy,  pure,  spotless,  unspotted,  unblemished,  stainless,  clean. 

Whole,  sound,  healthy,  well,  total,  all,  entire,  perfect,  complete,  in- 
tegral, aggregate,  undivided. 

Wholesome,  nutritious,  healthy,  salubrious,  healing,  salutary. 

Wholly,  entirely,  totally,  altogether,  quite,  perfectly,  completely,  ut- 
terly. 

Wicked,  bad,  ill,  unjust,  irreligious,  ungodly,  godless,  profane,  impi- 
ous, unhallowed,  black,  dark,  foul,  atrocious,  villanous,  enormous, 
monstrous,  outrageous,  profligate,  abandoned. 

Wide,  broad,  ample,  large,  expanded,  diffuse,  extensive. 

Wild,  savage,  uncivilized,  loose,  irregular,  disorderly,  untamed,  un- 
domesticated, unruly. 


Wilful,  perverse,  stubborn,  self-willed,  headstrong,  obstinate. 

Wilfully,  designedly,  purposely,  intentionally. 

Willingly,  voluntarily,  spontaneously,  gratuitously. 

Win,  get,  obtain,  gain,  procure,  effect,  realize,  accomplish,  achieve. 

Wind,  7-.,  coil,  twine,  wreathe,  turn,  bend,  curve,  twist,  wriggle. 

Wing,  v.,  fly,  mount,  ascend,  soar,  tower. 

Wisdom,  sense,  knowledge,  learning,  prudence,  judgment,  intelli 
gence,  sagacity. 

Wise,  intelligent,  learned,  skilled,  judicious,  rational,  discreet,  pru- 
dent. 

Wish,  desire,  long  for,  yearn,  hanker,  covet. 

Wit,  mind,  intellect,  understanding,  genius,  imagination,  humor,  sa- 
tire, irony,  mirth. 

Woe,  distress,  sorrow,  affliction,  disaster,  trouble. 

Wonder,  amazement,  surprise,  astonishment,  admiration,  miracle, 
marvel,  prodigy,  curiosity,  rarity. 

Wonderful,  marvellous,  wondrous,  amazing,  astonishing,  striking,  sur- 
prising, admirable. 

Wondrous,  wonderful,  amazing,  marvellous,  stupendous,  miraculous. 

Word,  term,  expression,  accent,  promise,  engagement,  account,  tidings, 
message,  order,  command,  signal. 

Worldly,  terrestrial,  mundane,  temporal,  secular,  carnal,  earthly. 

Worry,  plague,  tease,  torment,  vex,  annoy,  irritate,  fret. 

Worth,  price,  value,  rate,  desert,  merit,  virtue,  excellence. 

Worthless,  useless,  valueless,  frivolous,  corrupt,  libertine,  dissolute, 
licentious,  profligate. 

Worthy,  excellent,  deserving,  eligible,  preferable,  meritorious,  esti- 
mable, commendable,  laudable,  praiseworthy. 

Wrap,  muffle,  envelop,  fold,  encase. 

Wreathe,  v.,  turn,  twist,  interweave,  enfold. 

Wreck,  ddbris,  ruins,  havoc,  rubbish. 

Wretched,  deplorable,  miserable,  unhappy,  distressed,  afflicted,  un- 
fortunate, afflicting,  disastrous,  calamitous, drear,  dismal. 

Wring,  v.,  twist,  wrench,  wrest,  distort,  squeeze. 

Wrong,  v.,  abuse,  injure,  maltreat,  oppress,  aggrieve. 

Wrong,  a.,  bad,  evil,  incorrect,  erroneous,  unsuitable,  improper,  un 
just. 

Wry,  twisted,  distorted,  awry,  crooked. 

YEARN,  hanker  after,  long  for,  desire,  crave. 

Yield,  bear,  give,  afford,  impart,  communicate, confer,  bestow, give  up, 
abdicate,  resign,  cede,  surrender,  relinquish,  relax,  quit,  forego,  let 
go,  waive,  comply,  conform,  accede,  assent,  acquiesce,  succumb 
sink,  submit. 

Yoke,  zc,  couple,  link,  connect. 

Youth,  boy,  lad,  minority,  adolescence,  juvenility. 

Youthful,  young,  juvenile,  boyish,  girlish,  puerile. 

ZEAL,  energy,  fervor,  ardor,  earnestness,  enthusiasm,  eagerness 

Zest,  relish  gusto,  flavor. 


A. 

ESSENCE  destroys  trifling  intimacies,  but  it 
invigorates  strong  ones. — Rochefoucauld. 

Actions  are  of  so  mixed  a nature,  that  as 
men  pry  into  them,  or  observe  some  parts 
more  than  others,  they  take  different  hues, 
and  put  contrary  interpretations  on  them . — 
Addison. 

urry  and  cunning  are  the  two  apprentices  of  dis- 
patch and  skill,  but  neither  of  them  ever  learned  their  mas- 
ter’s trade. — Colton. 

Admiration  is  a short-lived  passion,  that  immediately 
decays  upon  growing  familiar  with  its  object,  unless  it  still 
be  fed  with  fresh  discoveries. — Addison. 

He  that  hath  never  known  adversity  is  but  half  acquainted 
with  others,  or  with  himself. — Atterbury. 

Adversity  borrows  its  sharpest  sting  from  our  impatience. 
— Home. 

Let  no  man  presume  to  give  advice  to  others  that  has  not 
at  first  given  good  counsel  to  himself. — SENECA. 

Affection  is  still  a bribe  of  judgment,  and  it  is  hard  for  a 
man  to  admit  a reason  against  the  thing  he  loves,  or  to  con- 
fess the  force  of  an  argument  against  an  intent. — South. 

The  furnace  of  affliction  refines  us  from  earthly  drowsi- 
ness, and  softens  us  for  the  impression  of  God’s  own  stamp. 
— Boyle. 

Age  makes  us  most  fondly  hug  and  retain  the  good  things 
of  this  life,  when  we  have  the  least  prospect  of  enjoying 
them. — Atterbury. 

Providence  gives  us  notice  by  sensible  declensions  that  we 
may  disengage  from  the  world  by  degrees. — Collier. 

It  is  proper  that  alms  should  come  out  of  a little  purse  as 
well  as  out  of  a great  sack  ; but  surely  when  there  is  plenty, 
charity  is  a duty,  not  a courtesy  ; it  is  a tribute  imposed  by 
Heaven  upon  us,  and  he  is  not  a good  subject  who  refuses  to 
pay  it. — Feltham. 


Ambition  sufficiently  plagues  her  proselytes  by  keeping 
them  always  in  show,  like  the  statues  in  a public  place. - 
Montagne. 

Ambition  breaks  the  ties  of  blood  and  forgets  the  obliga- 
tions of  gratitude. — Scott. 

Title  and  ancestry  render  a good  name  illustrious,  but  an 
ill  one  more  contemptible. — Addison. 

The  man  who  has  not  anything  to  boast  of  but  his  illustri- 
ous ancestors  is  like  a potato — the  only  good  belonging  to 
him  is  underground. — OvERBURY. 

When  anger  arises,  think  of  the  consequences. — Confu- 
cius. 

Anger  is  a transient  hatred,  or  at  least,  very  like  it.  — South. 

Anxiety  is  the  passion  of  human  life. — Addison. 

According  to  the  stories,  apathy  meant  the  extinction  of 
the  passions  by  the  ascendancy  of  reason. — FLEMING. 

Passionate  expressions  and  vehement  assertions  are  no 
arguments,  unless  it  be  of  the  weakness  of  the  cause  that  is 
defended  by  them,  or  of  the  man  who  defends  it. — Chilling- 
WORTH. 

If  your  arguments  be  rational,  offer  them  in  as  moving  a 
manner  as  the  nature  of  the  subject  will  admit ; but  beware 
if  the  pathetic  part  swallow  up  the  rational. — Swift. 

The  enemy  of  art  is  the  enemy  of  nature.  Art  is  nothing 
but  the  highest  sagacity  and  exertion  of  human  nature  ; and 
what  nature  will  he  honor  who  honors  not  the  human  ? — 
Lavater. 

No  atheist,  as  such,  can  be  a true  friend,  an  affectionate 
relative,  or  a loyal  subject. — Bently. 

Men  are  atheistical  because  they  are  at  first  vicious  ; and 
question  the  truth  of  Christianity  because  they  hate  the  prac- 
tice.— South. 

By  attention  ideas  are  registered  in  the  memory.— Locke. 

I never  knew  any  man  cured  of  inattention. — Swift. 

The  practice  of  all  ages  and  all  countries  hath  been  to  do 
honor  to  those  who  are  invested  with  public  authority.— 
Addison. 


SELECT  SHORT  PROSE  QUOTATIONS., 


53 


There  is  no  vice  which  mankind  carries  to  such  wild  ex- 
tremities as  that  of  avarice. — Seneca. 

Poverty  is  in  want  of  much,  but  avarice  of  everything. — 
Lyons. 

B. 

Beauty  is  nothing  else  but  a just  accord  and  mutual  har- 
mony of  the  members,  animated  by  a healthful  constitution. 

-Dryden. 

No  better  cosmetics  than  a severe  temperance  and  purity, 
modesty  and  humility,  a gracious  temper  and  calmness  of 
spirit ; no  true  beauty  without  the  signature  of  these  graces 
in  the  very  countenance. — Ray. 

Rare  benevolence,  the  minister  of  God. — Carlyle. 

A man  must  be  exceedingly  stupid,  as  well  as  uncharitable, 
who  believes  there  is  no  virtue  but  on  his  own  side. — Addison 
on  Bigotry. 

The  blessings  of  fortune  are  the  lowest  ; the  next  are  the 
bodily  advantages  of  strength  and  health  ; but  the  superlative 
blessings,  in  fine,  are  those  of  the  mind. — L’Estrange. 

The  bold  and  sufficient  pursue  their  game  with  more  pas- 
sion, endeavor  and  application,  and  therefore  often  succeed. — 
Temple. 

Every  good  book  is  an  action,  and  every  great  action  is  a 
book. — Luther. 

We  ought  to  regard  books  as  we  do  sweetmeats,  not  wholly 
to  aim  at  the  pleasantest,  but  chiefly  to  respect  the  wholesom- 
est  ; not  forbidding  either,  but  approving  the  latter  most. 
—Plutarch. 

C. 

In  some  calamities  we  can  have  no  relief  but  from  God 
alone  ; and  what  would  men  do  in  such  a case  if  it  were  not 
for  God  ? — Tillotson. 

As  the  calling  dignifies  the  man,  so  the  man  much  more 
advances  his  calling. — South. 

If  the  calumniator  bespatters  and  belies  me,  I will  en- 
deavor to  convince  him  by  my  life  and  manners,  but  not  by 
being  like  himself. — South. 

A man  should  never  be  ashamed  to  own  he  has  been  in  the 
wrong,  which  is  but  saying  in  other  words  that  he  is  wiser  to- 
day than  he  was  yesterday. — Pope  on  Candor. 

Speech  of  touch  towards  others  should  be  sparingly  used  ; 
but  discourse  ought  to  be  as  a field,  without  coming  home  to 
any  man. — Bacon  on  Censoriousness. 

Chance  is  but  the  pseudonym  of  God  for  these  particular 
cases  which  He  does  not  choose  to  subscribe  openly  with  his 
own  sign-manual. — Coleridge. 

The  opposites  of  apparent  chance  are  constancy  and  sensible 
interposition. — Paley. 

These  two  things,  contradictory  as  they  may  seem,  must  go 
together,  manly  dependence  and  manly  independence,  manly 
reliance  and  manly  self-reliance. — Wadsworth  on  Char- 
acter. 

The  smallest  act  of  charity  shall  stand  us  in  great  stead. — 
Atterbury. 

Charity  is  made  the  constant  companion  and  perfection  of 
all  virtues  ; and  well  it  is  for  that  virtue  where  it  most  enters 
and  longest  stays. — Sprat. 


To  be  pure-minded  and  cheerfully  disposed  at  hours  of  meat; 
sleep  and  exercise,  is  one  of  the  best  precepts  of  long  last- 
ing.— Bacon. 

The  cheerful  man,  truly  wise,  creams  off  nature,  leaving 
the  sour  and  the  dregs  for  philosophy  and  reason  to  lap  on. — 
Swift. 

I love  little  children  ; and  it  is  not  a slight  thing  when 
they,  who  are  fresh  from  God,  love  us. — Dickens. 

Children  are  travelers  newly  arrived  in  a strange  country  ; 
we  should  therefore  make  conscience  not  to  mislead  them.— 
Locke. 

I seem,  for  my  own  part,  to  see  the  benevolence  of  the 
Deity  more  clearly  in  the  presence  of  very  young  children 
than  in  anything  in  the  world. — Paley. 

There  never  was  law,  or  sect,  or  opinion  did  so  much  mag- 
nify goodness  as  the  Christian  religion  doth. — Bacon. 

Christianity,  which  is  always  true  to  the  heart,  knows  no 
abstract  virtues,  but  virtues  resulting  from  our  wants  and  use- 
ful  to  all.— Charnock. 

Everywhere  throughout  all  generations  and  ages  of  the  Chris- 
tian world,  no  Church  ever  perceived  the  Word  of  God  to  be 
against  it. — Hooker. 

It  seems  to  be  in  the  power  ®f  a reasonable  clergyman  to 
make  the  most  ignorant  man  comprehend  his  duty. — Swift. 

Comedy  is  a representation  of  common  life  in  low  subjects. 
— Dryden. 

Common  sense  is  a phrase  employed  to  denote  that  degree 
of  intelligence,  sagacity,  and  prudence  which  is  common  tn 
all  men. — Fleming. 

A crowd  is  not  company,  and  faces  are  but  a gallery  of 
pictures,  where  there  is  no  love.  -Bacon. 

Bad  company  is  like  a nail  driven  into  a post,  which  after 
the  first  or  second  blow  may  be  drawn  out  with  little  difficulty  ; 
but  being  once  driven  up  to  the  head,  the  pincers  cannot 
take  hold  to  draw  it  out,  but  which  can  only  be  done  by  the 
destruction  of  the  wood. — St.  Augustine. 

Long  sentences  in  a short  composition  are  like  large 
rooms  in  a little  house- — Shenstone. 

Too  great  confidence  in  success  is  the  likeliest  to  prevent 
it  ; because  it  hinders  us  from  making  the  best  use  of  the  ad- 
vantages which  we  enjoy. — Atterbury. 

Confidence  is  a plant  of  slow  growth  in  an  aged  bosom. — 
Chatham. 

Conscience  is  the  great  ledger-book  in  which  all  our  offences 
are  written  and  registered. — Burton. 

The  authority  of  conscience  stands  founded  upon  its  vice- 
regency and  deputation  under  God. — South. 

The  last  and  crowning  privilege,  or  rather  property  of 
friendship  is  constancy. — South. 

It  is  often  more  necessary  to  conceal  contempt  than  resent- 
ment ; the  former  being  never  forgiven,  but  the  latter  some- 
times forgot. — Chesterfield. 

The  highest  point  outward  things  can  bring  me  into  is  the 
contentment  of  the  mind,  with  which  no  state  is  miser- 
able.— Sidney. 

The  advantage  of  conversation  is  such  that,  for  want  of 
company,  a man  had  better  talk  to  a post  than  let  his  thoughts 
lie  smoking  and  smothering. — Collier. 


54 


SELECT  SHORT  PROSE  QUOTATIONS 


Conversation  warms  the  mind,  enlivens  the  imagination, 
and  is  continually  starting  fresh  game  that  is  immediately  pur- 
sued and  taken,  and  which  would  never  have  occurred  in  the 
dull  intercourse  of  epistolary  correspondence. — Franklin. 

The  first  ingredient  in  conversation  is  truth  ; the  next, 
good  sense  ; the  third,  good  humor  ; and  the  fourth,  wit. — 
Temple. 

Dangers  are  light,  if  they  once  seem  light  ; and  more 
dangers  have  deceived  men  than  forced  them. — Bacon  on 

Courage. 

Courtship  consists  in  a number  of  quiet  attentions,  not  so 
pointed  as  to  alarm,  nor  so  vague  as  not  to  be  understood. — 
Sterne. 

The  covetous  man  heaps  up  riches,  not  to  enjoy  them,  but 
to  have  them. — TlLLOTSON. 

Cunning  pays  no  regard  to  virtue,  and  is  but  the  low  mimic 
of  wisdom. — Bolingbroke. 

Cunning  leads  to  knavery  ; it  is  but  a step  from  one  to  the 
other,  and  that  very  slippery  ; lying  only  makes  the  difference  ; 
add  that  to  cunning,  and  it  is  knavery. — La  Bruyere. 

Curiosity  in  children,  nature  has  provided  to  remove  that 
ignorance  they  were  born  with. — Locke. 

A person  who  is  too  nice  an  observer  of  the  kings  of  the 
council,  like  one  who  is  too  curious  in  observing  the  labors  of 
the  bees,  will  often  be  stung  for  his  curiosity. — Pope. 

By  custom,  practice  and  patience,  all  difficulties  and  hard- 
ships, whether  of  body  or  of  fortune,  are  made  easy. — L’Es- 

TRANGE. 

Custom  has  an  ascendency  over  the  understanding. — 
Watts. 

D. 

Death  is  the  liberator  of  him  whom  pardon  cannot  release, 
the  physician  of  him  who  cannot  cure,  and  the  comforter  of 
him  whom  time  cannot  oonsole. — Colton. 

The  thought  of  being  nothing  after  death  is  a burden  un- 
supportable  to  a virtuous  man. — Dryden. 

The  darkness  of  death  is  like  the  evening  twilight ; it 
makes  all  objects  appear  more  lovely  to  the  dying.  — Richter. 

All  deception  in  the  course  of  life  is,  indeed,  nothing  else 
but  a lie  reduced  to  practice,  and  falsehood  passing  from  words 
to  things. — South. 

Despair  is  the  thought  of  the  unattainableness  of  any  good, 
which  works  differently  in  men’s  minds,  sometimes  producing 
uneasiness  or  pain,  sometimes  rest  and  indolency. — Locke. 

Despotism  can  no  more  exist  in  a nation  until  the  liberty 
of  the  press  is  destroyed  than  the  night  can  happen  before  the 
sun  is  set. — Colton. 

To  reprove  discontent,  the  ancients  feigned  that  on  a hill 
stood  a man  twisting  a rope  of  hay  ; and  still  he  twisted  on, 
suffering  an  ass  to  eat  up  all  that  was  finished. — Taylor. 

Discretion  is  the  perfection  of  reason,  and  a guide  to  win 
all  the  duties  of  life. — Addison. 

The  greatest  facts,  without  discretion,  may  be  fatal  to  their 
owner.— Hume. 

Men  love  to  hear  of  their  power,  but  have  an  extreme  dis- 
relish to  be  told  their  duty. — Burke. 


There  is  not  a moment  without  some  duty. — Cicero. 

What  it  is  our  duty  to  do  we  must  do  because  it  is  right, 
not  because  any  one  can  demand  it  of  us. — Whemle. 

E. 

Beware  of  little  expenses  ; a small  leak  will  sink  a great 
ship. — Franklin  on  Economy. 

Frugality  may  be  termed  the  daughter  of  prudence,  the 
sister  of  temperance,  and  the  parent  of  liberty. — Johnson  on 
Economy. 

Education  begins  the  gentleman,  but  reading,  good  com- 
pany and  reflection  must  finish  him. — Locke. 

Education,  in  the  more  extensive  sense  of  the  word,  may 
comprehend  every  preparation  that  is  made  in  our  youth  for 
the  sequel  of  our  lives. — Paley. 

Eloquence  is  the  language  of  nature,  and  cannot  be  learnt 
in  the  schools. — Colton. 

False  eloquence  passeth  only  where  true  is  not  understood. 
— Tilton. 

Eloquence  comes,  if  it  comes  at  all,  like  the  outbreaking 
of  a fountain  from  the  earth. — Webster. 

Employment,  which  Galen  calls  “nature’s  physician,”  is 
so  essential  to  human  happiness  that  indolence  is  justly  con- 
sidered the  mother  of  misery.  — Burton. 

He  who  would  do  some  great  thing  in  this  short  life  must 
apply  himself  to  the  work  with  such  a concentration  of  his 
forces  as,  to  idle  spectators,  who  live  only  to  amuse  them- 
selves, looks  like  insanity. — Foster  on  Energy. 

Is  there  one  whom  difficulties  dishearten — who  bends  to  the 
storm?  He  will  do  little.  Is  there  one  who  will  conquer? 
That  kind  of  man  never  fails. — Hunter  on  Energy. 

Envy,  like  a cold  poison,  numbs  and  stupefies  ; and,  con- 
scious of  its  own  impotence,  folds  its  arms  in  despair. — Col- 
lier. 

We  ought  to  be  guarded  against  any  appearance  of  envy, 
as  a passion  that  always  implies  inferiority  wherever  it  resides. 
— Pliny. 

How  ready  is  envy  to  mingle  with  the  notices  which  we 
take  of  other  persons. — Watts. 

To  be  indifferent  whether  we  embrace  falsehood  or  truth  is 
the  great  road  to  error. — Locke. 

Every  absurdity  hath  a champion  to  defend  it,  for  error  is 
always  talkative. — Goldsmith. 

Not  one  false  man  but  does  unaccountable  evil. — Carlyle. 

The  doing  evil  to  avoid  an  evil  cannot  be  good. — Cole- 
ridge. 

The  innocence  of  the  intention  abates  nothing  of  the  mis- 
chief of  the  example. — Hall. 

People  seldom  improve  when  they  have  no  model  but  them, 
selves  to  copy  after. — Goldsmith  on  Example. 

All  is  but  lip-wisdom  which  wants  experience. — Sidney. 

The  knowledge  drawn  from  experience  is  quite  of  another 
kind  from  that  which  flows  from  speculation  or  discourse. — 
South. 

He  that  is  extravagant  will  quickly  become  poor  , and 
poverty  will  enforce  dependence  and  invite  corruption.— 
Johnson. 


SELECT  SHORT  PROSE  QUOTATIONS, 


53 


A miser  grows  rich  by  seeming  poor  ; an  extravagant  man 
grows  poor  by  seeming  rich. — Shenstone. 

F. 

Faith  believes  the  revelations  of  God  ; hope  expects  His 
promises  ; charity  loves  His  excellencies  and  mercies. — 

Taylor. 

The  faith  which  is  required  of  us  is  then  perfect  when  it 
produces  in  us  a fiduciary  assent  to  whatever  the  gospel  has 
revealed. — Wake. 

False  men  are  not  to  be  taken  into  confidence,  nor  fearful 
men  into  a post  that  requires  resolution. — L’Estrange. 

Falsehood  is  never  so  successful  as  when  she  baits  her 
hook  with  truth. — Colton. 

The  desire  for  fame  betrays  an  ambitious  man  into  inde- 
cencies that  lessen  his  reputation  ; he  is  still  afraid  lest  any  of 
his  actions  should  be  thrown  away  in  private. — Addison. 

Fame  is  an  undertaker;  it  pays  but  little  attention  to  the 
living,  but  bedizens  the  dead,  furnishes  out  their  funerals,  and 
follows  them  to  the  grave. — Colton. 

A regard  for  fame  becomes  a man  more  toward  the  exit  than 
at  his  entrance  into  life. — Swift. 

However  strict  a hand  is  kept  upon  all  the  desires  of  fancy, 
yet  in  recreation  fancy  must  be  permitted  to  speak. — 
Locke. 

All  things  are  in  fate,  yet  all  things  are  not  decided  by 
fate. — Plato. 

God  overrules  all  mutinous  accidents,  brings  them  under  His 
laws  of  fate,  and  makes  them  all  serviceable  to  His  purpose. — 
Antoninus. 

What  can  a man  fear  who  takes  care  to  please  a Being  that 
is  able  to  crush  all  his  adversaries. — Addison. 

Fear  is  far  more  painful  to  cowardice  than  death  to  true 
courage  — Sidney. 

Flattery  corrupts  both  the  receiver  and  the  giver  ; and  ad- 
ulation is  not  of  more  service  to  the  people  than  to  kings. — 

Burke. 

He  that  is  much  flattered  soon  learns  to  flatter  himself. — 
Johnson. 

Men  find  it  more  easy  to  flatter  than  to  praise. — Richter. 

Folly  consists  in  the  drawing  of  false  conclusions  from  just 
principles,  by  which  it  is  distinguished  from  madness,  which 
draws  just  conclusions  from  false  principles. — Locke. 

Of  all  thieves  fools  are  the  worst ; they  rob  you  of  time  and 
temper. — Goethe. 

Foppery  is  never  cured  ; it  is  the  bad  stamina  of  the  mind, 
which,  like  those  of  the  body,  arc  never  rectified  ; once  a cox- 
comb always  a coxcomb. — Johnson. 

Humanity  is  never  so  beautiful  as  when  praying  for  for- 
giveness, or  else  forgiving  another. — Richter. 

You  should  forgive  many  things  in  others,  but  nothing  in 
yourself. — Ansonius. 

Fortune  is  but  a synonymous  word  for  nature  and  neces- 
sity.— Bently. 

Every  man  is  the  maker  of  his  own  fortune,  and  must  be, 
in  some  measure,  the  trumpet  of  his  fame. — Dryden. 

It  is  madness  to  make  fortune  the  mistress  of  events,  be- 


cause in  herself  she  is  nothing,  but  is  ruled  by  prudence.— 
Dryden. 

Ill  fortune  never  crushed  the  man  whom  good  fortune  de- 
ceived not. — Jonson. 

We  are  sure  to  get  the  better  of  fortune  if  we  do  but  grap- 
ple with  her.— Seneca. 

F riendship  is  a strong  and  habitual  inclination  in  two  per- 
sons to  furnish  the  good  and  happiness  of  each  other. — Ad- 
dison. 

A long  noviciate  of  acquaintance  should  precede  the  vows 
of  friendship. — Bolingbroke. 

Friendship  ought  not  to  be  unripped  but  unstitched. — 
Cato. 

A man  should  keep  his  friendship  in  constant  repair.— 
Johnson. 

G. 

Genius  always  gives  its  best  at  first,  prudence  at  last. — 
Lavater. 

Genius  without  religion  is  only  a lamp  in  the  outer  gates 
of  the  palace.  It  may  seem  to  cast  a gleam  of  light  on  those 
that  are  without,  while  the  inhabitant  sits  in  darkness. — H. 
More. 

True  glory  takes  root,  and  ever  spreads  ; all  false  pre- 
tences, like  flowers,  fall  to  the  ground,  nor  can  any  counter- 
feit last  long. — Cicero. 

There  aie  two  things  which  ought  to  teach  us  to  think  but 
meanly  of  human  glory  ; the  veiy  best  have  had  their  calum 
niators,  the  very  worst  their  panegyrists. — Colton. 

To  an  honest  mind  the  best  perquisites  of  a place  are  the  ad., 
vantages  it  gives  a man  of  doing  good. — Addison. 

He  who  receives  a good  turn  should  never  forget  it  ; he 
who  does  one  should  never  remember  it. — Charron. 

A man’s  own  good  breeding  is  the  best  security  against 
other  people’s  ill  manners. — Chesterfield. 

Honest  good  humor  is  the  oil  and  wine  of  a merry  meet- 
ing, and  there  is  no  jovial  companionship  equal  to  that  when 
the  jokes  are  rather  small  and  the  laughter  abundant. — Irving. 

Men  naturally  warm  and  heady  are  transported  into  the 
greatest  flush  of  good  nature. — Addison. 

Persons  lightly  dipped  not  grained  in  generous  honesty,  are 
but  pale  in  goodness. — Browne. 

Forever  all  goodness  will  be  most  charming  ; forever  all 
wickedness  will  be  most  odious. — Sprat. 

Government  mitigates  the  inequality  of  power,  and  makes 
an  innocent  man,  though  of  lowest  rank,  a match  for  the 
mightiest  of  his  fellow  subjects. — Addison. 

Few  consider  how  much  we  are  indebted  to  government, 
because  few  can  represent  how  wretched  mankind  would  be 
without  it.— Atterbury. 

Of  governments,  that  of  the  mob  is  the  most  sanguinary  ; 
that  of  the  soldiers  the  most  expensive,  and  that  of  civilians 
the  most  vexatious. — Colton. 

Grace  is  to  the  body  what  good  sense  is  to  the  mind. — 
Rochefoucauld. 

Gratitude  consists  adequately  in  these  two  things : first, 
that  it  is  a debt ; and  secondly,  that  it  is  such  a debt  as  is  left 


•SELECT  SHORT  PROSE  QUOTATIONS. 


to  every  man’s  ingenuity,  whether  he  will  pay  or  no. — 
South. 

There  is  selfishness  even  in  gratitude  when  it  is  too  pro- 
fuse ; to  be  unthankful  for  one  favor  is  in  effect  to  lay  out 
another. — Cumberland. 

A solid  and  substantial  greatness  of  soul  looks  down  with 
neglect  on  the  censures  and  applauses  of  the  multitude. — Ad- 
dison. 

’Tis  highly  imprudent  in  the  greatest  of  men  to  unnecessa- 
rily provoke  the  meanest. — 'L'Estrange. 

Reproach  is  concomitant  to  greatness. — South. 

In  the  loss  of  an  object  we  do  not  proportion  our  grief  to 
its  real  value,  but  to  the  value  our  fancies  set  upon  it. — Ad- 
dison. 

It  will  appear  how  unfortunate  that  grief  was  which  served 
no  end  in  life. — Taylor. 

H. 

In  the  great  majority  of  things  habit  is  a greater  plague 
than  ever  afflicted  Egypt ; in  religious  character  it  is  a grand 
felicity. — Foster. 

Habit,  if  wisely  and  skillfully  formed,  becomes  truly  a 
second  nature,  as  the  common  saying  is  ; but  unskillfully  and 
unmethodically  directed  it  will  be  as  it  were  the  ape  of  nature, 
which  imitates  nothing  to  the  life,  but  only  clumsily  and  awk- 
wardly.— Bacon. 

Habit  is  the  deepest  law  of  human  nature. — Carlyle. 

Comparison,  more  than  reality,  makes  man  happy,  and  can 
make  them  wretched. — Feltham. 

There  are  two  ways  of  being  happy — we  may  either  diminish 
our  wants,  or  augment  our  means  ; either  will  do — the  result 
is  the  same  ; and  it  is  for  each  man  to  decide  for  himself,  and 
do  that  which  happens  to  be  the  easiest.  If  you  are  idle,  or 
sick,  or  poor,  however  hard  it  may  be  to  diminish  your  wants, 
it  will  be  harder  to  augment  your  means.  If  you  are  active 
and  prosperous,  or  young,  oi  in  good  health,  it  may  be  easier 
for  you  to  augment  your  means  than  to  diminish  your  wants. 
But  if  you  are  wise  you  will  do  both  at  the  same  time,  young 
or  old,  rich  or  poor,  sick  or  well  ; and  if  you  are  very  wise  you 
will  do  both  in  such  a way  as  to  augment  the  general  happi- 
ness of  society. — Benjamin  Franklin. 

False  happiness  renders  men  stern  and  proud,  and  that 
happiness  is  never  communicated  ; true  happiness  renders 
them  kind  and  sensible,  and  that  happiness  is  always  shared. — 
Montesquieu. 

Health  is,  indeed,  so  necessary  to  all  the  duties  as  well  as 
pleasures  of  life,  that  the  crime  of  squandering  it  is  equal  to 
the  folly  ; and  he  that  for  a short  gratification  brings  weak- 
ness and  diseases  upon  himself,  and  for  the  pleasure  of  a few 
years  passed  in  the  tumults  of  diversion  and  clamors  of  mer- 
riment condemns  the  maturer  and  more  experienced  part  of 
his  life  to  the  chamber  and  the  couch,  may  be  justly  re- 
proached, not  only  as  a spendthrift  of  his  happiness,  but  as  a 
robber  of  the  public  ; as  a wretch  that  has  voluntarily  disqual- 
ified himself  for  the  business  of  his  station,  and  refused  that 
part  which  Providence  assigns  him  iu  the  general  task  of 
human  nature. — Johnson. 


Be  sober  and  temperate  and  you  will  be  healthy. — R 
Franklin. 

Preserving  the  health  of  t-oo  strict  a regimen  is  a weari- 
some malady. — Rochefoucauld. 

Perfect  purity,  fulness  of  joy,  everlasting  freedom,  perfect 
rest,  health  and  fruition,  complete  security,  substantial  and 
eternal  good. — Hannah  More  on  Heaven. 

Think  of  heaven  with  hearty  purposes  and  peremptory  de- 
signs to  get  thither. — Taylor. 

Many  might  go  to  heaven  with  half  the  labor  they  go  to 
hell,  if  they  would  venture  their  industry  the  right  way. — Jon- 
SON. 

If  shame  superadded  to  loss,  and  both  met  together,  as  the 
sinner’s  portion  here,  perfectly  prefiguring  the  two  saddest  in- 
gredients in  hell — deprivation  of  the  blissful  vision,  and 
confusion  of  face — cannot  prove  efficacious  to  the  mortify- 
ing of  vice,  the  church  doth  give  over  the  patient. — Ham- 
mond. 

When  the  historian  cannot  give  patterns  to  imitate,  he  must 
give  examples  to  deter. — Junius. 

The  perfect  historian  is  he  in  whose  work  the  character 
and  spirit  of  an  age  is  exhibited  in  miniature.  He  relates  no 
fact,  he  attributes  no  expression  to  his  characters,  which  is  not 
authenticated  by  sufficient  testimony.  But,  by  judicious  se- 
lection, rejection,  and  arrangement,  he  gives  to  truth  those 
attractions  which  have  been  usurped  by  fiction.  In  his  narra- 
tive a due  subordination  is  observed  ; some  transactions  are 
prominent  ; others  retire.  But  the  scale  on  which  he  repre- 
sents them  is  increased  or  diminished,  not  according  to  the 
dignity  of  the  persons  concerned  in  them,  but  according  to  the 
degree  in  which  they  elucidate  the  condition  of  society  and  the 
nature  of  man.  He  shows  us  the  court,  the  camp,  and  the 
senate.  But  he  shows  us  also  the  nation.  He  considers  no 
anecdote,  no  peculiarity  of  manner,  no  familiar  saying,  as  too 
insignificant  for  his  notice  which  is  not  too  insignificant  to  il- 
lustrate the  operation  of  laws,  of  religion,  and  of  education, 
and  to  mark  the  progress  of  the  human  mind.  Men  will  not 
merely  be  described,  but  will  be  made  intimately  known  to 
us.  The  changes  of  manners  will  be  indicated,  not  merely 
by  a few  general  phrases  or  a few  extracts  from  statistical 
documents,  but  by  appropriate  images  presented  in  every 
line. 

If  a man,  such  as  we  are  supposing,  should  write  the  history 
of  England,  he  would  assuredly  not  omit  the  battles,  the 
sieges,  the  negotiations,  the  seditions,  the  ministerial  changes. 
But  with  these  he  would  intersperse  the  details  which  are  the 
charm  of  historical  romances. — Lord  Macaulay. 

Blessed  is  the  memory  of  those  who  have  kept  themselves 
unspotted  from  the  world  ! Yet  more  blessed  and  wise  the 
memory  of  those  who  have  kept  themselves  unspotted  in  the 
world. — William  Jameson  on  Holiness. 

It  was  the  policy  of  the  good  old  gentleman  to  make  his 
children  feel  that  home  was  the  happiest  place  in  the  world  ; 
and  I value  this  delicious  home  feeling  as  one  of  the  choicest 
gifts  a parent  can  bestow. — Washington  Irving. 

The  maxim  that  “ Honesty  is  the  best  policy  ” is  one  which, 
perhaps,  no  one  is  ever  habitually  guided  by  in  practice.  An 


SELECT  SHORT  PROSE  QUOTATIONS. 


57 


honest  man  is  always  before  it,  and  a knave  is  generally  be- 
hind it. — Whately, 

Wisdom  without  honesty  is  mere  craft  and  cozenage  ; and, 
therefore,  the  reputation  of  honesty  must  first  be  gotten, 
which  cannot  be  but  by  living  well ; a good  life  is  a main 
argument — Ben  Jonson. 

A principle  of  honor,  as  long  as  it  is  connected  with  virtue, 
adds  no  small  efficacy  to  its  operation,  and  no  small  brilliancy 
and  luster  to  its  appearance  ; but  honor,  the  moment  that  it 
becomes  unconnected  with  the  duties  of  official  function  with 
the  relations  of  life  and  the  eternal  and  immutable  laws  of 
morality,  and  appears  in  its  substance  alien  to  them,  changes 
its  nature,  and,  instead  of  justifying  a breach  of  duty,  aggra- 
vates all  its  mischiefs  to  an  almost  infinite  degree  : by  the  ap- 
parent lustre  of  the  surface  it  hides  from  you  the  baseness  and 
deformity  of  the  ground. — Burke. 

When  honors  come  to  us,  rather  than  we  to  them  ; when 
they  meet  us,  as  it  were,  in  the  vestibule  of  life,  it  is  well  if 
our  enemies  can  say  no  more  against  us  than  that  we  are  too 
young  for  our  dignities  ; it  would  be  much  worse  for  us  if  they 
could  say  that  we  are  too  old  for  them.  Time  will  destroy  the 
first  objection,  but  confirm  the  second.  — Colton, 

The  law  of  honor  is  a system  of  rules  constructed  by  people 
of  fashion,  and  calculated  to  facilitate  their  intercourse  with 
one  another. — Paley. 

Hope  is  a prodigal  young  heir,  and  experience  is  his  banker  ; 
but  his  drafts  are  seldom  honored,  since  there  is  often  a heavy 
balance  against  him,  because  he  draws  largely  upon  a small 
capital,  is  not  yet  in  possession,  and  if  he  were,  would  die. — 
Colton. 

That  vain  and  foolish  hope,  which  is  misemployed  on  tem- 
poral objects,  produces  many  sorrows. — Addison. 

Hope  thinks  nothing  difficult  ; despair  tells  us  that  difficulty 
is  insurmountable. — Watts. 

If  we  hope  for  what  we  are  not  likely  to  possess,  we  act 
and  think  in  vain,  and  make  life  a greater  dream  and  shadow 
than  it  really  is.  Addison. 

Hospitality  to  the  better  sort,  and  charity  to  the  poor — 
two  virtues  that  are  never  exercised  so  well  as  when  they  ac- 
company each  other. — Atterbury. 

Hospitality  sometimes  degenerates  into  profuseness,  and 
ends  in  madness  and  folly. — Atterbury. 

Humility  and  resignation  are  our  prime  virtues. — Dry- 
den. 

Humility  in  a man  consists  not  in  denying  any  gift  that  is 
in  him,  but  a just  valuation  of  it ; rather  thinking  too  meanly 
than  too  highly. — I<AY. 

Humility  leads  to  the  highest  distinction,  because  it  leads 
to  self-improvement.  Study  your  own  characters  ; endeavor 
to  learn  and  supply  your  own  deficiencies  ; never  assume  to 
yourselves  qualities  which  you  do  not  possess  ; combine  all  this 
with  energy  and  activity,  and  you  cannot  predicate  of  your- 
selves, nor  can  others  predicate  of  you,  at  what  point  you  may 
arrive  at  last. — Brodie. 

I shall  set  down  at  length  the  genealogical  table  of  false 
humor,  and,  at  the  same  time,  place  under  it  the  genealogy  of 
true  humor,  that  the  reader  may  at  one  view  behold  their  dif- 
ferent pedigrees  and  relations : 


Falsehood. 

Nonsense. 

Frenzy. — Laughter. 

False  Humor. 

Truth. 

Good  Sense. 

Wit. — Mirth. 

Humor. 

— Addison. 

There  are  more  faults  in  humor  than  in  the  mind. — Ad 
dison. 

I. 

dleness  is  a constant  sin,  and  labor  is  a duty.  Idleness 
is  but  the  devil’s  home  for  temptation,  and  unprofitable,  dis- 
tracting musings. — Baxter. 

The  idle,  who  are  neither  wise  for  this  world  nor  the  next, 
are  emphatically  fools  at  large. — Tillotson. 

Idleness  is  the  badge  of  gentry,  the  bane  of  body  and 
mind,  the  nurse  of  naughtiness,  the  stepmother  of  discipline, 
the  chief  author  of  all  mischief,  one  of  the  seven  deadly  sins, 
the  cushion  upon  which  the  devil  chiefly  reposes,  and  a great 
cause  not  only  of  melancholy,  but  of  many  other  diseases,  for 
the  mind  is  naturally  active,  and  if  it  be  not  occupied  about 
some  honest  business,  it  rushes  into  mischief  or  sinks  into 
melancholy. — Robert  Burton. 

If  you  have  but  an  hour,  will  you  improve  that  hour  instead 
of  idling  it  away  ? — Chesterfield. 

Idolatry  is  certainly  the  first  born  of  folly,  the  great  and 
leading  paradox : nay,  the  very  abridgment  and  sum  total  of 
all  absurdities. — South. 

There  is  not  so  contemptible  a plant  or  animal  that  does 
not  confound  the  most  enlarged  understanding. — Locke. 

But  the  greatest  part  of  those  who  set  mankind  at  defiance 
by  hourly  irritation,  and  who  live  but  to  infuse  malignity  and 
multiply  enemies',  have  no  hopes  to  foster,  no  designs  to  pro- 
mote, nor  any  expectations  of  attaining  power  by  insolence,  or 
of  climbing  to  greatness  by  trampling  on  others.  They  give 
up  all  the  sweets  of  kindness  for  the  sake  of  peevishness,  petti- 
lance  or  gloom,  and  alienate  the  world  by  neglect  of  the  com 
mon  forms  of  civility,  and  breach  of  the  established  laws  of 
conversation. — Johnson  on  111  Nature. 

Ill  Nature  consists  of  a proneness  to  do  ill  turns,  attended 
with  a secret  joy  upon  the  sight  of  any  mischief  that  befalls 
another,  and  of  an  utter  insensibility  of  any  kindness  done 
him.— South. 

If  we  will  stand  boggling  at  imaginary  evils,  let  us  never 
blame  a horse  for  starting  at  a shadow. — L’Estrange. 

By  imagination  a man  in  a dungeon  is  capable  of  entertain- 
ing himself  with  scenes  and  landscapes  more  beautiful  than 
any  that  can  be  found  in  the  whole  compass  of  nature. — Ad- 
dison. 

Besides  the  ideas,  with  their  annexed  pains  and  pleasures, 
which  are  presented  by  the  sense,  the  mind  of  man  possesses 
a sort  of  creative  power  of  its  own,  either  in  representing  at 
pleasure  the  images  of  things  in  the  order  and  manner  in  which 
they  were  received  by  the  senses,  or  in  combining  those  images 


5« 


SELECT  SHORT  PROSE  QUOTATIONS. 


in  a new  manner,  and  according  to  a different  order.  This 
power  is  called  imagination  ; and  to  this  belongs  whatever  is 
called  wit,  fancy,  invention,  and  the  like.  But  it  must  be  ob- 
served that  this  power  of  the  imagination  is  incapable  of  pro- 
ducing anything  absolutely  new  ; it  can  only  vary  the  disposi- 
tion of  those  ideas  which  it  has  received  from  the  senses.  Now 
the  imagination  is  the  most  extensive  province  of  pleasure  and 
pain,  as  it  is  the  region  of  our  fears  and  our  hopes,  and  of  all 
our  passions  that  are  connected  with  them  ; and  whatever  is 
calculated  to  affect  the  imagination  with  these  commanding 
ideas,  by  force  of  any  original  natural  impression,  must  have 
the  same  power  pretty  equally  over  all  men.  For  since  the 
imagination  is  only  the  representation  of  the  senses,  it  can 
only  be  pleased  or  displeased  with  the  images,  from  the  same 
principle  on  which  the  sense  is  pleased  or  displeased  with  the 
realities  ; and  consequently  there  must  be  just  as  close  an 
agreement  in  the  imaginations  as  in  the  senses  of  men.  A 
little  attention  will  convince  us  that  this  must  of  necessity  be 
the  case. — Burke. 

Those  are  carried  above  sense,  and  aspire  after  immortal- 
ity, who  believe  the  perpetual  duration  of  the  soul. — Tillot- 
SON. 

Almost  every  one  has  a predominant  inclination  to  which 
his  other  desires  and  inclinations  submit,  and  which  governs 
him,  though  perhaps  with  some  intervals,  through  the  whole 
course  of  his  life. — Hume. 

Mutability  of  temper  and  inconsistency  with  ourselves  is 
the  greatest  weakness  of  human  nature. — Addison. 

I look  upon  indolence  as  a sort  of  suicide  ; for  the  man  is 
effectually  destroyed,  though  the  appetite  of  the  brute  may 
serve. — Chesterfield. 

The  desire  of  leisure  is  much  more  natural  than  that  of 
business  or  care. — Temple. 

Lives  spent  in  indolence  and  therefore  sad. — Cowper. 

I persuade  myself  that  the  bountiful  and  gracious  Author  of 
man’s  being  and  faculties,  and  all  things  else,  delights  in  the 
beauty  of  his  creation,  and  is  well  pleased  with  the  industry 
of  man  in  adorning  the  earth  with  beautiful  cities  and  castles, 
with  pleasant  villages  and  country  houses,  with  regular  gar- 
dens and  orchards,  and  plantations  of  all  sorts  of  shrubs,  and 
herbs,  and  fruits,  for  meat,  medicine,  or  moderate  delight; 
with  shady  woods  and  groves,  and  walks  set  with  rows  of  ele- 
gant trees  ; with  pastures  clothed  with  flocks,  and  valleys  cov- 
ered over  with  corn,  and  meadows  burthened  with  grass,  and 
whatever  else  differenceth  a civil  and  well-cultivated  region 
from  a barren  and  desolate  wilderness. — Ray. 

A man  who  gives  his  children  habits  of  industry  provides 
for  them  better  than  by  giving  them  a fortune. — Whately. 

There  is  no  art  or  science  that  is  too  difficult  for  industry 
to  attain  to  ; it  is  the  gift  of  tongues,  and  makes  a man  un- 
derstood and  valued  in  all  countries  and  by  all  nations.  It  is 
the  philosopher’s  stone  that  turns  all  metals,  and  even  stones, 
into  gold,  and  suffers  no  want  to  break  into  its  dwelling.  It 
is  the  northwest  passage  that  brings  the  merchant’s  ships  as 
soon  to  him  as  he  can  desire.  In  a word,  it  conquers  all  ene- 
mies, and  makes  fortune  itself  pay  contribution. — CLAREN- 
DON. 

When  once  infidelity  can  persuade  men  that  they  shall  die 


like  beasts,  they  will  soon  be  brought  to  live  like  beasts. — 
South. 

Men  always  grow  vicious  before  they  become  unbelievers  j 
but  if  you  would  once  convince  profligates  by  topics  drawn 
from  the  view  of  their  own  quiet,  reputation,  and  health,  their 
infidelity  would  soon  drop  off. — Swift. 

Every  man,  however  humble  his  station  or  public  his  powers, 
exercises  some  influence  on  those  who  are  about  him  for  good 
or  for  evil. — Sedgwick. 

Ingratitude  is  abhorred  by  God  and  man. — L’Estrange. 

We  seldom  find  people  ungrateful  as  long  as  we  are  in  a 
condition  to  render  them  services. — ROCHEFOUCAULD. 

There  is  not  any  one  vice  incident  to  the  mind  of  man 
against  which  the  world  has  raised  such  a loud  and  universal 
outcry  as  against  ingratitude.— South. 

One  ungrateful  man  does  an  injury  to  all  who  stand  in  need 
of  aid.— Publius  Syrus. 

Injustice  arises  either  from  precipitation  or  indolence,  or 
from  a mixture  of  both.  The  rapid  and  the  slow  are  seldom 
just  ; the  unjust  wait  either  not  at  all,  or  wait  too  long. — 
Lavater. 

With  more  patience  men  endure  the  losses  that  befall  them 
by  mere  casualty  than  the  damages  which  they  sustain  by  in- 
justice.— Sir  W.  Raleigh,  Essays. 

To  dread  no  eye,  and  to  suspect  no  tongue,  is  the  great  pre- 
rogative of  innocence  : an  exemption  granted  only  to  invari- 
able virtue.  But  guilt  has  always  its  horrors  and  solicitudes ; 
and,  to  make  it  yet  more  shameful  and  detestable,  it  is  doomed 
often  to  stand  in  awe  of  those  to  whom  nothing  could  give  in- 
fluence or  weight,  but  their  power  of  betraying. — Dr.  S. 
Johnson. 

How  many  bitter  thoughts  does  the  innocent  man  avoid  ! 
Serenity  and  cheerfulness  are  his  portion.  Hope  is  contin- 
ually pouring  its  balm  into  his  soul.  His  heart  is  at  rest, 
whilst  others  are  goaded  and  tortured  by  the  stings  of  a 
wounded  conscience,  the  remonstrances  and  risings  up  of 
principles  which  they  cannot  forget  ; perpetually  teased  by 
returning  temptations,  perpetually  lamenting  defeated  resolu- 
tions.— Paley. 

An  innocent  nature  could  hate  nothing  that  was  inno- 
cent ; in  a word,  so  great  is  the  commutation  that  the  soul 
then  hated  only  that  which  now  only  it  loves,  i.  e.,  sin. — 
South. 

An  instinct  is  an  agent  which  performs  blindly  and 
ignorantly  a work  of  intelligence  and  knowledge. — Hamil- 
ton. 

An  instinct  is  a propensity  prior  to  experience  and  inde- 
pendent of  instruction. — Paley 

An  instinct  is  a blind  tendency  to  some  mode  of  action,  in- 
dependent of  any  consideration,  on  the  part  of  the  agent,  of 
the  end  to  which  the  action  leads. - — Whately. 

God  has  placed  no  limits  to  the  exercise  of  the  intellect  he 
has  given  us,  on  this  side  of  the  grave. — Lord  Bacon. 

Times  of  general  calamity  and  confusion  have  ever  been 
productive  to  the  greatest  minds.  The  purest  ore  is  produced 
from  the  hottest  furnace,  and  the  brightest  thunderbolt  is  elic- 
ited from  the  darkest  storm. — Colton. 

The  term  intellect  includes  all  those  powers  by  which  we 


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5$ 


acquire,  retain,  and  extend  our  knowledge,  as  perception, 
memory,  imagination,  judgment,  &c.— Fleming. 

* Intemperance  is  a dangerous  companion.  It  throws  peo- 
ple off  their  guard;  betrays  them  to  a great  many  indecencies, 
to  ruinous  passions,  to  disadvantages  in  fortune;  makes  them 
discover  secrets,  drive  foolish  bargains,  engage  in  play. — 
Jeremy  Collier. 

It  is  little  the  sign  of  a wise  man  to  suffer  temperance  to  be 
transgressed  in  order  to  purchase  the  repute  of  a generous 
entertainer. — Atterbury  on  Intemperance. 

Drunkenness  is  a flattering  devil,  a sweet  poison,  a pleasant 
sin,  which  whosoever  hath,  hath  not  himself  ; which  whosoever 
doth  commit  doth  not  commit  sin,  but  he  himself  is  wholly 
sin. — St.  Augustine  on  Intemperance. 

Intemperance  is  a great  decayer  of  beauty. — Junius. 

No  man’s  reason  did  ever  dictate  to  him  that  it  is  reasonable 
for  him  to  debauch  himself  by  intemperance  and  brutish 
sensuality. — Tillotson. 

Whatever  praises  may  be  given  to  works  of  judgment,  there 
is  not  even  a single  beauty  in  them  to  which  the  invention 
must  not  contribute. — Pope. 

Invention,  strictly  speaking,  is  little  more  than  a combina- 
tion of  those  images  which  have  been  previously  gathered  and 
deposited  in  the  memory.  Nothing  can  be  made  of  nothing  ; 
he  who  has  laid  up  no  materials  can  produce  no  combinations. 
— Reynolds. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  improvements  in  the  arts  are 
properly  called  inventions. — Stewart. 

Irreverence  is  a kind  of  taking  God’s  name  in  vain  to 
debase  religion  with  such  frivolous  disputes. — Hooker. 

To  call  God  to  witness  truth,  or  a lie,  perhaps  ; or  to  appeal 
to  Him  on  every  trivial  occasion,  in  common  discourse,  cus- 
tomarily without  consideration,  is  one  of  the  highest  indignities 
and  affronts  that  can  be  offered  Him. — Ray  on  Irreve- 
rence. 

We  must  take  heed  how  we  accustom  ourselves  to  a slight 
and  irreverent  use  of  the  name  of  God,  and  of  the  phrases 
and  expressions  of  the  Holy  Bible,  which  ought  not  to  be  ap- 
plied upon  every  slight  occasion. — Tillotson. 

T. 

The  jealous  man  wishes  himself  a kind  of  deity  to  the  per- 
son he  loves  ; he  would  be  the  only  person  in  her  thoughts. — 
Addison. 

Of  all  the  passions,  jealousy  is  that  which  exacts  the  hardest 
service  and  pays  the  littlest  wages.  Its  service  is,  to  watch 
the  success  of  our  enemy  ; its  wages,  to  be  sure  of  it. — Col- 
ton. 

Jealousy  is  the  apprehension  of  superiority. — Shenstone. 

Take  heed  of  jesting  ; many  have  been  ruined  by  it.  It  is 
hard  to  jest  and  not  sometimes  jeer  too,  which  oftentimes 
sinks  deeper  than  was  intended  or  expected. — Fuller. 

If  in  company  you  offer  something  for  a jest,  and  nobody 
seconds  you  on  your  own  laughter,  you  may  condemn  their 
taste  and  appeal  to  better  judgments  ; but  in  the  meantime 
you  make  a very  indifferent  figure. — Swift. 

Joy  causeth  a cheerfulness  and  vigor  in  the  eyes  ; singing, 


leaping,  dancing,  and  sometimes  tears  ; all  these  are  the  effects 
of  the  dilatation  and  coming  forth  of  the  spirits  into  the  out- 
ward parts. — Lord  Bacon. 

Joy  is  a delight  of  the  mind,  from  the  commendation  of  the 
present  or  assured  approaching  possession  of  good. — Locke. 

If  we  are  not  extremely  foolish,  thankless  or  senseless,  a 
great  joy  is  more  apt  to  cure  sorrow  than  a great  trouble  is, 
— Jeremy  Taylor. 

Judgment  without  vivacity  or  imagination  is  too  heavy,  and 
like  dress  without  fancy,  or  the  last  without  the  first,  is  too 
gay,  and  all  but  trimming. — South. 

Affection  blinds  the  judgment,  and  we  cannot  expect  an 
equitable  award  when  the  judge  is  made  a party. — GlAN- 
VILLE. 

A judgment  is  a mental  act  by  which  one  thing  is  affirmed 
or  denied  of  another. — Hamilton. 

Judgment  is  that  whereby  one  joins  ideas  together  by 
affirmation  or  negation. — Watts. 

The  maxims  of  natural  justice  are  few  and  evident.— 
Paley. 

Sound  policy  is  never  at  variance  with  substantial  justice. 
— Parr. 

The  surest  and  most  pleasant  path  to  universal  esteem  and 
true  popularity  is  to  be  just,  for  all  men  esteem  him  most  who 
secures  most  their  private  interest  and  protects  best  their  in- 
nocence ; and  all  who  have  any  notion  of  a Deity  believe  that 
justice  is  one  of  His  chief  attributes,  and  that,  therefore, 
whoever  is  just  is  next  in  nature  to  Him,  and  the  best  picture 
of  Him,  and  to  be  reverenced  and  loved. — Mackenzie. 

The  virtue  of  justice  consists  in  moderation,  as  regulated 
bv  wisdom. — Aristotle. 

K. 

Knowledge  is  that  which,  next  to  virtue,  truly  and  essen- 
tially raises  one  man  above  another. — Addison. 

Knowledge  will  ever  be  a wandering  and  indigested  thing 
if  it  be  but  a commixture  of  a few  notions  that  are  at  hand 
and  occur,  and  not  excited  from  a sufficient  number  of  in- 
stances, and  those  well  collated. — Bacon. 

He  that  would  make  a real  progress  in  knowledge  must 
dedicate  his  age  as  well  as  youth — the  latter  growth  as  well  as 
the  first  fruits — at  the  altar  of  truth. — Berkeley. 

Study  rather  to  fill  your  mind  than  your  coffers  ; knowing 
that  gold  and  silver  were  originally  mingled  with  dirt,  until 
avarice  and  ambition  parted  them. — Seneca  on  Knowledge. 

The  knowledge  of  what  is  good  and  what  is  evil,  what 
ought  and  what  ought  not  to  be  done,  is  a thing  too  large  to 
be  compassed  and  too  hard  to  be  mastered  without  brains  and 
study,  parts  and  contemplation. — South. 

Where  a long  course  of  piety  has  purged  the  heart  and 
rectified  the  will,  knowledge  will  break  in  upon  such  a soul 
like  the  sun  shining  in  its  full  might. — South. 

If  God  gives  grace,  knowledge  will  not  stay  long  behind; 
since  it  is  the  same  spirit  and  principle  that  purifies  the  heart 
and  clarifies  the  understanding. — South. 

In  a seeing  age,  the  very  knowledge  of  former  times  passes 
for  ignorance  in  a be,fer  dress. — South. 


6o 


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I. 

Labor  ferments  the  humors,  casts  them  into  their  proper 
channels,  and  throws  off  redundancies. — Addison. 

Alexander  the  Great,  reflecting  on  his  friends  degenerating 
into  sloth  and  luxury,  told  them  that  it  was  a most  slavish 
thing  to  luxuriate,  and  a most  royal  thing  to  labor. — Bar- 
row. 

Mankind  have  a great  aversion  to  intellectual  labor. — 
Johnson. 

Excellence  is  never  granted  to  man  but  as  the  reward  of 
labor.  It  argues,  indeed,  no  small  strength  of  mind  to  per- 
severe in  the  habits  of  industry  without  the  pleasure  of  per- 
ceiving those  advantages  which,  like  the  hands  of  a clock, 
whilst  they  make  hourly  approaches  to  their  point,  yet  pro- 
ceed so  slowly  as  to  escape  observation. — Reynolds. 

If  we  were  to  be  worded  to  death,  Italian  is  the  fittest  lan- 
guage. 

Languages,  like  our  bodies,  are  in  perpetual  flux,  and 
stand  in  need  of  recruits  to  supply  those  words  that  are  con- 
tinually falling  through  disuse. — Felton. 

The  Latin,  a most  severe  and  compendious  language,  often 
expresses  that  in  one  word  which,  with  the  barbarity  or  the  nar- 
rowness of  modern  tongues,  cannot  supply  in  more. — Dryden. 

Language  being  the  conduit  whereby  men  convey  their 
knowledge,  he  that  makes  an  ill  use  of  it,  though  he  does  not 
corrupt  the  fountains  of  knowledge,  which  are  in  things,  yet 
he  stops  the  pipes.— Locke. 

Laughter,  while  it  lasts,  slackens  and  unbraces  the  mind, 
weakens  the  faculties,  and  causes  a kind  of  remissness  and  dis- 
solution in  all  the  powers  of  the  soul;  and  thus  far  it  may  be 
looked  upon  as  a weakness  in  the  composition  of  human  nature. 
But  if  we  consider  the  frequent  reliefs  we  receive  from  it, 
and  how  often  it  breaks  the  gloom  which  is  apt  to  depress  the 
mind  and  damp  our  spirits,  with  transient,  unexpected  gleams 
of  joy,  one  would  take  care  not  to  grow  too  wise  for  so  great  a 
pleasure  of  life. — Addison. 

It  is  a good  thing  to  laugh  at  any  rate  ; and  if  a straw  can 
tickle  a man,  it  is  an  instrument  of  happiness. — Dryden. 

Laws  were  made  to  restrain  and  punish  the  wicked  ; the 
wise  and  good  do  not  need  them  as  a guide,  but  only  as  a shield 
against  rapine  and  oppression;  they  can  live  civilly  and  or- 
derly though  there  were  no  law  in  the  world. — Feltham. 

I knew  a very  wise  man  that  believed  that  if  a man  were 
permitted  to  make  all  the  ballads,  he  need  not  care  who  should 
make  the  laws  of  a nation. — Fletcher  of  Saltoun. 

It  is  impossible  to  enact  ignorance  of  law,  or  to  repeal  by 
legislative  authority  the  dictates  of  reason  and  the  light  of 
science. — Robert  Hall. 

Human  laws  may  debase  Christianity,  but  can  never  im- 
prove it ; and  being  able  to  add  nothing  to  its  evidence,  they 
can  add  nothing  to  its  force. — Hall. 

Law  is  the  science  in  which  the  greatest  powers  of  the 
understanding  are  applied  to  the  greatest  number  of  facts. — 
Johnson. 

The  law  of  England  has  been  chiefly  formed  out  of  the  sim- 
ple principles  of  natural  justice  by  along  series  of  judicial  de- 
cisions. — M ACKINTOSH. 


When  the  State  is  most  corrupt,  then  laws  are  most  multi- 
plied.— Tacitus. 

Every  artifice  and  profession  endeavors  to  make  the  thing 
fit  and  to  answer  the  end  for  which  it  is  intended.  Those  that 
till  the  ground,  or  that  break  in  horses,  or  train  dogs,  their 
business  is  to  make  the  most  of  things,  and  drive  them  up  to 
the  top  of  their  kind  ; and  what  other  view  has  learning  and 
education  but  to  improve  the  faculties,  and  to  set  them  the 
right  way  to  work  ? — Antoninus. 

To  be  proud  of  learning  is  the  greatest  ignorance. — Tay- 
lor. 

No  circumstances  are  likely  to  contribute  more  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  learning  than  exact  temperature,  great  pureness 
of  air,  equality  of  climate  and  long  tranquillity  of  government. — 
Temple. 

To  do  what  we  will  is  natural  liberty  ; to  do  what  we  will 
consistently  with  the  interests  of  the  community  to  which  we 
belong,  is  civil  liberty  ; that  is  to  say,  the  only  liberty  to  be 
desired  in  a state  of  civil  society. 

I should  wish  to  act,  no  doubt,  in  every  instance  as  I 
pleased  ; but  I reflect  that  the  rest  also  of  mankind  would 
then  do  the  same  ; to  which  state  of  universal  independence 
and  self-direction  I should  meet  with  so  many  checks  and  ob- 
stacles to  my  own  will,  from  the  opposition  and  interference 
of  other  men’s,  that  not  only  my  happiness  but  my  liberty 
would  be  less  than  whilst  the  whole  community  were  subject 
to  the  domination  of  equal  laws.  The  boasted  liberty  of  a 
state  of  nature  exists  only  in  a state  of  solitude.  In  every 
kind  and  degree  of  union  and  intercourse  with  his  species  it  is 
possible  that  the  liberty  of  the  individual  may  be  augmented 
by  the  very  laws  which  restrain  it  ; because  he  may  gain  more 
from  the  limitation  of  other  men’s  freedom  than  he  suffers  from 
the  diminution  of  his  own. 

Natural  liberty  is  the  right  of  common  upon  a waste;  civil 
liberty  is  the  safe,  exclusive,  unmolested  enjoyment  of  a cul- 
tivated enclosure. — Paley. 

Our  country  cannot  well  subsist  without  liberty,  nor  liberty 
without  virtue. — Rousseau. 

A people  long  used  to  hardships  lose  by  degrees  the  very 
notions  of  liberty  ; they  look  upon  themselves  as  at  mercy. — 
Swift. 

As  we  advance  from  youth  to  middle  age,  a new  field  of 
action  opens,  and  a different  character  is  required.  The  flow 
of  gay,  impetuous  spirits  begins  to  subside  ; life  gradually  as- 
sumes a graver  cast  ; the  mind  a more  sedate  and  thoughtful 
turn.  The  attention  is  now  transferred  from  pleasure  to  in- 
terest ; that  is,  to  pleasure  diffused  over  a wider  extent  and 
measured  by  a larger  scale.  Formerly  the  enjoyment  of  the 
present  moment  occupied  the  whole  attention  ; now  no  action 
terminates  ultimately  in  itself,  but  refers  to  some  more  distant 
aim.  Wealth  and  power,  the  instruments  of  lasting  gratifica- 
tion, are  now  coveted  more  than  any  single  pleasure  ; prudence 
and  foresight  lay  their  plan;  industry  carries  on  its  patient 
efforts;  activity  pushes  forward;  address  winds  around;  here 
an  enemy  is  to  be  overcome,  there  a rival  to  be  displaced; 
competition  warms,  and  the  strife  of  the  world  thickens  on 
every  side. — Blair. 

Life  is  made  up,  not  of  great  sacrifices  or  duties,  b»t  of 


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61 


little  things,  in  which  smiles  and  kindnesses,  and  small  obli- 
gations, given  habitually,  are  what  win  and  preserve  the  heart, 
and  secure  comfort. — Sir  H.  Davy. 

To  live  long,  it  is  necessary  to  live  slowly. — Cicero. 

They  who  are  most  weary  of  life,  and  yet  are  most  unwil- 
ling to  die,  are  such  who  have  lived  to  no  purpose — who  have 
rather  breathed  than  lived. — Clarendon. 

Life’s  evening,  we  may  rest  assured,  will  take  its  character 
from  the  day  which  has  preceded  it  ; and  if  we  W'ould  close 
our  career  in  the  comfort  of  religious  hope,  we  must  prepare 
for  it  by  early  and  continuous  religious  habits. — Shuttle- 
worth. 

We  talk  of  human  life  as  a journey  ; but  how  variously  is 
that  journey  performed  ! There  are  those  who  come  forth 
girt,  and  shod,  and  mantled,  to  walk  on  velvet  lawns  and 
smooth  terraces,  where  every  gale  is  arrested  and  every  beam 
is  tempered.  There  are  others  who  walk  on  the  Alpine  paths 
of  life,  against  driving  misery,  and  through  stormy  sorrows, 
over  sharp  afflictions  ; walk  with  bare  feet  and  naked  breast, 
jaded,  mangled,  and  chilled. — Sydney  Smith. 

The  end  of  life  is  to  be  like  unto  God  ; and  the  soul  fol- 
lowing God  will  be  like  unto  Him  ; He  being  the  beginning, 
middle,  and  end  of  all  things. — SOCRATES. 

A man’s  life  is  an  appendix  to  his  heart. — South. 

Literature  is  the  grindstone  to  sharpen  the  cultus,  and  to 
whet  their  natural  faculties. — Hammond. 

There  be  none  of  the  passions  that  have  been  noted  to  fasci- 
nate or  bewitch  but  love  and  envy. — Bacon. 

Love  doth  seldom  suffer  itself  to  be  confined  by  other 
matches  than  those  of  its  own  making. — Boyle. 

The  consciousness  of  being  loved  softens  the  keenest  pang, 
even  at  the  moment  of  parting  ; yea,  even  the  eternal  farewell 
is  robbed  of  half  its  bitterness  when  uttered  in  accents  that 
breathe  love  to  the  last  sigh. — Addison. 

Oh,  how  beautiful  it  is  to  love  ! Even  thou  that  sneerest 
and  laughest  in  cold  indifference  or  scorn  if  others  are  near 
thee — thou  too,  must  acknowledge  its  truth  when  thou  art 
alone,  and  confess  that  a foolish  world  is  prone  to  laugh  in 
public  at  what  in  private  it  reveres  as  one  of  the  highest  im- 
pulses of  our  nature  ; namely,  love. — Longfellow. 

Oh,  there  is  nothing  holier  in  this  life  of  ours  than  the  first 
consciousness  of  love — the  first  fluttering  of  its  silken  wings — 
the  first  rising  sound  and  breath  of  that  wind  which  is  so  soon 
to  sweep  through  the  soul,  to  purify  or  to  destroy  ! — Long- 
fellow. 

A lover’s  hope  resembles  the  bean  in  the  nursery-tale  : let 
it  once  take  root,  and  it  will  grow  so  rapidly  that  in  the  course 
of  a few  hours  the  giant  Imagination  builds  a castle  on  the 
top,  and  by-and-by  comes  Disappointment  with  the  curtal- 
axe,  and  hews  down  both  the  plant  and  the  superstructure. — 
Scott. 

Thou  demandest,  What  is  love  ? It  is  that  powerful  at- 
traction towards  all  that  we  conceive,  or  fear,  or  hope  beyond 
ourselves,  when  we  find  within  our  own  thoughts  the  chasm  of 
an  insufficient  void,  and  seek  to  awaken  in  all  things  that  arc, 
a community  with  what  we  experience  within  ourselves.  If 
we  reason,  we  would  be  understood  ; if  we  imagine,  we  would 
that  the  airy  children  of  our  brain  were  born  anew  within 


another’s  ; if  we  feel,  we  would  that  another’s  nerves  should 
vibrate  to  our  own  ; that  lips  of  motionless  ice  should  not 
reply  to  lips  quivering  and  burning  with  the  heart’s  best  blood. 
This  is  love.  This  is  the  bond  and  the  sanction  which  con- 
nects not  only  man  with  man,  but  with  everything  which  ex- 
ists. We  are  born  into  the  world,  and  there  is  something 
within  us  which,  from  the  instant  that  we  live,  more  and  more 
thirsts  after  its  likeness. — Shelley. 

Love  is  better  than  spectacles  to  make  everything  seem 
great. — Sidney. 

The  passion  of  love  generally  appears  to  everybody  but  the 
man  who  feels  it  entirely  disproportionate  to  the  value  of  the 
object  ; and  though  love  is  pardoned  in  a certain  age,  because 
we  know  it  is  natural,  having  violently  seized  the  imagination, 
yet  it  is  always  laughed  at,  because  we  cannot  enter  into  it; 
and  all  serious  and  strong  expressions  of  it  appear  ridiculous 
to  a third  person  ; and  though  a lover  is  good  company  to  his 
mistress,  he  is  so  to  nobody  else. — Adam  Smith. 

By  luxury  we  condemn  ourselves  to  greater  torments  than 
have  yet  been  invented  by  anger  or  remorse,  or  inflicted  by  the 
greatest  tyrants  upon  the  worst  of  men. — Temple. 

Liars  are  the  cause  of  all  the  sins  and  crimes  in  the  world. — 
Epictetus. 

When  first  found  in  a lie,  talk  to  him  of  it  as  a strange, 
monstrous  matter,  and  so  shame  him  out  of  it. — Locke. 

A lie  is  like  a vizard,  that  may  cover  the  face  indeed,  but 
can  never  become  it. — SOUTH. 

A lie  should  be  trampled  on  and  extinguished  wherever 
found  ; I am  for  fumigating  the  atmosphere  when  I suspect 
that  falsehood,  like  pestilence,  breathes  around  me. — Car- 
lyle. 

I really  know  nothing  more  criminal,  more  mean,  and  more 
ridiculous,  than  lying.  It  is  the  production  either  of  malice, 
cowardice,  or  vanity  ; and  generally  misses  of  its  aim  in  every 
one  of  these  views  ; for  lies  are  always  detected,  sooner  or 
later.  If  I tell  a malicious  lie,  in  order  to  affect  any  man’s 
fortune  or  character,  I may  indeed  injure  him  for  some  time  ; 
but  I shall  be  sure  to  be  the  greatest  sufferer  myself  at  last ; 
for  as  soon  as  ever  I am  detected  (and  detected  I most  cer- 
tainly shall  be)  I am  blasted  for  the  infamous  attempt ; and 
whatever  is  said  afterwards  to  the  disadvantage  of  that  person, 
however  true,  passes  for  calumny.  If  I lie,  or  equivocate — 
for  it  is  the  same  thing — in  order  to  excuse  myself  for  some- 
thing that  I have  said  or  done,  and  to  avoid  the  danger  or 
the  shame  that  I apprehend  from  it,  I discover  at  once 
my  fear,  as  well  as  my  falsehood  ; and  only  increase,  in- 
stead of  avoiding,  the  danger  and  the  shame  : I show  my- 
self to  be  the  lowest  and  the  meanest  of  mankind,  and 
am  sure  to  be  always  treated  as  such. — Lord  Chester- 
field. 

M. 

Man,  the  noblest  creature  upon  the  earth,  hath  a beginning. 
No  man  in  the  world  but  was  some  years  ago  no  man.  If 
every  man  we  see  had  a beginning,  then  the  first  man  also  had 
a beginning,  then  the  world  had  a be~:nning  : for  the  earth, 


4 


SELECT  SHORT  PROSE  QUOTATIONS. 


which  was  made  for  the  use  of  man,  had  wanted  that  end  for 
which  it  was  made.  We  must  pitch  upon  some  one  man  that 
was  unborn  ; that  first  man  must  either  be  eternal  ; that  can- 
not be,  for  he  that  hath  no  beginning  hath  no  end  ; or  must 
spring  out  of  the  earth  as  plants  and  trees  do  ; that  cannot  be  : 
why  should  not  the  earth  produce  men  to  this  day,  as  it  doth 
plants  and  trees  ? He  was  therefore  made  ; and  whatsoever 
is  made  hath  some  cause  that  made  it,  which  is  God. — Char- 
nock 

Not  the  least  transaction  of  sense  and  motion  in  man  but 
philosophers  are  at  a loss  to  comprehend. — South. 

Good  manners  are  a part  of  good  morals  ; and  when  form 
is  too  much  neglected,  true  politeness  suffers  diminution  : then 
we  are  obliged  to  bring  some  back  ; or  we  find  the  want  of 
them.  . . . The  opposite  extreme  of  substituting  the  ex- 

ternal form  for  the  thing  signified  is  not  more  dangerous  or 
more  common  than  the  neglect  of  that  form.  It  is  all  very 
well  to  say,  “ There  is  no  use  in  bidding  Good-morrow,  or 
Good-night,  to  those  who  know  I wish  it ; of  sending  one’s 
love,  in  a letter,  to  those  who  do  not  doubt  it,”  etc.  All  this 
sounds  very  well  in  theory,  but  it  will  not  do  for  practice. 
Scarce  any  friendship,  or  any  politeness,  is  so  strong  as  to  be 
able  to  subsist  without  any  external  supports  of  this  kind;  and 
it  is  even  better  to  have  too  much  form  than  too  little. — 
Whately. 

Marriage  is  a feast  where  the  grace  is  sometimes  better 
than  the  dinner. — COLTON. 

Marriage,  indeed,  may  qualify  the  fury  of  his  passions  ; 
but  it  very  rarely  mends  a man’s  manners. — Congreve. 

Though  matrimony  may  have  some  pains,  celibacy  has  few 
pleasures. — Johnson. 

Marriage  is  the  best  state  for  man  in  general ; and  every 
man  is  a worse  man  in  proportion  as  he  is  unfit  for  the  mar- 
ried state. — Johnson. 

Marriage  is  an  institution  calculated  for  a constant  scene 
of  as  much  delight  as  our  being  is  capable  of.  Two  persons 
who  have  chosen  each  other  out  of  all  the  species,  with  de- 
signs to  be  each  other’s  mutual  comfort  and  entertainment, 
have  in  that  action  bound  themselves  to  be  good-humored,  af- 
fable, discreet,  forgiving,  patient,  and  joyful,  with  respect  to 
other’s  frailties  and  perfections,  to  the  end  of  their  lives.  The 
wiser  of  the  two  (and  it  always  happens  one  of  them  is  such) 
will,  for  her  or  his  own  sake,  keep  things  from  outrage  with 
the  utmost  sanctity.  When  this  union  is  thus  preserved  (as  I 
have  often  said),  the  most  indifferent  circumstance  administers 
delight.  Their  condition  is  an  endless  source  of  new  gratifi- 
cations. — Steele. 

Were  not  a man  to  marry  a second  time,  it  might  be  con- 
cluded that  his  first  wife  had  given  him  a disgust  to  mar- 
riage ; but  by  taking  a second  wife  he  pays  the  highest  com- 
pliment to  the  first,  by  showing  that  she  made  him  so  happy 
as  a married  man  that  he  wishes  to  be  so  a second  time. — Dr. 
S.  Johnson. 

We  should  not  sadden  the  harmless  mirth  of  others  by 
suffering  our  own  melancholy  to  be  seen  ; and  this  species 
of  exertion  is,  like  virtue,  its  own  reward  ; for  the  good 
spirits  which  are  at  first  simulated  become  at  length  real. — 
Scott. 


Imaginary  evils  soon  become  real  ones  by  indulging  our  re- 
flections on  them. — Swift. 

’Tis  memory  alone  that  enriches  the  mind  by  preserving 
what  our  labor  and  industry  daily  collect. — Watts. 

A mind  which  is  ever  crowding  its  memory  with  things  that 
it  learns  may  cramp  the  invention  itself. — Watts. 

Memory  is  the  only  paradise  out  of  which  we  cannot  be 
driven  away. — Richter. 

Memory  is  the  power  to  revive  again  in  our  minds  those 
ideas  which,  after  imprinting,  have  disappeared,  or  have  been 
laid  aside  out  of  sight. — Locke. 

Toil  of  the  mind  destroys  health  by  attracting  the  spirits 
from  their  task  of  concoction  to  the  brain,  whither  they  carry 
along  with  them  clouds  of  vapor  and  excrementitious  humors. 
—Harvey. 

The  truly  strong  and  sound  mind  is  the  mind  that  can 
embrace  equally  great  things  and  small.  I would  have  a man 
great  in  great  things  and  elegant  in  little  things. — Johnson. 

The  mind  and  memoiy  are  more  sharply  exercised  in  com- 
prehending another  man’s  things  than  our  own. — Ben  Jon- 
SON. 

The  mind  is  not  always  in  the  same  state,  being  at  times 
cheerful,  melancholy,  severe,  peevish.  These  different  states 
may  not  improperly  be  denominated  tones. — Kames. 

Misery  is  caused  for  the  most  part  not  by  a heavy  crush  of 
disaster,  but  by  the  corrosion  of  less  visible  evils,  which 
canker  enjoyments  and  undermine  society.— Johnson. 

Modesty  is  a kind  of  shame  or  bashfulness  proceeding  from 
the  sense  of  a man  of  his  own  defects  compared  with  the  per- 
fection of  him  whom  he  comes  before. — South. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  modesty  in  a man  is  never  to  be  al- 
lowed as  a good  quality,  but  a weakness,  if  it  suppresses  his 
virtue  and  hides  it  from  the  world,  when  he  has  at  the  same 
time  a mind  to  exert  himself.  A French  author  says,  very 
justly,  that  modesty  is  to  the  other  virtues  in  a man  what  shade 
in  a picture  is  to  the  parts  of  the  thing  represented  ; it  makes 
all  the  other  beauties  conspicuous,  which  would  otherwise  be 
but  a wild  heap  of  colors.  This  shade  in  our  actions  must, 
therefore,  be  very  justly  applied,  for  if  there  be  too  much,  it 
hides  our  good  qualities  instead  of  showing  them  to  advantage. 
— Steele. 

Money  does  all  things  ; if  it  gives  out,  it  takes  away  ; it 
makes  honest  men  and  knaves  ; fools  and  philosophers;  and 
so,  forward,  mulatis  mutandis , to  the  end  of  the  chapter. — 
L’Estrange. 

A wise  man  should  have  money  in  his  head,  but  not  in  his 
heart. — Swift. 

The  morality  of  an  action  is  founded  in  the  freedom  of 
that  principle  by  virtue  of  which  it  is  in  the  agent’s  power, 
having  all  things  ready  and  requisite  to  the  performance  of  an 
action,  either  to  perform  or  not  perform  it. — South. 

It  is  found  by  experience  that  those  men  who  set  up  for 
morality  without  regard  to  religion  are  generally  but  virtuous 
in  part.— Swift. 

The  love  of  a mother  is  never  exhausted  ; it  never  changes, 
it  never  tires.  A father  may  turn  his  back  on  his  child,  brothers 
and  sisters  may  become  inveterate  enemies,  husbands  may  de- 
sert their  wives,  wives  their  husbands,  but  a mother’s  love 


SELECT  SHORT  PROSE  QUOTATIONS. 


63 


f 


endures  through  all  ; in  good  repute,  in  bad  repute,  in  the 
face  of  the  world’s  condemnation,  a mother  still  loves  on,  and 
still  hopes  that  her  child  may  turn  from  his  evil  ways  and  re- 
pent ; still  she  remembers  the  infant  smiles  that  once  filled  her 
bosom  with  rapture,  the  merry  laugh,  the  joyful  shout  of  his 
childhood,  the  opening  promise  of  his  youth,  and  she  can 
never  be  brought  to  think  him  all  unworthy. — WASHINGTON 
Irving. 

Even  He  that  died  for  us  upon  the  cross,  in  the  last  hour,  in 
the  unutterable  agony  of  death,  was  mindful  of  His  mother, 
as  if  to  teach  us  that  this  holy  love  should  be  our  last  worldly 
thought — the  last  point  of  earth  from  which  the  soul  should 
take  its  flight  for  heaven. — Longfellow. 

To  be  impatient  at  the  death  of  a person  concerning  whom 
it  was  certain  that  he  must  die  is  to  mourn  because  thy  friend 
was  not  bom  an  angel. — Taylor. 

Excess  of  grief  for  the  deceased  is  madness,  for  it  is  an  in- 
jury to  the  living,  and  the  dead  know  it  not. — Xenophon  on 
Mourning. 

Of  all  the  liberal  arts,  music  has  the  greatest  influence  over 
the  passions,  and  it  is  that  to  which  the  legislator  ought  to 
give  the  greatest  encouragement.  A well-composed  song  strikes 
and  softens  the  mind,  and  produces  a greater  effect  than  a 
moral  work,  which  convinces  our  reason  but  does  not  warm 
our  feelings  nor  effect  the  slightest  alteration  in  our  habits. — 
Napoleon  I. 

N. 

The  works  of  nature  will  bear  a thousand  views  and  re- 
views ; the  more  frequently  and  narrowly  we  look  into  them 
the  more  occasion  we  shall  have  to  admire  their  beauty. — At- 
TERBURY. 

Nature,  the  handmaid  of  God  Almighty,  doth  nothing  but 
with  good  advice,  if  we  make  researches  into  the  true  reason 
of  things. — James  Howell. 

It  is  a great  mortification  to  the  vanity  of  man  that  his  ut- 
most art  and  industry  can  never  equal  the  meanest  of  nature’s 
productions  either  for  beauty  or  value. — Hume. 

Novelty  is  the  great-parent  of  pleasure. — South. 

Novelty  has  charms  that  our  minds  can  hardly  withstand. 
— Thackeray. 

O. 

Obstinacy  in  opinions  holds  the  dogmatist  in  the  chains  of 
error,  without  hope  of  emancipation. — Glanville. 

No  liberal  man  would  ever  impute  a charge  of  unsteadi- 
ness to  another  for  having  changed  his  opinion. — Cicero. 

Opinion  is,  when  the  assent  of  the  understanding  is  so  far 
gained  by  evidence  of  probability  that  it  rather  inclines  to  one 
persuasion  than  to  another,  yet  not  altogether  without  a mix- 
ture of  uncertainty  or  doubting. — Hale. 

Opportunity  is,  in  respect  to  time,  in  some  sense  as  time 
is  in  respect  to  eternity  ; it  is  the  small  moment,  the  exact 
point,  the  critical  minute  on  which  every  good  work  so  much 
depends. — Sprat. 

Scaliger,  in  comparing  the  two  orators,  says  that  nothing 
can  be  taken  from  Demosthenes  nor  added  to  Tully. — Denham. 


In  oratory  affectation  must  be  avoided,  it  being  better  for 
a man  by  a native  and  clear  eloquence  to  express  himself  than 
by  those  words  which  may  smell  either  of  lamp  or  of  inkhorn. 
— CHERBURY. 

The  poet  is  the  nearest  border  upon  the  orator. — Jonson. 

Good  order  is  the  foundation  of  all  good  things. — Burice. 

Order  is  the  sanity  of  the  mind,  the  health  of  the  body,  the 
peace  of  the  city,  the  security  of  the  State  ; as  the  beams  to  a 
house,  as  the  bones  to  the  microcosm  of  a man,  so  is  order  to 
all  things. — Southey. 

People  are  always  talking  about  originality,  but  what  do 
they  mean  ? As  soon  as  we  are  born  the  world  begins  to  work 
upon  us,  and  this  goes  on  to  the  end.  And,  after  all,  what 
can  we  call  our  own,  except  energy,  strength  and  will  ? If  I 
could  give  an  account  of  all  that  I owe  to  great  predecessors 
and  contemporaries,  there  would  be  but  a small  balance  in  my 
favor. — Goethe. 

P. 

Pain  itself  is  not  without  its  alleviations.  It  may  be  violent 
and  frequent,  but  it  is  seldom  both  violent  and  long-continued, 
and  its  pauses  and  intermissions  become  positive  pleasures.  It 
has  the  power  of  shedding  a satisfaction  over  intervals  of  ease 
which,  I believe,  few  enjoyments  exceed. — Paley. 

Let  parents  choose  between  the  vocations  and  courses  they 
mean  their  children  should  take,  for  then  they  are  most  flexible; 
and  let  them  not  too  much  apply  themselves  to  the  disposition 
of  their  children,  as  thinking  they  will  take  best  to  that  which 
they  have  most  mind  to.  It  is  true  that  if  the  affection  or 
aptness  of  the  children  be  extraordinary,  then  it  is  good  not  to 
cross  it  ; but  generally  the  precept  is  good,  “ Optimum  elige- 
tuave  et  facile  illud  facie t consuetudo.” — Lord  Bacon. 

No  sophism  is  too  gross  to  delude  minds  distempered  by 
party  spirit. — Macaulay. 

Outrageous  party  writers  are  like  a couple  of  make  bates, 
who  inflame  small  quarrels  by  a thousand  stories. — Swift. 

Passion  transforms  us  into  a kind  of  savage,  and  makes  us 
brutal  and  sanguinary. — Browne. 

The  mind  hath  but  reason  to  remember  that  passions 
ought  to  be  her  vassals,  not  her  masters. — Raleigh. 

If  we  give  way  to  our  passions  we  do  but  gratify  ourselves 
for  the  present  in  order  to  our  future  disquiet. — Tillotson. 

He  surely  is  most  in  want  of  another’s  patience  who  has 
none  of  his  own. — Lavatf.r. 

There  is  a limit  at  which  forbearance  ceases  to  be  a virtue. 

Impatience  turns  an  ague  into  a fever,  a fever  to  the  plague, 
fear  into  despair,  anger  into  rage,  loss  into  madness,  and  sor- 
row into  amazement. — Taylor. 

Patriotism  is  the  last  refuge  of  a scoundrel. — Johnson. 

Our  country  is  wherever  we  are  well  off. — Milton. 

Patriotism  is  a blind  and  irrational  impulse  unless  it  is 
founded  on  a knowledge  of  the  blessings  we  are  called  to 
secure  and  the  privileges  we  purpose  to  defend. — Hill. 

We  should  avoid  the  vexation  and  impertinence  of  pedants, 
who  affect  to  talk  in  a language  not  to  be  understood. — Swift. 

Perception  is  only  a special  kind  of  knowledge,  and  sensa- 
tion  a special  kind  of  feeling.  . . . Knowledge  and  feel* 


<74 


SELECT  SHORT  PROSE  QUOTATIONS. 


ing,  perception  and  sensation,  though  always  coexisting,  are 
always  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  each  other. — Locke. 

Great  effects  come  of  industry  and  perseverance,  for  au- 
dacity doth  almost  bind  and  mate  the  weaker  sort  of  minds. 
— Lord  Bacon. 

Let  us  only  suffer  any  person  to  tell  us  his  story,  morning 
and  evening,  but  for  one  twelve-month,  and  he  will  become 
our  master. —Burke  on  Perseverance. 

There  is  no  creature  so  contemptible  but  by  resolution  may 
gain  his  point. — L’Estrange  on  Perseverance. 

Philosophy  has  been  defined:  The  science  of  things,  di- 
vine and  human,  and  the  causes  in  which  they  are  contained; 
the  science  of  effects  by  their  causes  ; the  science  of  sufficient 
reasons  ; the  science  of  things  possible,  inasmuch  as  they  are 
possible  ; the  science  of  things  evidently  deducted  from  their 
first  principles  ; the  science  of  truths  sensible  and  abstract  ; the 
application  of  reason  to  its  legitimate  objects  ; the  science  of 
the  relations  of  all  knowledge  to  the  necessary  ends  of  human 
reason  ; the  science  of  the  original  form  of  the  ego,  or  mental 
self  ; the  science  of  science  ; the  science  of  the  absolute  ; the 
science  of  the  absolute  indifference  of  the  ideal  and  real. — 
Hamilton. 

The  desiring  of  what  is  true,  and  the  practice  of  that  which 
is  good,  are  the  two  most  important  objects  of  philosophy. — 
Voltaire. 

Cicero  doubts  whether  it  were  possible  for  a community  to 
exist  that  had  not  a prevailing  mixture  of  piety  in  its  consti- 
tution.— Addison. 

As  the  practice  of  piety  and  virtue  is  agreeable  to  our  reason, 
so  it  is  likewise  the  intent  both  of  private  persons  and  of  pub- 
lic societies. — Tillotson. 

If  there  be  more  pleasure  in  abundance,  there  is  more  se- 
curity in  a mean  estate.— Hall. 

Yielding  to  immoral  pleasures  corrupts  the  mind ; living 
to  animal  and  trifling  ones  debases  it. — Johnson. 

Pleasure,  in  general,  is  the  consequent  apprehension  of  a 
suitable  object  suitably  applied  to  a rightly  disposed  faculty. 
— South. 

He  who  would  have  the  perfection  of  pleasure  must  be 
moderate  in  the  use  of  it. — Whichcote. 

The  art  of  poetry  is  to  touch  the  passions,  and  its  duty  to 
lead  them  on  the  side  of  virtue.  — Cowper. 

A poem  is  not  alone  any  work  or  composition  of  the  poets 
in  many  or  few  verses,  but  even  one  verse  alone  sometimes 
makes  a perfect  poem. — Jonson. 

Poetry  is  the  blossom  and  the  fragrance  of  all  human 
knowledge,  human  thoughts,  human  passions,  emotions,  lan- 
guage.— Coleridge. 

In  politics,  what  begins  in  fear  usually  ends  in  /oily. — 
— Coleridge. 

How  many  thousands  pronounce  boldly  on  the  affairs  of  the 
public  whom  God  nor  men  never  qualified  for  such  judgment  ! 
— Watts. 

A usurping  populace  is  its  own  dupe,  a mere  underworker, 
and  a purchaser  in  trust  for  some  single  tyrant. — Swift. 

The  mob  is  a monster  with  the  hands  of  Briareus,  but  the 
head  of  Polyphemus,  strong  to  execute  but  blind  to  perceive. 
—Colton. 


If  rich,  it  is  easy  enough  to  conceal  our  wealth,  but  if  poor, 
it  is  not  quite  so  easy  to  conceal  our  poverty.  We  shall  find 
it  is  less  difficult  to  hide  a thousand  guineas  than  one  hole  in 
our  coat. — Colton. 

It  is  the  care  of  a very  great  part  of  mankind  to  conceal 
their  indigence  from  the  rest. — Johnson  on  Poverty. 

That  man  is  to  be  accounted  poor,  of  whatever  rank  he 
be,  and  suffers  the  pains  of  poverty  whose  expenses  exceed 
his  resources  ; and  no  man  is,  properly  speaking,  poor  but  he. 
— Paley. 

Power,  when  employed  to  relieve  the  oppressed  and  punish 
the  oppressor,  becomes  a great  blessing. — Swift. 

Power  will  intoxicate  the  best  hearts,  as  wine  the  strongest 
heads.  No  man  is  wise  enough,  nor  good  enough,  to  be 
trusted  with  unlimited  power  ; for  whatever  qualifications  he 
may  have  evinced  to  entitle  him  to  the  possession  of  so  dan- 
gerous a privilege,  yet  when  possessed  others  can  no  longer 
answer  for  him,  because  he  can  no  longer  answer  for  himself. 
— Colton. 

Praise  has  different  effects,  according  to  the  mind  it  meets 
with ; it  makes  a wise  man  modest,  but  a fool  more  arrogant, 
turning  his  weak  brain  giddy. — Feltham. 

Allow  no  man  to  be  so  familiar  with  you  as  to  praise  you 
to  your  face. — Steele. 

What  signifies  the  sound  of  words  in  prayer  without  the 
affection  of  the  heart,  and  a sedulous  application  of  the  proper 
means  that  may  naturally  lead  us  to  such  an  end  ? — L’Es- 
trange. 

But  whatever  may  be  the  fortune  of  our  lives,  one  great  ex- 
tremity at  least,  the  hour  of  approaching  death,  is  certainly  to 
be  passed  through.  What  ought  then  to  occupy  us?  What 
can  then  support  us?  Prayer.  Prayer. — Paley. 

It  is  a fault  with  a multitude  of  preachers  that  they  utterly 
neglect  method  in  their  harangues. — Watts. 

In  preaching,  no  men  succeed  better  than  those  who  trust 
to  the  fund  of  their  own  reason,  advanced,  but  not  overlaid, 
by  their  commerce  with  books. — Swift. 

Prejudice  and  self-sufficiency  naturally  proceed  from  inex- 
perience with  the  world  and  ignorance  of  mankind. — Addison. 

A snob  is  that  man  or  woman  who  is  always  pretending  to 
be  something  better — especially  richer  or  more  fashionable — 
than  they  are. — Thackeray. 

Some  pretences  daunt  and  discourage  us,  while  others 
raise  us  to  a brisk  assurance. — Glanvill. 

Pride  goes  hated,  cursed,  and  abominated  by  all. — Ham- 
mond. 

Pride  that  dines  on  vanity  sups  on  contempt. — Franklin. 

Pride  is  as  loud  a beggar  as  want,  and  a great  deal  more 
saucy.  When  you  have  bought  one  fine  thing  you  must  buy 
ten  more,  that  your  appearance  may  be  all  of  a piece;  but  it 
is  easier  to  suppress  the  first  desire  than  to  satisfy  all  that  fol- 
lows it. — B.  Franklin. 

Probability  is  the  appearance  of  the  agreement  or  disa- 
greement of  two  ideas  by  the  intervention  of  proofs  whose 
connection  is  not  constant,  but  appears  for  the  most  part  to  be 
so. — Locke. 

There  is  no  moment  like  the  present ; not  only  so,  but, 
moreover,  there  is  no  moment  at  all,  that  is,  no  instant  force 


SELECT  SHORT  PROSE  QUOTATIONS. 


05 


and  energy,  but  in  the  present.  The  man  who  will  not  execute 
his  resolutions  when  they  are  fresh  upon  him  can  have  no  hope 
from  them  afterwards  ; they  will  be  dissipated,  lost,  and  perish 
in  the  hurry  and  skurry  of  the  world,  or  sunk  in  the  slough 
of  indolence. — Maria  Edgeworth  on  Procrastination. 

None  so  nearly  disposed  to  scoffing  at  religion  as  those  who 
have  accustomed  themselves  to  swear  on  trifling  occasions. — 
Tillotson  on  Profanity. 

Is  not  the  separate  property  of  a thing  the  great  cause  of 
its  endearment  amongst  all  mankind  ?— SOUTH. 

Property  communicates  a charm  to  whatever  is  the  object 
of  it.  It  is  the  first  of  our  abstract  ideas  ; it  cleaves  to  us  the 
closest  and  the  longest.  It  endears  to  the  child  its  plaything, 
to  the  peasant  his  cottage,  to  the  landlord  his  estate.  It  sup- 
plies the  place  of  prospect  and  scenery.  Instead  of  coveting 
the  beauty  of  distant  situations,  it  teaches  every  man  to  find 
it  in  his  own.  It  gives  boldness  and  grandeur  to  plains  and 
fens,  tinge  and  coloring  to  clays  and  fallows. — Paley. 

The  temptations  of  prosperity  insinuate  themselves  after  a 
gentle,  but  very  powerful  manner,  so  that  we  are  but  little 
aware  of  them,  and  less  able  to  withstand  them. — ATTERBURY. 

To  speak  in  a measure,  the  virtue  of  prosperity  is  temper- 
ance ; the  virtue  of  adversity  is  fortitude. — Bacon. 

Happy  it  were  for  all  of  us  if  we  bore  prosperity  as  well 
and  wisely  as  we  endure  adverse  fortune. — Southey. 

A proverb  is  the  wit  of  one,  and  the  wisdom  of  many. — 
Russell. 

Providence  is  an  intellectual  knowledge,  both  foreseeing, 
caring  for,  and  ordering  all  things,  and  doth  not  only  behold 
all  past,  all  present,  and  all  to  come,  but  is  the  cause  of  their 
being  so  provided,  which  prescience  is  not. — Raleigh. 

Good  Providence  1 that  curbs  the  raging  of  proud  mon- 
archs,  as  well  as  of  mad  multitudes. — Milton. 

We  are  to  vindicate  the  just  providence  of  God  in  the 
government  of  the  world,  and  to  endeavor,  as  well  as  we  can 
upon  an  imperfect  view  of  things,  to  make  out  the  beauty  and 
harmony  of  all  the  seeming  discords  and  irregularities  of  the 
divine  administration. — T illotson. 

Prudence  is  one  of  the  virtues  which  were  called  cardinal 
by  the  ancient  ethical  writers. — Fleming. 

The  great  end  of  prudence  is  to  give  cheerfulness  to  those 
hours  which  splendor  cannot  gild,  and  acclamation  cannot  ex- 
hilarate ; those  soft  intervals  of  unbended  amusement,  in 
which  a man  shrinks  to  his  natural  dimensions,  and  throws 
aside  the  ornaments  or  disguises  which  he  feels  in  privacy  to 
be  useless  encumbrances,  and  to  lose  all  effect  when  they  be- 
come familiar. — Johnson. 

’Tis  a rule  that  goes  a great  way  in  the  government  of  a 
sober  man’s  life,  not  to  put  anything  to  hazard  that  may  be 
secured  by  industry,  consideration,  or  circumspection. — L’Es- 
trange. 

Prudence  is  principally  in  reference  to  actions  to  be  done, 
and  due  means,  order,  reason,  and  method  of  doing  or  not 
doing. — Hale. 

Q- 

Horace  has  enticed  me  into  the  pedantry  of  quotation. — 
Cowley. 


He  that  has  ever  so  little  examined  the  citations  of  writers 
cannot  doubt  how  little  credit  the  quotations  deserve  when 
the  originals  are  wanting. — Locke. 

R. 

Force  yourself  to  reflect  on  what  you  read,  paragraph  by- 
paragraph. — Coleridge. 

A man  may  as  well  expect  to  grow  stronger  by  always  eat- 
ing as  wiser  by  always  reading.  Too  much  overcharges 
nature,  and  turns  more  into  disease  than  nourishment. — 
Collier. 

For  general  improvement  a man  should  read  whatever  his 
immediate  inclination  prompts  him  to  ; though,  to  be  sure,  if 
a man  has  a science  to  learn,  he  must  regularly  and  resolutely 
advance.  What  we  read  with  inclination  makes  a much 
stronger  impression.  If  we  read  without  inclination,  half  the 
mind  is  employed  in  fixing  the  attention,  so  there  is  but  one- 
half  to  be  employed  on  what  we  read.  If  a man  begins  to 
read  in  the  middle-of  a book,  and  feels  an  inclination  to  go 
on,  let  him  not  quit  it  to  go  to  the  beginning.  He  may,  per- 
haps, not  feel  again  the  inclination. — Johnson. 

Reason  is  always  striving  and  always  at  a loss  while  it  is 
exercised  about  that  which  is  not  its  proper  object. — Dryden. 

There  is  no  opposing  brutal  force  to  the  stratagems  of 
human  reason. — L’Estrange. 

Pure  reason  or  intuition  holds  a similar  relation  to  the 
understanding  that  perception  holds  to  sensation. — Locke. 

Reason  cannot  show  itself  more  reasonable  than  to  leave 
reasoning  on  things  above  reason.— Sidney. 

He  that  will  make  a good  use  of  any  part  of  his  life  must 
allow  a large  portion  of  it  to  recreation. — Locke. 

There  is  an  art  of  which  every  man  should  be  master,  the 
art  of  reflection. — Coleridge. 

Lukewarm  persons  think  they  may  accommodate  points  of 
religion  by  middle  ways  and  witty  reconcilements  ; as  if 
they  would  make  an  arbitrament  between  God  and  man. — 
Bacon. 

Religion  is  for  the  man  in  humble  life,  and  to  raise  his 
nature,  and  to  put  him  in  mind  of  a state  in  which  the  priv- 
ileges of  opulence  will  cease,  when  he  will  be  equal,  and  may 
be  more  than  equal  by  virtue. — Burke. 

Religion  receives  man  into  a covenant  of  grace,  where  there 
is  a pardon  reached  out  to  all  truly  penitent  sinners,  and  as- 
sistance promised,  and  engaged,  and  bestowed,  upon  very  easy 
conditions;  viz.:  humility,  prayer,  and  affiance  in  him. — 
Hammond. 

Remorse  of  conscience  is  like  an  old  wound  ; a man  is 
under  no  condition  to  fight  under  such  circumstances.  The 
pain  abates  his  vigor,  and  takes  up  too  much  of  his  attention. 
— Collier. 

A man’s  first  care  should  be  to  avoid  the  reproaches  of 
his  own  heart  ; his  next,  to  escape  the  censures  of  the  world. — < 
Addison. 

Sins  may  be  forgiven  through  repentance,  but  no  act  of 
art  will  ever  justify  them. — Sherlock. 

Repentance  so  altereth  and  changeth  a man  through  the 
mercy  of  God,  be  he  ever  so  defiled,  that  it  maketh  him  pure 
and  clean. — Whitgift. 


66  SELECT  SHORT  PROSE  QUOTATIONS. 


A man’s  reputation  draws  eyes  upon  him  that  will  nar- 
rowly inspect  every  part  of  him. — ADDISON. 

To  be  desirous  of  a good  name,  and  careful  to  do  every- 
thing that  we  innocently  may  to  obtain  it,  is  so  far  from  being 
a fault,  even  in  private  persons,  that  it  is  their  great  and  in- 
dispensable duty. — ATTERBURY. 

True  resignation,  which  always  brings  with  it  the  confi- 
dence that  unchangeable  goodness  will  make  even  the  disap- 
pointment of  our  hopes  and  the  contradictions  of  life  condu- 
cive to  some  benefit,  casts  a grave  but  tranquil  light  over  the 
prospects  of  even  a toilsome  and  troubled  life. — Humboldt. 

A man  that  studieth  revenge  keepeth  his  own  wounds 
green,  which  otherwise  would  heal  and  do  well. — BACON. 

The  indulgence  of  revenge  tends  to  make  man  more  cruel 
and  savage. — Kames. 

A pure  and  simple  revenge  does  in  no  way  restore  man 
towards  the  felicity  which  the  injury  did  interrupt.  For  re- 
venge is  but  doing  a simple  evil,  and  does  not,  in  its  formal- 
ity, imply  reparation  ; for  the  mere  repeating  of  our  own  right 
is  permitted  to  them  that  will  do  it  by  charitable  instruments. 
All  the  evils  of  human  felicity  are  secured  without  revenge, 
for  without  it  we  are  permitted  to  restore  ourselves  ; and  there- 
fore it  is  against  natural  reason  to  do  an  evil  that  no  way  co- 
operates the  proper  and  perfective  end  of  human  nature.  And 
he  is  a miserable  person  whose  good  is  the  evil  of  his  neigh- 
bor ; and  he  that  revenges,  in  many  cases,  does  worse  than 
he  that  did  the  injury  ; in  all  cases  as  bad. — Jeremy  Tay- 
lor. 

Riches  expose  a man  to  pride  and  luxury,  and  foolish  ela- 
tion of  heart.— Addison. 

Riches  do  not  consist  in  having  more  gold  and  silver,  but 
in  having  more  in  proportion  than  our  neighbors. — Locke. 

Nothing  is  so  hard  for  those  who  abound  in  riches,  as  to 
conceive  how  others  can  be  in  want. — Swift. 

It  is  easy  to  run  into  ridicule  the  best  descriptions  when 
once  a man  is  in  the  humor  of  laughing  till  he  wheezes  at  his 
own  dull  jest. — Dryden. 

Derision  is  never  so  agonizing  as  when  it  pounces  on  the 
wanderings  of  misguided  sensibility. — Lord  Jeffrey. 

If  ridicule  were  employed  to  laugh  men  out  of  vice  and 
folly,  it  might  be  of  some  use  ; but  it  is  made  use  of  to  laugh 
men  out  of  virtue  and  good  sense,  by  attacking  everything 
solemn  and  virtuous. — Addison. 

S. 

Nothing  the  united  voice  of  all  history  proclaims  so  loud,  as 
the  certain  unfailing  curse  that  has  pursued  and  overtaken 
sacrilege. — South. 

Satire  is  a sort  of  glass,  wherein  beholders  generally  dis- 
cover everybody’s  face  but  their  own  ; which  is  the  chief  rea- 
son for  that  kind  of  reception  it  meets  in  the  world,  and  that 
so  few  are  offended  with  it. — Swift. 

A satire  should  expose  nothing  but  what  is  corrigible,  and 
make  a due  discrimination  between  those  that  are  and  those 
that  are  not  the  proper  objects  of  it. — Addison. 

Science  is  knowledge  certain  and  evident  in  itself,  or  by 
the  principles  from  which  it  is  deduced  or  with  which  it  is 
certainly  connected.  It  is  subjective,  as  existing  in  the  mind; 


objective,  as  embodied  in  truths  ; speculative,  as  leading  to 
do  something,  as  in  practical  science. — Fleming. 

Self-denial  is  a kind  of  holy  association  with  God  ; and 
by  making  you  his  partner,  interests  you  in  all  his  happiness. — 
Boyle. 

Teach  self-denial,  and  make  its  practice  pleasurable,  and 
you  create  for  the  world  a destiny  more  sublime  than  ever  is* 
sued  from  the  brain  of  the  wildest  dreamer. — Scott. 

It  is  the  nature  of  extreme  self-lovers,  as  they  will  set  an 
house  on  fire  and  it  were  but  to  roast  their  eggs. — Bacon. 

The  reverence  of  a man  self  is  not  religion,  the  chiefes 
bridle  of  all  vices. — Bacon. 

The  weakness  of  social  affections  and  the  strength  of  pri 
vate  desires  constitute  selfishness. 

Shame  is  a painful  sensation  occasioned  by  the  quick  ap 
prehension  that  reputation  and  character  are  in  danger,  or  by 
the  perception  that  they  are  lost. — Cogan. 

Where  there  is  shame  there  may  yet  be  virtue. — Johnson. 

Is  there  anything  that  more  embitters  the  enjoyments  ol 
this  life  than  shame  ? 

Sickness  is  early  old  age  ; it  teaches  us  diffidence  in  out 
earthly  state,  and  inspires  us  with  thoughts  of  a future. — 
Pope. 

Simplicity  is  that  grace  which  frees  the  soul  from  all  un- 
necessary reflections  upon  itself. — Fenelon. 

There  is  a majesty  in  simplicity  which  is  far  above  the 
quaintness  of  wit. — Pope. 

Use  sin  as  it  will  use  you  ; spare  it  not,  for  it  will  not  spare 
you  : it  is  your  murderer,  and  the  murderer  of  the  world  ; use 
it,  therefore,  as  a murderer  should  be  used.  Kill  it  before  it 
kills  you  ; and  though  it  kill  your  bodies,  it  shall  not  be  able 
to  kill  your  souls  ; and  though  it  bring  you  to  the  grave,  as  it 
did  your  Head,  it  shall  not  be  able  to  keep  you  there. — 
Baxter. 

Sin  is  the  contrariety  to  the  will  of  God,  and  if  all  things 
be  preordained  by  God,  and  so  demonstrated  to  be  willed  by 
him,  it  remains  there  is  no  such  thing  as  sin. — Hammond. 

Sincerity  is  the  most  compendious  wisdom,  and  an  excel- 
lent instrument  for  the  speedy  dispatch  of  business  ; it  creates 
confidence  in  those  we  have  to  deal  with,  saves  the  labor  of 
many  inquiries,  and  brings  things  to  an  issue  in  few  words. 
It  is  like  traveling  in  a plain  beaten  road,  which  commonly 
brings  a man  sooner  to  his  journey’s  end  than  by-ways,  in 
which  men  often  lose  themselves.  In  a word,  whatsoever 
convenience  may  be  thought  to  be  in  falsehood  and  dissimula- 
tion, it  is  soon  over  ; but  the  inconvenience  of  it  is  perpetual, 
because  it  brings  a man  under  an  everlasting  jealousy  and  sus- 
picion, so  that  he  is  not  believed  when  he  speaks  truth,  nor 
trusted  when  perhaps  he  means  honestly.  When  a man  has 
once  forfeited  the  reputation  of  his  integrity,  he  is  set  fast; 
and  nothing  then  will  serve  his  turn,  neither  truth  nor  false- 
hood. — Tillotson. 

Slander  is  a complication,  a comprisal  and  sum  of  all  wick- 
edness. — Barrow. 

The  worthiest  people  are  the  most  injured  by  slander,  as 
we  usually  find  that  to  be  the  best  fruit  which  the  birds  have 
been  pecking  at. — Swift. 

Now  blessings  light  on  him  that  first  invented  sleep  1 it 


SELECT  SHORT  PROSE  QUOTATIONS. 


67 


covers  a man  all  over,  thoughts  and  all,  like  a cloak;  it  is 
meat  for  the  hungry,  drink  for  the  thirsty,  heat  for  the  cold, 
and  cold  for  the  hot. — Cervantes. 

Sleep  death’s  beautiful  brother — fairest  phenemenon  — 
poetical  reality, — thou  sweet  collapsing  of  the  weary  spirit; 
thou  mystery  that  every  one  knows  ; thou  remnant  of  primeval 
innocence  and  bliss  : for  Adam  slept  in  Paradise.  To  sleep 
— there’s  a drowsy  mellifluence  in  the  very  word  that  would 
almost  serve  to  interpret  its  meaning — to  shut  up  the  senses 
and  hoodwink  the  soul ; to  dismiss  the  world  ; to  escape  from 
one’s  self  ; to  be  in  ignorance  of  our  own  existence  ; to  stag- 
nate upon  the  earth,  just  breathing  out  the  hours,  not  living 
them — “ Doing  no  mischief,  only  dreaming  of  it ; ” neither 
merry  nor  melancholy,  something  between  both,  and  better 
than  either.  Best  friend  of  frail  humanity,  and,  like  all  other 
friends,  best  estimated  in  its  loss. — Longfellow. 

Sorrow  is  uneasiness  in  the  mind  upon  the  thought  of  a 
good  lost  which  might  have  been  enjoyed  longer ; or  the 
sense  of  a present  evil. — Locke. 

Sorrow  being  the  natural  and  direct  offspring  of  sin,  that 
which  first  brought  sin  into  the  world  must,  by  necessary  con- 
sequence, bring  in  sorrow  too. — South. 

He  that  studies  books  alone  will  know  how  things  ought  to 
be  ; and  he  that  studies  men  will  know  how  things  are. — 
Colton. 

The  intellectual  husbandry  is  a goodly  field,  and  it  is  the 
worst  husbandry  in  the  world  to  sow  it  with  trifles. — Hall. 

The  talent  of  success  is  nothing  more  than  doing  what  you 
can  do  well,  and  doing  well  whatever  you  do,  without  a 
thought  of  fame. — Longfellow. 

He  that  would  relish  success  to  purpose  should  keep  his 
passion  cool,  and  his  expectation  low. — Collier. 

If  you  wish  success  in  life,  make  perseverance  your  bosom 
friend,  experience  your  wise  counsellor,  caution  your  elder 
brother,  and  hope  your  guardian  genius. — Addison. 

Suicide  sometimes  proceeds  from  cowardice,  but  not  always  ; 
for  cowardice  sometimes  prevents  it ; since  as  many  live  be- 
cause they  are  afraid  to  die,  as  die  because  they  are  afraid  to 
live. — Colton. 

By  all  human  laws  as  well  as  divine,  self-murder  has  ever 
been  agreed  on  as  the  greatest  crime. — Temple. 

Superstition  renders  a man  a fool,  and  scepticism  makes 
him  mad. — Fielding. 

The  child  taught  to  believe  any  occurrence  a good  or  evil 
omen,  or  any  day  of  the  week  lucky,  hath  a wide  inroad  made 
upon  the  soundness  of  his  understanding. — Watts. 

Suspiciousness  is  as  great  an  enemy  to  wisdom  as  too 
much  credulity. — Fuller. 

Nature  itself,  after  it  has  done  an  injury  will  ever  be  sus- 
picious ; and  no  man  can  love  the  person  he  suspects. — - 
South. 

Let  us  cherish  sympathy..  By  attention  and  exercise  it  may 
be  improved  in  every  man.  It  prepares  the  mind  for  receiv- 
ing the  impressions  of  virtue  ; and  without  it  there  can  be  no 
true  politeness.  Nothing  is  more  odious  than  that  insensi- 
bility which  wraps  a man  up  in  himself  and  his  own  concerns, 
and  prevents  his  being  moved  with  either  the  joys  or  the  sor- 
rows of  another. — Beattie. 


T. 

Temperance  gives  nature  her  full  play  and  enables  her  to 
exert  herself  in  all  her  force  and  vigor. — Addison. 

Temperance,  that  virtue  without  pride,  and  fortune  with- 
out envy,  that  gives  indolence  of  body  with  an  equality  of 
mind  ; the  best  guardian  of  youth  and  support  of  old  age  ; the 
precept  of  reason  as  well  as  religion,  and  physician  of  the  soul 
as  well  as  the  body  ; the  tutelar  godess  of  health  and  universal 
medicine  of  life. — Temple. 

Every  Christian  is  endowed  with  a power  whereby  he  is  en- 
abled to  resist  and  conquer  temptation. — Tillotson. 

Reflect  upon  a clear,  unblotted,  acquitted  conscience,  and 
feed  upon  the  ineffable  comforts  of  the  memorial  of  a con- 
quered temptation. — South. 

Time  is  the  surest  judge  of  truth  ; I am  not  vain  enough 
to  think  I have  no  faults  in  this,  which  that  touchstone  will  not 
discover. — Dryden. 

One  of  the  commonest  errors  is  to  regard  time  as  an  agent. 
But  in  reality  time  does  nothing  and  is  nothing.  We  use  it  as 
a compendious  expression  for  all  those  causes  which  operate 
slowly  and  imperceptibly  ; but,  unless  some  positive  cause  is 
in  action,  no  change  takes  place  in  the  lapse  of  a thousand 
years. — Coplestone. 

The  greatest  friend  of  truth  is  time,  her  greatest  enemy  is 
prejudice,  and  her  constant  companion  is  humility. — Colton. 

Truth  is  the  object  of  our  understanding,  as  good  is  of  the 
will. — Dryden. 

Truth  and  reason  constitute  that  intellectual  gold  that  de- 
fies destruction. — Johnson. 

The  law  of  Christianity  is  eminently  and  transcendently 
called  the  word  of  truth. — South. 

U. 

By  understanding  I mean  that  faculty  whereby  we  are  en- 
abled to  apprehend  the  objects  of  knowledge,  generals  as  well 
as  particulars,  absent  things  as  well  as  present,  and  to  judge 
of  their  truth  or  falsehood,  good  or  evil. — Wilkins. 

V. 

Everyman  has  just  as  much  vanity  as  he  wants  understand, 
ing. — Pope. 

Vanity  is  the  production  of  the  most  ridiculous  and  con- 
temptible vices — the  vices  of  affectation  and  common  lying. — 
Adam  Smith. 

In  a vain  man  the  smallest  spark  may  kindle  into  the  great- 
est flame,  because  the  materials  are  always  prepared  for  it. — • 
Hume. 

Vice  incapacitates  a man  from  all  public  duty  ; it  withers 
the  powers  of  his  understanding,  and  makes  his  mind  paralytic. 
— Burke. 

Vice  stings  us  even  in  our  pleasures,  but  virtue  consoles  us 
even  in  our  pain. — Colton. 

It  will  be  found  a work  of  no  small  difficulty  to  dispossess 
vice  from  the  heart,  when  long  possession  begins  to  plead 
prescription. — Bacon. 

Virtue  is  like  a rich  stone,  best  plain  set ; and  surely  virtue 
is  best  in  a body  that  is  comely,  though  not  of  delicate  features; 


08 


SELECT  SHORT  PROSE  QUOTATIONS. 


and  that  hath  rather  dignity  of  presence  than  beauty  of  aspect  ; 
neither  is  it  almost  seen  that  very  beautiful  persons  are  other- 
wise of  great  virtue  ; as  if  nature  were  rather  busy  not  to  err, 
than  in  labor  to  produce  excellency  ; and  therefore  they  prove 
accomplished  but  not  of  great  spirit  ; and  study  rather  be- 
havior than  virtue.  But  this  holds  not  always. — Bacon. 

The  four  cardinal  virtues  are  prudence,  fortitude,  temper- 
ance and  justice. — PALEY. 

The  felicity  and  beatitude  that  glitter  in  virtue  shines 
throughout  all  her  apartments  and  avenues,  even  to  the  first 
entry,  and  utmost  pale  and  limits.  Now  of  all  the  benefits 
that  virtue  confers  upon  us  the  contempt  of  death  is  one  of  the 
greatest,  as  the  means  that  accommodates  human  life  with  a soft 
and  easy  tranquillity,  and  gives  us  a pure  and  pleasant  taste  of 
living,  without  which  all  other  pleasure  would  be  extinct ; 
and  which  is  the  reason  why  all  the  rules  by  which  we  are  to 
live,  centre  and  concur  in  this  one  article. — Montaigne. 

W. 

Mad  wars  destroy  in  one  year  the  works  of  many  years  of 
peace. — Franklin. 

The  bodies  of  men,  munition  and  money  may  justly  be  called 
the  sinews  of  war. — Raleigh. 

The  way  to  wealth  is  as  plain  as  the  way  to  market.  It 
depends  chiefly  on  two  words  — industry  and  frugality. — 
Franklin. 

When,  therefore,  the  desire  of  wealth  is  taking  hold  of  the 
heart,  let  us  look  round  and  see  how  it  operates  upon  those 
whose  industry  or  whose  fortune  has  obtained  it.  When  we 
find  them  oppressed  with  their  own  abundance,  luxurious 
without  pleasure,  idle  without  ease,  impatient  and  querulous 
in  themselves,  and  despised  or  hated  by  the  rest  of  mankind, 
we  shall  soon  be  convinced  that,  if  the  real  wants  of  our  con- 
dition are  satisfied,  there  remains  little  to  be  sought  with 
solicitude  or  desired  with  eagerness. — Dr.  S.  Johnson. 

Wickedness  may  prosper  for  a while,  but  at  the  long  run 
he  that  sets  all  knaves  at  work  will  pay  them. — L’Estrange. 

No  one  kind  of  true  peace  is  consistent  with  any  sort  of 
prevailing  wickedness. — Stillingfleet. 

Common  sense  in  an  uncommon  degree  is  what  the  world 
calls  wisdom. — Coleridge. 

Wisdom  groundeth  her  laws  upon  an  infallible  ruling  of 
comparison. — Hooker. 

Human  wisdom  is  the  aggregate  of  all  human  experience, 
constantly  accumulating,  and  selecting  and  reorganizing  its 
own  materials — Story. 

Wisdom  is  that  which  makes  men  judge  what  are  the  best 
ends,  and  what  the  best  means  to  attain  them,  and  gives  a man 
advantage  of  counsel  and  direction. — Temple. 

Strong  and  sharp  as  our  wit  may  be,  it  is  not  so  strong  as 
the  memory  of  fools,  nor  so  keen  as  their  resentment  : he  that 
has  not  strength  of  mind  to  forgive,  is  by  no  means  so  weak  as 
to  forget ; and  it  is  much  more  easy  to  do  a cruel  thing  than  to 
say  a severe  one. — Colton. 

Wit  is  not  the  jerk  or  sting  of  an  epigram,  nor  the  seeming 
contradiction  of  a poor  antithesis  ; neither  is  it  so  much  the 
morality  of  a grave  sentence,  affected  by  Lucan,  but  more 
sparingly  used  by  Virgil. — Dryden. 


Intemperate  wits  will  spare  neither  friend  nor  foe,  and 
make  themselves  the  common  enemies  of  mankind. — L’Es- 
TRANGE. 

I am  married,  and  have  no  other  concern  but  to  please  the 
man  I love  ; he  is  the  end  of  every  care  I have  ! if  I dress, 
it  is  for  him  ; if  I read  a poem,  or  a play,  it  is  to  qualify  my- 
self for  a conversation  agreeable  to  his  taste  ; he  is  almost  the 
end  of  my  devotions  ; half  my  prayers  are  for  his  happiness. — 
Steele  on  wives. 

Women  have,  in  general,  but  one  object,  which  is  their 
beauty  ; upon  which  scarce  any  flattery  is  too  gross  for  them. 
Nature  has  hardly  formed  a woman  ugly  enough  to  be  insen- 
sible to  flattery  upon  her  person  ; if  her  face  is  so  shocking  that 
she  must  in  some  degree  be  conscious  of  it,  her  figure  and  her 
air,  she  trusts,  make  ample  amends  for  it.  If  her  figure  is  de- 
formed, her  face,  she  thinks,  counterbalances  it.  If  they  are 
both  bad,  she  comforts  herself  that  she  has  graces  ; a certain 
manner  ; a je  ne  scais  qnoi,  still  more  engaging  than  beauty. 
This  truth  is  evident  from  the  studied  dress  of  the  ugliest 
women  in  the  world.  An  undoubted,  uncontested,  conscious 
beauty  is,  of  all  women,  the  least  sensible  of  flattery  upon  that 
head  ; she  knows  it  is  her  due,  and  is  therefore  obliged  to 
nobody  for  giving  it  her.  She  must  be  flattered  upon  her  un- 
derstanding ; which,  though  she  may  possibly  not  doubt  of 
herself,  yet  she  suspects  that  men  may  distrust — Lord  Ches- 
terfield. 

Women  generally  consider  consequences  in  love,  seldom  in 
resentment. — Colton. 

There  is  in  every  true  woman’s  heart  a spark  of  heavenly 
fire  which  beams  and  blazes  in  the  dark  hours  of  adversity. — 
Irving. 

Y. 

Youth  is  the  time  of  enterprise  and  hope  ; having  yet  no 
occasion  of  comparing  our  force  with  any  opposing  power,  we 
naturally  form  presumptions  in  our  own  favor,  and  imagine 
that  obstruction  and  impediment  will  give  way  before  us. 
The  first  repulses  rather  inflame  vehemence  than  teach  prud- 
ence ; a brave  and  generous  mind  is  long  before  it  suspects  its 
own  weakness,  or  submits  to  sap  the  difficulties  which  it  ex- 
pected to  subdue  by  storm.  Before  disappointments  have  en- 
forced the  dictates  of  philosophy  we  believe  it  in  our  power  to 
shorten  the  interval  between  the  first  cause  and  the  last  effect  ; 
we  laugh  at  the  timorous  delays  of  plodding  industry,  and 
fancy  that  by  increasing  the  fire  we  can  at  pleasure  accelerate 
the  projection. — Dr.  S.  Johnson. 

Youth  is  not  like  a new  garment,  which  we  can  keep  fresh 
and  fair  by  wearing  sparingly.  Youth,  while  we  have  it,  we 
must  wear  daily,  and  it  will  fast  wear  away. — Foster. 

Z. 

True  zeal  is  not  any  one  single  affection  of  the  soul,  but  a 
strong  mixture  of  many  holy  affections,  filling  the  heart  with 
all  pious  intentions  ; all,  not  only  uncounterfeit,  but  most 
fervent.  — Sprat. 

Nothing  hath  wrought  more  prejudice  to  religion,  or  brought 
more  disparagement  upon  truth,  than  boisterous  and  unseason- 
able zeal. — Barrow. 


LIBRARY 
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POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


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BSENCE. 

What  ? keep  a week  away  ? Seven  days  and 
nights  ? 

Eight  score  eight  hours  ? and  lovers’  absent 
hours, 

More  tedious  than  the  dial  eight  score  times? 
O weary  reckoning  ! — Shaks.  Othello. 

Call  thou  me  home  ! from  thee  apart 
Faintly  and  low  my  pulses  beat, 

As  if  the  life-blood  of  my  heart 
Within  thine  own  heart  holds  its  seat, 

And  floweth  only  where  thou  art : 

Oh  ! call  me  home. 

— Mrs.  E.  Oakes  Smith. 

As  slow  our  ship  her  foamy  track 
Against  the  wind  was  cleaving, 

Her  trembling  pennant  still  look’d  back 
To  that  dear  isle  ’twas  leaving. 

So  loath  we  part  from  all  we  love, 

From  all  the  links  that  bind  us  ; 

So  turn  our  hearts,  where’er  we  rove, 

To  those  we’ve  left  behind  us. — T.  Moore. 

Accomplishments. 

Accomplishments  were  native  to  her  mind, 

Like  precious  pearls  within  a clasping  shell, 

And  winning  grace  her  every  act  refined, 

Like  sunshine  shedding  beauty  where  it  fell. 

— Mrs.  Hale. 

Her  even  carriage  is  as  far  from  coyness 
As  from  immodesty  ; — in  play,  in  dancing, 

In  suffering  courtship,  in  requiting  kindness, 

In  use  of  places — hours — and  companions, 

Free  as  the  sun,  and  nothing  more  corrupted  ; 

As  circumspect  as  Cynthia  in  her  vows, 

And  constant  as  the  centre  to  observe  them. 

•—George  Chapman. 


Accusation. 

Give  me  good  proofs  of  what  you  have  alleged  : 

’Tis  not  enough  to  say — in  such  a bush 
There  lies  a thief — in  such  a cave  a beast. — 

But  you  must  show  him  to  me  ere  I shoot, 

Else  I may  kill  one  of  my  straggling  sheep  : 

I’m  fond  of  no  man’s  person  but  his  virtue. 

Crown’s  1st  part  of  Henry  VI. 

Actions. 

Be  just  in  all  thy  actions,  and  if  join’d 
With  those  that  are  not,  never  change  thy  mind  ; 

If  aught  obstruct  thy  course,  yet  stand  not  still, 

But  wind  about  till  the  mast  topp’d  the  hill. — Denham 

Actions  rare  and  sudden,  do  commonly 
Proceed  from  fierce  necessity  ; or  else 
From  some  oblique  design,  which  is  ashamed 
To  show  itself  in  the  public  road. 

— Sir  William  Davenant. 

Activity. 

Let’s  take  the  instant  by  the  forward  top, 

For  we  are  old,  and  on  our  quick’st  decrees, 

The  inaudible  and  noiseless  foot  of  time 

Steals,  ere  we  can  effect  them. — Shaks.  A IPs  Well. 

Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us, 

We  can  make  our  lives  sublime, 

And,  departing,  leave  behind  us 

Footprints  on  the  sands  of  time. — Longfellow 

Adversity. 

Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity  ; 

Which,  like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venemous, 

Wears  yet  a precious  jewel  in  her  head  : 

And  this  our  life,  exempt  from  public  haunt, 

Finds  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  the  running  brooks, 
Sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  every  thing. 

— Shaks.  As  You  Like  It 


7° 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


Affliction  is  the  wholesome  soil  of  virtue  : 

Where  patience,  honor,  sweet  humanity, 

Calm  fortitude,  take  root,  and  strongly  flourish. 

— Alfred. 


Adversity’s  cold  frosts  will  soon  be  o’er  ; 

It  heralds  brighter  days  : — the  joyous  Spring 
Is  cradled  on  the  Winter’s  icy  breast, 

And  yet  comes  flushed  in  beauty. — Mrs.  Hemans. 

Advice. 

Learn  to  dissemble  wrongs,  to  smile  at  injuries, 

And  suffer  crimes  thou  want’st  the  power  to  punish  ; 

Be  easy,  affable,  familiar,  friendly  : 

Search  and  know  all  mankind’s  mysterious  ways. 

But  trust  the  secret  of  thy  soul  to  none  : 

This  is  the  way, 

This  only,  to  be  safe  in  such  a world  as  this  is. 

— Rowe’s  Ulysses. 
Aye  free,  off  han’,  your  story  tell 
When  wi’  a bosom  crony  ; 

But  still  keep  something  to  yoursel’ 

Ye  scarcely  tell  to  ony. 

Conceal  yoursel’  as  weel’s  ye  can 
Frae  critical  dissection  ; 

But  keek  thro’  ev’ry  other  man, 

Wi’  sharpen’d  shy  inspection. 

— Burns’  Epistle  to  a Young  Fiiend. 


Adieu. 

Then  comes  the  parting  hour,  and  what  arise 
When  lovers  part — expressive  looks,  and  eyes 
Tender  and  tearful — many  a fond  adieu, 

And  many  a call  the  sorrow  to  renew. — Craebe. 


We  part — 

But  this  shall  be  a token — thou  hast  been 
A friend  to  him  who  pluck’d  these  lovely  flowers. 

And  sent  them  as  a tribute  to  a friend, 

And  a remembrance  of  the  few  kind  hours 
Which  lightened  on  the  darkness  of  my  path. 

— Percival. 


Affection. 

O ! there  is  one  affection  which- no  stain 
Of  earth  can  never  darken  ; — when  two  find, 

The  softer  and  the  manlier,  that  a chain 
Of  kindred  taste  has  fastended  mind  to  mind, 

’Tis  an  attraction  from  all  sense  refined  ; 

The  good  can  only  know  it  ; ’tis  not  blind, 

As  love  is  unto  baseness  ; its  desire 

Is  but  with  hands  entwined  to  lift  our  being  higher. 

— Percival. 

Ah  ! could  you  look  into  my  heart, 

And  watch  your  image  there  ! 

You  would  own  the  sunny  loveliness 

Affection  makes  it  wear. — Mrs.  Osgood. 

Age. 

Thus  aged  men,  full  loth  and  slow, 

The  vanities  of  life  forego, 

And  count  their  youthful  follies  o’er, 

Till  memory  lends  her  light  no  more. 

—Scott’s  Rokeby. 


Age  sits  with  decent  grace  upon  his  visage, 

And  worthily  becomes  his  silver  locks  ; 

He  wears  the  marks  of  many  years  well  spent. 

Of  virtue,  truth  well  tried,  and  wise  experience. 

— Rowe’s  Jane  Shore. 
True,  time  will  sear  and  blanch  my  brow  ; 

Well — I shall  sit  with  aged  men, 

And  my  good  glass  will  tell  me  how 
A grisly  beard  becomes  me  then. 

And  should  no  foul  dishonor  lie 
Upon  my  head  when  I am  grey. 

Love  yet  may  search  my  fading  eye, 

And  smooth  the  path  of  my  decay. — Bryant. 

Ambition. 

Cromwell,  I charge  thee,  fling  away  ambition  ; 

By  that  sin  fell  the  angels  ; how  can  man  then, 

The  image  of  his  Maker,  hops  to  win  by’t  ? 

— Shaks.  Henry  VIII \ 
I have  ventured, 

Like  little  wanton  boys  that  swim  on  bladders. 

This  many  summers  in  a sea  of  glory  : 

But  far  beyond  my  depth  : my  high-blown  pride 
At  length  broke  under  me  ; and  now  has  left  me. 
Weary,  and  old  with  service,  to  the  mercy 
Of  a rude  stream,  that  must  forever  hide  me. 

— Shaks.  Henry  VIII 
What  is  ambition  ? ’Tis  a glorious  cheat  1 
Angels  of  light  walk  not  so  dazzlingly 

The  sapphire  walls  of  Heaven. 

The  flow 

Of  life-time  is  a graduated  scale  ; 

And  deeper  than  the  vanities  of  power. 

Or  the  vain  pomp  of  glory,  there  is  writ 
A standard  measuring  its  worth  for  heaven. 

— Willis 


America. 

Land  of  the  West  ! though  passing  brief 
The  record  of  thine  age, 

Thou  hast  a name  that  darkens  all 
On  History’s  wide  page  ! 

Let  all  the  blasts  of  fame  ring  out — 
Thine  shall  be  loudest  far : 

Let  others  boast  their  satellites — 

Thou  hast  the  morning  star. 

Thou  hast  a name  whose  characters 
Of  light  shall  ne’er  depart ; 

’Tis  stamped  upon  the  dullest  brain, 

And  warms  the  coldest  heart ; 

A war-cry  fit  for  any  land, 

Where  Freedom’s  to  be  won  : 

Land  of  the  West ! it  stands  alone — - 
It  is  thy  Washington. — Eliza  Cook. 
Land  of  the  forest  and  the  rock, 

Of  dark  blue  lake  and  mighty  river, 

Of  mountains  reared  on  high  to  mock 
The  storm’s  career  and  lightning’s  shock. 
My  own  green  Land  forever  ! 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


7i 


Oh ! never  may  a son  of  thine, 

Where’er  his  wandering  feet  incline, 

Forget  the  sky  that  bent  above 

His  childhood  like  a dream  of  love  ! — Whittier. 

I see  the  living  tide  roll  on, 

It  crowns  with  fiery  towers 
The  icy  capes  of  Labrador, 

The  Spaniard’s  “ land  of  flowers  ! ” 

It  streams  beyond  the  splintered  ridge, 

That  parts  the  northern  showers, 

From  eastern  rock  to  sunset  wave, 

The  Continent  is  ours. — O.  W.  Holmes. 


America  ! the  sound  is  like  a sword 
To  smite  th’  oppressor ! like  a loving  word 
To  cheer  the  suffering  people,  while  they  pray 
That  God  would  hasten  on  the  promised  day, 

When  earth  shall  be  like  heaven,  and  men  shall  stand, 
Like  brothers  round  an  altar,  hand  in  hand. 

O ! ever  thus,  America,  be  strong, — 

Like  cataract’s  thunder  pour  the  Freeman’s  song. 

Till  struggling  Europe  joins  the  grand  refrain  ; 

And  startled  Asia  bursts  the  despot’s  chain ; 

And  Afric’s  manumitted  sons,  from  thee 
To  their  own  Fatherland  shall  bear  the  song, 

— Worth  all  their  toils  and  tears — of  Liberty : 

For  these  good  deeds,  America,  be  strong  ! — Mrs.  Hale. 
Ancestors. 

They  that  on  glorious  ancestors  enlarge, 

Produce  their  debt,  instead  of  their  discharge. — Young. 

I am  one, 

Who  finds  within  me  a nobility 

That  spurns  the  idle  pratings  of  the  great, 

And  their  mean  boast  of  what  their  fathers  were ; 
While  they  themselves  are  fools  effeminate, 

The  scorn  of  all  who  know  the  worth  of  mind 
And  virtue. — Percival. 

Anger. 


Not  youthful  kings  in  battle  seized  alive, 

Not  scornful  virgins  who  their  charms  survive, 

Not  ardent  lovers  robb’d  of  all  their  bliss, 
Not’ancient  ladies  when  refused  a kiss, 

Not  tyrants  fierce  that  unrepenting  die, 

Not  Cynthia  when  her  mantua’s  pinn’d  awry, 

E’er  felt  such  rage. — Pope’s  Rape  of  the  Lock. 

The  wildest  ills  that  darken  life, 

Are  rapture  to  the  bosom’s  strife  ; 

The  tempest,  in  its  blackest  form, 

Is  beauty  to  the  bosom’s  storm  ; 

The  ocean,  lash’d  to  fury  loud, 

Its  high  wave  mingling  with  the  cloud, 

Is  peaceful  sweet  serenity, 

To  anger’s  dark  and  stormy  sea. 

— J.  W.  Eastburn. 


Apparel. 

Costly  thy  habit  as  thy  pursee  an  buy, 

But  not  expressed  in  fancy  ; rich,  not  gaudy  ; 

For  the  apparel  oft  proclaims  the  man. 

— Shakespeare’s  Hamlet. 


Applause. 

At  which  the  universal  host  up  sent 
A shout  that  tore  hell's  concave,  and  beyond 
Frighted  the  reign  of  chaos  and  old  night.  ’ 

— Milton’s  Paradise  Lost. 

Argument. 

In  arguing,  too,  the  parson  owned  his  skill, 

For  ev’n  tho’  vanquish’d,  he  could  argue  still. 

—Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village. 


Art. 


A man  convinced  against  his  will 
Is  of  the  same  opinion  still. 

— Butler’s  Hudibras. 


■ Art  became  the  shadow 
Of  the  dear  star-light  of  thy  haunting  eyes  ! 

They  call’d  me  vain,  some  mad — I heeded  not, 

But  still  toil'd  on,  hoped  on,  for  it  was  surest, 

If  not  to  win,  to  feel  more  worthy  thee. 

— Bulwer’s  Lady  of  Lyons 


Immortal  art  ! where’er  the  rounded  sky 
Bends  o’er  the  cradle  where  thy  children  lie, 

Their  home  is  earth,  their  herald  every  tongue. 

— O.  W.  Holmes. 


Authority. 

Man,  proud  man, 

Drest  in  a little  brief  authority, 

Most  ignorant  of  what  he’s  most  assur’d, 

His  glassy  essence — like  an  angry  ape, 

Plays  such  fantastic  tricks  before  high  heaven 
As  make  the  angels  weep. 

— Shakespeare’s  Measure  for  Measure 


Authority  intoxicates. 

And  makes  mere  sots  of  magistrates, 

The  fumes  of  it  invade  the  brain, 

And  make  men  giddy,  proud,  and  vain. 

By  this  the  fool  commands  the  wise, 

The  not)le  with  the  base  complies, 

The  sot  assumes  the  rule  of  wit, 

And  cowards  make  the  base  submit. 

— Butler’s  Hudibras 


Autumn. 

The  year  growing  ancient, 

Not  yet  on  summer’s  death,  nor  on  the  birth 
Of  trembling  winter. 

— Shakespeare’s  Winter's  TaL 


Thrice  happy  time, 

Best  portion  of  the  various  year,  in  which 
Nature  rejoiceth,  smiling  on  her  works, 

Lovely  to  full  perfection  wrought.  — Philip’s  Cider 

Avarice. 

The  love  of  gold,  that  meanest  rage, 

And  latest  folly  of  man’s  sinking  age, 

Which,  rarely  venturing  in  the  van  of  life, 

While  nobler  passions  wage  their  heated  strife, 
Comes  sculking  last  with  selfishness  and  fear, 

And  dies  collecting  lumber  in  the  rear ! — Moore. 


72 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


O cursed  love  of  gold  ; when  for  thy  sake 
The  fool  throws  up  his  interest  in  both  worlds, 

First  starv’d  in  this,  then  damn’d  in  that  to  come. 

— Blair’s  Grave 


Battle. 


The  combat  deepens.  On,  ye  brave, 

Who  rush  to  glory  or  the  grave  ! 

Wave,  Munich  ! all  thy  banners  wave  ! 

And  charge  with  all  thy  chivalry  ! 

Few,  few  shall  part  where  many  meet  1 
The  snow  shall  be  their  winding-sheet, 

And  every  turf  beneath  their  feet 
Shall  be  a soldier’s  sepulchre. 

— Campbell’s  Hohenlinden. 

Our  bugles  sang  truce — for  the  night-cloud  had  lower’d, 
And  the  sentinel  stars  set  their  watch  in  the  sky  ; 

And  thousands  had  sunk  on  the  ground  overpower’d, 

The  weary  to  sleep  and  the  wounded  to  die. 

— Campbell’s  Soldier's  Dream. 
Did  ye  not  hear  it  ? — No  : ’t  was  but  the  wind, 

Or  the  car  rattling  o’er  the  stony  street ; 

On  with  the  dance  ! let  joy  be  unconfined  ; 

No  sleep  till  morn,  when  youth  and  pleasure  meet, 

To  chase  the  glowing  hours  with  flying  feet, — 

But  hark  ! — that  heavy  sound  breaks  in  once  more. 

As  if  the  clouds  its  echo  would  repeat  ; 

And  nearer,  clearer,  deadlier  than  before  ! 

Arm  ! arm  ! it  is — it  is — the  cannon’s  opening  roar  ! 

Byron’s  Child  Harold. 

Point  to  the  summits  where  the  brave  had  bled, 

Where  every  village  claims  its  glorious  dead  ; 

Say,  where  their  bosoms  met  the  bayonet’s  shock, 

Their  only  corslet  was  the  rustic  frock  ; 

Say,  when  they  mustered  to  the  gathering  horn, 

The  titled  chieftain  curled  his  lip  in  scorn  ; 

Yet,  when  their  leader  bade  his  lines  advance. 

No  musket  wavered  in  the  lion’s  glance  ; 

Say,  when  they  fainted  in  their  forced  retreat, 

They  tracked  the  snow-drifts  with  their  bleeding  feet ; 

\ et  still  their  banners,  tossing  in  the  blast, 

Bore  Ever  Ready , faithful  to  the  last, 

Through  storm  and  battle,  till  they  waved  again 
On  Yorktown’s  hills  and  Saratoga’s  plain. 

— O.  W.  Holmes. 


Beauty. 

Age  cannot  wither  her,  nor  custom  stale 
Her  infinite  variety  ; other  women  cloy 
The  appetites  they  feed  ; but  she  makes  hungry, 

Where  most  she  satisfies. — Shaks.  Anthony  and  Cleopatra. 
Beauty  is  a witch, 

Against  whose  charms  faith  melteth  into  blood. 

— Shaks.  Much  Ado. 

’Tis  beauty  truly  blent,  whose  red  and  white 
Nature’s  own  sweet  and  cunning  hand  laid  on. 

— Shaks.  Twelfth  Night. 
Beauty  is  but  a vain  and  doubtful  good, 

A shining  gloss  that  fadeth  suddenly, 

A flower  that  dies  when  first  it  ’gins  to  bud, 

A brittle  glass  that’s  broken  presently 


A doubtful  good,  a glass,  a flower, 

Lost,  faded,  broken,  dead  within  an  hour 

— Shakespeare, 

Her  cheek  had  the  pale  pearly  pink 
Of  sea-shells,  the  world’s  sweetest  tint,  as  though 
She  lived,  one  half  might  deem,  on  roses  sopp’d 
In  silver  dew. — Bailey’s  Festus. 

An  eye’s  an  eye,  and  whether  black  or  blue, 

Is  no  great  matter,  so  ’tis  in  request, 

’Tis  nonsense  to  dispute  about  a hue, — 

The  kindest  may  be  taken  as  a test. 

The  fair  sex  should  be  always  fair  ; and  no  man. 

Till  thirty,  should  perceive  there’s  a plain  woman. 

—Byron’s  Don  Juatu 
A thing  of  beauty  is  a joy  for  ever. — Keats. 

Beauty  gives 

The  features  perfectness,  and  to  the  form, 

Its  delicate  proportions  : she  may  stain 
The  eye  with  a celestial  blue — the  cheek 
With  carmine  of  the  sunset  ; she  may  breathe 
Grace  into  every  motion,  like  the  play 
Of  the  least  visible  tissue  of  a cloud  : 

She  may  give  all  that  is  within  her  own 
Bright  cestus — and  one  glance  of  intellect, 

Like  stronger  magic,  will  outshine  it  all.— WlLLIS. 

Beggar. 

Beggar  ? the  only  free  men  of  our  commonwealth, 

Free  above  scot-free,  that  observe  no  laws, 

Obey  no  governor,  use  no  religion, 

But  what  they  draw  from  their  own  ancient  custom, 

Or  constitute  themselves,  yet  are  no  rebels. — Brome, 

Birds. 


Every  copse 

Deep  tangled,  tree  irregular,  and  bush, 

Bending  with  dewy  moisture,  o’er  the  heads 
Of  the  coy  quiristers  that  lodge  within, 

Are  prodigal  of  harmony.  The  thrush 
And  wood-lark,  o’er  the  kind  contending  throng, 
Superior  heard,  run  through  the  sweetest  length 
Of  notes  ; when  listening  Philomela  deigns 
To  let  them  joy,  and  purposes  in  thought 
Elate,  to  make  her  night  excel  the  day. 

— Thomson’s  Season* 

Birthday. 


Yet  all  I’ve  leamt  from  hours  rife 
With  painful  brooding  here. 

Is,  that  amid  this  mortal  strife, 

The  lapse  of  every  year 
But  takes  away  a hope  from  life, 

And  adds  to  death  a fear. — Hoffman. 


Why  should  we  count  our  life  by  years, 

Since  years  are  short  and  pass  away  ! 

Or,  why  by  fortune’s  smiles  or  tears, 

Since  tears  are  vain  and  smiles  decay  ! 

O ! count  by  virtues — these  shall  last 
When  life’s  lame-footed  race  is  o’er  ; 

And  these,  when  earthly  joys  are  past, 

May  cheer  us  on  a brighter  shore. — Mrs.  Hale. 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


n 


Bluntness. 

I have  neither  wit,  nor  words,  nor  worth, 

Nor  actions,  nor  utterance,  nor  the  power  of  speech, 

To  stir  men’s  blood  : I only  speak  right  on. 

— SHAKS.  Julius  Ccesar. 

Blush. 

From  every  blush  that  kindles  in  thy  cheeks, 

Ten  thousand  little  loves  and  graces  spring 
To  revel  in  the  roses. — Rowe’s  Tamerlane. 

Confound  me  not  with  shame,  nor  call  up  all 
The  blood  that  warms  my  trembling  heart, 

To  fill  my  cheeks  with  blushes. — Trap’s  Albramule. 
Books. 

Books  should  to  one  of  these  four  ends  conduce. 

For  wisdom,  piety,  delight,  or  use. — Denham. 

Books  are  a part  of  man’s  prerogative, 

In  formal  ink  they  thought  and  voices  hold, 

That  we  to  them  our  solitude  may  give, 

And  make  time  present  travel  that  of  old. 

Our  life,  fame  pieceth  longer  at  the  end, 

And  books  it  farther  backward  doth  extend. 

— Sir  Thomas  Overbury. 

Brevity. 

Since  brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit, 

And  tediousness  the  limbs  and  outward  flourishes, 

I will  be  brief. — Shaks.  Hamlet. 

Calamity. 

Do  not  insult  calamity  : 

It  is  a barb’rous  grossness,  to  lay  on 
The  weight  of  scorn,  where  heavy  misery 
Too  much  already  weighs  men’s  fortunes  down. 

— Daniel’s  Philotas. 

Calm. 


How  calm, — how  beautiful  comes  on 
The  stilly  hour,  when  storms  are  gone, 
When  warring  winds  have  died  away, 
And  clouds,  beneath  the  glancing  ray 
Melt  off  and  leave  the  land  and  sea, 
Sleeping  in  bright  tranquillity  ; — 
When  the  blue  waters  rise  and  fall, 

In  sleepy  sunshine  mantling  all  ; 

And  ev’n  that  swell  the  tempest  leaves, 
Is  like  the  full  and  silent  heaves 
Of  lovers’  hearts,  when  newly  blest, 
Too  newly  to  be  quite  at  rest ! 


Caution. 


— Moore’s  Lalla  Rookh. 


Trust  none  ; 

For  oaths  are  straws,  men’s  faiths  are  wafer  cakes. 

And  hold-fast  is  the  only  dog. — Shaks.  Henry  V. 

Man’s  caution  often  into  danger  turns, 

And  his  guard  falling,  crushes  him  to  death. 

— Young’s  Night  Thoughts. 
He  knows  the  compass,  sail,  and  oar, 

Or  never  launches  from  the  shore  ; 

Before  he  builds,  computes  the  cost, 

And  in  no  proud  pursuit  is  lost. — Gay’s  Fables. 
All’s  to  be  fear’d  where  all  is  to  be  lost. — Byron. 


Let  no  man  know  thy  business  save  some  friend, 

A man  of  mind. — Bailey. 

Change. 

I ask  not  what  change 
Has  come  over  thy  heart, 

I seek  not  what  chances 
Have  doomed  us  to  part; 

I know  thou  hast  told  me 
To  love  thee  no  more, 

And  I still  must  obey 

Where  I once  did  adore. — Hoffman. 

Not  in  vain  the  distance  beckons, 

Forward,  forward,  let  us  range  ; 

Let  the  peoples  spin  forever 

Down  the  ringing  grooves  of  change. — TENNYSON 

Charity. 

Then  gently  scan  your  brother  man, 

Still  gentler  sister  woman, 

Though  both  may  gang  a kennie  wrang, 

To  step  aside  is  human. — Burns. 

O,  rich  man’s  son  ! there  is  a toil, 

That  with  all  others  level  stands ; 

Large  charity  doth  never  soil, 

But  only  whitens  soft  white  hands  ; — 

This  is  the  best  crop  for  thy  lands  ; 

A heritage,  it  seems  to  me, 

Worth  being  rich  to  hold  in  fee — J.  R.  Lowell. 

True  charity,  a plant  divinely  nurs’d, 

Fed  by  the  love,  from  which  it  rose  at  first, 

Thrives  against  hope,  and  in  the  rudest  scene. 

Storms  but  enliven  its  unfading  green  ; 

Exuberant  is  the  shadow  it  supplies, 

Its  fruit  on  earth,  its  growth  above  the  skies. 

— Cowper’s  Charity. 


Chastity. 

So  dear  to  heav’n  is  saintly  chastity, 

That  when  a soul  is  found  sincerely  so, 

A thousand  liv’ry'd  angels  lackey  her, 
Driving  far  off  each  thing  of  sin  and  guilt. 


— Milton’s  Comus. 
When  lovely  woman  stoops  to  folly, 

And  finds  too  late  that  men  betray, 

What  charm  can  soothe  her  melancholy  ? 

What  art  can  wash  her  guilt  away  ? 

The  only  art  her  guilt  to  cover, 

And  hide  her  shame  from  every  eye, 

And  give  repentance  to  her  lover, 

And  wring  his  bosom  is — to  die. — Goldsmith. 
Childhood. 

Delightful  task  ! to  rear  the  tender  thought. 

To  teach  the  young  idea  how  to  shoot, 

To  pour  the  fresh  instruction  o’er  the  mind. 

To  breathe  the  enlivening  spirit  and  to  fix 
The  generous  purpose  in  the  glowing  breast  1 

— Thomson’s  Seasons 
I know  he’s  coming  by  this  sign, 

That  baby’s  almost  wild  ; 

See  how  he  laughs,  and  crows,  and  starts, — 

Heaven  bless  the  merry  child  1 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


He’s  father’s  self  in  face  and  limb, 

And  father's  heart  is  strong  in  him. 

Shout,  baby,  shout  ! and  clap  thy  hands, 

For  father  on  the  threshold  stands. — Mary  IIowitt. 
Of  all  the  joys  that  brighten  suffering  earth, 

What  joy  is  welcom’d  like  a new-born  child  ! 

— Mrs.  Norton. 

Sleep,  little  baby  ! sleep  ! 

Not  in  thy  cradle  bed, 

Not  on  thy  mother’s  breast — 

But  with  the  quiet  dead. — Mrs.  Southey. 

Churchman. 

I like  a church,  I like  a cowl, 

I love  a prophet  of  the  soul, 

And  on  my  heart  monastic  aisles 
Fall  like  sweet  strains  or  pensive  smiles. 

Yet  not  for  all  his  faith  can  see, 

Would  I that  cowled  churchman  be. 

— Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

By  the  white  neck-cloth,  with  its  straiten’d  tie, 

The  sober  hat,  the  Sabbath-speaking  eye, 

Severe  and  smileless,  he  that  runs  may  read 

The  stern  disciple  of  Geneva’s  creed. — O.  W.  Holmes. 

City. 

I dwell  amid  the  city, 

And  hear  the  flow  of  souls  ! 

I do  not  hear  the  several  contraries, 

I do  not  hear  the  separate  tone  that  rolls, 

In  art  or  speech. 

For  pomp  or  trade,  for  merrymake  or  folly, 

I hear  the  confluence  and  sum  of  each, 

And  that  is  melancholy  ! — 

Thy  voice  is  a complaint,  O crowned  city, 

The  blue  sky  covering  thee,  like  God’s  great  pity. 

— Miss  Barrett. 


Come  out,  love — the  night  is  enchanting  ! 

The  moon  hangs  just  over  Broadway  ; 

The  stars  are  all  lighted  and  panting — 

(Hot  weather  up  there,  I dare  say  !) 

’Tis  seldom  that  “coolness”  entices, 

And  love  is  no  better  for  chilling — 

Yet  come  up  to  Thompson’s  for  ices 

And  cool  your  warm  heart  for  a shilling  ! 

— N.  P.  Willis. 


Clouds. 

Ye  clouds,  that  are  the  ornament  of  heaven, 
Who  give  to  it  its  gayest  shadowings 
And  its  most  awful  glories  ; ye  who  roll 
In  the  dark  tempest,  or  at  dewy  evening 
Bow  low  in  tenderest  beauty  ; — ye  are  to  us 
A volume  full  of  wisdom. — Percival’s  Poems . 
Conscience. 

It  is  a dangerous 

Thing,  it  makes  a man  a coward : a man 
Cannot  steal  but  it  accuseth  him  ; a man 
Cannot  swear,  but  it  checks  him. 


’Tis  a blushing  shame-fac’d  spirit,  that 
Mutinies  in  a man’s  bosom  ; it  fills 
One  full  of  obstacles.  It  made  me  once 
Restore  a purse  of  gold,  that  by  chance  I 
Found.  It  beggars  any  man  that  keeps  it. 

It  is  turn’d  out  of  towns  and  cities  for 
A dang’rous  thing  ; and  every  man  that  means 
To  live  well,  endeavors  to  trust  to  himself, 
And  live  without  it. — Shaks.  Richard  III. 


Thus  conscience  does  makes  cowards  of  us  all. 
And  thus  the  native  hue  of  resolution 
Is  sicklied  o’er  with  the  pale  cast  of  thought; 
And  enterprises  of  great  pith  and  moment, 
With  this  regard,  their  currents  turn  away, 

And  lose  the  name  of  action. — Shaks.  Hamlet 


There  is  no  power  in  holy  men, 

Nor  charms  in  prayer — nor  purifying  form 
Of  penitence — nor  outward  look — nor  fast — 

Nor  agony — nor,  greater  than  all  these, 

The  innate  tortures  of  that  deep  despair, 

Which  is  remorse  without  the  fear  of  hell, 

But  all  in  all  sufficient  to  itself, 

Would  make  a hell  of  heaven — can  exercise, 

From  out  the  unbounded  spirit,  the  quick  sense 
Of  its  own  sins,  wrongs,  sufferance,  and  revenge 
Upon  itself. — Byron’s  Manfred. 

Constancy. 

I am  constant  as  the  northern  star; 

Of  whose  true,  fix’d  and  resting  quality 
There  is  no  fellow  in  the  firmament. 

— Shaks.  Julius  Ccesat 
I have  won 

Thy  heart,  my  gentle  girl  ! but  it  hath  been 
When  that  soft  eye  was  on  me  ; and  the  love 
I told  beneath  the  evening  influence, 

Shall  be  as  constant  as  its  gentle  star. — Willis. 

Content. 

O grant  me,  heav’n,  a middle  state, 

Neither  too  humble  nor  too  great  ; 

More  than  enough  for  nature’s  ends. 

With  something  left  to  treat  my  friends. — Mallet. 
Unfit  for  greatness,  I her  snares  defy, 

And  look  on  riches  with  untainted  eye, 

To  others  let  the  glitt’ring  baubles  fall, 

Content  shall  place  us  far  above  them  all. 

—Churchill. 


Coquette. 

Would  you  teach  her  to  love  ? 

For  a time  seem  to  rove  ; 

At  first  she  may  frown  in  a pet; 

But  leave  her  awhile, 

She  shortly  will  smile. 

And  then  you  may  win  your  coquette. — Byron, 
Can  I again  that  look  recall. 

That  once  could  make  me  die  for  thee  ? — 

No,  no  ! — the  eye  that  beams  on  all, 

Shall  never  more  be  priz’d  by  me. — Moore. 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


75 


Country  Life. 

Your  love  in  a cottage  is  hungry, 

Your  vine  is  a nest  for  flies  — 

Your  milkmaid  shocks  the  graces, 

And  simplicity  talks  of  pies  ! 

You  lie  down  to  your  shady  slumber, 

And  wake  with  a bug  in  your  ear, 

And  your  damsel  that  walks  in  the  morning 
Is  shod  like  a mountaineer. — Willis. 

Courage. 

Ah,  never  shall  the  land  forget 

How  gush’d  the  life-blood  of  the  brave, 

Gush’d  warm  with  hope  and  courage  yet, 

Upon  the  soil  they  fought  to  save  ! — Bryant. 

Her  look  compos’d,  and  steady  eye, 

Bespoke  a matchless  constancy. — Scott’s  Marmion. 
True  courage  scorns 

To  vent  her  prowess  in  a storm  of  words  : 

And  to  the  valiant  action  speaks  alone. 

— Smollett’s  Regicide. 

Courtship. 

And  otherwhyles  with  amorous  delights 
And  pleasing  toyes  he  would  her  entertaine. 

Now  singing  sweetly  to  surprise  her  sprights. 

Now  making  layes  of  love  and  lover’s  paine, 

Bransles,  ballads,  virelayes,  and  verses  vaine  ; 

Oft  purposes,  oft  riddles,  he  devys’d  ; 

And  thousands  like  which  flowed  into  his  braine. 

With  which  he  fed  her  fancy,  and  entys’d 

To  take  to  his  new  love,  and  leave  her  old  despys’d. 

— Spenser’s  Fairy  Queen. 
Thou  hast  by  moonlight  at  her  window  sung, 

With  feigning  voice,  verses  of  feigning  love  ; 

And  stol’n  the  impression  of  her  fantasy 
With  bracelets  of  thy  hair,  rings,  gauds,  conceits. 

Knacks,  trifles,  nosegays,  sweet-meats  ; messengers, 

Of  strong  prevailment  in  unharden’d  youth. 

— Shaks.  Midsummer  Night's  Dream. 
O days  remember’d  well  ! remember’d  all ! 

The  bitter  sweet,  the  honey  and  the  gall  ; 

Those  garden  rambles  in  the  silent  night, 

Those  trees  so  shady,  and  that  moon  so  bright. 

That  thickset  alley  by  the  arbor  clos’d, 

That  woodbine  seat  where  we  at  last  repos’d  ; 

And  then  the  hopes  that  came  and  then  were  gone 
Quick  as  the  clouds  beneath  the  moon  past  on. — Crabbe. 
Woe  to  the  man  who  ventures  a rebuke, 

’Twill  but  precipitate  a situation 
Extremely  disagreeable,  but  common 
To  calculators  when  they  count  on  woman.— Byron. 
Learn  to  win  a lady's  faith 
Nobly  as  the  thing  is  high  ; 

Bravely,  as  for  life  and  death 
With  a loyal  gravity. 

Lead  her  from  the  festive  boards, 

Point  her  to  the  starry  skies, 

Guard  her  by  your  truthful  words. 

Pure  from  courtship’s  flatteries. 

— Miss  Barrett’s  Poems. 


Coward. 

Am  I a coward  ? 

Who  calls  me  villain  ? breaks  my  pate  across  ? 

Plucks  off  my  beard  and  blows  it  in  my  face  ? 

Tweaks  me  by  the  nose  ? gives  me  the  lie  i’  the  throat. 

As  deep  as  to  the  lungs?  who  does  me  this  ? 

Ha ! why,  I should  take  it ; for  it  cannot  be, 

But  I am  pigeon-liver’d,  and  lack  gall 
To  make  oppression  bitter  ; or,  ere  this 
I should  have  fatted  all  the  region  kites 
With  this  slave’s  offal. — Shaks.  Havilet. 

Go — let  thy  less  than  woman’s  hand 
Assume  the  distaff — not  the  brand. 

— Byron’s  Bride  of  Abydo& 


Curiosity. 

Conceal  yersel’  as  weel’s  ye  can 
Fra’  critical  dissection  ; 

But  keek  thro’  every  other  man 

With  lengthen’d,  sly  inspection. — Burns. 
Eve, 

With  all  the  fruits  of  Eden  blest. 

Save  only  one,  rather  than  leave 
That  one  unknown,  lost  all  the  rest.— Moore 


Custom. 

That  monster,  custom,  who  all  sense  doth  eat 
Of  habits  evil,  is  angel  yet  in  this  ; 

That  to  the  use  of  actions  fair  and  good. 

He  likewise  gives  a frock,  or  livery, 

That  aptly  is  put  on  : refrain  to-night; 

And  that  shall  lend  a kind  of  easiness 
To  the  next  abstinence  ; the  next,  more  easy  ; 

For  use  can  almost  change  the  stamp  of  nature. 

And  master  ev’n  the  devil,  or  throw  him  out, 

With  wondrous  potency. — Shaks.  Hamlet. 

Dancing. 

A thousand  hearts  beat  happily  ; and  when 
Music  arose  with  its  voluptuous  swell, 

Soft  eyes  look’d  love  to  eyes  which  spake  again. 

And  all  went  merry  as  a marriage-bell. 

— Byron’s  Childe  Har+¥. 
I gaz’d  upon  the  dance,  where  ladies  hight, 

Were  moving  in  the  light 

Of  mirrors  and  of  lamps.  With  music  and  with  flowers. 
Danced  on  the  joyous  hours  , 

And  fairest  bosoms 

Heaved  happily  beneath  the  winter  roses’  blossoms 
And  it  is  well  ; 

Youth  hath  its  time, 

Merry  hearts  will  merrily  chime. — C.  P.  Cranch. 

Death. 

For  who  would  bear  the  whips  and  scorns  of  time. 

The  oppressor’s  wrong,  the  proud  man’s  contumely 
The  pangs  of  despis’d  love,  the  law’s  delay, 

The  insolence  of  office,  and  the  spurns 
That  patient  merit  of  the  unworthy  takes. 

When  he  himself  might  his  quietus  make 
With  a bare  bodkin  ? who  would  fardels  be&r. 

To  grunt  and  sweat  under  a weary  life  ; 


I 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


But  that  the  dread  of  something  ° death — 

The  undiscover'd  country,  from  whose  bourn 
No  traveller  returns,  puzzles  the  will  ; 

And  makes  us  rather  bear  those  ills  we  have, 

Than  fly  to  others  that  we  know  not  of  ? 

— Shaks.  Hamlet. 

Why  am  I mock’d  with  death,  lengthened  out 
To  deathless  pain  ? how  gladly  would  I meet 
Mortality  my  sentence,  and  be  earth 
Insensible,  how  glad  would  lay  me  down, 

As  in  my  mother’s  lap  ; there  I should  rest 
And  sleep  secure. — Milton’s  Paradise  Lost. 

Death  is  the  crown  of  life  : 

Were  death  deny’d,  poor  men  would  live  in  vain  ; 

Were  death  deny’d,  to  live  would  not  be  life  : 

Were  death  deny’d,  ev’n  fools  would  wish  to  die. 

— Young’s  Night  Thoughts. 

All  flesh  is  grass,  and  all  its  glory  fades, 

Like  the  fair  flow’r  dishevell’d  in  the  wind  ; 

Riches  have  wings,  and  grandeur  is  a dream  ; 

The  man  we  celebrate  must  find  a tomb, 

And  we  that  worship  him  ignoble  graves. 

— Cowper’s  Task. 


Death  should  come 

Gently  to  one  of  gentle  mould,  like  thee, 

As  light  winds,  wandering  through  groves  of  bloom. 
Detach  the  delicate  blossoms  from  the  tree. 

Close  thy  sweet  eyes  calmly,  and  without  pain, 

And  we  will  trust  in  God  to  see  thee  yet  again. 

— Bryant. 


Deceit. 


O what  a tangled  web  we  weave, 

When  first  we  practice  to  deceive  ! 

— Scott’s  Marmion. 


Defiance. 

Whence  and  what  art  thou,  execrable  shape, 

That  dar’st  though  grim  and  terrible,  advance 
Thy  miscreated  front  athwart  my  way 
To  yonder  gates?  through  them  I mean  to  pass  ! 

That  be-assur’d,  without  leave  ask’d  of  thee. 

Retire  or  taste  thy  folly,  and  learn  by  proof, 

Hell-born,  not  to  contend  with  spirits  of  heaven. 

— Milton’s  Paradise  Lost. 


Stand  ! the  ground’s  your  own  my  braves? 

Will  ye  give  it  up  to  slaves  ? 

Will  ye  look  for  greener  graves  ? 

Hope  ye  mercy  still  ? 

What’s  the  mercy  despots  feel  ? 

Hear  it  in  yon  cannon’s  peal, 

See  it  on  yon  bristling  steel, 

Ask  it  ye  who  will  ! — Pierpont. 

Delay. 

Be  wise  to-day,  ’t  is  madness  to  defer ; 

Next  day  the  fatal  precedent  will  plead 
Thus  on,  till  wisdom  is  push’d  out  of  life. 

— Young’s  Night  Thoughts. 


Despair. 

My  loss  is  such  as  cannot  be  repair’d  ; 

And  to  the  wretched,  life  can  be  no  mercy. 

Dryden's  Marriage  a la  Mode, 
One  fatal  remembrance,  one  sorrow  which  throws 
Its  bleak  shade  alike  o’er  our  joys  and  our  woes, 

To  which  life  nothing  darker  or  brighter  can  bring, 

For  which  joy  has  no  balm  and  affliction  no  sting. 

— Moore. 

Discontent. 

Man  hath  a weary  pilgrimage, 

As  through  the  world  he  wends, 

On  every  stage,  from  youth  to  age, 

Still  discontent  attends. — Southey. 

Doubt. 

Our  doubts  are  traitors, 

And  make  us  lose  the  good  we  oft  might  win. 

By  fearing  to  attempt. 

— Shakespeare’s  Measure  for  Measure. 
Yet  do  not  think  I doubt  thee, 

I know  thy  truth  remains  ; 

I would  not  live  without  thee, 

For  all  the  world  contains. — G.  P.  Morris. 


Dreams. 

Dreams  are  the  children  of  an  idle  brain. 

Begot  of  nothing  but  vain  fantasy  ; 

Which  is  as  thin  of  substance  as  the  air; 

And  more  inconstant  than  the  wind. 

Shakespeare’s  Romeo  and  Juliet 
Lightly  he  dreamt  as  youth  will  dream, 

Of  sport  by  thicket,  or  by  stream, 

Of  hawk,  of  hound,  of  ring,  of  glove, 

Or  lighter  yet — of  lady’s  love. — Scott’s  Marmion 

Duty. 

Rugged  strength  and  radiant  beauty — 

These  were  one  in  nature’s  plan  ; 

Humble  toil  and  heavenward  duty — 

These  will  form  the  perfect  man. — Mrs.  Hall. 

Eloquence. 

There’s  a charm  in  deliv’ry,  a magical  art, 

That  thrills  like  a kiss  from  the  lips  to  the  heart ; 

’Tis  the  glance — the  expression — the  well-chosen  word — 

By  whose  magic  the  depths  of  the  spirit  are  stirr’d. 

The  lip’s  soft  persuasion — its  musical  tone ; 

Oh  ! such  were  the  charms  of  that  eloquent  one  ! 

— Mrs.  Welry 

Oh  ! as  the  bee  upon  the  flower,  I hang 
Upon  the  honey  of  thy  eloquent  tongue. 

Bulwer’s  Lady  of  Lyons 

Her  tears  her  only  eloquence. — Rogers’  Jacqueline. 

Emigration. 

I hear  the  tread  of  pioneers 
Of  nations  yet  to  be, 

The  first  low  wash  of  waves  where  soon 
Shall  roll  a human  sea. — Whittier. 

The  emigrant’s  way  o’er  the  Western  desert  is  mark’d  by 
Camp-fires  long  consum’d,  and  bones  that  bleach  in  the  sun- 
shine. — Longfellow’s  Evangeline- 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


Enthusiasm. 

Methinks  we  must  have  known  some  former  state 
More  glorious  than  our  present,  and  the  heart 
Is  haunted  with  dim  memories,  shadows  left 
By  past  magnificence  ; and  hence  we  pine 
With  vain  enthusiastic  hopes  that  fill 
The  eyes  with  tears  for  their  own  vanity. 

— Miss  Landon. 


Envy. 

Base  envy  withers  at  another’s  joy, 

And  hates  that  excellence  it  cannot  reach. 

— Thomson’s  Seasons. 
Envy  dogs  success 

And  every  victor’s  crown  is  lin’d  with  thorns, 

And  worn  ’mid  scoffs. — Miss  Landon. 

Equality. 

Children  of  wealth  or  want,  to  each  is  given 
One  spot  of  green,  and  all  the  blue  of  heaven  ! 

— O.  W.  Holmes. 


Evening. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day. 

The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o’er  the  lea, 

The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 

And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight, 

And  all  the  air  a solemn  stillness  holds. 

Save  where  the  beetle  wheels  his  droning  flight, 

And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds. 

Save  that  from  yonder  ivy-mantled  tower, 

The  moping  owl  does  to  the  moon  complain 
Of  such  as,  wandering  near  her  secret  bower, 

Molest  her  ancient  solitary  reign. 

— Gray’s  Church-  Yard. 
Ave  Maria  ! blessed  be  the  hour  ! 

The  time,  the  clime,  the  spot  where  I so  oft 
Have  felt  that  moment  in  its  fullest  power 
Sink  o’er  the  earth  so  beautiful  and  soft, 

While  swung  the  deep  bell  in  the  distan*  tower. 

Or  the  faint  dying  day-hymn  stole  aloft, 

And  not  a breath  crept  through  the  rosy  air, 

And  yet  the  forest  leaves  seem’d  stirr’d  with  prayer. 

Soft  hour  ! which  makes  the  wish  and  melts  the  heart 
Of  those  who  sail  the  seas,  on  the  first  day  ; 

When  they  from  their  sweet  friends  are  tom  apart  ; 

Or  fills  with  love  the  pilgrim  on  his  way, 

As  the  far  bell  of  vesper  makes  him  start, 

Seeming  to  weep  the  dying  day’s  decay  ; 

Is  this  a fancy  which  our  reason  scorns? 

Ah  1 surely  nothing  dies  but  something  mourns  ? 

— Byron. 


The  summer  day  has  clos’d  —the  sun  is  set : 

Well  have  they  done  their  office,  those  bright  hours, 

The  latest  of  whose  train  goes  softly  out 

In  the  red  west.  — Bryant. 

Example. 


For  as  the  light 

Not  only  serves  to  show,  but  render  us 
Mutually  profitable  ; so  our  lives, 


In  acts  exemplary,  not  only  win 
Ourselves  good  names,  but  do  to  others  give 
Matter  for  virtuous  deeds,  by  which  we  live. 

— Chapman. 

Exile. 

But  me,  not  destined  such  delights  to  share, 

My  prime  of  life  in  wandering  spent  and  care  ; 
Imped’d,  with  steps  unceasing,  to  pursue 
Some  fleeting  good,  that  mocks  me  with  the  view : 
That,  like  the  circle  bounding  earth  and  skies. 

Allures  from  far,  yet,  as  I follow,  flies  ; 

My  fortune  leads  to  traverse  realms  alone, 

And  find  no  spot  of  all  the  world  my  own. 

— Goldsmith’s  Traveller 
Beloved  country  ! banish’d  from  thy  shore, 

A stranger  in  this  prison-house  of  clay, 

The  exil’d  spirit  weeps  and  sighs  for  thee ! 

Heavenward  the  bright  perfections  I adore  direct. 

— Longfellow. 

Experience. 

A thousand  volumes  in  a thousand  tongues,  enshrine  the  les- 
sons of  Experience  ; 

Yet  a man  shall  read  them  all,  and  go  forth  none  the  wiser : 

If  self-love  lendeth  him  a glass,  to  color  all  he  conneth, 

Lest  in  the  features  of  another  he  find  his  own  complexion. 

— Tupper’s  Proverbial  Philosophy 

Expectation. 

Oft  expectation  fails,  and  most  oft  there 
Where  most  it  promises  : and  oft  it  hits 
Where  hope  is  coldest,  and  despair  most  sits. 

— Shakespeare’s  All's  WeL 

Eyes. 

Her  eye  (I’m  very  fond  of  handsome  eyes) 

Was  large  and  dark,  suppressing  half  its  fire 
Until  she  spoke  ; then,  through  its  soft  disguise, 

Flash’d  an  expression  more  of  pride  than  ire, 

And  love  than  either. — Byron. 

And  then  her  look — Oh,  where’s  the  heart  so  wise 
Could,  unbewilder’d,  meet  those  matchless  eyes? 

Quick,  restless,  strange,  but  exquisite  withal, 

Like  those  of  angels. — Moore. 

I never  saw  an  eye  so  bright, 

And  yet  so  soft  as  hers  ; 

It  sometimes  swam  in  liquid  light, 

And  sometimes  swam  in  tears  ; 

It  seem’d  a beauty  set  apart 

For  softness  and  for  signs. — Mrs.  Welby 
Those  laughing  orbs,  that  borrow 
From  azure  skies  the  light  they  wear, 

Are  like  heaven — no  sorrow 

Can  float  o’er  hues  so  fair. — Mrs.  Osgood. 

Those  eyes, 

Soft  and  capacious  as  a cloudless  sky, 

Whose  azure  depths  their  colour  emulates, 

Must  needs  be  conversant  with  upward  looks, 

Prayer’s  voiceless  service. — Wordsworth. 

Falsehood. 

You  told  a lie  ; an  odious,  damned  lie  ; 

Upon  my  soul  a lie  ; a wicked  lie. — Shaks.  Othello. 


1'6 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


O agony  ! keen  agony, 

For  trusting  heart  to  find 
That  vows  believed,  were  vows  conceived 
As  light  as  summer  wind. — Motherwell. 

I live  among  the  cold,  the  false, 

And  I must  seem  like  them  ; 

And  such  I am,  for  I am  false 

As  those  I most  condemn. — Miss  Landon. 

Farewell. 

So  fare  thee  well, — and  may  th’  indulgent  gods 
* * * grant  thee  every  wish 

Thy  soul  can  form  ! Once  more,  farewell. 

— Sophocles. 


And  farewell  goes  out  sighing. 

Shaks.  Troilus  and  Cressida. 
Farewell ; thou  canst  not  teach  me  to  forget. 

— Shaks.  Romeo  and  Juliet. 
Farewell  ! I will  omit  no  opportunity 
That  may  convey  my  greetings,  love,  to  thee. 

— Shaks.  Romeo  and  Juliet. 
Farewell — thou  hast  trampled  love’s  faith  in  the  dust, 
Thou  hast  torn  from  my  bosom  its  hope  and  its  trust  ; 

Yet,  if  thy  life’s  current  with  bliss  it  would  swell, 

I would  pour  out  my  own  in  this  last  fond  farewell. 

— Hoffman. 

And,  like  some  low  and  mournful  spell, 

To  whisper  but  one  word — farewell  ! 

— Park  Benjamin. 

Fate. 

What  fates  impose,  that  men  must  needs  abide  ; 

It  boots  not  to  resist  both  wind  and  tide. 

— Shaks.  Henry  VI.  Part  III. 
But  Fate  whirls  on  the  bark, 

And  the  rough  gale  sweeps  from  the  rising  tide, 

The  lazy  calm  of  thought. — Bulwer  Lytton. 

Fear. 


But  that  I am  forbid 
To  tell  the  secrets  of  my  prison-house, 

I could  a tale  unfold,  whose  lightest  word 
Would  harrow  up  thy  soul  ; freeze  thy  young  blood  ; 
Make  thy  two  eyes,  like  stars,  start  from  their  spheres  ; 
Thy  knotted  and  combined  locks  to  part, 

And  each  particular  hair  to  stand  on  end, 

Like  quills  upon  the  fretful  porcupine. — Shaks.  Hamlet. 
Like  one,  that  on  a lonesome  road 
Doth  walk  in  fear  and  dread, 

And  having  once  turn’d  round  walks  on. 

And  turns  no  more  his  head  ; 

Because  he  knows  a frightful  fiend 
Doth  close  behind  him  tread. 

_ — Coleridge’s  Ancient  Ala  iner. 


Fame. 

Death  makes  no  conquest  of  this  conqueror  ; 

For  now  he  lives  in  fame  though  not  in  life. 

— Shaks.  Richard  III. 
The  evil  that  men  do,  lives  after  them  ; 

The  good  is  often  interred  with  their  bones. 

Shaks.  Julius  Ccesar. 


Men’s  evil  manners  live  in  brass  : their  virtuer. 

We  write  in  water. — Shaks.  Henry  VIII. 

The  fame  that  a man  wins  himself  is  best  ; 

That  he  may  call  his  own  : honors  put  on  him 
Make  him  no  more  a man  than  his  clothes  do, 

Which  are  as  soon  ta’en  off  ; for  in  the  warmth 
The  heat  comes  from  the  body  not  the  weeds  ; 

So  man’s  true  fame  must  strike  from  his  own  deeds, 

— Middleton 


What  so  foolish  as  the  chase  of  fame  ? 

How  vain  the  prize  ! how  impotent  our  aim ! 

For  what  are  men  who  grasp  at  praise  sublime. 

But  bubbles  on  the  rapid  stream  of  time, 

That  rise  and  fall,  that  swell,  and  are  no  more, 

Born  and  forgot,  ten  thousand  in  an  hour. 

—Young’s  Love  of  Fame 


Nor  let  thy  noble  spirit  grieve, 

Its  life  of  glorious  fame  to  leave  ; — 

V life  of  honor  and  of  worth 

Has  no  eternity  on  earth. — Longfellow. 

Fancy. 

Tell  me,  where  is  fancy  bred  ; 

Or  in  the  heart,  or  in  the  head  ? 

How  begot,  how  nourished  ? 

It  is  engendered  in  the  eyes, 

With  gazing  fed  : and  fancy  dies, 

In  the  cradle  where  it  lies. 

— Shaks.  Merchant  of  Venice 
Woe  to  the  youth  whom  Fancy  gains, 

Winning  from  reason’s  hand  the  reins. 

— Scott’s  Rokebv. 


Fidelity. 

He  that  can  endure 

To  follow  with  allegiance  a fallen  lord, 

Doth  conquer  him  that  did  his  master  conquer, 

And  earns  a place  i’  the  story. 

— Shaks.  Antony  and  Cleopatra . 


Mark  me,  Clotilda, 

And  mark  me  well ; I am  no  desperate  wretch, 

Who  borrows  an  excuse  from  shameful  passion 
To  make  its  shame  more  vile — 

I am  a wretched,  but  a spotless  wife. 

— Maturin’s  Bertram 


Though  human,  thou  didst  not  deceive  me. 

Though  woman,  thou  didst  not  forsake, 

Though  loved,  thou  forebodst  to  grieve  me, 

Though  slander’d,  thou  never  could’st  shake, 

Though  trusted,  thou  didst  not  disclaim  me, 

Though  parted,  it  was  not  to  fly, 

Though  watchful,  't  was  not  to  defame  me, 

Nor,  mute,  that  the  world  might  belie. — Byron. 

Within  her  heart  was  his  image, 

Cloth’d  in  the  beauty  of  love  and  youth,  as  last  she  beheld 
him, 

Only  more  beautiful  made  by  his  death-like  silence  and  at> 
sence. — Longfellow’s  Evangeline. 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


7 9 


Flattery. 

You  play  the  spaniel, 

And  think  with  wagging  of  your  tongue  to  win  me. 

— Shaks.  Henry  VIII. 
’Tis  an  old  maxim  in  the  schools, 

That  flattery’s  the  food  of  fools, 

Yet  now  and  then  you  men  of  wit 
Will  condescend  to  take  a bit. 

— Swift’s  Cadenus  and  Vanessa. 
O flatt’ry  ! 

How  soon  thy  smooth  insinuating  oil 

Supples  the  toughest  fool  ! — Fenton’s  Mariamne. 

Flowers. 

There  is  to  me 

A daintiness  about  these  early  flowers, 

That  touches  me  like  poetry.  They  blow  out 
With  such  a simple  loveliness  among 
The  common  herbs  of  pasture,  and  they  breathe 
Their  lives  so  unobtrusively,  like  hearts 
Whose  beatings  are  too  gentle  for  the  world. 

— Willis’s  Poems. 

In  Eastern  lands  they  talk  in  flowers, 

And  they  tell  in  a garland  their  loves  and  cares  ; 

Each  blossom  that  blooms  in  their  garden  bowers. 

On  its  leaves  a mystic  language  bears  ; 

Then  gather  a wreath  from  the  garden  bowers, 

And  tell  the  wish  of  thy  heart  in  flowers. — Percival. 

Oh  ! what  tender  thoughts  beneath 
Those  silent  flowers  are  lying, 

Hid  within  the  mystic  wreath 
My  love  hath  kiss’d  in  tying. — Moore. 

A violet  by  a mossy  stone, 

Half  hidden  from  the  eye, 

Fair  as  a star,  when  only  one 

Is  shining  in  the  sky. — Wordsworth. 
Forgetfulness. 

When  I forget  that  the  stars  shine  in  air — 

When  I forget  that  beauty  is  in  stars — 

When  I forget  that  love  with  beauty  is — 

Will  I forget  thee  : till  then  all  things  else. 

— Bailey’s  Festus. 


Forgiveness. 

He  added  not,  and  from  her  turn’d  ; but  Eve 
Not  so  repuls’d,  with  tears  that  ceas’d  not  flowing. 

And  tresses  all  disorder’d,  at  his  feet 
Fell  humble,  and  embracing  them,  besought 
His  peace. — Milton’s  Paradise  Lost. 

’Tis  easier  for  the  generous  to  forgive. 

Than  for  offence  to  ask  it. 

— Thomson’s  Edmund  and  Eleanora. 
Young  men  soon  give,  and  soon  forget  affronts  ; 

Old  age  is  slow  in  both. — Addison’s  Cato. 

Fortitude. 

Fortitude  is  not  the  appetite 
Of  formidable  things,  nor  inconsult 
Rashness  : but  virtue  fighting  for  a truth  ; 

Deriv’d  from  knowledge  of  distinguishing 
Good  or  bad  causes. — Nabb’s  Covent  Garden. 


—Gird  our  hearts  with  silent  fortitude, 

Suffering  yet  hoping  all  things. — Mrs.  Hemans. 

Fortune. 

Since  you  will  buckle  fortune  on  my  back, 

To  bear  her  burden  whe’r  I will  or  no, 

I must  have  patience  to  endure  the  load. 

— Shakespeare’s  Richard  III 
To  catch  dame  fortune’s  golden  smile, 

Assiduous  wait  upon  her  ; 

And  gather  gear  by  every  wile 
That’s  justified  by  honor. 

Not  for  to  hide  it  in  a hedge, 

Nor  for  a train  attendant  ; 

But  for  the  glorious  privilege 
Of  being  independent. — Burns. 

Freedom. 

For  freedom’s  battle  oft  begun, 

Bequeath’d  from  bleeding  sire  to  son. 

Though  baffled  oft,  is  ever  won. 

— Byron’s  Giaour 

Better  to  dwell  in  freedom’s  hall, 

With  a cold  damp  floor  and  mouldering  wall. 

Than  bow  the  head  and  bend  the  knee 
In  the  proudest  palace  of  slaverie. — Moore. 

Oh  ; not  yet 

May’st  thou  unbrace  thy  corslet,  nor  lay  by 
Thy  sword,  nor  yet,  O Freedom  ! close  thy  lids 
In  slumber  ; for  thine  enemy  never  sleeps. 

And  thou  must  watch  and  combat,  till  the  day 
Of  the  new  Earth  and  Heaven. — Bryant. 


Freedom’s  soil  hath  only  place 
For  a free  and  fearless  race. — Whittier. 
When  freedom,  on  her  natal  day, 

Within  her  war-rock’d  cradle  lay. 

An  iron  race  around  her  stood, 

Baptiz’d  her  infant  brow  in  blood, 

And  through  the  storm  that  round  her  swept, 

Their  constant  ward  and  watching  kept. 

— Whittier 


Friendship. 

Friendship  is  the  cement  of  two  minds. 

As  of  one  man  the  soul  and  body  is  ; 

Of  which  one  cannot  sever  but  the  other 
Suffers  a needful  separation. 

— Chapman’s  Revenge. 
Friendship  has  a power 
To  soothe  affliction  in  her  darkest  hour. 

— II.  K.  White 


Friend  after  friend  departs  ; — 

Who  hath  not  lost  a friend  ? 

There  is  no  union  here  of  hearts 

That  hath  not  here  its  end. — Montgomery. 


Friendship  is  no  plant  of  hasty  growth  ; 

Tho’  planted  in  esteem’s  deep  fixed  soil, 

The  gradual  culture  of  kind  intercourse 
Must  bring  to  it  perfection. 

— Joanna  Bailie’s  De  Mont  fort. 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


Futurity. 

O,  that  a man  might  know 
The  end  of  this  day’s  business,  ere  it  come  I 
But  it  sufficeth  that  the  day  will  end, 

And  then  the  end  is  known. 

— Shakespeare’s  Julius  Casar. 

Eternity,  thou  pleasing — dreadful  thought ! 

Thro’  what  variety  of  untry’d  beings, 

Thro’  what  new  scenes  and  changes  must  we  pass  ; 

The  wide,  the  unbounded  prospect  lies  before  me  ; 

But  shadows,  clouds,  and  darkness  rest  upon  it. 

Addison’s  Cato. 


There  is  no  hope — the  future  will  but  turn 
The  old  sands  in  the  failing  glass  of  time  ! 

— R.  H.  Stoddard. 


Generosity. 

An  act  that  does  deserve  requital, 

Pay  first  themselves  the  stock  of  such  content. 

— Sir  Robert  Howard. 


God  blesses  still  the  generous  thought, 

And  still  the  fitting  word  He  speeds, 

And  truth  at  His  requiring  taught, 

He  quickens  into  deeds. — WHITTIER. 

3entleman. 

Who  misses  or  who  wins  the  prize  ? 

Go,  lose  or  conquer  as  you  can  ; 

But  if  you  fail,  or  if  you  rise, 

Be  each,  pray  God,  a gentleman. — Anon. 

V\Thom  do  we  dub  as  gentlemen  ? The  knave,  the  fool,  the 
brute — 

If  they  but  own  full  tithe  of  gold  and  wear  a courtly  suit  ! 
The  parchment  scroll  of  titled  line,  the  riband  at  the  knee, 
Can  still  suffice  to  ratify  and  grant  a high  degree. 

— Eliza  Cook. 

Gifts. 

Win  her  with  gifts,  if  she  respect  not  words ; 

Dumb  jewels  often,  in  their  silent  kind, 

More  quick  than  words  do  move  a woman’s  mind. 

— Shakespeare’s  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona. 

Glory. 

Glory  is  like  a circle  in  the  water, 

Which  never  ceaseth  to  enlarge  itself, 

Till  by  broad  spreading,  it  disperse  to  naught. 

— Shakespeare’s  Henry  VI.  Part  I. 


Glories,  like  glow-worms,  afar  off  shine  bright  ; 

But  look’d  too  near,  have  neither  heat  nor  light. 

—Webster’s  Duchess  of  Malfy. 

What  is  glory  ? What  is  fame  ? 

The  echo  of  a long-lost  name ; 

A breath,  an  idle  hour’s  brief  talk  ; 

The  shadow  of  an  arrant  naught ; 

A flower  that  blossoms  for  a day, 

Dying  next  morrow  ; 

A stream  that  hurries  on  its  way, 

Singing  of  sorrow. — Motherwell. 


Gold. 

There  is  thy  gold  ; whose  poison  to  men’s  souls, 

Doing  more  murders  in  this  loathsome  world 
Than  these  poor  compounds  that  thou  may’st  not  sell  : 

I sell  thee  poison,  thou  hast  sold  me  none. 

Shakespeare’s  Romeo  and  Juliet. 

For  gold  the  merchant  ploughs  the  main. 

The  farmer  ploughs  the  manor. — Burns. 


Thou  more  than  stone  of  the  philosopher  ! 

Thou  touchstone  of  philosophy  herself  ! 

Thou  bright  eye  of  the  mine  ! Thou  load  star  of 
The  soul ! Thou  true  magnetic  pole,  to  which 
All  hearts  point  duly  north,  like  trembling  needles. 

— Byron. 

Grace. 

Grace  was  in  all  her  steps,  heaven  in  her  eye, 

In  every  gesture  dignity  and  love. 

Milton’s  Paradise  Lost. 

Gratitude. 

A grateful  mind 

By  owing  owes  not,  but  still  pays,  at  once 
Indebted  and  discharg’d. — Milton’s  Paradise  Lost. 
I’ve  heard  of  hearts  unkind,  kind  deeds 
With  coldness  still  returning  ; 

Alas  ! the  gratitude  of  men 

Hath  oftener  left  me  mourning. — Wordsworth, 


Grave. 


Our  lives  are  rivers,  gliding  free 
In  that  unfathom’d,  boundless  sea, 

The  silent  grave  ! 

Thither  all  earthly  pomp  and  boast 
Roll,  to  be  swallowed  up  and  lost 

In  one  dark  wave. — Longfellow 


I gazed  upon  the  glorious  sky 
And  the  green  mountains  round  ; 

And  thought  that  when  I came  to  lie 
Within  the  silent  ground, 

’Twere  pleasant,  that  in  flowery  June, 

Where  brooks  sent  up  a cheerful  tune. 

And  groves  a joyous  sound, 

The  sexton’s  hand,  my  grave  to  make, 

The  rich  green  mountain  turf  should  break. 

— Bryant 


Grief. 

O that  this  too,  too  solid  flesh  would  melt, 

Thaw,  and  resolve  itself  into  a dew  ! 

Or  that  the  everlasting  had  not  fix’d 

His  cannon  ’gainst  self  slaughter  ! O God  ! O God  J 

How  weary,  stale,  flat,  and  unprofitable 

Seem  to  me  all  the  uses  of  this  world  ! 

Fie  on’t  ! O fie : ’tis  an  unweeded  garden, 

That  grows  to  seed  : things  rank  and  gross  in  nature 
Possess  it  merely. — Shakespeare’s  Hamlet. 

Some  grief  shows  much  of  love  ; 

But  much  of  grief  shows  still  some  want  of  wit. 

Shakespeare’s  Romeo  and  Juliet, 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


5* 


Has!  of  the  ills  we  hoard  within  our  hearts, 

Are  ills  because  we  hoard  them. 

— Proctor’s  Mirandole. 


We  look  before  and  after. 

And  pine  for  what  is  not ; 

Our  sincerest  laughter 

With  some  pain  is  fraught. — Shelley. 


Thine  is  a grief  that  wastes  the  heart, 

Like  mildew  on  a tulip’s  dyes — 

When  hope,  deferr’d  but  to  depart, 

Loses  its  smiles  but  keeps  its  sighs. 

— Miss  Landon. 

Guilt. 

God  hath  yok’d  to  guilt 
Her  pale  tormentor — misery. — Bryant. 

O what  a state  is  guilt  ! how  wild  ! how  wretched  ! 

When  apprehension  can  form  nought  but  fears, 

And  we  distrust  security  herself. — Havard’s  Regulus. 

Hand. 

Her  hand 

In  whose  comparison,  all  whites  are  ink 
Writing  their  own  reproach,  to  whose  soft  seizure 
The  cygnet’s  down  is  harsh,  and  spirit  of  sense 
Hard  as  the  palm  of  ploughman  ! 

— Shaks.  Troilus  and  Cressida. 


I love  a hand  that  meets  mine  own 
With  grasp  that  causes  some  sensation. 

—Mrs.  Osgood. 


Happiness. 

O how  bitter  a thing  it  is  to  look 

Into  happiness  through  another  man’s  eyes  ' 

— Shaks.  As  You  Like  It. 


Beware  what  earth  calls  happiness  ; beware 
All  joys,  but  joys  that  never  can  expire  ; 

Who  builds  on  less  than  an  immortal  base, 

Fond  as  he  seems,  condemns  his  joy  to  death. 

— Young’s  Night  Thoughts. 
There  is  a gentle  element,  and  man 
May  breathe  it  with  a calm  unruffled  soul, 

And  drink  its  living  waters,  till  his  heart 
Is  pure,  and  this  is  human  happiness. — Willis. 

Hate. 

It  is  the  wit,  the  policy  of  sin, 

To  hate  those  men  we  have  abused. 

— Sir  W.  Davenant’s  Just  Italian. 
They  did  not  know  how  hate  can  bum, 

In  hearts  once  changed  from  soft  to  stem; 

Non  all  the  false  and  fatal  zeal 
The  convert  of  revenge  can  feel. 

— Byron’s  Siege  oj  Corinth. 

Health. 

The  surest  road  to  health,  say  what  they  will 
Is  never  to  suppose  we  shall  be  ill. 

Most  of  those  evils  we  poor  mortals  know 
From  doctors  and  imagination  flow. — Churchill. 




Heart. 

The  heart  is  like  the  sky  a part  of  heaven, 

But  changes,  night  and  day,  too,  like  the  sky; 

Now  o’er  it  clouds  and  thunder  must  be  driven, 

And  darkness  and  destruction,  as  on  high  ; 

But  when  it  hath  been  scorch’d,  and  pierc’d,  and  riven. 

Its  storms  expire  in  water-drops  ; the  eye 
Pours  forth,  at  last,  the  heart’s  blood  turned  to  tears. 

— Byron 

The  flush  of  youth  soon  passes  from  the  face, 

The  spells  of  fancy  from  the  mind  depart  ; 

The  form  may  lose  its  symmetry,  its  grace, 

But  time  can  claim  no  victory  o’er  the  heart. 

— Mrs.  Drimes 
A young  maiden’s  heart 
Is  a rich  soil,  wherein  lie  many  germs 
Hid  by  the  cunning  hand  of  nature  there 
To  put  forth  blossoms  in  their  fittest  season  ; 

And  though  the  love  of  home  first  breaks  the  soiL 
With  its  embracing  tendrils  clasping  it. 

Other  affections  strong  and  warm  will  grow, 

While  that  one  fades,  as  summer’s  flush  of  bloom 
Succeeds  the  gentle  budding  of  the  spring. 

— Mrs.  Francis  K.  Butler. 


Home. 


Home  is  the  resort 

Of  love,  of  joy,  of  peace  and  plenty,  where 
Supporting  and  supported,  polish’d  friends 
And  dear  relations  mingle  into  bliss. 

— Thomson’s  Seasons 


At  length  his  lonely  cot  appears  in  view, 

Beneath  the  shelter  of  an  aged  tree  ; 

Th’  expectant  wee  things,  todlin  stacher  through 
To  meet  their  dad,  wi’  flichtering  noise  and  glee  ; 

His  wee-bit  ingle  blinkin  bonnilie, 

His  clean  hearth-stane,  his  thrifty  wifie’s  smile, 

The  lisping  infant  prattling  on  his  knee, 

Does  a’  his  weary  kiaugh  and  care  beguile, 

And  makes  him  quite  forget  his  labor  and  his  toil. 

— Burns’  Cotter's  Saturday  Night 


Leans  o’er  his  humble  gate  and  thinks  the  while — 

Oh  ! that  for  me  some  home  like  this  would  smile, 

Some  hamlet  shade,  to  yield  my  sickly  form, 

Health  in  the  breeze,  and  shelter  in  the  storm. 

— Campbell’s  Pleasures  of  Hope 

’Tis  sweet  to  hear  the  watch-dog’s  honest  bark, 

Bay  deep-mouth’d  welcome  as  we  draw  near  nome  ; 

’Tis  sweet  to  know  there  is  an  eye  will  mark 
Our  coming,  and  look  brighter  when  we  come.— Byron 
O,  it  was  pitiful  ! 

Near  a whole  city  full, 

Home  she  had  none. — Thomas  Hood. 


My  son — thou  wilt  dream  the  world  is  fair. 
And  thy  spirit  will  sigh  to  roam, 

And  thou  must  go  ; — but  never,  when  there, 
Forget  the  light  of  home. — Mrs.  Hale.' 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


Honest. 

Ay,  sir  ; to  be  honest  as  this  world  goes. 

Is  to  be  one  pick’d  out  of  ten  thousand. 

— Shaks.  Hamiet. 
Take  heed  what  you  say,  sir  ! 

An  hundred  honest  men  ! why  if  there  were 
So  many  i’  th’  city,  ’t  were  enough  to  forfeit 
Their  charter. — Shirley’s  Gamester. 

Honor. 

Mine  honor  is  my  life  ; both  grow  in  one  ; 

Take  honor  from  me,  and  my  life  is  done. 

—Shaks.  Richard  II. 
Honor  is 

Virtue’s  allowed  ascent  : honor  that  clasps 
All  perfect  justice  in  her  arms  ; that  craves 
No  more  respect  than  what  she  gives  ; that  does 
Nothing  but  what  she’ll  suffer. 

— Massinger’s  Very  Woman. 
The  noblest  spur  unto  the  sons  of  fame 
Is  thirst  of  honor. — John  Hall. 

Better  to  die  ten  thousand  deaths 

Than  wound  my  honor. — Addison’s  Cato. 

A life  of  honor  and  of  worth 
Has  no  eternity  on  earth, — 

’Tis  but  a name — 

And  yet  its  glory  far  exceeds 
That  base  and  sensual  life  which  leads 
To  want  and  shame. — Longfellow. 

Hope. 

The  miserable  hath  no  other  medicine 

But  only  hope. — Shaks.  Measure  for  Measure. 

Hope  1 fortune’s  cheating  lottery  ! 

Where  for  one  prize  an  hundred  blanks  there  be  ; 

Fond  archer,  hope  ! who  tak’st  thy  aim  so  far, 

That  still,  or  short,  or  wide,  thine  arrows  are  ! — COWLEY. 
Unfading  hope  ! when  life’s  last  embers  burn, 

When  soul  to  soul,  and  dust  to  dust  return  ! 

Heaven  to  thy  charge  resigns  the  awful  hour  ! 

Oh  ! then  thy  kingdom  comes  ! immortal  power, 

What  though  each  spark  of  earth-born  rapture  fly. 

The  quivering  lip,  pale  cheek,  and  closing  eye  ! 

Bright  to  the  soul  thy  seraph  hands  convey 
The  morning  dream  of  life’s  eternal  day — 

Then,  then,  the  triumph  and  the  trance  begin  ! 

And  all  the  phoenix  spirit  burns  within  ! 

Campbell’s  Pleasures  of  Hope. 
White  as  a white  sail  on  a dusty  sea, 

When  half  the  horizon’s  clouded  and  half  free, 
Fluttering  between  the  dun  wave  and  the  sky. 

Is  hope’s  last  gleam  in  man’s  extremity. 

— Byron’s  Island. 

Humility. 

Humility  is  eldest-born  of  virtue. 

And  claims  the  birth-right  at  the  throne  of  heav’n. 

— Murphy’s  Zobeide. 

The  meek  mountain  daisy,  with  delicate  crest, 

And  the  violet  whose  eye  told  the  heaven  of  her  breast. 

— Mrs.  Sigourney. 


Husbands. 

Look  here  upon  this  picture,  and  on  this : 

The  counterfeit  presentment  of  two  brothers  : 

See,  what  a grace  was  seated  on  this  brow  ; 

Hyperion’s  curls  ; the  front  of  Jove  himself  ; 

An  eye,  like  Mars,  to  threaten  or  command  ; 

A station,  like  the  herald  Mercury, 

New  lighted  on  a heaven  kissing  hill ; 

A combination,  and  a form  indeed, 

Where  every  god  did  seem  to  set  his  seal. 

To  give  the  world  assurance  of  a man  ! 

This  was  your  husband. — Look  you  now  what  follows 
There  is  your  husband — like  a mildew’d  ear 
Blasting  his  wholesome  brother. — Shaks.  Hamlet. 

Marry  ! no,  faith  ; husbands  are  like  lots  in 
The  lottery,  you  may  draw  forty  blanks 
Before  you  find  one  that  has  any  prize 
In  him  ; a husband  generally  is  a 
Careless  domineering  thing,  that  grows  like 
Coral ; which  as  long  as  it  is  under  water 
Is  soft  and  tender  ; but  as  soon 
As  it  has  got  its  branch  above  the  waves 
Is  presently  hard,  stiff,  not  to  be  bow’d. — Marston. 
Hypocrisy. 

How  many  cowards,  whose  hearts  are  all  as  false 
As  stairs  of  sand,  wear  upon  their  chins 
The  beard  of  Hercules,  and  frowning  Mars, 

Who,  inward  search’d,  have  livers  white  as  milk  ? 

Shaks.  Merchant  of  Venice 
Bartering  his  venal  wit  for  sums  of  gold, 

He  cast  himself  into  the  saint-like  mould  ; 

Groan’d,  sigh’d,  and  pray’d,  while  godliness  was  gain, 
The  loudest  bag-pipe  of  the  squeaking  train. — Dryden 
Few  men  dare  show  their  thoughts  of  worst  or  best ; 
Dissimulation  always  sets  apart 
A comer  for  herself  ; and  therefore  Fiction 
Is  that  which  passes  with  least  contradiction.  — Byron. 
Idleness. 

From  worldly  cares  himself  he  did  esloin, 

And  greatly  shunned  manly  exercise  ; 

From  every  work  he  challenged  essoin, 

For  contemplation  sake  : yet  otherwise, 

His  life  he  led  in  lawless  riotise 
By  which  he  grew  to  grievous  malady, 

For  in  his  lustless  limbs  through  evil  guise 
A shaking  fever  reign’d  continually  ; 

Such  one  was  Idleness. — Spenser’s  Fairy  Queen. 
Leisure  is  pain  ; takes  off  our  chariot  wheels  \ 

How  heavily  we  drag  the  load  of  life  ; 

Blest  leisure  is  our  curse  ; like  that  of  Cain, 

It  makes  us  wander  : wander  earth  around 
To  fly  that  tyrant  thought.  As  Atlas  groan’d 
The  world  beneath,  we  groan  beneath  an  hour. 

—Young’s  Night  Thoughts 

When  you  have  found  a day  to  be  idle,  be  idle  for  a day. 
When  you  have  met  with  three  cups  to  drink,  drink  your  three 
cups.— Chinese  Poet. 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


8 


Idleness  is  sweet  and  sacred. 

— Walter  Savage  Landor. 


I would  not  waste  my  spring  of  youth 
In  idle  dalliance  : I would  plant  rich  seeds. 

To  blossom  in  my  manhood,  and  bear  fruit 
When  I am  old. — Hillhouse. 

Ignorance. 

Where  ignorance  is  bliss, 

’Tis  folly  to  be  wise. — Gray. 

By  ignorance  is  pride  increas’d  ; 

They  most  assume  who  know  the  least. 

— Gray’s  Fables. 

Imagination. 

My  brain,  methinks,  is  like  an  hour-glass, 

Wherein  m’  imaginations  run  like  sands, 

Filling  up  time  ; but  then  are  turn’d  and  turn’d, 

So  that  I know  not  what  to  stay  upon, 

And  less  to  put  in  art. 

— Jonson’s  Every  Man  in  his  Humor. 


’Mid  earthly  scenes  forgotten  or  unknown, 

Lives  in  ideal  worlds,  and  wanders  there  alone. 

— Carlos  Wilcox. 

Immortal. 


Can  it  be  ? 

Matter  immortal?  and  shall  spirit  die? 

Above  the  nobler,  shall  less  nobler  rise  ? 

Shall  man  alone,  for  whom  all  else  revives, 

No  resurrection  know  ? Shall  man  alone, 

Imperial  man  1 be  sown  in  barren  ground, 

Less  privileg’d  than  grain,  on  which  he  feeds  ? 

— Young's  Night  Thoughts. 
Love,  which  proclaims  the  human,  bids  thee  know 
A truth  more  lofty  in  thy  lowliest  hour 
Than  shallow  glory  taught  to  human  power — 

“ What’s  human  is  immortal  ! ” — Bulwer’s  Poems. 
Inconstancy. 

How  long  must  women  wish  in  vain 
A constant  love  to  find  ? 

No  art  can  fickle  man  retain, 

Or  fix  a roving  mind. 

Yet  fondly  we  ourselves  deceive, 

And  empty  hopes  pursue  ; 

Though  false  to  others  we  believe 

They  will  to  us  prove  true. — Thomas  Shadwell. 


Three  things  a wise  man  will  not  trust, 

The  wind,  the  sunshine  of  an  April  day, 

And  woman’s  plighted  faith.  I have  beheld 
The  weathercock  upon  the  steeple  point 
Steady  from  morn  till  eve,  and  I have  seen 
The  bees  go  forth  upon  an  April  morn, 

Secure  the  sunshine  will  not  end  in  showers  : 

But  when  was  woman  true  ? — Southey’s  Madoc. 

Industry. 


Industry — • 

To  meditate,  to  plan,  resolve,  perform, 

Which  in  itself  is  good — as  surely  brings 
Reward  of  good,  no  matter  what  be  done. 

Pollock’s  Course  of  lime. 


Behold  . 

The  ruddy  damsel  singeth  at  her  wheel, 

While  by  her  side  the  rustic  lover  sits. 

Perchance  his  shrewd  eye  secretly  doth  count 
The  mass  of  skeins,  which,  hanging  on  the  wali 
Increaseth  day  by  day.  Perchance  his  thoughts, 

(For  men  have  deeper  minds  than  women — sure  !) 

Are  calculating  what  a thrifty  wife 
The  maid  will  make. — Mrs.  Sigourney. 

Infidelity. 

Why,  she  would  hang  on  him 

As  if  increase  of  appetite  had  grown 

By  what  it  fed  on  ; and  yet  within  a month — 

Let  me  not  think  on ’t  ; — Frailty,  thy  name  is  woman  ! 

— Shaks.  Hamlet 

O wretched  is  the  dame,  to  whom  the  sound, 

'‘Your  lord  will  soon  return  ” no  pleasure  brings 

— Maturin’s  Pert  ram. 


Ingratitude. 

For  vicious  natures,  when  they  once  begin 
To  take  distaste,  and  purpose  no  requital ; 

The  greater  debt  they  r we,  the  more  they  hate. 

— May’s  Agrippina. 


Ingratitude  is  a monster — 

To  be  strangled  in  the  birth  , not  to  be  cherish’d. 

— Massinger. 


If  there  be  a crime 

Of  deeper  dye  than  all  the  guilty  train 
Of  human  vices,  tis  ingratitude. 

— Brooke’s  Earl  of  Warwick. 


Innocence. 


I have  mark’d 

A thousand  blushing  apparitions  start 
Into  her  face  ; a thousand  innocent  shames 
In  angel  whiteness  bear  away  those  blushes  ; 

And  in  her  eye  there  hath  appear’d  a fire, 

To  burn  the  errors  that  these  princes  hold 
Against  her  maiden  truth. 

— Shaks.  Much  Ado  about  Nothing 


Innocent  maid,  and  snow-white  flower, 

Well  are  ye  pair’d  in  your  opening  hour  ; 

Thus  should  the  pure  and  lovely  meet, 

Stainless  with  stainless,  and  sweet  with  sweet. 

Throw  it  aside  in  thy  weary  hour  ; 

Throw  it  to  the  ground  the  fair  white  flower. 

Yet  as  thy  smiling  years  depart, 

Keep  that  white  and  innocent  heart. — Bryant. 
Instinct. 

Reason  raise  o’er  instinct  as  you  can, 

In  this  ’tis  God  directs,  in  that  ’tis  man. — PoPis, 
Jealousy. 

O,  beware,  my  lord,  of  jealousy  ; 

It  is  the  green-ey'd  monster  which  doth  mock 
The  meat  it  feeds  on  ; that  cuckold  lives  in  bliss 
Who,  certain  of  his  fate,  loves  not  his  wronger  ; 

But,  O,  what  damned  minutes  tells  he  o’er, 

Who  dotes,  yet  doubts  ; suspects,  yet  strongly  loves. 

— Shakespeare’s  Othella 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


All  other  passions  have  their  hour  of  thinking, 

And  hear  the  voice  of  reasoning.  This  alone 
Breaks  at  the  first  suspicion  into  phrenzy, 

And  sweeps  the  soul  in  tempests. 

— Francis’s  Constantine. 
Yet  he  was  jealous,  though  he  did  not  show  it, 

For  jealousy  dislikes  the  world  to  know  it. — Byron. 

True  joy  is  only  hope  put  out  of  fear  ; 

And  honor  hideth  error  ev’ry  where. 

Lord  Brooke’s  Alaham. 


Joy  kneels,  at  morning’s  rosy  prime, 

In  worship  to  the  rising  sun. 

— James  G.  Brooks. 
Joy  for  the  present  moment ! Joy  to-day  1 
Why  look  we  to  the  morrow  ? 

Mingle  me  bitters  to  drive  care  away; 

Nothing  on  earth  can  be  for  ever  gay, 

And  free  from  sorrow. — Epes  Sargent. 


Her  world  was  ever  joyous — 

She  thought  of  grief  and  pain 
As  giants  in  the  olden  time 
That  ne’er  would  come  again. 

— Mrs.  Hale’s  Alice  Ray. 


Tustice. 

Justice,  when  equal  scales  she  holds,  is  blind. 

Nor  cruelty,  nor  mercy,  change  her  mind  ; 

When  some  escape  for  that  which  others  die, 

Mercy  to  those,  to  these  is  cruelty  ; 

A fine  and  slender  net  the  spider  weaves 
Which  little  and  slight  animals  receives  ; 

And  if  she  catch  a summer  bee  or  fly, 

They  with  a piteous  groan  and  murmur  die  ; 

But  if  a wasp  or  hornet  she  entrap, 

They  tear  her  cords,  like  Samson,  and  escape  •. 

So  like  a fly,  the  poor  offender  dies  ; 

But  like  the  wasp  the  rich  escapes  and  flies. 

— Denham. 

Justice,  while  she  winks  at  crimes. 

Stumbles  on  innocence  sometimes. 

— Butler’s  Hudibras. 


A happy  lot  be  thine,  and  larger  light 

Await  thee  there  ; for  thou  hast  bound  thy  will. 

In  cheerful  homage  to  the  rule  of  right, 

Andlovest  all,  and  doest  good  for  ill. — Bryant. 
Man  is  unjust,  but  God  is  just  ; and  finally  justice 
Triumphs. — Longfellow’s  Evangeline. 

Kindness. 

Kindness  in  woman,  not  their  beauteous  looks, 

Shall  win  my  love. 

— Shakespeare’s  Taming  the  Shrew. 
Kindness  by  secret  sympathy  is  tied  ; 

For  noble  souls  in  nature  are  allied. — Dryden. 

If  a soul  thou  wouldst  redeem, 

And  lead  a lost  one  back  to  God  ; — 

Wouldst  thou  a guardian-angel  seem 
To  one  who  long  in  guilt  hath  trod, — 


Go  kindly  to  him — take  his  hand 
With  gentlest  words  within  thine  own. 

And  by  his  side  a brother  stand, 

Till  all  the  demons  thou  dethrone. 

— Mrs.  C.  M.  Sawyer 

King. 

He’s  a king, 

A true,  right  king,  that  dares  do  aught,  save  wrong ; 
Fears  nothing  mortal,  but  to  be  unjust; 

Who  is  not  blown  up  with  the  flattering  puffs 
Of  spongy  sycophants  ; who  stands  unmov’d, 

Despite  the  jostling  of  opinion. 

— Marston’s  Antonio  and  Mellida.  Part  /, 

Kiss. 


O,  a kiss 

Long  as  my  exile,  sweet  as  my  revenge  ! 

Now,  by  the  jealous  queen  of  heaven,  that  kiss, 

I carried  from  thee,  dear  ; and  my  true  lip 
Hath  virgin’d  it  o’er  since. 

— Shakespeare’s  Coriolantis. 


Teach  not  thy  lip  such  scorn  ; for  it  was  made 
For  kissing,  lady,  not  for  such  contempt. 

— Shakespeare’s  Richard  III. 
Oh  ! could  I give  the  world  ; 

One  kiss  of  thine,  but  thus  to  touch  thy  lips, 

I were  a gainer  by  the  vast  exchange. 

The  fragrant  infancy  of  opening  flowers 
Flow’d  to  my  senses  in  that  melting  kiss. 

— Southern’s  Disappointment. 
The  kiss  you  take  is  paid  by  that  you  give  ; 

The  joy  is  mutual,  and  I’m  still  in  debt. 

— Lord  Lansdown’s  Heroic  Love. 


Soft  child  of  love — thou  balmy  bliss, 

Inform  me,  O delicious  kiss  ! 

Why  thou  so  suddenly  art  gone, 

Lost  in  the  moment  thou  art  won  ? 

— Dr.  Wolcqt 

Knowledge. 

Through  knowledge  we  behold  the  world’s  creation, 

How  in  his  cradle  first  he  fostered  was  ; 

And  judge  of  nature’s  cunning  operation, 

How  things  she  formed  of  a formless  mass  : 

By  knowledge  do  we  learn  ourselves  to  know  ; 

And  what  to  man  and  what  to  God  we  owe. — Spencer. 
Knowledge  comes,  but  wisdom  lingers. 

And  I linger  more  and  more, 

And  the  individual  withers, 

And  the  world  is  more  and  more. — Tennyson 
O fear  not  in  a world  like  this, 

And  thou  shalt  know  ere  long, 

Know  how  sublime  a thing  it  is 

To  suffer  and  be  strong. — LONGFELLOW. 

Labor. 

“ Labor  is  worship  ” — the  robin  is  singing  ; 

“ Labor  is  worship  ” — the  wild  bee  is  ringing. 

Listen  ; that  eloquent  whisper  upspringing. 

Speaks  to  the  soul  out  of  nature’s  great  heart. 

Mrs.  Osgood 


V? 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


8j 


Let  us,  then,  be  up  and  doing, 

With  a heart  for  any  fate  ; 

Still  achieving,  still  pursuing, 

Learn  to  labor  and  to  wait. — Longfellow. 

Law. 


The  hungry  judges  soon  the  sentence  sign. 

And  wretches  hang  that  jurymen  may  dine. 

Pope’s  Rape  op  the  Lock. 
Let  the  laws  of  your  own  land, 

Good  or  ill  between  you  stand, 

Hand  to  hand,  and  foot  to  foot, 

Arbiters  of  the  dispute. — Shelley’s  Liberty. 

Learning. 

A little  learning  is  a dang’rous  thing, 

Drink  deep,  or  taste  not  the  Pierian  spring  : 

There  shallow  draughts  intoxicate  the  brain. 

And  drinking  largely  sobers  us  again. 

— Pope’s  Essay  on  Ctilicism. 

Liberty. 


Oh  1 give  me  liberty  ! 

For  were  ev’n  paradise  my  prison, 

Still  I should  long  to  leap  the  crystal  walls. 

— Dryden’s  Don  Sebastian. 


O liberty, 

Parent  of  happiness,  celestial-born  ; 

When  the  first  man  became  a living  soul, 

His  sacred  genius  thou. — Dyer’s  Ruins  of  Rome. 
What  are  fifty,  what  a thousand  slaves. 

Match’d  to  the  sinew  of  a single  arm 

That  strikes  for  liberty? — Brooke’s  GustavusVasa. 


Life. 


There  is  a spirit  working  in  the  world 
Like  to  a silent,  subterranean  fire  ; 

Yet  ever  and  anon  some  monarch  hurl’d 
Aghast  and  pale,  attests  its  fearful  ire  : 

The  dungeon’d  nations  now  once  more  respire 

The  keen  and  stirring  air  of  Liberty. — George  Hill. 

Out,  out,  brief  candle  ! 

Life’s  but  a walking  shadow  ; a poor  player, 

That  struts  and  frets  his  hour  upon  the  stage, 

And  then  is  heard  no  more : it  is  a tale 
Told  by  an  idiot,  full  of  sound  and  fury, 

Signifying  nothing. — Shaks.  Macbeth. 


The  cloud-capped  towers,  the  gorgeous  palaces. 
The  solemn  temples,  the  great  globe  itself, 

Yea,  all  which  it  inherit,  shall  dissolve, 

And,  like  this  unsubstantial  pageant  faded, 

Leave  not  a rack  behind  : we  are  such  stuff 
As  dreams  are  made  of,  and  our  little  life 
Is  rounded  with  a sleep. — Shaks.  Tempest. 
Farewell,  a long  farewell,  to  all  my  greatness  ! 
This  is  the  state  of  man  : to-day  he  puts  forth 
The  tender  leaves  of  hope,  to-morrow  blossoms, 
And  bears  his  blushing  honors  thick  upon  him  ; 
The  third  day  comes  a frost,  a killing  frost  ; 

And — when  he  thinks,  good  easy  man,  full  surely 
His  greatness  is  a-ripening — nips  his  root, 

And  then  he  falls,  as  I do. — Shaks.  lleniy  VIIL. 


Life  is  a weary  interlude — 

Which  doth  short  joys,  long  woes  include  : 

The  world  the  stage,  the  prologue  tears  ; 

The  acts  vain  hopes  and  varied  fears  ; 

The  scene  shuts  up  with  loss  of  breath, 

And  leaves  no  epilogue  but  death. — Bishop  King. 

To-day  is  like  yesterday,  it  cheats  ; 

We  take  the  lying  sister  for  the  same  ; 

Life  glides  away,  Lorenzo,  like  a brook ; 

For  ever  changing,  unperceiv’d  the  change. 

— Young’s  Night  Thoughts 

Be  wise  with  speed  ; 

A fool  at  forty  is  a fool  indeed. 

— Young’s  Love  of  Fame. 

What  is  life  ? 

A gulf  of  troubled  waters — where  the  . . . .? 

Like  a vex’d  bark,  is  tossed  upon  the  waves 
Of  pain  and  pleasure  by  the  wavering  breath 
Of  passions. — Miss  Landon. 

Life  is  real,  life  is  earnest  ; 

And  the  grave  is  not  its  goal  ; 

Dust  thou  art,  to  dust  returnest, 

Was  not  spoken  of  the  soul. — Longfellow. 

Thus  bravely  live  heroic  men, 

A consecrated  band  ; 

Life  is  to  them  a battle-field, 

Their  hearts  a holy  land. — Tuckerman. 

Love. 

Love  is  life’s  end  ; an  end  but  never  ending  ; 

All  joys,  all  sweets,  all  happiness,  awarding  ; 

Love  is  life’s  wealth  (ne’er  spent  but  ever  spending). 
More  rich  by  giving,  taking  by  discarding, 

Love ’s  life’s  reward,  rewarded  in  rewarding  ; 

Then  from  thy  wretched  heart  fond  care  remove, 

Ah  1 should’st  thou  live  but  once  love’s  sweets  to  prove, 
Thou  wilt  not  love  to  live,  unless  thou  live  to  love. 

— Spenser’s  Britain's  Ida 

The  more  thou  damm’st  it  up,  the  more  it  burns. 

The  current  that  with  gentle  murmur  glides, 

Thou  know’st,  being  stopp’d,  impatiently  doth  rage  j 
But  when  his  fair  course  is  not  hindered, 

He  makes  sweet  music  with  the  enamel’d  stones. 

Giving  a gentle  kiss  to  every  sedge 
He  overtaketh  in  his  pilgrimage. 

— Shaks.  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona 

Fantastic  tyrant  of  the  amorous  heart, 

How  hard  thy  yoke  ! how  cruel  is  thy  dart ! 

Those  ’scape  thy  anger  who  refuse  thy  sway, 

And  those  are  punish’d  most  who  most  obey. 

— Prior’s  Solomon 

The  maid  that  loves 
Goes  out  to  sea  upon  a shattered  plank, 

And  puts  her  trust  in  miracles  for  safety. 

— Young’s  Revenge 


86 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


Love,  strong  in  wish,  is  weak  in  reason,  still 
Forming  a thousand  ills,  which  ne’er  shall  be, 

And,  like  a coward,  kills  itself  to-day, 

With  fancied  grief  for  fear  it  die  to-morrow. 

— Sewell’s  Sir  IV.  Raleigh. 
O magic  of  love  ! unembellish’d  by  you 
Has  the  garden  a blush  or  the  herbage  a hue, 

Or  blooms  there  a prospect  in  nature  or  art, 

Like  the  vista  that  shines  through  the  eye  to  the  heart  ? 

— Moore. 

Man’s  love  is  of  man’s  life  a thing,  a part, 

’Tis  a woman’s  whole  existence  ; man  may  range 
The  court,  the  camp,  church,  vessel  and  the  mart, 

Sword,  gown,  gain,  glory,  offer  in  exchange  ; 

Pride,  fame,  ambition,  to  fill  up  his  heart  ; 

And  few  there  are  whom  these  can  not  estrange  ; 

Men  have  all  these  resources,  we  but  one — 

To  love  again,  and  be  again  undone. — Byron. 


Love’s  reign  is  eternal, 

The  heart  is  his  throne, 

And  he  has  all  seasons 

Of  life  for  his  own. — G.  P.  Morris. 


Lovers. 


Then,  the  lover, 

Sighing  like  furnace,  with  a woful  ballad 
Made  to  his  mistress’  eye-brow. 

— Shaks.  As  You  Like  It. 


They  parted  as  all  lovers  part  ; — 

She  with  her  wrong’d  and  breaking  heart ; 

But  he  rejoicing  to  be  free. 

Bounds  like  a captive  from  his  chain, 

And  wilfully  believing  she 

Hath  found  her  liberty  again  ; 

Or  if  dark  thoughts  will  cross  his  mind, 

They  are  but  clouds  before  the  wind. 

— Miss  Landon. 


Never  thread  was  spun  so  fine. 

Never  spider  stretch’d  the  line. 

Would  not  hold  the  lovers  true 

That  would  really  swing  for  you. — O.  W.  Holmes. 

Madness. 

Alas  ! how  is ’t  with  you  ? 

That  you  do  bend  your  eyes  on  vacancy, 

And  with  the  incorporeal  air  do  hold  discourse  ? 

— Shaks.  Hamlet. 


His  brain  is  wrecked — 

For  ever  in  the  pauses  of  his  speech 
His  lip  doth  work  with  inward  mutterings 
And  his  fixed  eye  is  riveted  fearfully 
On  something  that  no  other  site  can  spy. 

— Maturin’s  Bertram. 


Man. 

Man  is  supreme  lord  and  master 
Of  his  own  ruin  and  disaster  ; 
Controls  his  fate,  but  nothing  less 
In  ord’ring  his  own  happiness  : 


For  all  his  care  and  providence 
Is  too,  too  feeble  a defence 
To  render  it  secure  and  certain 
Against  the  injuries  of  fortune  : 

And  oft,  in  spite  of  all  his  wit. 

Is  lost  with  one  unlucky  hit, 

And  ruin’d  with  a circumstance, 

And  mere  punctilio  of  chance. 

— Massinger’s  Guardian 


Know  then  thyself,  presume  not  God  to  scan  : 

The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man. 

Plac’d  on  this  isthmus  of  a middle  state, 

A being  darkly  wise  and  rudely  great, 

With  too  much  knowledge  for  the  skeptic’s  side, 

With  too  much  weakness  for  the  stoic’s  pride, 

He  hangs  between,  in  doubt  to  act  or  rest ; 

In  doubt  to  deem  himself  a god  or  beast. 

— Pope’s  Essay  on  Man. 


All  that  hath  been  majestical 

In  life  or  death  since  time  began, 

Is  native  in  the  simple  heart  of  all, 

The  angel-heart  of  man. 

— James  Russell  Lowell. 


Marriage. 

Nothing  shall  assuage 
Your  love  but  marriage  : for  such  is 
The  tying  of  two  in  wedlock,  as  is 
The  tuning  of  two  lutes  in  one  key  : for 
Striking  the  strings  of  the  one,  straws  will  stir 
Upon  the  strings  of  the  other ; and  in 
Two  minds  link’d  in  love,  one  cannot  be 
Delighted  but  the  other  rejoiceth. 

• — Lilly’s  Sappho  and  Phaon, 


O marriage  ! marriage  ! what  a curse  is  thine, 

Where  hands  alone  consent  and  hearts  abhor. 

— Hill’s  Akira, 


While  other  doublets  deviate  here  and  there 
What  secret  handcuff  binds  that  pretty  pair  ? 
Compactest  couple  1 pressing  side  to  side, — 

Ah  ! the  white  bonnet — that  reveals  the  bride  ! 

— O.  W.  Holmes. 


I saw  her,  and  I lov’d  her, 

I sought  her,  and  I won  ; 

A dozen  pleasant  summers, 

And  more,  since  then,  have  run, 

And  half  as  many  voices 
Now  prattling  by  her  side. 

Remind  me  of  the  autumn, 

When  she  became  my  bride. 

— Thomas  Macicay 


Meeting. 


Ah  me  ! 

The  world  is  full  of  meetings  such  as  this — 
A thrill,  a voiceless  challenge  and  reply — 
And  sudden  partings  after ! — Willis. 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


8J 


I have  said  I would  not  meet  him — 

Have  I said  the  words  in  vain  ? 

Sunset  bums  along  the  hill-tops, 

And  I’m  waiting  here  again  : 

But  my  promise  is  not  broken, 

Though  I stand  where  once  we  met ; 
When  I hear  his  coming  footsteps, 

I can  fly  him  even  yet. — Phcebe  Carey. 

Melancholy. 

Melancholy  is  a fearful  gift. 
What  is  it  but  the  telescope  of  truth  ? 

Which  strips  the  distance  of  its  phantasies, 
And  brings  life  near  in  utter  darkness, 

Making  the  cold  reality  too  real. — Byron. 

Go,  you  may  call  it  madness,  folly, — 

You  shall  not  chase  my  gloom  away ; 
There’s  such  a charm  in  melancholy, 

I would  not,  if  I could,  be  gay. — Rogers. 


Ah,  there  are  moments  for  us  here,  when,  seeing 
Life’s  inequalities,  and  woe,  and  care. 

The  burdens  laid  upon  our  mortal  being 
Seem  heavier  than  the  human  heart  can  bear. 

— Phcebe  Carey. 


Memory. 

O memory  ! thou  fond  deceiver, 

Still  importunate  and  vain, 

To  former  joys  recurring  ever, 

And  turning  all  the  past  to  pain; 

Thou,  like  the  world,  th’  opprest  oppressing. 
Thy  smiles  increase  the  wretch’s  woe  ! 

And  he  who  wants  each  other  blessing 

In  thee  must  ever  find  a foe. — Goldsmith. 


Through  the  shadowy  past. 

Like  a tomb-searcher,  memory  ran, 

Lifting  each  shroud  that  time  had  cast 
O’er  buried  hopes. — Moore’s  Loves  of  the  Angels. 
Lull’d  in  the  countless  chambers  of  the  brain, 

Our  thoughts  are  linked  by  many  a hidden  chain. 
Awake  but  one,  and  lo,  what  myriads  rise  ! 

Each  stamps  its  image  as  the  other  flies  ! 

— Rogers’  Pleasures  of  Memory. 


Mercy. 

The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strain’d  ; 

It  droppeth  as  the  gentle  rain  from  heaven 
Upon  the  place  beneath  : it  is  twice  bless’d  ; 

It  blesseth  him  that  gives,  and  him  that  takes  ; 

'Tis  mightiest  in  the  mighty  ; it  becomes 
The  throned  monarch  better  than  his  crown. 

— Shaks.  Merchant  of  Venice. 


Hate  shuts  her  soul  when  dove-eyed  Mercy  pleads. 

— Sprague. 

Man  may  dismiss  compassion  from  his  heart. 

But  God  will  never. — Cowper’s  Task. 

Merit. 

There’s  a proud  modesty  in  merit ! 

Averse  from  asking,  and  resolv’d  to  pay 

Ten  times  the  gifts  it  asks. — Dryden’s  Cleomenes. 


Mind. 

The  mind  doth  shape  itself  to  its  own  wants. 

And  can  bear  all  things. — Joanna  Baillie’s  Rayner. 

The  mind 

Forges  from  knowledge  the  archangel’s  spear. 

And  with  the  spirits  that  compel  the  world, 

Conflicts  for  empire. — WlLLIS. 

Mirth. 

’Tis  ever  common, 

That  men  are  merriest  when  they  are  from  home. 

— Shaks.  Henry  V 

A little  of  thy  merriment, 

Of  thy  sparkling,  light  content. 

Give  me,  my  cheerful  brook, — 

That  I may  still  be  full  of  glee 
And  gladsomeness  where’er  I be, 

Though  fickle  fate  hath  prison’d  me 
In  some  neglected  nook. 

— James  Russell  Lowell, 

Misfortune. 


Misfortune  brings 

Sorrow  enough  : ’tis  envy  to  ourselves. 

To  augment  it  by  prediction. 

— Habbington’s  Queen  of  Arragon. 


The  furrows  of  long  thought  dried  up  in  tears. 

— Byron’s  Chi/de  Harold, 


Modesty. 

Her  looks  did  argue  her  replete  with  modesty. — Siiaks. 

The  blushing  beauties  of  a modest  maid. — Dryden’s  Oma. 

Methinks  the  rose  * * * * 

Is  the  very  emblem  of  a maid  ; 

For  when  the  west  wind  courts  her  gently, 

How  modestly  she  blows,  and  paints  the  sun 

With  her  chaste  blushes  ; when  the  north  come  near  her, 

Rude  and  impatient,  then  like  chastity 

She  locks  her  beauties  in  her  bud  again, 

And  leaves  him  to  base  briars. 

— Rowley’s  Two  Noble  Kinsmen. 


Morning. 

The  glow-worm  shows  the  matin  to  be  near, 

And  ’gins  to  pale  his  ineffectual  fire. — Shaks.  Hamlet. 
At  length  the  world,  renew’d  by  calm  repose. 

Was  strong  for  toil,  the  dappled  morn  arose. 

— Parnell’s  Hermit. 

Day  takes  his  daily  turn, 

Rising  between  the  gulfy  dells  of  night, 

Like  whiten’d  billows  on  the  gloomy  sea. 

— Joanna  Baili.ie’s  Orra, 

Day  glimmered  in  the  east,  and  the  white  moon 
Hung  like  a vapour  in  the  cloudless  sky. 

— Rogers’  Italy. 

Day  dawns,  the  twilight  gleam  dilates, 

The  sun  comes  forth,  and,  like  a god, 

Rides  through  rejoicing  heaven. — Southey’s  Thalaba. 


88 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


Mother, 

The  mother,  in  her  office,  holds  the  key 
Of  the  soul  ; and  she  it  is  who  stamps  the  coin 
Of  character,  and  makes  the  being  who  would  be  a savage, 
But  for  her  gentle  cares,  a Christian  man, 

Then  crown  her  Queen  o’  the  world. — Wych. 

My  mother  ! — manhood’s  anxious  brow 
And  sterner  cares  have  long  been  mine, 

Yet  turn  I to  thee  fondly  now, 

As  when  upon  thy  bosom’s  shrine 
My  infant  griefs  were  gently  hush’d  to  rest, 

And  thy  low  whisper’d  prayers  my  slumber  bless’d. 

— George  W.  Bethune. 


A mother’s  love — how  sweet  the  name — 

What  is  a mother’s  love  ? — 

A noble,  pure  and  tender  flame 
Enkindled  from  above, 

To  bless  a heart  of  earthly  mould  ; 

The  warmest  love  that  can  grow  cold  ; 

This  is  a mother’s  love. — James  Montgomery. 


There  are  smiles  and  tears  in  my  mother’s  eyes, 

For  her  new-born  babe  beside  her  lies  ; 

Oh,  heaven  of  bliss  ! when  the  heart  o’erflows 
With  the  rapture  a mother  only  knows  ! 

— Henry  Ware,  Jr. 
And  while  my  soul  retains  the  power 
To  think  upon  each  faded  year, 

In  every  bright  or  shadow’d  hour, 

My  heart  shall  hold  my  mother  dear. 

The  hills  may  tower — the  waves  may  rise. 

And  roll  between  my  home  and  me  ; 

Yet  shall  my  quenchless  memories 
Turn  with  undying  love  to  thee. 

— Willis  Gaylord  Clark. 


Music. 

If  music  be  the  food  of  love,  play  on; 

Give  me  excess  of  it  ; that,  surfeiting, 

The  appetite  may  sicken,  and  so  die. 

— Shakespeare’s  Twelfth  Night. 

To  hear  him,  you’d  believe 
An  ass  was  practising  recitative. — Byron. 


Music,  where  soft  voices  die, 

Vibrates  in  the  memory. — Shelley. 

There’s  music  in  the  forest  leaves, 

When  summer  winds  are  there, 

And  in  the  laugh  of  forest  girls. 

That  braid  their  sunny  hair. 

The  first  wild  bird  that  drinks  the  dew, 

From  violets  of  the  spring, 

Has  music  in  his  song,  and  in 

The  fluttering  of  his  wing. — Halleck. 

Name. 

Good  name  in  man  or  woman  dear — 

Is  the  immediate  jewel  of  their  souls. 

— Shakespeare’s  Othello. 


Nature. 

Nature  ! great  parent  ! whose  unceasing  hand 
Rolls  round  the  seasons  of  the  changeful  year 
How  mighty,  how  majestic,  are  thy  works  ! 

With  what  a pleasing  dread  they  swell  the  soul ! 

That  sees  astonish’d  ! and  astonish’d  sings  ! 

— Thomson’s  Seasons 
Nature — faint  emblem  of  Omnipotence  ! — 

Shap’d  by  His  hand — the  shadow  of  His  light — 

The  veil  in  which  He  wraps  His  majesty, 

And  through  whose  mantling  folds  He  deigns  to  show- 
Of  His  mysterious,  awful  attributes 
And  dazzling  splendours,  all  man's  feeble  thought 
Can  grasp  uncrush’d,  or  vision  bear  unquench’d. 

— Street 

Necessity. 

When  fear  admits  no  hope  of  safety,  then 
Necessity  makes  dastards  valiant  men. — Herrick- 


Between  you  and  your  best  intent 
Necessity  her  brazen  bar 
Will  often  interpose,  as  sent 
Your  pure  benevolence  to  mar. 

— R.  M.  Milnes. 

Necessity,  like  electricity. 

Is  in  ourselves  and  all  things,  and  no  more 
Without  us  than  within  us. — Bailey’s  Festus. 

Night. 

Fair  oldest  child  of  love,  thou  spotless  night ! 

Empress  of  silence,  and  the  queen  of  sleep  ; 

Who,  with  thy  black  cheek’s  pure  complexion, 

Mak’st  lovers’ eyes  enamor’d  of  thy  beauty. — Marlow 


The  midnight  bell 

Did  with  his  iron  tongue  and  brazen  mouth 
Sound  one  unto  the  drowsy  race  of  night. 

— Shakespeare’s  King  John. 
In  sable  pomp,  with  all  her  starry  train, 

The  night  resum’d  her  throne. — Glover. 


The  night  has  come,  but  not  too  soon  ; 

And  sinking  silently, 

All  silently,  the  little  moon 

Drops  down  behind  the  sky. — Longfellow. 

Nobility. 


There’s  no  power 

In  ancestry  to  make  the  foolish  wise, 

The  ignorant  learn ’d,  the  cowardly  and  base 
Deserving  our  respect  as  brave  and  good. 

All  men  feel  this  : nor  dares  the  despot  say 
His  fiat  can  endow  with  truth  the  soul, 

Or  like  a pension,  on  the  heart  bestow 
The  virtues  current  in  the  realms  above, 

Hence  man’s  best  riches  must  be  gain’d — not  given  ; 

His  noblest  name  deserv’d,  and  not  deriv’d. 

Mrs.  Hale’s  Ormond  Grosvenor 


Novelty. 

Of  all  the  passions  that  possess  mankind, 

The  love  of  novelty  rules  most  the  mind  ; 

In  search  of  this,  from  realm  to  realm  we  roam, 
Our  fleets  come  fraught  with  ev’ry  folly  home. — 


Foote. 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


Oaths. 

Tis  not  the  many  oaths  that  make  the  truth  ; 

But  the  plain  single  vow,  that  is  vowed  true. 

Shakespeare’s  All's  Well. 


Ocean. 

Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean — roll  1 
Ten  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain  ; 

Man  marks  the  earth  with  ruin — his  control 
Stops  with  the  shore  ; — upon  the  watery  plain 
The  wrecks  are  all  thy  deed,  nor  doth  remain 
A shadow  of  man’s  ravage,  save  his  own, 

When,  for  a moment,  like  a drop  of  rain, 

He  sinks  into  thy  depths  with  bubbling  groan, 

Without  a grave,  unknell’d,  uncoffin’d,  and  unknown. 

Byron’s  Childe  Harold. 
The  sea  ! the  sea  ! the  open  sea  ! 

The  blue,  the  fresh,  the  ever  free  ! 

Without  a mark,  without  a bound, 

It  runneth  the  earth’s  wide  regions  round  ; 

It  plays  with  the  clouds  ; it  mocks  the  skies, 

Or  like  a cradled  creature  lies. — Bryan  W.  Proctor. 


Look  how  the  grey  old  ocean, 

From  the  depth  of  his  heart  rejoices. 

Heaving  with  a gentle  motion, 

When  he  hears  our  restful  voices  ; 

List,  how  he  sings  in  an  undertone. 

Chiming  with  our  melody  ; 

And  there,  where  the  smooth,  wet  pebbles  be, 

The  waters  gurgle  longingly, 

As  if  they  fain  would  seek  the  shore. 

To  be  at  rest  from  the  ceaseless  roar, 

To  be  at  rest  for  ever  more. 

— J.  R.  Lowell — The  Syrens. 


Opinion. 


Opinion’s  but  a fool  that  makes  us  scan 
The  outward  habit  by  the  inward  man. 

— Shakespeare’s  Pericles. 


Yet  in  opinions  look  not  always  back  ; 

Your  wake  is  nothing,  mind  the  coming  track  ; 

Leave  what  you’ve  done  for  what  you  have  to  do, 

Don't  be  “consistent,”  but  be  simply  true. 

— O.  W.  Holmes. 


Opportunity. 

There  is  a tide  in  (he  affairs  of  men, 

Which,  taken  at  the  flood,  leads  on  to  fortune  ; 
Omitted,  all  the  voyage  of  their  life 
Is  bound  in  shallows  and  in  miseries. 

On  such  a full  sea  we  are  now  afloat, 

And  we  must  take  the  current  when  it  serves. 

Or  lose  our  ventures. — Shakespeare’s  Julius  Casar. 
Our  hands  are  full  of  business  ; let’s  away  ; 
Advantage  feeds  them  fat,  while  men  delay. 

— Shakespeare’s  Henry  IV.  Part  I. 


Pain. 


Again  the  play  of  pain 
Shoots  o’er  his  features  as  the  sudden  gust 
Crisps  the  reluctant  lake,  that  lay  so  calm 
Beneath  the  mountain  shadow. — Byron. 


They  talk  of  short-liv’d  pleasure — be  it  so — 

Pain  dies  as  quickly  ; stern,  hard-featured  pain 
Expires,  and  lets  her  weary  prisoner  go. 

The  fiercest  agonies  have  shortest  reign. — Bryant. 

Parting. 

All  she  did,  was  but  to  wear  out  day. 

Full  oftentimes  she  leave  of  him  did  take  ; 

And  oft  again  devis’d  somewhat  to  say, 

Which  she  forgot  ; whereby  excuse  to  make. 

So  loath  was  she  his  company  for  to  forsake. 

— Spenser’s  Fairy  Queen. 

Good  night,  good  night ! parting  is  such  sweet  sorrow, 
That  I shall  say  good  night,  till  it  be  morrow. 

Shakespeare’s  Romeo  and  Juliet, 


Have  not  all  past  human  beings  parted, 

And  must  not  all  the  present  one  day  part  ? 

Byron’s  Sardanapalus. 


Passions. 


Exalted  souls 

Have  passions  in  proportion  violent, 

Resistless,  and  tormenting  ; they’re  a tax 
Impos’d  by  nature  on  pre-eminence : 

And  fortitude  and  wisdom  must  support  them. 

— Lillo  S Elmer ick. 


Oh,  how  the  passions,  insolent  and  strong, 

Bear  our  weak  minds  their  rapid  course  along  ; 

Make  us  the  madness  of  their  will  obey  ; 

Then  die,  and  leave  us  to  our  griefs  a prey. — Crabbe. 

Patience  in  cowards  is  tame,  hopeless  fear ; 

But  in  brave  minds,  a scorn  of  what  they  bear. 

Sir  R.  Howard’s  Indian  Queen. 

He  is  a coward  who  would  borrow 
A charm  against  the  present  sorrow, 

From  the  vague  Future’s  promise  of  delight  1 
As  life’s  alarums  nearer  roll. 

The  ancestral  buckler  calls. 

Self-clanging  from  the  walls 
In  the  high  temple  of  the  soul ; 

Where  are  most  sorrows,  there  the  poet’s  sphere  is 
To  feed  the  soul  with  patience. 

To  heal  its  desolations, 

With  words  of  unshorn  truth,  with  love  that  never  wearies. 

James  R.  Lowell 


Patriotism. 


To  fight, 

In  a just  cause,  and  for  our  country’s  glory. 

Is  the  best  office  of  the  best  of  men  ; 

And  to  decline  when  these  motives  urge. 

Is  infamy  beneath  a coward’s  baseness. 

— Havard’s  Regultis. 


Our  country  ! — ’t  is  a glorious  land  ! 

With  broad  arms  stretch’d  from  shore  to  shore. 
The  proud  Pacific  chafes  her  strand, 

She  hears  the  dark  Atlantic  roar  • 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


90 


And  nurtured  on  her  ample  breast, 

How  many  a goodly  prospect  lies 
In  Nature’s  wildest  grandeur  drest, 

Enamell’d  with  the  loveliest  dyes. 

— William  Jewett  Pabodie. 


Peace. 

A peace  is  of  the  nature  of  a conquest ; 

For  then  both  parties  nobly  are  subdued, 

And  neither  party  loser. — Shaks.  Henry  IV.  Part  II. 

Oh  first  of  human  blessings  ! and  supreme  ! 

Fair  peace  ! how  lovely,  how  delightful  thou  ! 

By  whose  wide  tie  the  kindred  sons  of  men 
Live  brothers  like,  in  amity  combin’d, 

And  unsuspicious  faith  ; while  honest  toil 
Gives  every  joy,  and  to  those  joys  a right, 

Which  idle,  barbarous  rapine  but  usurps. 

— Thomson’s  B>itannia. 


Down  the  dark  future,  through  long  generations, 

The  echoing  sounds  grow  fainter  and  then  cease, 

And  like  a bell,  with  solemn,  sweet  vibrations, 

I hear  once  more  the  voice  of  Christ  say — “ Peace.” 

— Longfellow. 


Pen. 

Oh  ! nature’s  noblest  gift — my  grey  goose  quill, 

Slave  of  my  thoughts,  obedient  to  my  will, 

Torn  from  thy  parent  bird  to  form  a pen, 

That  mighty  instrument  of  little  men  ! 

— Byron’s  English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers. 

Perfection. 

To  gild  refined  gold,  to  paint  the  lily, 

To  throw  a perfume  on  the  violet, 

To  smooth  the  ice,  or  add  another  hue 

Unto  the  rainbow,  or  with  taper  light 

To  seek  the  beauteous  eye  of  heaven  to  garnish, 

Is  wasteful  and  ridiculous  excess. 

— Shaks.  King  yohn. 

Philosophy. 

Philosophy  consists  not 
In  airy  schemes,  or  idle  speculations : 

The  rule  and  conduct  of  all  social  life 
Is  her  great  province.  Not  in  lonely  cells 
Obscure  she  lurks,  but  holds  her  heavenly  light 
To  senates  and  to  kings,  to  guide  their  councils, 

And  teach  them  to  reform  and  bless  mankind. 

— Thomson’s  Coriolanus. 


Perseverance. 

Perseverance  is  a Roman  virtue, 

That  wins  each  god-like  act,  and  plucks  success 
E’en  from  the  spear-proof  crest  of  rugged  danger. 

— Havard’s  Regulus. 

Stick  to  your  aim  ; the  mongrel’s  hold  will  slip, 

But  only  crow-bars  loose  the  bull-dog’s  lip  ; 

Small  as  he  looks,  the  jaw  that  never  yields 
Drags  down  the  bellowing  monarch  of  the  fields. 

— O.  W.  Holmes. 


Physic. 

Throw  physic  to  the  dogs,  I'll  none  of  it. 

— Shaks.  Macbeth 


For  men  are  brought  to  worse  distresses 
By  taking  physic  than  diseases  ; 

And  therefore  commonly  recover 

As  toon  as  doctors  give  them  over. — Butleriana 

Pity. 

If  ever  you  have  look’d  on  better  days  ; 

If  ever  been  where  bells  have  knoll’d  to  church  ; 

If  ever  sat  at  any  good  man’s  feast ; 

If  ever  from  your  eyelids  wip’d  a tear, 

And  know  what  ’tis  to  pity  and  be  pitied, 

Let  gentleness  my  strong  enforcement  be. 

— Shaks.  As  You  Like  I 


Pleasure. 

Pleasure  ! thou  only  good  on  earth  ! 

One  little  hour  resigned  to  thee — 

O ! by  my  Lais’  lip,  ’t  is  worth 
The  sage’s  immortality. — Moore. 

Pleasures  are  like  poppies  spread, 

You  seize  the  flower,  its  bloom  is  shed  ; 
Or  like  the  snow-falls  in  the  river, 

A moment  white,  then  melts  forever  ; 

Or  like  the  borealis  race, 

That  flits  ere  you  can  point  their  place ; 
Or  like  the  rainbow’s  lovely  form 
Evanishing  amid  the  storm — 

Nae  man  can  tether  time  or  tide. — Burns 


Poets. 


A drainless  renown 

Of  light  is  Poesy  : ’Tis  the  supreme  of  power  : 

The  night  half  slumbering  on  its  own  right  arm. 

— John  Keats 

Love  well 

The  poet  who  may  sow  your  grave  with  flowers, 

The  traveler  to  the  far  land  of  the  past. — Willis. 


Poverty. 

She,  wretched  matron,  forced  in  age,  for  bread. 

To  strip  the  brook  with  mantling  cresses  spread, 

To  pick  her  wintry  faggot  from  the  thorn, 

To  seek  her  nightly  shed,  and  weep  till  morn. 

— Goldsmith’s  Deserted  Village 


Burns  o’er  the  plough  sung  sweet  his  wood-notes  wild  ; 
And  richest  Shakespeare  was  a poor  man’s  child. 

— Ebenezer  Elliott 


What  doth  the  poor  man’s  son  inherit  ? 

Stout  muscles  and  a sinewy  heart, 

A hardy  frame,  a hardier  spirit  ; 

King  of  two  hands,  he  does  his  part 
In  every  useful  toil  and  art  ; 

A heritage,  it  seems  to  me, 

A king  might  wish  to  hold  in  fee. 

— Tames  R.  Lowell. 


r 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


Prayer. 

A good  man’s  prayers 

Will  from  the  deepest  dungeon  climb  to  heaven’s  height, 
And  bring  a blessing  down. — Joanna  Baillie’s  Ethwald. 

Our  little  babe  ! our  bright-eyed  one  ! 

Our  youngest,  darling  joy, 

We  teach,  at  evening  hour,  to  kneel 
Beside  our  little  boy  ; 

And  though  she  cannot  lisp  a word 
Nor  breathe  a simple  prayer, 

We  know  her  Maker  blesseth  her 
The  while  she  kneeleth  there. 

— Richard  Coe,  Jr. 

Pride. 

What  is  pride  ? a whizzing  rocket 

That  would  emulate  a star. — Wordsworth. 


Oh  ! ask  not  a home  in  the  mansions  of  pride, 

Where  marble  shines  out  in  the  pillars  and  walls  ; 
Though  the  roof  be  of  gold  it  is  brilliantly  cold. 

And  joy  may  not  be  found  in  its  torch-lighted  halls. 

— Eliza  Cook. 


Promises. 


A promise  may  be  broke  ; 

Nay,  start  not  at  it — ’Tis  an  hourly  practice. 

The  trader  breaks  it,  yet  is  counted  honest. 

The  courtier  keeps  it  not — yet  ki  eps  his  honor. 
Husband  and  wife  in  marriage  j romise  much, 

Yet  follow  separate  pleasure,  ami  are — virtuous. 

The  churchmen  promise,  too,  bet  wisely  they 
To  a long  payment  stretch  the  crafty  bill. 

And  draw  upon  futurity. — Havj  rd’s  King  Charles  I. 


When  wicked  men  make  promises  of  truth, 

’Tis  weakness  to  believe  ’em. 

— Havard’s  Scanderberg. 

Prosperity. 

Prosperity  doth  bewitch  men,  seeming  clear  ; 

But  seas  do  laugh,  show  white,  when  rocks  are  near. 

— Webster’s  White  Devil. 


Prosperity  puts  out  unnumbered  thoughts, 

Of  import  high,  and  light  divine,  to  man. — Young. 

Providence. 

O,  all-preparing  Providence  divine  ! 

In  thy  large  book  what  secrets  are  enrolled  ! 

What  sundry  helps  doth  thy  great  power  assign, 

To  prop  the  course  which  thou  intend’st  to  hold  ? 

What  mortal  sense  is  able  to  define 
Thy  mysteries,  thy  counsels  manifold  ? 

It  is  thy  wisdom  strangely  that  extends 
Obscure  proceedings  to  apparent  ends. 

— Drayton’s  Baron's  Wars. 

Prudence. 

Consult  your  means,  avoid  the  tempter’s  wiles, 

Shun  grinning  hosts  of  unreceipted  files, 

Let  Heaven-ey’d  prudence  battle  with  desire, 

And  win  the  victory,  though  it  be  through  fire. 

— Tames  T.  Fields. 


9* 


Purity. 

Let  me  be  pure  ! 

Oh  ! I wish  I was  a pure  child  again, 

When  life  was  calm  as  is  a sister’s  kiss. 

— Bailey’s  Best  ms. 

Be  purity  of  life  the  test — 

Leave  to  the  heart,  to  heaven,  the  rest. 

— Sprague 

Reason. 

Thought 

Precedes  the  will  to  think,  and  error  lives 
Ere  reason  can  be  born.  Reason,  the  power 
To  guess  at  right  and  wrong,  the  twinkling  lamp 
Of  wand’ring  life,  that  winks  and  wakes  by  turns. 
Fooling  the  follower  betwixt  shade  and  shining. 

— Congreve. 


Within  the  brain’s  most  secret  cells, 

A certain  lord  chief  justice  dwells, 

Of  sov’reign  power,  whom  one  and  all, 

With  common  voice  we  reason  call. — Churchill 


Rebellion. 

For  forms  of  government  let  fools  contest, 

Whate’er  is  best  administer’d  is  best. 

— Pope’s  Essay  on  Alan 
The  state  is  out  of  time  ; distracting  fears 
And  jealous  doubts  jar  in  our  public  counsels  ; 

Amidst  the  wealthy  city,  murmurs  rise, 

Loud  railings,  and  reproach,  on  those  that  rule, 

With  open  scorn  of  government  ; hence  credit 
And  public  trust  ’twixt  man  and  man  are  broke, 

The  golden  streams  of  commerce  are  withheld 
Which  fed  the  wants  of  needy  hinds,  and  artisans, 

Who  therefore  curse  the  great,  and  threat  rebellion. 

— Rowe's  Jane  Shore 

Religion. 

He  wears  his  faith  but  as  the  fashion  of 
His  hat ; it  ever  changes  with  the  next  block. 

— Shaks.  Aluch  Ado 


Slave  to  no  sect,  who  takes  no  private  road, 

But  looks  through  nature  up  to  nature’s  God. 

— Pope’s  Essay  on  Man , 

True  religion 

Is  always  mild,  propitious,  and  humble, 

Plays  not  the  tyrant,  plants  no  faith  in  blood  ; 

Nor  bears  destruction  on  her  chariot- wheels  ; 

But  stoops  to  polish,  succor,  and  redress, 

And  builds  her  grandeur  on  the  public  good. 

— Miller  s Mahomet 

Remembrance. 

Remember  thee  ? 

Yea,  from  the  table  of  my  memory 
I’ll  wipe  away  all  trivial  fond  records, 

All  saws  of  books,  all  forms,  all  pressures  past, 

That  youth  and  observation  copied  there  ; 

And  thy  commandment  all  alone  shall  live 
Within  the  book  and  volume  of  my  brain, 

Unmixed  with  baser  matter. — Shaks.  Hamlet. 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


When  shall  we  come  to  that  delightful  day, 

When  each  can  say  to  each,  “ Dost  thou  remember  ? ” 

Let  us  fill  urns  with  rose-leaves  in  our  May, 

And  hive  the  thrifty  sweetness  for  December  ! — Bulwer. 


Secrecy. 


He  deserves  small  trust, 

Who  is  not  privy  counsellor  to  himself. 

— John  Forde’s  Broken  Heart 


Repentance. 

Come,  fair  repentance,  daughter  of  the  skies  ! 

Soft  harbinger  of  soon  returning  virtue  ! 

The  weeping  messenger  of  grace  from  heav’n. 

— Brown’s  Athelstan. 

Repentance  often  finds  too  late, 

To  wound  us  is  to  harden  ; 

And  Love  is  on  the  verge  of  Hate, 

Each  time  it  stoops  for  pardon. — Bulwer. 

Reputation. 

O reputation  ! dearer  far  than  life, 

Thou  precious  balsam,  lovely,  sweet  of  smell, 

Whose  cordial  drops  once  spilt  by  some  rash  hand. 

Not  all  the  owner’s  care,  nor  the  repenting  toil 
Of  the  rude  spiller,  ever  can  collect 
To  its  first  purity  and  native  sweetness. 

— Sewell’s  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

Resolution. 

Press  on  ! there’s  no  such  word  as  fail ; 

Press  nobly  on  ! the  goal  is  near — 

Ascend  the  mountain  ! breast  the  gale ! 

Look  upward,  onward — never  fear  ! 

Why  should’st  thou  faint  ? Heaven  smiles  above, 
Though  storm  and  vapor  intervene  ; 

That  sun  shines  on,  whose  name  is  Love, 

Serenely  o’er  life’s  shadow’d  scene. 

— Park  Benjamin. 

Revenge. 

The  best  revenge  is  to  reform  our  crimes  ; 

Then  time  crowns  sorrows,  sorrows  sweeten  times. 

— Middleton  and  Rowley’s  Spanish  Gipsey. 


Revenge  at  first  though  sweet, 

Bitter  ere  long,  back  on  itself  recoils. 

— Milton’s  Paradise  Lost. 


Satire. 


Satire’s  my  weapon,  but  I’m  too  discreet 
To  run  a-muck  and  tilt  at  all  I meet  ; 

I only  wear  it  in  a land  of  Hectors, 

Thieves,  supercargoes,  sharpers,  and  directors  — Pope. 


Say,  shall  I wound  with  satire’s  rankling  spear 
The  pure,  warm  hearts  that  bid  me  welcome  here  ? 


Scorn. 


— O.  W.  Holmes. 


He  hears 

On  all  sides,  from  innumerable  tongues, 

A dismal  universal  hiss,  the  sound 
Of  public  scorn. 

— Milton’s  Paradise  Lost. 
Infamous  wretch  ! 

So  much  below  my  scorn,  I dare  not  kill  thee. 

— Dryden’s  Duke  of  Guise. 


A secret  in  his  mouth 
Is  like  a wild  bird  put  into  a cage  ; 

Whose  door  no  sooner  opens,  but  ’tis  out, 

— Jonson’s  Case  is  Altered. 

Selfishness. 

The  craven’s  fear  is  but  selfishness, 

Like  his  merriment. — Whittier. 


Ship. 

How  gloriously  her  gallant  course  she  goes  ! 

Her  white  wings  flying — never  from  her  foes  ; 

She  walks  the  waters  like  a thing  of  life, 

And  seems  to  dare  the  elements  to  strife. 

Who  would  not  brave  the  battle-fire — the  wrefk — 

To  move  the  monarch  of  her  peopled  deck  ? 

— Byron’s  Corsair, 

Silence. 

Silence  ! coeval  with  eternity  ; 

Thou  wert,  ere  nature’s  self  began  to  be  ; 

’Twas  one  vast  nothing  all,  and  all  slept  fast  in  thee. 

— Pope 


Sin. 

Sin  hath  broke  the  world’s  sweet  peace — unstrung 
Th’  harmonious  chords  to  which  the  angels  sung. 

— Dana’s  Buccaneer 


Sincerity. 

Sincerity, 

Thou  first  of  virtues,  let  no  mortal  leave 

Thy  onward  path,  although  the  earth  should  gape 

And  from  the  gulf  of  hell  destruction  rise, — 

To  take  dissimulation’s  winding  way. 

— Home’s  Douglass 

Slander. 

There  is  a lust  in  man  no  charm  can  tame, 

Of  loudly  publishing  his  neighbor’s  shame  ; 

On  eagles’  wings  immortal  scandals  fly* 

While  virtuous  actions  are  but  born  and  die. 

— Harvey 


Soft  buzzing  slander  ; silky  moths,  that  eat 
An  honest  name. — Thomson’s  Liberty. 


Sleep. 

Sleep,  that  knits  up  the  ravell’d  sleeve  of  care, 

The  death  of  each  day’s  life,  sore  labor’s  bath. 

Balm  of  hurt  minds,  great  nature’s  second  course. 
Chief  nourisher  in  life’s  feast  ! — Shaks.  Macbeth. 

Tir’d  nature’s  sweet  restorer,  balmy  sleep  ! 

He,  like  the  world,  his  ready  visit  pays 
Where  fortune  smiles  ; the  wretched  he  forsakes  . 
Swift  on  his  downy  pinions  flies  from  woe, 

And  lights  on  lids  unsullied  with  a tear. 

— Young’s  Night  Thought a 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


93 


Soldier. 

Each  soldier’s  name 

Shall  shine  untarnish’d  on  the  rolls  of  fame, 

And  stand  the  example  of  each  distant- age, 

And  add  new  lustre  to  the  historic  page. 

— David  Humphreys. 

Solitude. 

0 solitude  ! where  are  the  charms 
That  sages  have  seen  in  thy  face  ? 

Better  dwell  in  the  midst  of  alarms, 

Than  reign  in  this  horrible  place. 

1 am  out  of  humanity’s  reach, 

I must  finish  my  journey  alone. 

Never  hear  the  sweet  music  of  speech, 

I start  at  the  sound  of  my  own. — Cowper. 

If  from  society  we  learn  to  live, 

’Tis  solitude  should  teach  us  how  to  die  ; 

It  hath  no  flatterers  ; vanity  can  give 
No  hollow  aid  ; alone — man  with  his  God  must  strive. 

— Byron. 

Sorrow. 

There’s  no  way  to  make  sorrow  light 
But  in  the  noble  bearing  ; be  content ; 

Blows  given  from  heaven  are  our  due  punishment ; 

All  shipwrecks  are  not  drownings  ; you  see  buildings 
Made  fairer  from  their  ruins. 

— W.  Rowley’s  New  Wonder. 


What  bliss  is  bom  of  sorrow  ! 

, ’Tis  never  sent  in  vain — 

The  heavenly  Surgeon  maims  to  save, 

He  gives  no  useless  pain. — Thomas  Ware. 

Soul. 

The  soul,  of  origin  divine, 

God’s  glorious  image,  freed  from  clay. 

In  heaven’s  eternal  sphere  shall  shine 
A star  of  day  ! 

The  sun  is  but  a spark  of  fire, 

A transient  meteor  in  the  sky, 

The  soul,  immortal  as  its  sire, 

Shall  never  die. — Montgomery. 


Spring. 


In  these  green  days, 

Reviving  sickness  lifts  her  languid  head  ; 

Life  flows  afresh  ; and  young-ey’d  health  exalts 
The  whole  creation  round.  Contentment  walks 
The  sunny  glade,  and  feels  an  inward  bliss 
Spring  o’er  his  mind,  beyond  the  power  of  kings 
To  purchase. — Thomson’s  Seasons. 


Come,  gentle  spring,  ethereal  mildness,  come, 

And  from  the  bosom  of  yon  dropping  cloud, 

While  music  wakes  around,  veil’d  in  a shower 
Of  shadowing  roses,  on  our  plains  descend. 

— Thomson’s  Seasons. 

When  the  warm  sun  that  brings 

Seed-time  and  harvest,  has  return’d  again 
Tis  sweet  to  visit  the  still  wood,  where  springs 
The  first  flower  of  the  plain. — Longfellow. 


Statesmen. 

Thus  the  court-wheel  goes  round  like  fortune’s  ball 
One  statesman  rising  on  another’s  fall. 

— Richard  Brome’s  Queen’s  Exchange 

Suicide. 

Fear,  guilt,  despair,  and  moon-struck  frenzy  rush 
On  voluntary  death  : the  wise,  the  brave, 

When  the  fierce  storms  of  fortune  round  ’em  roar 
Combat  the  billows  with  redoubled  force  : 

Then,  if  they  perish  ere  the  port  is  gain’d, 

They  sink  with  decent  pride  ; and  from  the  deep 
Honor  retrieves  them  bright  as  rising  stars. 

— Fenton’s  Mariamne 


Our  time  is  set  and  fix’d  ; our  days  are  told  ; 

And  no  man  knows  the  limit  of  his  life  ; 

This  minute  may  be  mine,  the  next  another’s  j 
But  still  all  mortals  ought  to  wait  the  summons. 

And  not  usurp  on  the  decrees  of  fate, 

By  hastening  their  own  ends. 

— Smith’s  Princess  of  Parma. 


Summer. 

Then  came  the  jolly  summer,  being  dight 
In  a thin  silken  cassock  color’d  green, 

That  was  unlined  all,  to  be  more  light. 

And  on  his  head  a garland  well  beseene 
He  wore,  from  which,  as  he  had  chaffed  been. 

The  sweat  did  drop,  and  in  his  hand  he  bore 
A bow  and  shafts,  as  he  in  forest  green 
Had  hunted  late  the  libbard  or  the  bore. 

And  now  would  bathe  his  limbs,  with  labor  heated  sore; 

— Spenser’s  Fairy  Queen 
Now  comes  thy  glory  in  the  summer  months, 

With  light  and  heat  refulgent. — Thomson. 


The  spring’s  gay  promise  melted  into  thee, 

Fair  summer  ! and  thy  gentle  reign  is  here  ; 

Thy  emerald  robes  are  on  each  leafy  tree  ; 

In  the  blue  sky  thy  voice  is  rich  and  clear  ; 

And  the  free  brooks  have  songs  to  bless  thy  reign — 
They  leap  in  music  ’midst  thy  bright  domain. 

— Willis  G.  Clark. 

Sunshine. 

The  sunshine  is  a glorious  birth, — 

And  yet  I know,  where’er  I go, 

That  there  hath  passed  away  a glory  from  the  earth. 

— Wordsworth 

Sympathy. 

Love’s  soft  sympathy  imparts 
That  tender  transport  of  delight 
That  beats  in  undivided  hearts. — Cartwright. 


It  is  the  secret  sympathy. 

The  silver  link,  the  silken  tie, 

Which  heart  to  heart,  and  mind  to  mind, 

In  body  and  in  soul  can  bind. — Scott. 

Tears. 

Believe  these  tears,  which  from  my  wounded  heart, 
Bleed  at  my  eyes. — Dryden’s  Spanish  Friar. 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


r 


Tears  ! what  are  tears?  The  babe  weeps  in  his  cot. 
The  mother  singing  ; at  the  marriage  bell, 

The  bride  weeps  : and  before  the  oracle 
Of  high-fam’d  hills,  the  poet  hath  forgot 
The  moisture  on  his  cheeks. — Miss  Barrett. 

Give  our  tears  to  the  dead  ! For  humanity’s  claim 
From  its  silence  and  darkness  is  ever  the  same  ; 

The  hope  of  the  world  whose  existence  is  bliss, 

May  not  stifle  the  tears  of  the  mourners  of  this. 

— Whittier. 


Temptation. 

What  ! do  I love  her, 

That  I desire  to  speak  to  her  again  ? 

And  feast  upon  her  eyes  ? what  is ’t  I dream  on  ? 

O cunning  enemy,  that  to  catch  a saint 
With  saints  dost  bait  thy  hook  ! most  dangerous 
Is  that  temptation  that  doth  goad  us  on 
To  sin,  in  loving  virtue. — Shaks.  Measure  for  Measure. 
And  while  in  peace  abiding 
Within  a shelter’d  home, 

We  feel  as  sin  and  evil 

Could  never,  never  come  ; 

But  let  the  strong  temptation  rise, 

As  whirlwinds  sweep  the  sea — 

We  find  no  strength  to  ’scape  the  wreck, 

Save,  pitying  God,  in  Thee. 

— Mrs.  Hale’s  Alice  Ray. 


To  me  the  meanest  flower  that  blows  can  give 
Thoughts  that  do  often  lie  too  deep  for  tears. 

— Wordsworth. 

Fine  thoughts  are  wealth,  for  the  right  use  of  which 
Men  are,  or  ought  to  be,  accountable. — Bailey’s  Festus. 

All  the  past  of  Time  reveals 

A bridal  dawn  of  thunder-peals, 

Whenever  Thought  hath  wedded  Fact. — Tennyson. 
Time. 

Time,  the  prime  minister  of  death, 

There’s  nought  can  bribe  his  honest  will ; 

He  stops  the  richest  tyrant’s  breath, 

And  lays  his  mischief  still. — Marvell. 

Art  is  long  and  Time  is  fleeting, 

And  our  hearts,  though  strong  and  brave, 

Still  like  muffled  drums  are  beating 
Funeral  marches  to  the  grave. 

— Longfellow’s  Psalm  of  Life. 
Remorseless  Time  ! 

Fierce  spirit  of  the  glass  and  scythe — what  power 

Can  stay  him  in  his  silent  course,  or  melt 

His  iron  heart  with  pity  ! — George  D.  Prentice. 

Truth. 

All  truth  is  precious,  if  not  all  divine, 

And  what  dilates  the  powers  must  needs  refine. 

— Cowper. 

The  sages  say  dame  truth  delights  to  dwell, 

Strange  mansion  ! in  the  bottom  of  a well. 

Questions  are,  then,  the  windlass  and  the  rope 
That  pulls  the  grave  old  gentlewoman  up. 

— Ur.  Wolcott’s  Peter  Pindar. 


No  soul  can  soar  too  loftily  whose  aim 
Is  God-given  truth  and  brother  love  of  man. 

— J.  Bayard  Taylor. 

Vanity. 

Light  vanity,  insatiate  cormorant, 

Consuming  means,  soon  preys  upon  itself. 

— Shaks.  Richard  III. 

It  is  the  intensest  vanity  alone 

That  makes  us  bear  with  life. — Bailey’s  Festus. 

Vice. 

Not  all  that  heralds  rak’d  from  coffin’d  clay, 

Nor  florid  prose,  nor  honied  lies  of  rhyme, 

Can  blazon  evil  deeds,  or  consecrate  a crime. 

—Byron’s  Childe  Harold 

There  dwelleth  in  the  sinlessness  of  youth 
A sweet  rebuke  that  vice  may  not  endure. 

— Mrs.  Embury. 

Virtue. 

Virtue  may  be  assail’d,  but  never  hurt  ; 

Surpris’d  by  unjust  force,  and  not  enthrall’d  ; 

Yea,  even  that  which  mischief  meant  most  harm 
Shall  in  the  happy  trial  prove  most  glory  ; 

But  evil  on  itself  shall  back  recoil.— Milton. 


A virtuous  deed  should  never  be  delay’d, 

The  impulse  comes  from  heav’n,  and  he  who  strives 

A moment  to  repress  it,  disobeys 

The  god  within  his  mind. — Dowe’s  Sethona. 


War. 


Virtue  in  itself  commands  its  happiness, 

Of  every  outward  object  independent. 

— Francis’s  Eugenia 


O war ! begot  in  pride  and  luxury, 

The  child  of  malice  and  revengeful  hate  ; 

Thou  impious  good,  and  good  impiety  1 
Thou  art  the  foul  refiner  of  a state, 

Unjust  scourge  of  men’s  iniquity, 

Sharp  easer  of  corruptions  desperate  ! 

Is  there  no  means  but  that  a sin-sick  land 
Must  be  let  blood  with  such  a boist’rous  hand  ? 

— Daniel’s  Civil  War 


More  soluble  is  this  knot, 

Like  almost  all  the  rest,  if  men  were  wise, 

By  gentleness  than  war. — Tennyson’s  Princess. 


Wealth. 

Wealth  in  the  gross  is  death,  but  life  diffus’d  ; 

As  poison  heals  in  just  proportions  us’d  ; 

In  heaps,  like  ambergris,  a stink  it  lies, 

But  well  dispers’d  is  incense  to  the  skies. — Popk 
Can  wealth  give  happiness  ? look  round,  and  see 
What  gay  distress  ! what  splendid  misery  ! 

Whatever  fortune  lavishly  can  pour, 

The  mind  annihilates,  and  calls  for  more. 

— Young’s  Love  of  Fame. 


Wealth  hath  never  given  happiness,  but  often  hasten’d  misery. 

Tupper’s  Proverbial  Philosophy. 

-A 


POETICAL  QUOTATIONS. 


95 


If  all  were  rich,  gold  would  be  penniless. 

— Bailey’s  Festus. 

Wife. 

She  is  mine  own  ; 

And  I as  rich  in  having  such  a jewel, 

As  twenty  seas,  if  all  their  sand  were  pearl. 

The  water  nectar,  and  the  rocks  pure  gold. 

— Shakespeare's  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona. 
Husband,  husband,  cease  your  strife. 

Nor  longer  idly  rave,  sir  ; 

Tho’  I’m  your  wedded  wife, 

Yet  I am  not  your  slave,  sir. — Burns. 

Thou  wast  my  nurse  in  sickness,  and  my  comforter  in  health  ; 
So  gentle  and  so  constant,  when  our  love  was  all  our  wealth  ; 
Thy  voice  of  music  sooth’d  me,  love,  in  each  desponding  hour, 
As  heaven’s  honey-dew  consoles  the  bruis’d  and  broken  flower. 

— Albert  Pike. 

Wine. 

O when  we  swallow  down 
Intoxicating  wine,  we  drink  damnation  ; 

Naked  we  stand  the  sport  of  mocking  friends 
Who  grin  to  see  our  noble  nature  vanquish’d, 
Subdued  to  beasts. — C.  Johnson. 

Wine — bring  wine 

Flushing  high  with  its  growth  divine, 

In  the  crystal  depth  of  my  soul  to  shine  : 

Whose  glow  was  caught 

From  the  warmth  which  fancy’s  summer  brought 
To  the  vintage  fields  in  the  Land  of  Thought ! 

— J.  Bayard  Taylor. 

Wisdom. 

O wisdom  ! if  thy  soft  control 
Can  soothe  the  sickness  of  the  soul, 

Can  bid  the  warring  passions  cease. 

And  breathe  the  calm  of  tender  peace  ; 

Wisdom  ! I bless  thy  gentle  sway, 

And  ever,  ever  will  obey. — Mrs.  Barbauld. 


The  bearing  and  the  training  of  a child 
Is  woman’s  wisdom. — Tennyson’s  Princess. 


Wit. 

As  in  smooth  oil  the  razor  best  is  whet, 

So  wit  is  by  politeness  sharpest  set, 

Their  want  of  edge  from  their  offence  is  seen, 

Both  pain  us  least  when  exquisitely  keen  ; 

The  fame  men  give  us  for  the  joy  they  find ; 

Dull  is  the  jester  when  the  joke’s  unkind. 

— Young’s  Love  of  Fame. 

Woman. 

O women,  men’s  subduers  ! 

Nature’s  extremes,  no  mean  is  to  be  had, 

Excellently  good  or  infinitely  bad. 

— Davenport’s  King  John  and  Matilda. 
Whence  love  once  pleads  admission  to  our  hearts, 

In  spite  of  all  the  virtue  we  can  boast, 

The  woman  that  deliberates  is  lost. — Addison’s  Cato. 
The  world  was  sad  ! — the  garden  was  a wild  ! 

And  man,  the  hermit,  sigh’d — till  woman  smil’d. 

— Campbell’s  Pleasures  of  Hope. 


O woman  ! in  our  hours  of  ease 
Uncertain,  coy  and  hard  to  please, 

And  variable  as  the  shade 

By  the  light  quivering  aspen  made  , 

When  pain  and  anguish  wring  the  brow, 

A ministering  angel  thou. — Scott’s  Marmion. 

World. 

All  the  world’s  a stage, 

And  all  the  men  and  women  merely  players  . 

They  have  their  exits  and  their  entrances  ; 

And  one  man  in  his  time  plays  many  parts. 

— Shaks.  As  You  Like  It. 

’Tis  a harsh  world  in  which  affection  knows 
No  place  to  treasure  up  its  lov’d  and  lost 
But  the  lone  grave. — Willis. 

We  know  the  world  is  dark  and  rough, 

But  time  betrays  that  soon  enough. — Eliza  Cook. 

Through  the  shadow  of  the  world  we  sweep  into  the  youngei 
day  : 

Better  fifty  years  of  Europe  than  a cycle  of  Cathay. 

— Tennyson 

Youth. 

Youth  is  a bubble  blown  up  with  the  breath, 

Whose  wit  is  weakness,  whose  wage  is  death, 

Whose  way  is  wilderness,  whose  inn  is  penance. 

And  stoop  gallant  age,  the  host  of  grievance. 

— Spenser’s  Shepherd's  Calendar. 

Promise  of  youth  ! fair  as  the  form 
Of  Heaven’s  benign  and  golden  bow, 

Thy  smiling  arch  begirds  the  storm, 

And  sheds  a light  on  every  woe. 

— James  G.  Brooks. 

I feel  the  rush  of  waves  that  round  me  rise — 

The  tossing  of  my  boat  upon  the  sea  ; 

Few  sunbeams  linger  in  the  stormy  skies, 

And  youth’s  bright  shore  is  lessening  on  the  lee  ! 

— J.  Bayard  Taylor, 

Youth,  that  pursuest,  with  such  eager  pace, 

That  even  way. 

Thou  pantest  on  to  win  a mournful  race : 

Then  stay  ! oh,  stay. — R.  M.  Milnes. 

Alas  1 that  youth’s  fond  hopes  should  fade. 

And  love  be  but  a name, 

While  its  rainbows,  follow’d  e’er  so  fast, 

Are  distant  still  the  same. — Dawes. 

Zeal. 

Zeal  and  duty  are  not  slow  ; 

But  on  occasion’s  forelock  watchful  wait. 

— Milton’s  Paradise  Regained 

Press  bravely  onward  ! — not  in  vain 
Your  generous  trust  in  human  kind  ; 

The  good  which  bloodshed  could  not  gain, 

Your  peaceful  zeal  shall  find. — Whittier. 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


^LPHyVBET  /ND  pRONUffCiymOfb 

'S  many  languages  as  a man  knows,  so 
many  times  is  he  a man.  This  system  of 
self-teaching  has  been  devised  for  the 
purpose  of  inducting  the  beginner  me- 
thodically. He  has  but  to  apply  himself, 
and  the  language  will  come  to  him  by  de- 
lightfully imperceptible  degrees.  Let  him  try 
it  at  all  events  ! 


The  French  Alphabet  consists  of  twenty-five  letters,  as 
follows : 


ACCENTS. 

The  French  language  has  three  accents;  the  acute,  thus  /,• 
the  grave,  thus  e ; and  the  circumflex,  e.  The  circum flex 
accent  simply  denotes  the  elision  of  a silent  (generally  an  “ s ”) 
after  it,  thus  tele,  originally  written  teste;  ddpdt  for  depost,  etc. 
The  acute  and  grave  accents  belong  exclusively  to  the  letter 
“ e ” ; an  accented  e must  have  the  acute  accent,  if  at  the  end 
of  word,  as  cafd ; or  followed  by  a pronounced  syllable,  as 
mdtal;  a grave  accent  when  followed  by  a silent  syllable,  as 
mire,  lievre. 

The  grave  accent  is  used  on  the  a of  the  adverb  la  ( there 
and  its  compounds  voila,  etc.  ; but  it  is  thus  employed  merely 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  article  la  (the),  and  not  for  any  effect 
in  pronunciation. 


NOT  TEACH  YOURSELF  FRENCH  ? 


VOWELS. 


French 

Alphabet. 

Name. 

Pronunciation. 

A a 

ah 

is  pronounced  like  a in  the  English  word 
‘ ‘ father.” 

B b 

bay 

as  in  English. 

C c 

say 

c before  e and  i,  is  pronounced  like  s ; be- 
fore a,  o,  u,  and  before  a consonant  c 
sounds  like  k. 

D d 

day 

as  in  English. 

E e 

ai 

e,  e,  ai,  ei,  are  pronounced  like  a in  the 
English  word  care. 

F f 

eff 

as  in  English. 

G g 

jay 

before  e and  i it  sounds  like  j. 

H h 

aash 

is  generally  silent. 

I i 

ee 

pronounced  like  e in  the  English  word  me. 

J J 

jee 

is  pronounced  like  s in  the  word  pleasure. 

K k 

kah 

as  in  English. 

L l 

el 

as  in  English. 

M m 

m 

as  in  English. 

N n 

n 

as  in  English. 

0 o 

o 

o,  au,  eau,  are  pronounced  like  o. 

P p 

pay 

like  the  English,  but  is  often  mute  at  the 
end  of  words. 

Qq 

ku 

is  pronounced  like  A 

R r 

air 

is  like  the  English  r in  run. 

S s 

ess 

sounds  like  the  English  s,  sometimes  like  z. 

T t 

tay 

is  like  the  t in  the  English  word  tent. 

U u 

eeyu 

is  pronounced  like  “ eeyu  ; ” it  must  be  heard 
from  a Frenchman.  Eu,  oeu,  are  pro- 
nounced like  u in  much. 

V v 

vay 

is  like  the  English  v. 

X x 

eeks 

is  pronounced  as  in  English. 

Y y 

egrec 

is  pronounced  like  e in  the  English  word 

Z t 

zed 

is  pronounced  like  a soft  s. 

The  pronunciation  of  the  following  vowels  requires  most 
care : 

ou,  is  pronounced  like  oo  in  the  English  word  look. 

0,  au,  eau,  are  pronounced  like  o. 

a,  is  pronounced  like  a in  the  word  father, 
e is  pronounced  like  e in  the  word  better.  Before  mm  or  nn, 
it  is  pronounced  like  ah ; as  femme,  pronounced  fahm  ; 
solennel,  solahnell,  etc. 

u is  the  most  difficult  letter  to  pronounce,  for  there  is  no 
corresponding  sound  in  the  English  language  ; it  sounds  like 
the  German  it,  like  eeyu,  and  it  ought  to  be  carefully  imitated 
from  a French  person. 

eu,  ceu,  are  pronounced  like  u in  the  English  word  much. 
e\  },  at,  ei,  are  pronounced  like  a in  the  English  word  care. 

1,  y,  are  pronounced  like  e in  the  English  word  me. 

The  nasal  sounds,  am,  an,  em,  en,  tin,  oin,  are  equally  dif- 
ficult to  pronounce,  and  these  ought  to  be  heard  and  imitated 
from  a Frenchman. 

RULE. 

As  every  educated  person  knows  French,  those  who  study 
without  a master,  ought,  when  an  opportunity  occurs,  to  ask 
the  pronunciation  of  a difficult  word  ; by  such  means,  the 
learner  will  arrive  at  the  correct  pronunciation,  which  no  de- 
scription in  words  is  capable  of  conveying. 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


97 


The  definite  Article  is  “ le”  before  a masculine  noun,  and 
"la”  before  a feminine  noun;  they  are  both  written 
before  a noun  commencing  with  a vowel  or  silent  “ h”  The 
indefinite  Article  is  “ un  ” masculine,  and  “ tine”  feminine. 


The  Universe. 


English. 

French. 

Pronunciation. 

God 

Dieu 

Deeyu 

the  world 

le  monde 

leh  maund 

the  sky 

le  del 

leh  seeyel 

the  sun 

le  soldi 

leh  sohleyl 

tfie  moon 

la  lune 

lah  lune 

a star 

une  dtoile 

une  aitoahl 

the  air 

r air 

Fair 

the  earth 

la  terre 

lah  tayr 

the  water 

V eau 

l’o 

the  fire 

le  feu 

leh  feuh 

the  sea 

la  mer 

lah  mare 

an  island 

une  tie 

une  eel 

a lake 

un  lac 

ung  lahc 

a stream 

un  fleuve 

ung  fleuhv 

a river 

une  riviere 

une  reeveeare 

the  animals 

les  animaux 

laiz  aneemo 

the  metals 

les  nidtaux 

lai  maito 

the  gold 

I’or 

l’orr 

the  silver 

F argent 

l’arjang 

the  iron 

le  fer 

leh  fayr 

the  steel 

F acier 

l’asseay 

the  copper 

le  cuivre 

leh  cweevr 

the  tin 

r l tain 

l’aitang 

Man  and  the  Parts  of  the  body. 


man 

T homme 

l’omm 

the  body 

le  corps 

leh  cor 

the  head 

la  tete 

lah  tait 

the  face 

le  visage 

leh  veesaje 

the  forehead 

le  front 

leh  frong 

♦he  eye 

r all 

File 

the  eyes 

les'~'yeax 

laiz  eeyeu 

the  nose 

le  nez 

leh  nay 

the  ears 

les  oreilles 

laiz  ohraill 

the  chin 

le  menlon 

leh  mauntong 

the  beard 

la  barbe 

lah  barb 

the  mouth 

la  bouche 

lah  boosh 

the  lips 

les  levres 

lai  layvr 

the  tooth 

la  dent 

lah  dong 

the  tongue 

la  langue 

lah  laungh 

the  neck 

le  cou 

leh  coo 

the  shoulders 

les^dpaules 

laiz  aipole 

the  arm 

le  bras 

leh  brah 

the  hand 

la  main 

lah  mang 

the  fingers 

les  doigts 

lai  donah 

the  nails 

les^ongles 

laiz  aungl 

the  chest 

la  poi  trim 

lah  pouahtreen 

the  heart 

le  cccur 

leh  keuhr 

the  knee 

le  genou 

leh  jenoo 

the  leg 

la  jambe 

lah  jahmb 

the  foot 

le  pied 

lgh  peeay 

the  bones 

let^os 

laiz  » 

Food  and  Drink. 


English. 

French. 

Pronunciation. 

the  bread 

le  pain 

leh  pang 

the  flour 

la  farine 

lah  fareen 

meat 

de  la  viande 

de  la  veeaund 

roast  meat 

du  roti 

du  rotee 

beef 

du  bceuf 

du  beuhf 

veal 

du  veau 

du  vo 

mutton 

du  mouton 

du  mootong 
deh  l’anyo 

lamb 

de  r agneau 

pork 

du  pore 

du  pork 

bacon 

du  lard 

du  lar 

ham 

du  jambon 

du  jahmbong 

the  soup 

la  soupe 

lah  soop 

rice 

du  nz 

du  ree 

eggs 

des^'ceufs 

daiz  euh 

salad 

de  la  salade 

deh  lah  salade 

mustard 

de  la  moutarde 

deh  lah  mootard 

salt 

du  sel 

du  sel 

oil 

de  P huile 

deh  l’weel 

vinegar 

du  vinaigre 

du  veenaigr 

pepper 

du  poivre 

du  pouahvr 

butter 

du  beurre 

du  beuhr 

cheese 

du  frontage 

du  fromahje 

the  breakfast 

le  dejeuner 

leh  dayjeuhnai 

the  dinner 

le  diner 

leh  deenai 

the  supper 

le  souper 

leh  soopai 

hunger 

la  faim 

la  fahng 

thirst 

la  soif 
de  1' eau 

lah  souaf 

water 

deh  l’o 

wine 

du  vin 

du  vang 

beer 

de  la  biere 

deh  lah  beeair 

milk 

du  tail 

du  lay 

tea 

du  thd 

du  tay 

gin 

du  genievre 

du  jenyavr 

brandy 

de  1 eau  de  vie 

The  Dress. 

deh  lo  deh  vee 

a coat 

un  surtout 

ung  syuretoo 

a cloak 

un  manteau 

ung  maunto 

a waistcoat 

un  gilet 

ung  jeelay 

the  trousers 

la  culotte 

la  kyulot 

the  braces 

les  bretelles 

lai  bretell 

the  cap 

le  bonnet 

leh  bonnay 

the  hat 

le  chapeau 

leh  shapo 

the  comb 

le  p eigne 

leh  peine 

gloves 

des  ganls 

dai  gang 

a ring 

une  bague 

une  baag 

a watch 

une  montre 

une  mongtre 

the  stocking 

le  has 

leh  bah 

the  boots 

les  bottes 

lai  bot 

the  bootjack 

le  tire-botte 

leh  teer  bot 

the  slippers 

les  pantoufes 

lai  pauntoofl 

the  shoes 

les  souliers 

lai  soolvai 

a shirt 

tine  chemise 

une  shemeeze 

a pocket  handker 

chief 

un  ntvuchoir 

ung  mooshouah 

the  clothes  brush 

la  brosse 

lah  bross 

the  umbrella 

le  parapluie 

leh  paraplwee 

the  parasol 

le  parasol 

leh  parasol 

House  Utensils. 

a table 

une  table 

une  tahbl 

a chair 

une  chaise 

une  shayse 

an  arm-chair 

un  fauieuil 

ung  fotayle 

a looking-glass 

un  rniroir 

ung  meerouahr 

a clock 

une  horloge 

une  orloje 

a trunk 

un  coffre 

ung  cofr 

a box 

une  boite 

une  bouaht 

the  bed 

le  lit 

leh  lee 

Q8 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


English. 

French. 

Pronunciation. 

the  counterpane 

la  couverture 

lah  coovairtyure 

a pillow 

un  oreiller 

un  oraylyai 

the  sheets 

les  drops  de  lit 

lai  drah  deh  lee 

the  mattress 

le  matelas 

leh  matlah 

the  plate 

Fassiette 

l’assyet 

the  candlestick 

un  chandelier 

ung  shaundelyai 

the  lamp 

une  lavipe 

une  laump 

a spoon 

une  cuiller 

une  cweelyair 

a fork 

une  fourchette 

und  forrshet 

a knife 

un  couteau 

ung  cooto 

a cup 

une  tasse 

une  tass 

a saucer 

la  soucoupe 

lah  soocoop 

the  tablecloth 

la  nappe 

lah  nap 

the  towel 

un  essuie-rnain 

ung  esswee  mang 

a glass 

un  verre 

ung  vair 

the  tea-pot 

la  thFi'ere 

lah  taiyare 

Relations. 


the  family 

la  famille 

lah  fameel 

the  husband 

le  mari 

leh  maree 

the  wife 

la  femme 

lah  fam 

the  father 

le  p'cre 

leh  pare 

the  mother 

la  mire 

lah  mare 

the  child 

l' enfant 

l’ongfong 

the  son 

le  fils 

leh  feess 

the  daughter 

la  fille 

lah  feel 

the  brother 

le  frlre 

leh  frare 

the  sister 

la  sceur 

lah  seuhr 

the  uncle 

F oncle 

l’oncle 

the  aunt 

la  tante 

lah  taunte 

the  cousin 

le  cousin 

leh  coosang 

the  marriage 

le  matiage 

leh  mareeahje 

Occupations. 

an  occupation 

un  metier 

ung  maytyai 

a workman 

un  artisan 

ung  arteesong 

a baker 

un  boulanger 

ung  boolongjai 

a miller 

un  meunier  • 

ung  meuhnyai 

a butcher 

un  boucher 

ung  booshai 

a brewer 

un  brasseur 

ung  brasseuhr 

a tailor 

un  tailleur 

ung  talyure 

a shoemaker 

un  cordonniet 

ung  cordonyai 

a smith 

un  forgeron 

ung  forjehrong 

a saddler 

un  sellier 

ung  selyai 

a carpenter 

un  menuisier 

ung  mennweesyai 

a mason 

un  magon 

ung  massong 

a bookbinder 

un  relieur 

ung  relleeuhr 

The  Town. 

the  town 

la  ville 

lah  veel 

the  bridge 

le  font 

leh  pong 

the  tower 

la  tour 

lah  toor 

the  gate 

la  porte 

lah  port 

the  street 

la  rue 

lah  ru 

the  market 

le  march^ 

leh  marshay 

the  building 

le  bdtiment 

leh  bahteemong 

the  townhouse 

F hotel  de  ville 

l’otel  deh  veel 

the  theatre 

le  the  At  re 

leh  tayahtr 

the  post-office 

la  poste 

lah  post 

the  church 

F eglise 

l'aygleeze 

the  cathedral 

la  cathddrale 

lah  cataydral 

the  school 

Fecole 

l’aycol 

the  prison 

la  prison 

lah  preesong 

the  exchange 

la  bourse 

lah  boorse 

the  palace 

le  palais 

leh  pallay 

the  hotel 

F hotel 

l’otel 

the  inn 

Fauberge 

l’obayrje 

the  public  house 

le  cabaret 

leh  cabbaray 

the  coffee  room 

le  cafF 

leh  caffay 

The  House. 


English. 

French. 

Pronunciation. 

the  house 

la  maison 

lah  maysong 

the  door 

la  porte 

lah  port 

the  lock 

la  serrure 

lah  serrure 

the  key 

la  clef 

lah  clay 

the  bell 

la  sonnelte 

lah  sonnet 

the  staircase 

Fescalier 

l’escallyai 

the  drawing-room 

la  salle 

lah  sal 

the  dining-room 

la  salle-h-manger 

lah  sal-ah-monjai 

the  room 

la  chambre 

lah  shaumbr 

the  bed-room 

la  chambre-a-coucher  lah  sliaumbr-ah-ci 
shai 

the  window 

la  fenetre 

lah  fennaitr 

the  wall 

la  paroi 

lah  pahrouah 

the  kitchen 

la  cuisine 

lah  eweezeen 

the  roof 

le  toil 

leh  touah 

the  cellar 

la  cave 

lah  caav 

the  garden 

le  jardin 

Animals. 

leh  jardang 

an  animal 

un  animal 

un  aneemal 

a horse 

un  cheval 

ung  sheval 

a donkey 

un  Ane 

ung  ahn 

the  dog 

le  chien 

leh  sheeang 

the  cat 

le  chat 

leh  shah 

the  rat 

le  rat 

leh  rah 

the  mouse 

la  souris 

lah  sooree 

an  ox 

un  bceuf 

ung  beuh 

a cow 

une  vache 

une  vash 

a calf 

un  veau 

ung  vo 

a sheep 

une  brebis 

une  brebbee 

a lamb 

un  agneau 

un  anyo 

a pig 

un  cochon 

un  coshong 

the  hare 

le  likvre 

leh  leeayvr 

a monkey 

un  singe 

ung  sangj 

a wolf 

un  lotip 

ung  loo 

a bear 

un  ours 

un  oors 

a lion 

un  lion 

ung  leeong 

an  elephant 

un  FlFphant 

un  aylayfong 

a tiger 

un  tigre 

Birds. 

ung  teegr 

a bird 

un  oiseau 

un  woiso 

a cock 

un  coq 

un  cock 

a hen 

une  poule 

une  pool 

a chicken 

un  poulet 

ung  poolay 

a swan 

un  eigne 

ung  seen 

a goose 

une  oie 

une  ouah 

a duck 

un  canard 

ung  canar 

a lark 

une  aloueite 

une  allooet 

a nightingale 

tin  rossignol 

ung  rosseenyol 

the  swallow 

F hirondelle 

l’eerongdel 

the  sparrow 

le  moineau 

leh  mouano 

the  raven 

le  corbeau 

leh  corbo 

the  crow 

la  corneille 

lah  cornayl 

the  parrot 

le  perroquet 

leh  perrokay 

the  eagle 

I'aigle 

l’aygl 

Fishes  and  Insects. 

a fish 

un  poisson 

ung  pouassong 

a pike 

un  brochet 

ung  broshay 

a salmon 

un  saumon 

ung  somong 

a carp 

une  carpe 

une  carp 

an  eel 

une  anguille 

une  onggheel 

a trout 

un  truite 

une  trweet 

a herring 

tin  hareng 

ung  harrong  - 

oysters 

des  huitres 

daiz  weetr 

a crab 

une  ecrevisse 

une  aycreveece 

FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


t 


99  * 


English. 

French. 

Pronunciation. 

a turtle 

une  tortue 

une  tortyu 

a whale 

une  baleine 

une  ballayn 

a serpent 

un  serpent 

ung  sairpong 

a frog 

une  grenouille 

une  grenooeel 

a worm 

un  ver 

un  vair 

an  insect 

un  insecte 

un  angsect 

a spider 

une  araignde 

une  arraynyai 

a moth 

une  teigne 

ung  taine 

a fly 

une  tnoucke 

une  moosh 

a gnat 

un  moucheron 

ung  moosherong 

a bee 

une  abeille 

une  abbail 

the  honey 

le  mi  el 

leh  meeyel 

a wasp 

une  guepe 

une  gape 

a butterfly 

un  papillon 

Vegetables. 

ung  pappillyong 

beans 

des  fives 

day  faive 

peas 

des  pois 

dai  pouah 

cabbage 

des  choux 

dai  shoo 

cauliflower 

des  choux-feurs 

dai  shoo-fleuhr 

carrots 

des  belteraves 

dai  betrahve 

asparagus 

des  asperges 

daiz  aspairj 

spinach 

des  /pinards 

daiz  aipeenar 

radishes 

des  radis 

dai  raddee 

celery 

du  cdleri 

du  selree 

a melon 

un  melon 

ung  mellong 

cucumber 

des  cone  ombres 

dai  congcongbr 

Trees  and  Flowers. 

a tree 

un  arbre 

un  arbr 

a branch 

une  branche 

une  braungsh 

a leaf 

une  feuille 

une  file 

an  apple 

une  pontine 

une  pomm 

a pear 

une  poire 

une  pouar 

a plum 

une  prune 

une  pryun 

a cherry 

une  cerise 

une  serreeze 

a nut 

une  noix 

une  nouah 

a currant 

de  la  groseille 

de  lah  grozale 

a gooseberry 

de  la  groseille  verte 

deh  lah  grozale  verte 

a strawberry 

une  praise 

une  fraize 

a chestnut 

un  matron 

ung  marrong 

the  oak-tree 

le  chene 

leh  shane 

the  fir-tree 

le  pin 

leli  pang 

the  birch 

le  bouleau 

leh  boolo 

the  willow 

le  saule 

leh  sole 

a flower 

une  Jleur 

une  fleuhr 

a rose 

une  rose 

une  rose 

a pink 

un  ceillet 

un  ileyai 

a tulip 

une  tulipe 

une  tyuleep 

a lily 

un  Us 

ung  lee 

a violet 

une  violette 

une  veeolet 

a bouquet 

un  bouquet 
The  School. 

ung  bookay 

a school 

PPcole 

l’aycol 

the  teacher 

le  mailre 

leh  maytr 

the  book 

le  livre 

leh  leevr 

the  paper 

le  papier 

leh  papyai 

a pen 

une  plume 

une  plyume 

an  inkstand 

une  encrier 

un  ongereeai 

the  ink 

rencre 

l’ongkr 

the  pencil 

le  crayon 

le  crayon g 

a letter 

une  lettre 

une  lettr 

an  envelope 

une  enveloppe 

une  ongvellope 

Time  and  Seasons. 

the  time 

le  temps 

le  tong 

a minute 

la  minute 

lah  meenyute 

an  hour 

une  heure 

une  eur 

English. 

French. 

Pronunciation. 

a quarter  of  an 

hour  un  quart-cP heure 

ung  kar  d’eur 

half  an  hour 

une  demie-heure 

une  demmy  eur 

the  day 

le  jour 

leh  joor 

the  morning 

le  matin 

leh  mattang 

noon 

le  midi 

leh  meedee 

the  afternoon 

Papres-midi 

l’apray  meedee 

the  evening 

le  soir 

leh  souahr 

the  night 

la  nuit 

lah  nwee 

a year 

un  an 

un  ong 

a month 

un  mois 

ung  mouah 

January 

Janvier 

jongveeay 

February 

fdvrier 

fayvreeay 

March 

mars 

marse 

April 

avril 

avreel 

May 

mai 

may 

June 

juin 

jyuang _ 

July 

juillet 

jweelyai 

August 

aotit 

oo 

September 

septembre 

septaumbr 

October 

octobre 

octobr 

November 

novembre 

novaumbr 

December 

d/cembre 

daysaumbr 

a week 

une  semaine 

une  semmane 

a fortnight 

quinze  jours 

kanze  joor 

Monday 

lundi 

lungdee 

Tuesday 

mardi 

mardee 

Wednesday 

mercredi 

mayreredee 

Thursday 

jeudi 

jeuhdee 

Friday 

vendredi 

vongdredee 

Saturday 

satnedi 

samdee 

Sunday 

dimancke 

deemaunshe 

spring 

le  printemps 

leh  prangtong 

summer 

PM 

l’aytay 

autumn 

F automne 

l’otonn 

winter 

Phiver 

The  Country. 

l’eevare 

the  country 

la  campagne 

lah  caumpaine 

the  village 

le  village 

leh  veelaj 

the  hut 

la  cabane 

lah  caban 

the  soil 

le  sol 

leh  sol 

the  meadow 

le  prd 

leh  pray 

the  barn 

la  grange 

leh  graunj 

the  mill 

le  moulin 

leh  moolang 

the  cattle 

le  btflail 

leh  baytale 

the  herds 

le  troupeau 

leh  troopo 

the  shepherd 

le  berger 

leh  bayrjay 

the  mountain 

la  montagne 

lah  montaine 

the  hill 

la  colline 

la  colleen 

the  dale 

la  vallde 

lah  vallay 

the  wood 

le  bois 

leh  bouah 

the  forest 

la  foret 

lah  forray 

the  road 

le  chemin 

leh  shemmang 

the  high-road 

le  grand-chemin 

leh  grong  shemm 

the  rail-road 

le  chemin  de  fer 

leh  shemmang 
fare 

a mile 

une  mille 

une  meel 

the  waterfall 

la  cascade 

la  cascad 

the  fisherman 

le  pecheur 

leh  paysheur 

the  huntsman 

le  chasseur 

Nations. 

leh  shasseuhr 

an  American 

un  Amdricain 

un  Amayreecang 

a German 

un  Allemand 

un  Almaung 

Germany 

F A llemagne  f. 

l’Almaine 

a Dutchman 

un  Hollandais 

ung  Hollaunday 

Holland 

la  Hollande 

lah  Ilollaund 

a Belgian 

un  Beige 

ung  Belj 

Belgium 

la  Belgique 

lah  Beljeek 

too 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


Engnsb. 

French. 

Pronunciation. 

a Swiss 

un  Suisse 

ung  Sweess 

Switzerland 

la  Suisse 

lah  Sweess 

an  Hungarian 

un  Hongrois 

ung  Hongrwah 

Hungary 

la  Hongrie 

la  Hongree 

an  Englishman 

un  Anglais 

un  Aunglay 

England 

FA  ngleterre  f. 

l’Aungltare 

an  Irishman 

un  Irlandais 

un  Eerlaunday 

Ireland 

Flrlande  f. 

l’Eerlaund 

a Scotchman 

un  Ecossais 

un  Aycossay 

Scotland 

FEcosse  f. 

F Aycoss 

a Dane 

un  Danois 

ung  Danouah 

Denmark 

le  Danemarc 

leh  Danmark 

a Swede 

un  SuFdois 

ung  Swaydwah 

Sweden 

la  Suede 

lah  Swayde 

a Russian 

un  Russe 

ung  Russe 

Russia 

la  Russie 

lah  Russee 

a Spaniard 

tin  Espagnol 

un  Espanyol 

Spain 

F Espagne  f. 

l’Espaine 

a Frenchman 

un  Fran(ais 

ung  Fraungsay 

France 

la  France 

lah  Fraungse 

an  Italian 

un  Italien 

un  Eetalyang 

Italy 

F Italie  f. 

Adjectives. 

1’Eetalee 

poor 

pauvre 

pohvr 

rich 

riche 

reesh 

clever 

prudent 

prudong 

stupid 

stupide 

stupeed 

sharp 

aigu 

aygu 

blunt 

obtus 

obtu 

clean 

ptopre 

propr 

dirty 

sale 

saal 

hard 

dur 

dure 

soft 

mou 

moo 

strong 

fort 

fore 

weak 

faible 

fabl 

well 

sain 

sang 

ill 

malade 

mallad 

lean 

maigre 

maygr 

thick 

gros 

gro 

fat 

gras 

gra 

thin 

mince 

mangce 

polite 

poli 

polee 

impolite 

malhonneti 

mallonnate 

false 

faux 

fo 

deep 

pro  fond 

profong 

wide 

large 

larj 

narrow 

Ftroit 

aytrouah 

round 

rond 

rong 

square 

carrF 

carray 

short 

court 

coor 

long 

long 

long 

flat 

plat 

pla 

warm 

chaud 

sho 

cold 

froid 

frouah 

fresh 

frais 

fray 

ripe 

miir 

mure 

dry 

sec 

sec 

sour 

aigre 

aygr 

sweet 

doux 

doo 

bitter 

amer 

amare 

hungry 

affamF 

affammay 

thirsty 

altdrp 

altayray 

heavy 

pesant 

pezong 

light 

l/ger 

iayjai 

wet 

hurnide 

umeed 

content 

content 

congtong 

happy 

heureux 

eureu 

gay 

gai 

gay 

sad 

triste 

treest 

useful 

utile 

uteel 

English. 

French. 

Pronunciation. 

strange 

Ft  range 

aytraunj 

pretty 

joli 

jolee 

ugly 

laid 

lay 

dark 

sombre 

sombr 

open 

ouvert 

oovare 

disagreeable 

desagreable 

dayzagrayabl 

proud 

fier 

feeare 

arrogant 

arrogant 

arrogong 

cowardly 

Idche 

lahsh 

courageous 

courageux 

coorrajeu 

faithless 

perfide 

pairfeed 

innocent 

innocent 

Verbs. 

innosong 

to  eat 

manger 

maunjai  ’ 

to  drink 

boire 

bouahr 

to  be  thirsty 

avoir  soif 

avouahr  souaf 

to  be  hungry 

avoir  faim 

avouahr  fang 

to  breakfast 

de'jedner 

dayjeunai 

to  dine 

diner 

deenai 

to  sup 

souper 

soopai 

to  lay  the  tablecloth 

i meitre  le  couvert 

metr  leh  coovare 

to  serve 

servir 

sareveer 

to  carve 

trancher 

traunshai 

to  smoke 

furner 

fumai 

to  sneeze 

Fternuer 

aytaimuai 

to  cough 

tousser 

toossai 

to  think 

penser 

paungsai 

to  reflect 

rpflechir 

rayflaysheer 

to  speak 

parler 

parlai 

to  say 

dire 

deer 

to  repeat 

rFpFter 

raypaytai 

to  explain 

declarer 

dayclarrai 

to  be  quiet 

se  taire 

seh  tare 

to  chat 

causer 

cosay 

to  tell 

raconter 

raccongtai 

to  ask 

demander 

demaundai 

to  answer 

rFpondre 

raypongdr 

to  reply 

repliquer 

raypleekai 

to  be  mistaken 

se  tromper 

seh  trompai 

to  object 

objecter 

objectai 

to  doubt 

douter 

dootai 

to  affirm 

affirm  er 

affeermai 

to  prove 

prouver 

proovai 

to  assure 

assurer 

assurai 

to  deny 

nier 

neeai 

to  maintain 

soutemr 

sooteneer 

to  dispute 

disputer 

disputai 

to  consent 

consentir 

congsaunteer 

to  approve 

approuver 

approovai 

to  praise 

louer 

looai 

to  admire 

admirer 

admeerai 

to  blame 

bl&mer 

blahmai 

to  believe 

croire 

crouahr 

to  know 

s avoir 

savouahr 

not  to  know 

ignorer 

eenyorai 

to  imagine 

imaginer 

eemajeenai 

to  compare 

comparer 

compahrai 

to  imitate 

imiter 

eemeetai 

to  forget 

oublier 

oobleeai 

to  remember 

se  souvenir 

seh  soovennee* 

to  wish,  to  will 

vouloir 

voulouahr 

to  desire 

d/sirer 

dayseerai 

to  wish 

souhaiter 

sooaytai 

to  love 

aimer 

aimai 

to  flatter 

fatter 

flattai 

to  embrace 

embrasser 

aumbrassai 

to  hope 

espFrer 

espayrai 

to  rejoice 

rFjouir 

rayjooeer 

FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


io 


English. 

French. 

Pronunciation. 

to  give 

donner 

donnai 

to  thank 

rernercief 

remmairceeai 

to  esteem 

estimer 

esteemai 

to  honor 

honorer 

onorai 

to  despise 

mdpriser 

maypreezai 

to  hate 

hair 

haheer 

to  offend 

offenser 

offongsai 

to  insult 

insulter 

angsuhltai 

to  quarrel 

quereller 

kerrellai 

to  swear 

jurer 

jurai 

to  punish 

punir 

puneer 

to  beat 

batlre 

batre 

to  weep 

pleurer 

pleuhrai 

to  sigh 

soupirer 

sooperai 

to  regret 

regretter 

regrettai 

to  repent 

se  repentir 

seh  repaunteer 

to  excuse 

excuser 

excusai 

to  pardon 

pardonner 

pardonnai 

to  revenge 

venger 

vaungjai 

to  joke 

railler 

rasellyai 

to  laugh 

rire 

reer 

to  live 

vivre 

veevr 

to  feel 

sentir 

saunteer 

to  touch 

toucher 

tooshai 

to  taste 

godter 

gootai 

to  see 

voir 

vouahr 

to  hear 

entendre 

auntaundr 

to  grow 

croitre 

crouahtr 

to  go 

aller 

allai 

to  go  out 

sortir 

sorteer 

to  return 

retoumer 

retoornai 

to  meet 

rencontrer 

rauncongtrai 

to  follow 

suivre 

sweevr 

to  run 

counr 

cooreer 

to  jump 

sauter 

sotai 

to  fall 

tomber 

tombai 

to  dance 

danser 

daungsai 

to  play 

jouer 

jooai 

to  ascend 

monter 

mongtai 

to  descend 

descendre 

dessaundr 

to  sit  down 

sasseoir 

sassouahr 

to  lie  down 

se  coucher 

seh  cooshai 

to  rest 

se  reposer 

seh  repozai 

to  sleep 

domiir 

dormeer 

to  dream 

rever 

rayvai 

to  awake 

s'e'veiller 

sayvailyai 

to  get  up 

se  lever 

seh  levvai 

to  dress 

s' kabi  ller 

s’abbeelyai 

to  draw 

tirer 

teerai 

to  show 

montrer 

mongtrai 

to  present 

presenter 

praysauntai 

to  take 

prendre 

praundr 

to  accept 

accepter 

acceptai 

to  refuse 

refuser 

reffusai 

to  receive 

recevoir 

ressevouahr 

to  spoil 

gdter 

gahtai 

to  throw 

jeter 

jettai 

to  lose 

perdre 

pairdr 

to  look  for 

chercher 

shairsliai 

to  find 

trouver 

troovai 

to  hide 

cacher 

cashai 

to  cover 

couvrir 

coovreer 

to  uncovei 

d<!couvrir 

daycoovreer 

to  carry 

porter 

portai 

to  bring 

apporter 

apportai 

to  travel 

voyager 

vwoiajai 

to  depart 

partir 

parteer 

to  arrive 

amver 

arreevai 

to  ring  the  bell 

sonner 

sonnai 

English. 

French. 

Pronunciation. 

to  open 

ouvrir 

oovreer 

to  go  in 

entrer 

auntrai 

— 

to  buy 

acheter 

ashtai 

to  sell 

vendre 

vaundr 

to  pay 

payer 

paiyai 

to  lend 

preter 

praytai 

to  borrow 

emprunter 

aumpruntai 

to  return 

retidre 

raundr 

to  repay 

rembourse* 

raumboorsai 

to  exchange 

changer 

chaungjai 

to  pack  up 

empaqueter 

aumpacktai 

to  unpack 

ddpaqueter 

daypacktai 

to  steal 

voler 

volai 

to  study 

etudier 

aytudeeai 

to  learn 

apprendre 

appraundr 

to  read 

life 

leer 

to  calculate 

compter 

congtai 

to  write 

dcnre 

aycreer 

to  sign 

signer 

seenyai 

to  seal 

cacheter 

cashtai 

to  explain 

expliquer 

expleekai 

to  translate 

traduire 

tradweer 

to  begin 

comtnencer 

commaunsai 

to  continue 

continuer 

congteenuai 

to  finish 

fnir 

feeneer 

to  work 

travailler 

travvaeelyai 

to  paint 

peindre 

pahndr 

to  draw 

dessiner 

desseenai 

to  stitch 

coudre 

coodr 

to  spin 

filer 

feelai 

to  wash 

laver 

lavai 

to  cook 

cnire 

cweer 

to  roast 

rotir 

roteer 

to  boil 

bouillir 

booeelyeer 

to  weigh 

peser 

pezai 

to  build 

bdtir 

bahteer 

to  sow 

semer 

semmai 

to  pluck 

cueillir 

kileyeer 

to  plant 

planter 

plauntai 

to  reap 

mois  sonner 

mouahssonnai 

Adverbs. 


at  first 

i fabord 

d’abor 

previously 

auparavant 

oparravang 

afterwards 

ensuite 

aunsweet 

together 

ensemble 

aunsaumbl 

at  last 

enfin 

aunfang 

where 

oil 

oo 

here 

ici 

eesee 

there 

Id 

lah 

elsewhere 

ailleurs 

aeellyure 

above 

dessus 

dessu 

below 

dessous 

dessoo 

within 

dedans 

deddong 

without 

dehors 

dehor 

everywhere 

partout 

partoo 

nowhere 

nulle  part 

nule  par 

up 

en  haut 

aung  ho 

down 

en  has 

aung  bah 

anywhere 

quelque  part 

kelkeh  par 

already 

dtja 

dayjah 

often 

souvent 

souvong 

sometimes 

quelquefois 

kelkehfouah 

in  future 

d Favenir 

ah  1’avneer 

always 

toujours 

toojoor 

never 

jamais 

jammay 

soon 

bientdt 

beeangto 

102 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


English. 

French. 

Pronunciation. 

immediately 

e us  si  lot 

osito 

late 

tard 

tar 

early 

tSt 

to 

at  present 

a present 

ah  praysong 

quickly 

vile 

veet 

at  once 

tout  de  suite 

too  deh  sweet 

afterwards 

puis 

pwee 

yesterday 

flier 

yare 

yesterday  evening 

hier  au  soir 

yare  o souahr 

to-day 

aujourcP  hui 

ojoordwee 

to-morrow 

demain 

demmang 

to-morrow  morning 

demain  matin 

demmang  mattang 

to-morrow  evening 

demain  soir 

demmang  souahr 

the  day  after  to. 

. aprls-demain 

appray  demmang 

morrow 

enough 

assez 

assay 

too  much 

trop 

tro 

little 

peu 

peuh 

much 

beaucoup 

bocoo 

very 

iris,  fort 

tray,  fore 

more 

plus 

plu 

less 

moins 

mouang 

at  least 

au  moins 

o mouang 

thus 

si 

see 

nearly 

presque 

pressk 

about 

environ 

aungveerong 

all 

tout 

too 

altogether 

toul-a-fait 

toot-ah-fay 

only 

seulement 

seuhlmong 

well 

bien 

beeang 

better 

mieux 

meeyw 

so  much  the  better 

tant-mieux 

tong  meeyw 

bad 

mal 

mal 

worse 

pis 

pee 

rather 

plu/St 

pluto 

without  doubt 

sans  doute 

song  doot 

indeed 

en  ejfet 

aun  eflfay 

on  the  contrary 

au  contraire 

o congtrare 

scarcely 

a peine 

ah  pane 

perhaps 

peut-elre 

put-aitr 

all  at  once 

tout-a-coup 

toot-ah-coo 

not  at  all 

point  du  tout 

pouang  du  too 

not  yet 

pas  encore 

paz  auncore 

nothing 

rien 

reeang 

nothing  at  all 

rien  du  tout 

reeang  dee  too 

with,  near 

chez,  aupres 

shay,  opray 

near 

pres 

pray 

in,  within 

dans,  en 

dong,  aung 

before 

avant 

avvong 

behind 

derrilre 

derreeare 

below 

sous 

soo 

over 

sur 

sure 

against 

vers 

vare 

far  from 

loin  de 

louang  deh 

on  the  side  of 

a cdtl  de 

ah  cotay  deh 

opposite 

vis-a-vis 

veez-ah-vee 

round  about 

autour  de 

otoor  deh 

instead  of 

au  lieu  de 

o leeyu  deh 

in  the  midst  of 

au  milieu  de 

o millyu  de 

on  this  side 

en  defa  de 

aung-dessah  de 

on  the  opposite  side 

au-dela  de 

o-dellah-deh 

out  of 

hors 

hor 

after 

aprls 

appray 

with 

avec 

avvec 

since 

dcpuis 

deppwee 

between 

entre,  parmi 

aungtr,  parmee 

without 

sans 

song 

for 

pour 

poor 

through,  by 

par 

par 

tgainst 

contre 

congtr 

luring 

pendant 

paundong 

English. 

Conjunctions. 

French. 

Pronunciation. 

or 

OU 

oo 

either — or 

ou — OU 

00 — oo 

neither — nor 

ni — ni 

nee — nee 

also 

aussi 

ossi 

but 

mais 

may 

however 

cependant 

seppaundong 

yet 

pourtant 

poortong 

if 

si 

see 

if  not 

si  non 

see  nong 

if  only 

pourvu  que 

poorvu  keh 

even  if 

quand  mime 

kaung  meym 

although 

quoique  \ 
c est-a-iiire 

couak 

that  is 

sait-ah-deer 

as 

comme 

comm 

except  that 

outre  que 

ootr  keh 

for 

car 

car 

because 

pare  e que 

parsk 

why 

pourquoi 

poorkouah 

and 

et 

ai 

therefore 

ainsi 

angsee 

consequently 

par  consequent 

par  congsaycong 

The  definite  Article  is  rendered  by  “ le"  before  a masculine 
noun,  and  by  “ la  ” before  a feminine  noun,  as.  le  p'ere , th* 
father ; la  mire,  the  mother.  The  plural  for  both  genders  i; 
“ les,"  as  : les  pens,  the  fathers  ; les  meres,  the  mothers. 


MASCULINE. 


Singular. 

Nom.  le  (leh)  pere,  the  father 
Gen.  du  (Aw) pere,  of  the  father 
Dat.  au  (o)  pere,  to  the  father 
Acc.  le  (leh)  plre,  the  father 


Plural. 


les  (lay)  plres, 
des  (day) p'eres, 
aux  (o) p'eres, 
les  (lay) p'eres. 


the  fathers 
of  the  fathers 
to  the  fathers 
the  fathers 


FEMININE. 


Nom 

la  mire. 

the  mother 

les  meres, 

the  mothers 

Gen. 

de  la  mere, 

of  the  mother 

des  meres, 

of  the  mothers 

Dat. 

h la  mere. 

to  the  mother 

aux  mires, 

to  the  motherr 

Acc. 

la  mere, 

the  mother 

les  mires. 

the  mothers 

Declension 

of  a word  beginning  with  a vowel  or  a silent  “ h.” 


Singular.  Plural. 


Nom. 

I’homme, 

the  man 

les  homines. 

the  men 

Gen. 

de  Diomme, 

of  the  man 

des  homines. 

of  the  men 

Dat. 

a Vhomme , 

to  the  man 

aux  homines, 

to  the  men 

Acc. 

I’homme, 

the  man 

les  homines, 

the  men 

FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


r— 


Indefinite  Article. 


Masculine. 

Nom.  un jardin.  a garden 
Gen.  d'un  jardin,  of  a garden 
Dat.  & un  jardin,  to  a garden 
Acc.  un  jardin,  a garden 


Feminine. 


une  ville, 
d une  ville, 
a une  ville, 
une  ville. 


a town 
of  a town 
to  a town 
a town 


Declension  of  Proper  Names. 


Nom.  Paris, 

Paris 

Louise, 

Louisa 

Gen.  de  Paris, 

of  Paris 

de  Louise, 

of  Louisa 

Dat.  a Paris, 

to  Paris 

a Louise, 

to  Louisa 

Acc.  Paris, 

Paris 

Louise , 

Louisa 

Adjectives. 

The  French  adjectives  are  placed  either  before  or  after  the 
noun,  as : 

le  bon  p'cre,  the  good  father  — la  bonne  mere,  the  good  mother 
un  bon  garqon,  a good  boy  — une  jeune  jille,  a young  girl 
une  table  ronde,  a round  table — du  lait  chaud,  warm  milk 


Comparison  of  Adjectives. 

grand,  great  — plus  grand,  greater — le  plus  grand,  the  greatest 
petit,  small  — plus  petit,  smaller  — le  plus  petit,  the  smallest 
bon,  good  — meilleur,  better  — le  meilleur,  the  best 

mauvais,  bad  — pire,  worse  — le  pire,  the  worst 

petit,  little  — moindre,  less  — le  moindre,  the  least 

Obs.  “Than”  following  the  comparative  is  always  translated 
by  “ que : ” 

II  est plus poli  que  son  frere — he  is  more  polite  than  his  brother 


Numeral  Adjectives. 


Pronunciation.  Pronunciation. 


one,  un 

ung 

29  vingt-neuf 

two,  deux 

deuh 

30  trente  traunt 

3 trois 

trouah 

40  quarante  karaunt 

4 quatre 

kahtr 

50  cinquante  sahnkaunt 

5 cinq 

sahnk 

60  soixante  soassaunt 

6 six 

seece 

70  soixante-dix 

7 sept 

set 

71  soixante-el-onze 

8 huit 

wheet 

72  soixante-douze 

9 neuf 

neuf 

73  soixante-lreize 

10  dix 

deece 

74  soixante-quatorze 

11  onze 

ongz 

75  soixante-quinze 

12  douze 

dooze 

76  soixante-seize 

13  treize 

trayz 

77  soixanie-dix-sept 

14  quatorze 

katorz 

78  soixante-dix-huit 

15  quinze 

kangz 

79  soixante-dix-neuf 

16  seize 

sayz 

80  quatre-vitigt  katr-vahng 

17  dix-sept 

dee-set 

81  quatre-vingl-un 

18  dix -huit 

deez-wheet 

katr-vahntung 

19  dix-neuf 

deez-neuf 

82  quatre-vingl-deux 

20  vingt 

vahng 

83  quatre-vingt-trois 

21  vingt-et-un 

22  vingt-deux 

23  vingt-trois 

vahnt-eh-ung 

84  quatre-vingt-quatre 

85  quatre -vingt-cinq 

86  quatre-vingt-six 

24  vingt-quatre 

25  vingt-cinq 

26  vingt-six 

27  vingt-sept 

28  vingt-huit 

87  quatre-vingt-sept 

88  qualre-vingt-huit 

89  quatre-vingt-neuf 

90  qualre-vingt-dix 

91  quatre-vingt-onze 

Pronunciation. 

92  quatre-vingt-douze 

93  quatre-vingt-treize 

94  qaatre-vingt-qualerzc 

95  quatre-vingt-quinzc 

96  quatre-vingt-seize 

97  quatre-vingt-dix-sept 

98  qualre-vingl-dix-huit 

99  quatre-vingt-dix-neuf 

100  cent  saung 

101  cent-et-un  saunt-eh-ung 
no  cent  dix  saung-deece 
120  cent  vingt  saung-vahng 
130  cent  trent 

200  deux  cents 


Pronunciation. 

300  trots  cents 
400  quatre  cents 
500  cinq  cents 
600  six  cents 
700  sept  cents 
800  huit  cents 
900  neuf  cents 
1000  mille  meel 
2000  deux  mille 
3000  trois  mille 

10.000  dix  mille 

20.000  vingt  mille 

a million,  un  million 

ung  meelyong 


Ordinal  Numbers. 


the  first, 

le  premier 

leh  premyai 

“ 

second, 

le  second 

leh  zeggong 

third. 

le  troisihne 

leh  trouazzeeame 

fourth. 

le  quatrihne 

leh  kattreeame 

(1 

5th, 

le  cinquihne 
le  sixibne 

leh  sahnkeeame 

6th, 

leh  seeceeame 

it 

7th, 

le  septibne 

leh  setteeame 

ti 

8th, 

le  huitibne 

leh  wheeteeame 

9 th, 

le  neuvibne 

leh  neuveeame 

ft 

10th, 

le  dixibne 

leh  deezeeame 

it 

nth. 

le  onzieme 

leh  ongzeeame 

it 

12th, 

le  douzibne 

leh  doozeeame 

it 

13th, 

le  treizieme 

leh  trayzeeame 

it 

14th, 

le  quatorzieme 

leh  kattorzeeame 

“ 

15th, 

le  quinziime 

leh  kahngzeeame 

it 

16th, 

le  seizietne 

leh  sayzeeame 

1 t 

17th, 

le  dix-septieme 

leh  deessettiame 

it 

18th, 

le  dix-kuitieme 

leh  deez-wheeteeame 

“ 

19th, 

le  dix-neuvibne 

leh  deezneuveeame 

it 

20th, 

le  vingtibne  % 

leh  vahnteeame 

“ 

2 1st, 

le  vingt-et-unibne 

leh  vahng-eh-uneeame 

30th, 

le  trentihne 

leh  traunteeame 

< < 

40th, 

le  quarantieme 

leh  karaunteeame 

t i 

50th, 

le  cinquantieme 

leh  sahnkaunteeame 

l i 

60th, 

le  soixaniibne 

leh  souahssaunteeame 

ft 

m 

70th, 

le  soixante-dixibne 

leh  souahssaunt-deezee 
ame 

it 

a 

O OO 

O O 

jr  S* 

le  quatre-vingtibne 
le  quatre-vingt-dixibne 

leh  kattr-vaunteeame 

n 

100th, 

le  centieme 

leh  saunteeame 

tt 

1000th, 

le  millibne 

leh  milleeame 

the  last, 

le  dernier 

leh  dareneeay 

Pronouns. 


7‘ 

(jeh) 

I 

Nous 

(noo) 

we 

tu 

(tu) 

thou 

vous 

(voo) 

you 

te 

(teh) 

thee 

VO  us 

(voo) 

you 

il 

(eel) 

he 

i/s 

(eel) 

they 

elle 

(el) 

she 

elles 

(el) 

they 

mot 

toi 

Mas.  mon 
Fern,  ma 
Mas.  ton 
Fern  ta 
son 


(mouah)  me 
(touah)  thee 
(mong)  my 
(mail)  my 

"°hf  i lh>' 


Plural 


'} 


(tah) 

(song)  1 his 
sa  (sah)  j her 
notre  (notr)  our 
voire  (votij  your  “ 

leur  (leur)  their 

qui  (kee)  who,  which,  that 

quoi  (couah)  what,  that 

quel  (kel),  le  quel?  which  ? 


nous 

lui 

mes 

tes 

ses 

nos 

vos 

leurs 


que 


(noo) 

US 

(Iwee)  him 

(may) 

my 

(tay) 

thy 

(say) 

his,  hei 

(no) 

our 

(vo) 

your 

(leur) 

their 

(keh)  ’ 

what 

FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


1 104 


avoir — to  have 
INFINITIVE  MOOD. 


Present. 


Past. 


Avoir, 

to  have  ; avoir 

eu  to  have  had. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Ayant , 

having ; eu, 

had 

ayant 

eu,  having  had 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present. 

I have 

J’ai 

Jay 

thou  hast 

tu  as 

tu  ah 

he  has 

il  a 

eel  ah 

she  has 

elle  a 

el  ah 

we  have 

nous  avons 

nooz  avong 

you  have 

vous  avez 

vooz  avai 

they  have 

ils  {dies)  out 

eels  ont 

Imperfect. 

I had 

J'avais 

Javay 

thou  hadst 

tu  avais 

tu  avay 

he  had 

il  avait 

eel  avay 

we  had 

notes  avions 

nooz  aveeong 

you  had 

vous  aviez 

vooz  aveeay 

they  had 

ils  avaient 

eels  avay 

Past  definite. 

I had 

J’eus 

Jew 

thou  hadst 

tu  eus 

tu  ew 

he  had 

il  eut 

eel  ew 

we  had 

nous  eumes 

nooz  eum 

you  had 

vous  edtes 

vooz  eut 

they  had 

ils  eurent 

eels  eur 

Perfect. 

I have  had 

J’ai  eu 

Jay  ew 

thou  hast  had 

tu  as  eu 

tu  ahz  ew 

he  has  had 

il  a eu 

eel  ah  ew 

she  has  had 

elle  a eu 

el  ah  ew 

we  have  had 

nous  avons  eu 

nooz  avongz  ew 

you  have  had 

vous  avez  eu 

vooz  avayze  ew 

they  have  had 

ils  {dies)  ont  eu 

eels  ont  ew 

Pluperfect. 

I had  had 

J'avais  eu 

Javayz  ew 

thou  hadst  had 

tu  avais  eu 

tu  avayz  ew 

he  had  had 

il  avait  eu 

eel  avait  ew 

we  had  had 

nous  avions  eu 

nooz  aveeongz  ew 

you  had  had 

vous  aviez  eu 

vooz  aveeayze  ew 

they  had  had 

ils  avaient  eu 

eels  avait  ew 

Past  anterior. 

I had  had 

J’eus  eu 

Jeus  ew 

thou  hadst  had 

tu  eus  eu 

tu  eus  ew 

he  had  had 

il  eut  eu 

eel  eut  ew 

we  had  had 

nous  crimes  eu 

nooz  eums  ew 

you  had  had 

vous  elites  eu 

vooz  euts  ew 

they  had  had 

ils  eurent  eu 

eels  eurt  ew 

Future. 


I shall  have 

J’aurai 

Joray 

thou  shalt  have 

tu  auras 

tu  orah 

he  shall  have 

il  aura 

eel  orah 

we  shall  have 

nous  aurons 

nooz  orong 

you  shall  have 

vous  aurez 

vooz  oray 

they  shall  have 

ils  auront 

eels  orong 

I shall  have  had 

Future  anterior. 
J’aurai  eu 

Joray  ew 

thou  shalt  have  had 

tu  auras  eu 

tu  orahs  ew 

he  shall  have  had 

it  aura  eu 

eel  orah  ew 

we  shall  have  had 

nous  aurons  eu 

nooz  orongz  ew 

you  shall  have  had 

vous  aurez  eu 

vooz  orayze  ew 

they  shall  have  had 

ils  auront  eu 

eels  oront  ew 

I should  have 

Conditional.  Present. 
J' aurais 

Joray 

thou  shouldst  have 

tu  aurais 

tu  oray 

he  should  have 

il  aurait 

eel  oray 

we  should  have 

nous  aurions 

nooz  oreeong 

you  should  have 

vous  auriez 

vooz  oreeay 

they  should  have 

ils  auraient 

eels  oray 

I should  have  had 

Conditional.  Past. 
/’ aurais  eu 

Jorays  ew 

thou  shouldst  have  tu  aurais  eu 

tu  orays  ew 

had 

he  should  have  had 

il  aurait  eu 

eel  orait  ew 

we  should  have  had 

nous  aurions  eu 

nooz  areeongz  ew 

you  should  have  had 

vous  auriez  eu 

vooz  oreeayze  ew 

they  should  have  had  ils  auraient  eu 

eels  orait  ew 

Have 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 
aie 

ay 

let  us  have 

ayons 

ayong 

have  (ye) 

ayez 

ayay 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
Present. 

That  I may  have  Que  faie 
that  thou  mayst  have  que  tu  aies 
that  he  may  have  qu’il  ait 
that  we  may  have  que  nous  ayons 
that  you  may  have  que  vous  ayez 
that  they  may  have  qu'ils  aient 

Imperfect. 

That  I might  have  Que  j’eusse 
that  thou  mightst  que  tu  eusses 
have 

that  he  might  have  qu'il  edt 
that  we  might  have  que  nous  eussions 
that  you  might  have  que  vous  eussiez 
that  they  might  have  qu’ils  eussent 

Perfect. 

That  I may  have  had  Que  j'aie  eu 
that  thou  mayst  have  que  tu  aies  eu 
had 

that  he  may  have  had  qu’il  ait  eu 
that  we  may  have  que  nous  ayons  eu 
had 

that  you  may  have  que  vous  ayez  eu 
had 

that  they  may  have  quits  aient  eu 
had 


keh  jai 
keh  tu  ai 
keel  ai 

keh  nooz  ayong 
keh  vooz  ayay 
keels  ai 


keh  jeuss 
keh  tu  euss 

keel  eu 

keh  nooz  eussyong 
keh  vooz  eussyay 
keels  euss 


keh  jai  ew 
keh  tu  aiz  ew 

keel  ait  ew 

keh  nooz  ayongz  ew 

keh  vooz  ayayz  ew 

keels  ait  ew 


%• 


4 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


TO 


Pluperfect. 

That  I might  have  Que  j’eusse  eti 

keh  jeuss  ew 

I had  been 

Past  anterior. 
J’eus  dtd 

Jeuz  ettay 

had 

thou  hadst  been 

tu  eus  dtd 

tu  euz  ettay 

that  thou  mightst  que  tu  eusses  eu 

keh  tu  euss  ew 

he  had  been 

il  eut  dtd 

eel  eut  ettay 

have  had 

we  had  been 

nous  ethnes  dtd 

nooz  eums  ettay 

that  he  might  have  qu'il  edit  eu 

keel  eut  ew 

you  had  been 

vous  elites  dtd 

vooz  eutes  ettay 

had 

they  had  been 

ils  eurent  dtd 

eels  eurt  etay 

that  we  might  have  que  nous  eussions  eu 
had 

that  you  might  have  que  vous  eussiez  eu 
had 

keh  nooz  eussyongs 
ew 

keh  vooz  eusseyaz  ew 

I shall  be 

Future. 
Je  serai 

Je  serray 

that  they  might  have  qu’ils  eussent  eu 

keels  eusst  ew 

thou  shalt  be 

tu  seras 

tu  serrah 

had 

he  shall  be 

il  sera 

eel  serrah 

The  Auxiliary  Verb  “ etre,”  to  be. 

we  shall  be 
you  shall  be 
they  shall  be 

720  us  serous 
vous  serez 
ils  seront 

noo  serrong 
voo  serray 
eel  serong 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Future  anterior. 

Present.  Past, 

etre  (aitr)  — to  be  ; avoir  dtd  (avoahr  ettay) — to  have  been 

Participles. 

Pant  (ettang) — being  ; dtd  (ettay)  — been 

ayant  PI  (ayaunt  ettay) — having  been 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
Present. 


I am 

Je  suis 

Jeh  swee 

thou  art 

tu  es 

• tu  ay 

he  is 

il  est 

eel  ay 

she  is 

elle  est 

el  ay 

we  are 

nous  sommes 

noo  som 

you  are 

vous  dies 

vooz  ait 

they  are 

ils  ( elles ) sonl 
Imperfect. 

eel  song 

I was 

J Pais 

Jettay 

thou  wast 

tu  dtais 

tu  ettay 

he  was 

il  dtait 

il  ettay 

we  were 

nous  dtions 

nooz  ettyong 

you  were 

vous  dtiez 

vooz  ettyay 

they  were 

ils  Paient 

Past  definite. 

eels  ettay 

I was 

Je  Jus 

Je  fu 

thou  wast 

tu  Jus 

tu  fu 

he  was 

il  fut 

eel  fu 

we  were 

nous  fiimes 

noo  fume 

you  were 

vous  fdtes 

voo  fute 

they  were 

ils  furent 

Perfect. 

eel  fure 

I have  been 

J ai  dtd 

Jai  ettay 

thou  hast  been 

tu  as  dtd 

tu  ah  ettay 

he  has  been 

il  a dtd 

eel  ah  ettay 

she  has  been 

elle  a dte 

el  ah  ettay 

we  have  been 

nous  avonsdld 

nooz  avongz  ettay 

you  have  been 

vous  avez  dtd 

vous  avayze  ettay 

they  have  been 

ils  (elles)  ont  dtd 

Pluperfect. 

eels  ont  ettay 

I had  been 

J'avais  dtd 

Javayz  ettay 

thou  hadst  been 

tu  avais  dtd 

tu  avayz  ettay 

he  had  been 

il  avail  dtd 

eel  avait  ettay 

we  had  been 

nous  avions  dtd 

nooz  avyons  ettay 

you  had  been 

vous  aviez  Pd 

vooz  avyayz  ettay 

they  had  been 

ils  avaient  dtd 

eels  avait  ettay 

I shall  have  been  J’aurai  dtd 
thou  shalt  have  been  tu  auras  did 
he  shall  have  been  il  aura  dtd 
we  shall  have  been  nous  aurons  dtd 
you  shall  have  been  vous  aurez  Pd 
they  shall  have  been  its  auront  Pd 


Joray  ettay 
tu  orahs  ettay 
eel  orah  ettay 
nooz  orongz  ettay 
vooz  orayz  ettay 
eels  oront  ettay 


Conditional.  Present. 


I should  be 
thou  shouldst  be 
he  should  be 
we  should  be 
you  should  be 
they  should  be 


Je  serais 
tu  serais 
il  serait 
nous  serions 
vous  seriez 
ils  seraient 


Je  serray 
tu  serray 
eel  serray 
noo  serreeong 
voo  serreeay 
eel  serray 


I should  have  been 
thou  shouldst  have 
been 

he  should  have  been 
we  should  have  been 
you  should  have  been 
they  should  have 
been 


Conditional.  Past. 

J’aurais  die 
tu  aurais  etd 

il  aurait  dtd 
nous  aurions  dte 
vous  auriez  dtd 
ils  auraienl  etd 


Joray s ettay 
tu  orays  ettay 

eel  orait  ettay 
nooz  oreeongz  ettay 
vooz  oreeayz  ettay 
eels  orait  ettay 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


Be  — sois 

let  us  be  — soyons 
be  (ye)  — soyez 


souah 

swoiyong 

swoiyay 


That  I may  be 
that  thou  mayst  be 
that  he  may  be 
that  we  may  be 
that  you  may  be 
that  they  may  be 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present. 

Que  je  sois 
que  tu  sois 
qu'il  soil 
que  nous  soyons 
que  vous  soyez 
qu'ils  soient 


Keh  jeh  souah 
keh  tu  souah 
keel  souah 
keh  noo  swoiyong 
keh  voo  swoiyay 
keel  souah 


Keh  jeh  fusse 
keh  tu  fusse 
keel  fu 

keh  noo  fussyong 
keh  voo  fussyay 
keel  fusse 


That  I might  be 
that  thou  mightst 
that  he  might  be 
that  we  might  be 
that  you  might  be 
that  they  might  be 


Imperfect. 

Que  je  fusse 
be  que  tu  fusses 
qu'il  flit 

que  nous  fussions 
que  vous  fussiez 
qu'ils  fussent 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


fo6 


That  I may  have 
been 

that  thou  mayst  have 
been 

that  he  may  have 
been 

that  we  may  have 
been 

that  you  may  have 
been 

that  they  may  have 
been 


That  I might  have 
been 

that  thou  mightst 
have  been 

that  he  might  have 
been 

that  we  might  have 
been 

that  you  might  have 
been 

that  they  might  have 
been 


Perfect. 

Que  j’aie  /t/ 
que  tu  dies  /t/ 
qu’il  ait  /l/ 
que  nous  ayons  /t/ 
que  vous  ayez  /t/ 
qu’ils  aient  /t/ 


Keh  j’ai  ettay 

keh  tu  aiz  ettay 

keel  ait  ettay 

keh  noo  zayongz 
ettay 

keh  voo  ayayz  ettay 
keels  ait  ettay 


Pluperfect. 

Que  feusse  /t/  Keh  jeuss  ettay  _ 

que  tu  eusses  /t/  keh  tu  euss  ettay 

quil  edt  et/  keel  eut  ettay 

que  nous  eussions  /Ar'keh  nooz  eussyons 
ettay 

que  vous  eussiez  /t/  keh  vooz  eussyaze 
ettay 

qu'ils  eussent  /t/  keels  eussent  ettay 


Regular  Verbs. 

The  Infinitives  of  verbs  in  the  French  language  have  the  four 
following  terminations  : 


er  — as  in;  donner, 
ir  — as  in  : fnir, 
oir  — as  in  : recevoir, 
re  — as  in  : vend  re. 


to  give, 
to  finish, 
to  receive, 
to  sell. 


Participles. 

Donnant{ donnong),  giving  donn/,  given 

ayant  donn/,  having  given 


SIMPLE  TENSES. 

Absolu. 

I give 
Je  donne 
tu  donnes 
il  donne 
nous  donnons 
vous  donnez 
ils  donnent 

Itnperfect. 

I gave 
Je  donnais 
tu  donnais 
il  donnait 
nous  donnions 
vous  donniez 
ils  donnaient 

Past  definite. 

I gave 
J‘  donnai 
tu  donnas 
il  donna 
nous  donndmes 
vous  donndtes 
ils  donn'erent 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
Present. 


Jeh  don 
tu  don 
eel  don 
noo  donnong 
voo  donnay 
eel  don 

Descriptive. 


Jeh  donnay 
tu  donnay 
eel  donnay 
noo  donnyong 
voo  donnyay 
eel  donnay 

Narrative. 


Jeh  donnay 
tu  donna 
eel  donna 
noo  donnahme 
voo  donnahte 
eel  donnaire 


COMPOUND  TENSES. 

A nlerieur. 

I have  given 
J’ai  donn/ 
tu  as  donn/ 
il  a donne' 
nous  avons  donn/ 
vous  avez  donn/ 
ils  out  donn/ 

Pluperfect. 

I had  given. 
J'avais  donn/ 
tu  avais  donne 
il  c”ait  donne 
nous  avions  donn/ 
vous  aviez  donn/ 
ils  avaient  donn/ 


Past  anterior. 

I had  given 
J'eus  donne 
tu  eus  donn/ 
il  eut  donne 
nous  eAmes  donne 
vous  eAtes  donn/ 
ils  eurent  donn/ 


All  that  precedes  this  infinitive  termination  is  called  the  “ root" 
of  the  verb. 

Verbs  which  only  change  their  terminations  and  not  their 
roots  are  called.  •'  regular  Verbs,”  those  which  change  their  roots 
“ irregular  Verbs." 

The  Verbs  ending  in  “ oir”  are  all  irregular,  and  the  French 
language,  therefore,  has  in  reality  only  three  regular  Conjuga- 
tions. 


Future. 

I shall  give 
J*  donnerai 
tu  donneras 
il  donnera 
nous  donnerons 
vous  donnerez 
ils  donneront 


Future. 


Jeh  donnerai 
tu  donnera 
eel  donnera 
noo  donnerong 
voo  donneray 
eel  donnerong 


Future  anterior. 

I shall  have  given 
J'aurai  donn/ 
tu  auras  donn/ 
il  aura  donn/ 
nous  aurons  donn/ 
vous  aurez  donn/ 
ils  auront  donne 


The  first  Conjugation  ends  in  “ er.” 

The  second  Conjugation  ends  in  “ ir.” 

The  third  Conjugation  ends  in  “ oir." 

The  fourth  Conjugation  ends  in  “re.’’ 

The  past  Participle  is  formed  by  adding  to  the  root  of  the 
first  Conjugation  an  “ /’’  to  that  of  the  second  an  “i,”  to  the 
fourth  an  “ u,  as  : 

Donn-er , to  give  — donne,  given. 

Fin-ir,  to  finish  — fini,  finished. 

Vend-re,  to  sell  — vendu,  sold. 


The  Four  Conjugations. 

FIRST  CONJUGATION. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present.  Past. 

Donner  (donnay),  to  give  avoir  donn/,  to  have  given 


Present. 

I should  give 
Je  donnerais 
tu  donnerais 
il  donnerait 
nous  donnerions 
vous  donneiiez 
ils  donneraient 


Present. 

That  I may  give 

Que  je  donne 
que  tu  donnes 
qu’il  donne 
que  nous  donnions 
que  vous  donniez 
qu'ils  donnent 


Conditional. 


Jeh  donneray 
tu  donneray 
eel  donneray 
noo  donnereeong 
voo  donnereeay 
eel  donneray 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 


Keh  jeh  don 
keh  tu  don 
keel  don 

keh  noo  donnyong 
keh  voo  donnyay 
keel  don 


Past. 

I should  have  given 
J’aurais  donn/ 
tu  aurais  donn/ 
il  aurait  donn/ 
nous  aurions  donn/ 
vous  auriez  donne 
ils  auraient  donne 


Past. 

That  I may  have 
given. 

Que  j’aie  donne 
que  tu  aies  donn/ 
qu’il  ait  donn/ 
que  nous  ayons  donn t 
que  vous  ayez  donne 
qu'ils  ayent  donn/ 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


Imperfect.  Pluperfect, 

That  I might  give  That  I might  have 

given 

Que  je  donnasse  Keh  jeh  donnass  Que  feusse  donnd 

que  tu  donnasses  keh  tu  donnass  que  tu  eusses  donntf 

qu’il  donndt  keel  donnah  qu’il  eilt  donnl 

que  nous  donnassions  keh  noo  donnass-  que  nous  eussions 
yong  donnd 

que  vous  donnassiez  keh  voo  donnassyay  que  vous  eussiez 

donnd 

qu’ils  donnassent  keel  donnass  qu'ils  eussent  donnd 

IMERATIVE  MOOD.  . 

Donne  (don)  give  thou  donnons  (donnong)  let  us  give 

donnez  (donnay),  give  ye 
qu’il  donne  (keel  don),  qu’ils  donnent  (keel  don), 

let  him  give  let  them  give 


SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 


Future. 


Future. 

I shall  finish 
Je  finirai 
tu  finiras 
il  finira 
nous  fnirons 
vous  fnirez 
ils  fniront 


Jeh  feeneeray 
tu  feeneera 
eel  feeneera 
noo  feeneerong 
voo  feeneeray 
eel  feeneerong 


Future  anterior. 

I shall  have  finished 
J'aurai  fini 
tu  auras  fini 
il  aura  fini 
nous  aurons  fini 
vous  aurez  fini 
ils  auront  fini 


Present. 

I should  finish 

Je  finirais 
tu  finirais 
il  finirait 
nous  finuions 
vous  finiriez 
ils  finiraient 


Conditional. 


Jeh  feeneeray 
tu  feeneeray 
eel  feeneeray 
noo  feeneereeong 
voo  feeneereeay 
eel  feeneeray 


Past. 

I should  have  fin 
ished 
Jaurais  fini 
tu  aurais  fini 
il  aurait  fini 
nous  aurions  fini 
vous  auiiez  fini 
ils  auraint  fini 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 


Present. 

finir  (feeneer),  to  finish 


Past. 

avoir  fini  (feenee),  to  have  fin- 
ished 


Participles. 

finissant  (feeneesong),  finishing  fini , finished 

ayant  fini,  having  finished 


SIMPLE  TENSES. 
Absolu. 

I finish 
Je  finis 
tu  finis 
il finit 

nous  finissons 
vous  finissez 
ils  finissent 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
Present. 


Je  feenee 
tu  feenee 
eel  feenee 
noo  feeneessong 
voo  feeneessay 
eel  feeneess 


COMPOUND  TENSES, 
A ntlrieur. 

I have  finished 
J'ai  fini 
tu  as  fini 
il  a fini 
nous  avons  fini 
vous  avez  fini 
ils  ont  fini 


Present. 

That  I may  finish 

Que  je  finisse 
que  tu  finisses 
qu'il  finisse 
que  nous  finissions 

que  vous  finissiez 
qu'ils  finissent 


Past. 

That  I may  have  fin- 
ished. 

Keh  jeh  feeneess  Que  j’aie  fini 

keh  tu  feeneess  que  tu  aies  fini 

keel  feeneess  qu'il  ait  fini 

keh  noo  feeneessee-  que  nous  ayons  fini 
ong 

keh  voo  feeneesseeay  que  vous  ayez  fini 
kttl  feeneess  qu’ils  aient fini 


Imperfect. 
That  I might  finish 

Que  je  finisse 
que  tu  finisses 
qu'il  finit 
que  nous  finissions 

que  vous  finissiez 
qu'ils  finissent 


Keh  jeh  feeneess 
keh  tu  feeneess 
keel  feenee 
keh  noo  feeneess- 
yong 

keh  voo  feeneessyay 
keel  feeneess 


Pluperfect. 

That  I might  have 
finished 
Que  j’cusse  fini 
que  tu  eusses  fini 
qu'il  eilt  fini 
que  nous  eussions  fini 

que  vous  eussiez  fini 
qu'ils  eussent  fini 


Imperfect. 

I finished 
Je  finissais 
tu  finissais 
il  finissait 
nous  finissions 
vous  finissiez 
ils  finissaient 


Past  definite. 

I finished 
Je  finis 
tu  finis 
il  finit 
nous  finimes 
vous  finites 
ils  finirent 


Descriptive. 


Jeh  feeneessay 
tu  feeneessay 
eel  feeneessay 
noo  feeneessyong 
voo  feeneessyay 
eel  feeneessay 

Narrative. 


Jeh  feenee 
tu  feenee 
eel  feenee 
noo  feeneem 
voo  feeneet 
eel  feeneer 


Pluperfect. 

I had  finished 
J’avais  fini 
tu  avais  fini 
il  avait  fini 
nous  avions  fini 
vous  aviez  fini 
ils  avaient  fini 


Past  anterior. 

I had  finished 
J'eus  fini 
tu  eus  fini 
il  cut  fini 
nous  edrnes  fini 
vous  etltes  fini 
ils  eurent  fini 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Finis  (feenee),  finish  finissons  (feeneessong), 

let  us  finish 

qu'il  finisse  (keel  feeneess),  finissez  (feeneessay),  finish  ye 

let  him  finish  qu'ils  finissent  (keel  feeneess), 
let  them  finish 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Present.  Past. 


Recevoir  (ressevouahr), 

to  receive 


avoir  refit,  to  have  received 


Participle. 

Recevant  (ressevong),  receiving  rcfti  (ressu),  received 

ayant  refu,  having  received 


io8 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


SIMPLE  TENSES. 

Absolu. 

I receive 
Je  refois 
tu  retjo  is 
il  refoit 
nous  recevons 
vous  recevez 
ils  refoivent 

Imperfect. 

I received 
Je  recevais 
tu  recevais 
il  recevait 
nous  recevions 
vous  receviez 
ils  recevaient 


Past  definite. 

I received 
Je  ref  us 
tu  ref  us 
il  rcfut 
nous  ref  Ames 
vous  ref  Ate s 
ils  refurenl 

Future. 

I shall  receive 
Je  recevrai 
tu  recevras 
il  recevra 
nous  recevrons 
vous  recevrez 
ils  recevront 

Present. 

I should  receive 

Je  recevrai s 
tu  recevrais 
il  recevrait 
nous  recevrions 
vous  recevriez 
ils  recevraient 


Present. 

That  I may  receive 

Que  je  refoive 
que  tu  recoives 
qu'il  refoive 
que  nous  recevions 
que  vous  receviez 
qu’ils  refoivent 


INDICATIVE  MOOD 

Present. 


Jeh  ressouah 
tu  ressouah 
eel  ressouah 
noo  ressevong 
voo  ressevay 
eel  ressouahve 

Descriptive. 


Jeh  ressevay 
tu  ressevay 
eel  ressevay 
noo  ressevyong 
voo  ressevayy 
eel  ressevay 

Ararrative. 


Jeh  ressu 
tu  ressu 
eel  ressu 
noo  ressume 
voo  ressute 
eel  ressure 

Future. 


Jeh  ressvray 
tu  ressvrah 
eel  ressvrah 
noo  ressvrong 
voo  ressvray 
eel  ressvrong 

Conditional. 


Jeh  ressvray 
tu  ressvray 
eel  ressvray 
noo  ressvreeong 
voo  ressvreeay 
eel  ressvray 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 


Keh  jeh  ressouahve 
keh  tu  ressouahve 
keel  ressouahve 
keh  noo  ressvyong 
keh  voo  ressvyay 
keel  ressouahve 


COMPOUND  TENSES. 

A nterieur. 

I have  received 
J'ai  refu 
tu  as  refu 
il  a refu 
nous  avons  refu 
vous  avez  refu 
ils  ont  refu 


Pluperfect. 

I had  received 

J’avais  refu 
tu  avais  refu 
il  avait  refu 
nous  avions  refu 
vous  aviez  refu 
ils  avaient  refu 


Past  anterior. 

I had  received 
J'eus  refu 
tu  eus  refu 
il  eut  refu 
nous  eAmes  refu 
vous  elites  refit 
ils  eurent  refu 


Future  anterior. 

I shall  have  received 
J’aurai  refu 
tu  auras  refu 
il  aura  refu 
nous  aurons  refu 
vous  aurez  refit 
ils  auront  refu 

Past. 

I should  have  re- 
ceived 
J’aurais  refit 
tu  aurais  refit 
il  aurait  refu 
nous  aurions  refu 
vous  auriez  refu 
ils  auraient  refu 


Past. 

That  I might  have 
received 
Que  faie  refu 
que  tu  aies  refu 
qu'il  ait  refu 
que  nous  ayons  refu 
que  vous  ayez  refu 
qu’ils  aient  refu 


Imperfect. 

That  I might  receive 


Pluperfect. 
That  I might  havj 
received 


Que  je  refusse 
que  tu  refusses 
qu'il  refAt 
que  nous  refussions 

que  vous  refussiez 
qu’ils  refitssent 


Keh  jeh  ressuce 
keh  tu  ressuce 
keel  ressu 

keh  noo  ressussyong 

keh  voo  ressussyay 
keel  ressusse 


Que j’eusse  refu 
que  tu  eusses  refu 
qu'il  eAt  refu 
que  nous  eussions 
refu 

que  vous  eussiez  refu 
quits  eussent  refu 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


Refois  (ressouah),  receive  thou 


qu’il  refoive  (keel  ressouahve), 
let  him  receive 


Recevons  (ressevong), 

let  us  receive 

recevez  (ressevay),  receive  ye 
qu’ils  refoivent  (keel  res- 
souahve), let  them  receive 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 
INFINITIVE  MOOD. 


Present.  Past. 

Vendre  (vaundr),  to  sell.  Avoir  vendu,  to  have  sold 
Participle. 

Vendant  (vau.dong)  selling  Vendu  (vaundu),  sold 


SIMPLE  TENSES. 

Absolu. 

I sell 
Je  vends 
tu  vends 
il  vend 
nous  vendons 
vous  vendez 
ils  vendent 


Imperfect. 
I sold 

Je  vendais 
tu  vendais 
il  vendait 
nous  vendions 
vous  vendiez 
ils  vendaient 


Past  definite. 

I sold 
Je  vendis 
tu  vendis 
il  vendit 
nous  vendtmes 
vous  vendttes 
ils  vendirent 


ayant  ve, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
Present. 


Je  vong 
tu  vong 
eel  vong 
noo  vaundong 
voo  vaunday 
eel  vaund 

Descriptive. 


Jeh  vaunday 
tu  vaunday 
eel  vaunday 
noo  vaundyong 
veo  vaundyai 
eel  vaunday 

Narrative. 


Jeh  vaundee 
tu  vaundee 
eel  vaundee 
noo  vaundeem 
voo  vaundeet 
eel  vaundeer 


having  sold 


COMPOUND  TENSES 
Antdrieur. 

I have  sold 
J'ai  vendu 
tu  as  vendu 
il  a vendu 
nous  avons  vendu 
vous  avez  vendu 
ils  ont  vendu 


Pluperfeet. 

I had  sold 
J avais  vendu 
tu  avais  vendu 
il  avait  vendu 
nous  avions  vendu 
vous  aviez  vendu 
ils  avaient  vendu 


Past  anterior. 

I had  sold 
J'eus  vendu 
tu  eus  vendu 
il  eut  vendu 
nous  eAmes  vendu 
vous  eAtes  vendu 
ils  eurent  vendu 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT 


tog 


Future. 

I shall  sell 
Je  vendrai 
tu  vendras 
il  vendra 
nous  vendrons 
vous  vendrez 
i/s  vendront 

Present. 

I should  sell 
Je  vendrais 
tu  vendrais 
il  vendralt 
nous  vendrions 
vous  vendriez 
i/s  vendraient 


Present. 

That  I may  sell 
Que  je  vende 
que  tu  vendes 
qu’il  vende 
que  nous  vendions 
que  vous  vendiez 
quits  vendent 


Future. 


Jeh  vaundray 
tu  vaundrah 
eel  vaundrah 
noo  vaundrong 
voo  vaundray 
eel  vaundrong 

Conditional. 


Jeh  vaundray 
tu  vaundrah 
eel  vaundrah 
noo  vaundrong 
voo  vaundreeay 
eel  vaundray 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 


Past. 

I should  have  sold 
J’aurai  v'endu 
tu  auras  vendu 
il  aura  vendu 
nous  aurons  vendu 
vous  aurez  vendu 
its  auront  vendu 


Past. 

I should  have  sold 
J'aurais  vendu 
tu  aurais  vendu 
il  aurait  vendu 
nous  aurions  vendu 
vous  auriez  vendu 
its  auraient  vendu 


Keh  jeh  vaund 
keh  tu  vaund 
keel  vaund 
keh  noo  vaundyong 
keh  voo  vaundyay 
keel  vaund 


Past. 

That  I may  have  sold 
Que  faie  ve}idu 
que  tu  aies  vendu 
qu'il  ait  vendu 
que  nous  ayons  vendu 
que  vous  ayez  vendu 
qu'ils  aient  vendu 


English. 

No,  Madam 
No,  Miss 
Will  you 
tell  me 
I thank  you 
Do  you  speak 
English  ? 
French  ? 

I do  not  speak 
French 

I speak  it  a little 
I understand 
I do  not  understand 

Do  you  understand  ? 
Give  me 

some  bread 
some  meat 
some  wine 
some  beer 
Bring  me 

some  coffee 
some  tea 
some  milk 
some  butter 
some  cheese 
Thank  you 


French. 

Non,  Madame 
Non,  Mademoiselle 
Voulez-vous 
me  dire 

Je  vous  remercie 
Parlez-vous 
anglais  ? 
franqais  ? 

Jc  ne  parle  pas  frail- 
qais 

Je  le parle  tin  peu 
Je  comprends 
Je  ne  comprends  pas 

Comprenez-vous  ? 
Donnez-moi 
du  pain 
de  la  viande 
du  vin 
de  la  biere 
Apportez-moi 
du  caje'  . 
du  the' 
du  lait 
du  beurre 
du  Jromage 
Merci 


Pronunciation. 

Nong,  Madamm 
Nong,  Madmouazel 
Voolai  voo 
meh  deer 

Jeh  voo  remmairsee 
Parlai-voo 
aunglai  ? 
fraunsai  ? 

Jeh  neh  pari  pah 
fraunsai 

Jeh  Ieh  parlungpeub 
Jeh  comprong 
Jeh  neh  comprong 
pah 

Comprennai-voo 
Donnai-mouah 
du  pang 
de  lah  veeaund 
du  vang 
de  la  beeare 
Apportai-mouah 
du  caffay 
du  tay 
du  lay 
du  beur 
du  fromaje 
Mairsee 


Meeting. 


Imperfect. 

That  I might  sell 

Que  ie  vendisse  Keh  jeh  vaundeess 

que  tu  vendisses  keh  tu  vaundeess 

qu’il  vendit  keel  vaundee 

que  nous  vendissions  keh  noo  vaundeess- 
yong 

que  vous  vendissiez  keh  voo  vaundeess- 
yay 

qu’ils  vendissent  keel  vauneess 


Pluperfect. 
That  I might  have 
sold 

Que  j’eusse  vendu 
que  tu  eusses  vendu 
qu’il  etit  vendu 
que  nous  eussions 
vendu 

que  vous  eussiez 
vendu 

qu'ils  eussent  vendu 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


Vends  (vong),  sell  thou 

qu'il  vende  (keel  vaunde), 

let  him  sell 


vendors  (vaundong),  let  us  sell 
vendez  (vaunday),  sell  ye 
qu'ils  vendent  (keel  vaund), 

let  them  sell 


m Easy  Expressions.#^ 


)AVffAV»/'V()y>V<D‘VUy<V(DtV.(iy>V 


»A  uAu/'y 


English. 

Tell  me 
If  you  please 
Have  the  goodness 
Yes,  Sir 
Yes,  Madam 
Yes,  Miss 
No.  Sir 


French. 

Dites-moi 
S’  il  vous  plait 
Ayez  la  bontl 
Oui,  Monsieur 
Oui,  Madame 
Oui , Alademoiselle 
Non,  Monsieur 


Pronunciation. 

Deet  mouah 
See  voo  play 
Aiyai  lah  bongtai 
Wee,  Mosseeu 
Wee,  Madamm 
Wee,  Madmouazel 
Nong,  Mosseeu 


Good  morning 
How'do  you  do  ? 

Very  well 
I am  very  well 

How  is  your  father? 


How  is  your  mother? 


She  is  not  well 

She  is  ill 
He  is  very  ill 
She  has  a cold 
I must  go 
Good  bye 
Farewell 
Your  servant 
I wish  you  a good 
morning 
Good  evening 
Good  night 
I wish  you  good 
night. 

My  compliments  to 
your  father 
I will  not  fail 


Bon  jour 

Comment  vous  portez- 
vous  ? 

Trfo-bien 

Je  me  porte  fort  bien 

Comment  se  porte 
Monsieur  votre 
phe  ? 

Comment  se  porte 
Madame  voire 
mere  ? 

Elle  ne  se  porte  pas 
bien 

File  est  malade 
Il  est  bien  malade 
Elle  esNenrhume’e 
Il  faut  partir 
A u plaisir 
Adieu 

Votre  serviteur 
J‘  vous  souhaite  le 
bon  jour 
Bon  soir 
Bonne  nuit 
Je  vous  souhaite  tine 
bonne  nuit 
Saluez  Monsieur  vo- 
tre pore  de  ma  part 
Je  n'y  manquerai 
pas 


Bong  joor 
Commong  voo  por 
taivoo 

Tray  beeang 
Jeh  meh  port  fore 
beeang 

Commong  seh  port 
mosseeu  votr 
pare  ? 

Commong  seh  port 
Maddam  votr 
mare  ? 

El  neh  seh  port  pah 
beeang 
El  ai  mallad 
Eel  ai  beeang  mallad 
El  ai  taunreemay 
Eel  fo  parteer 
O playzeer 
Adieu 

Votr  sairveeture 
Jeh  voo  sooate  leh 
bong  joor 
Bong  souar 
Bon  nwee 

Jeh  voo  sooate  une 
bon  nwee 

Salluai  mosseeu  votr 
pare  deh  mah  par 
Jeh  nee  maunkiai 
pah 


There  is  a knock 
It  is  Mrs  B. 

I am  very  glad  to 
you 


Visits. 

On  frappe 
Cest  Madame  B. 
J‘  suis  charm d 
vous  voir 


Ong  frap 
Sai  Maddam  B. 

Je  swee  sharmai 
deh  voo  vouahr 


no 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


English. 

Pray,  be  seated 

What  news  is  there? 

Good  news 
Do  you  believe  it  ? 

I believe  it 
I don’t  believe  a 
word  of  it 
I think  so 
I think  not 
Who  told  you  ? 

It  is  no  such  thing 
Have  you  heard  from 
home  ? 

The  postman 

brought  me  a let- 
ter this  morning 
They  write  sad  news 

Will  you  stay  and 
dine  with  us  ? 

No,  thank  you 
I cannot  stay 

I must  go 

You  are  in  great 
hurry 

I have  a great  deal 
to  do. 


Frencn. 

Asscyez-vous, je  votis 
prie 

Que  dit-on  de  nou- 
veau ? 

De  bonnes  nouvelles 

Le  croyez-vous  ? 

Je  le  crois 

Je  n’en  crois  pas  un 
mol 

Je  crois  que  oui 

Je  crois  que  non 

Qui  vous  I'a  dit? 

II  n’en  est  rien 

A vcz-vous  refu  des 
nouvelles  de  chez- 
vous  ? 

Le  facteur  in' ap por- 
ta une  lettre  ce 
matin 

On  m’Icrit  de  mau- 
vaises  nouvelles 

Voulez-vous  rester  a 
diner  avec  nous  ? 

Merci 

Je  ne  peux  pas  res- 
it r 

II faut  que  je  men 
aille 

Vous  etes  bien  pres- 
sl 

J’ai  bien  des  c hoses  a 
faire 


Pronunciation. 

Assayai  voo  jeh  voo 
pree 

Keh  deet-ong  deh 
noovo  ? 

Deh  bon  noovel 

Leh  crwoyai  voo  ? 

Jeh  leh  croua 

Jeh  nong  croua  paz 
ung  mo 

Je  croua  queh  wee 

Je  croua  queh  nong 

Kee  voo  lah  dee  ? 

Eel  non  ai  reeang 

Avai  voo  ressu  dai 
noovel  deh  shai 
voo  ? 

Leh  facter  mappor- 
tah  une  lettr  seh 
mattang 

Ong  maycree  deh 
movaze  noovel 

Voolai  voo  restai  ah 
deenai  avec  noo  ? 

Mairsee 

Jeh  neh  peuh  pah 
restai 

Eel  fo  keh  jeh  won 
aheel 

Vooz  ait  beeang  pres- 
sai 

Jay  beeang  dai  shoez 
ah  fare 


Expressions  of  Surprise. 


What! 

Is  it  possible  ? 

Who  would  have 
believed  it  ! 
Indeed 

It  is  impossible 
That  cannot  be 


Comment ! 
Serait-il possible  ? 
Qui  I aurait  cru  ! 


Commong  ! 
Serrait-eel  posseebl? 
Kee  loray  cru ! 


En  v drill  Ong  vereetay 

Cela  est  impossible  Slah  ait  amposseebl 

Celt : ne  se  pent  pas  Slah  neh  seh  peu  pah 

I am  astonished  at  it  Jen  suis  bien  etonnd  Jong  swee  beean 

aitonnai 

Voo  meh  surepren- 
nay 

C’est  incroyable  Sait  angcrwoyable 

Cela  est  inoui  Slah  ait  inwee 

J'en  suis  fdchl  Jong  swee  fashai 

J'en  suis  desoil  Jong  swee  daizolai 


You  surprise  me  Vous  me  surprenez 


It  is  incredible 
It  is  unheard  of 
I am  sorry  for  it 
I am  quite  vexed 
about  it 
What  a pity  ! 

It  is  a great  pity 
It  is  a sad  thing 


Quel  dommage  ! 

Vest  bien  dommage 
Cela  est  bien  Jdcheux 


It  is  a great  misfor-  Cest  un  grand  mal- 
tune  heur 

I am  very  glad  Je  suis  bien  aise 

I am  very  glad  of  it  J'en  suis  fort  aise 
It  gives  me  great  joy  J’en  ai  bien  de  la  joie 

How  happy  I am  Que  je  suis  heureux 


I wish  you  joy 
I congratulate  you 
on  it 


Je  vous  fjlicite 
Je  vous  en  fais  mon 
compliment 


Kel  dommaje 
Say  beeang  dommaje 
Slah  ah  beeang  fa- 
sheu 

Sait  ung  grong  mai- 
ler 

Je  swee  beean  aze 
Jong  swee  fort  aze 
Jon  ay  beeang  deh 
lah  jouah 

Keh  jeh  sweeze  heu- 
reu 

Jeh  voo  faileeseet 
Jeh  vooze  ong  fay 
mong  compiee- 
mong 


Anger  and  Blame. 


English. 

He  is  very  angry 


French. 

II  est  bien  en  colcre 


I am  in  a bad  temper  Je  suis  de  mauvaise 
humeur 

She  is  furious  about  Elle  en  est  futieuse 
it 

Hold  your  tongue  Taiscz-vous 
You  are  very  wrong  Vous  avez  bien  tort 


What  a shame  ! 

How  could  you  do 
so  ? 

I am  ashamed  of  you 

For  shame  1 

You  are  very  much 
to  blame 

His  patience  is  tired 
out 

Don’t  answer 


Quelle  honte  ! 
Comment  avez-vous 
pu  faire  cela  ? 
Vous  me faites  honte 
Fi  done  ! 

Vous  etes  bien  a bid- 
mer 

La  patience  lui 
Ichappe 

Ne  rlpliquez  pas 


Pronunciation. 

Eel  ai  beean  ong  col* 
lare 

Jeh  swee  deh  movaz» 
humeure 

El  on  ai  fureeuze 

Taizay  voo 

Vooze  avai  beeang 
tor 

Kel  haunt ! 

Commont  avai  voo 
pu  fare  sla  ? 

Voo  meh  fate  haunt 

Fee  don  ! 

Vooze  ait  beean  ah 
blahmai 

Lah  passyaunce  Iwee 
aishap 

Neh  raipleekai  pah 


Age. 

How  old  are  you  ? Quel  dge  avez-vous  ? Kel  ahje  avai  voo?- 

I am  twenty-two  J 'ai  vingt-deux  ans  Jay  vahng-deuh  ong 

I shall  soon  be  thirty  J’ai  bientot  trente  Jay  beeangto  traunt 
ans  ong 

He  looks  older  II parait plus  dgl  Eel  paray  pluze 

ahjai 

I did  not  think  you  Je  ne  vous  croyais  Jeh  neh  voo  crwoyai 
were  so  old  pas  si  dge  pah  see  ahjai 

She  is  at  least  sixty  Elle  a au  means  soi-  El  a o mooang  soo- 
xante  ans  assaunt  ong 

How  old  is  your  un-  Quel  dge  peut  avoir  Kel  ahje  peutavouar 
cle?  Monsieur  votre  Mosseeu  votrauncl 

oncle  ? 

He  is  nearly  eighty  II  a h peu  pres  qua-  Eel  ah  ah  peu  pray 
tre-vingt  ans  kahtr  vangs  ong 

Is  he  so  old  ? Est-il  si  dgf  que  Ait  eel  see  ahjai  keh 

cela  ? sla 

It  is  a great  age  C’est  un  grand  dge  Sait  ung  graund 

ahje 

He  begins  to  grow//  commence  a vieil-  Eel  commaunce  ah 
old  lir  veeailyeer 


[To  ask  Questions. 


What  do  you  say  ? 
Do  you  hear  me  ? 

I don’t  speak  to  you 

Do  you  understand 
me  ? 

Listen 
Come  here 

What  is  that? 

Why  don’t  you  an- 
swer ? 

What  do  you  mean  ? 

Don’t  you  speak 
French? 

Very  little,  sir 


Que  dites-vous  ? 

M’ entendez-vous  ? 

Ce  nest  pas  a vous 
que  je  parle 

Me  comprenez-vous  ? 

Ecoutez 

Approchez  — venez 
ici 

Qu’est-ce  que  cela? 

Pourquoi  ne  repon- 
dez-vous  pas  ? 

Que  voulez-vous 
dire  ? 

Ne  parlez-vous  pas 
franqais  ? 

Bien  peu.  Monsieur 


Ke  deet  voo  ? 

Mauntaundai-voo  ? 

Snay  paz  ah  voo  keh 
jeh  pari 

Meh  comprenay 
voo  ? 

Aicootai 

Aproshai — Vennayz- 
eesee 

Case  keh  sla  ? 

Poorcouah  neh  rai- 
pondai  voo  pah  ? 

Keh  voolai  voo  deer! 

Neh  parlai  voo  pah 
Fraunsay  ? 

Beeang  peuh,  mos- 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


English.  French.  Pronunciation. 

Do  you  know  Connaissez-vous  Connaissai  voo  mos- 
Mr.  H ? Monsieur  H.  ? seeu  H. 

I know  him  by  sight  Je  le  connais  de  vue  Jeh  leh  connay  deh 

vu 

I know  him  by  name  Je  le  connais  de  nom  Jeh  leh  connay  deh 

nong 

What  do  you  call  Comment  appelez  Commont  applai  voo 
that?  vous  cela?  sla? 

What  does  that  Quest-ce  que  cela  Case  keh  sla  veuh 
mean  ? vent  dire  ? deer  ? 

What  is  that  good  A quoi  cela  est-il  Ah  couah  sla  ait  eel 
for?  bon?  bong? 


Morning. 

What  o’clock  is  it?  Quelle  heure  est-il?  Kel  eur  ait-eel  ? 

It  is  near  eight  II  est  pris  de  huit  Eel  ai  pray  deh  weet 
heures  eur 

Light  the  fire  Faites  du  feu  Fate  du  feuh 

I am  going  to  get  up  Je  vais  tne  lever  Jeh  vay  meh  levvay 
Get  me  some  hot  A llez  me  chercher  de  Allai  meh  shairshai 
water  I'eau  chaude  de  lo  shode 

Make  haste  Ne  soyez  pas  long-  Nell  swoyai  pah 

temps  longtong 

How  have  you  slept  ? Comment  avez-vous  Commont  avai-voo 
dormi  ? dormee  ? 

Did  you  sleep  well  ? Avez  vous  bien  dor-  Avay-voo  beeang 
mi ? dormee 

Very  well,  thank  you  Tres-bien,  je  vous  Tray  beeang,  jeh  voo 

remercie  remmairsee 

Not  very  well  Pas  tres-bien  Pah  tray  beeang 

I never  woke  all  J’ ai  dormi  tout  cTun  Jay  dormee  too  dong 
night  somme  som 

I could  not  sleep  Je  n'ai  pas  pu  dor-  Jeh  nai  pah  pu  dor- 
mir  meer 

I never  closed  my  Je  n'ai  pas  ferm/Jeh  nai  pah  fairmay 
eyes  T oeil  lile 

I have  been  up  this  II y a une  heure  que  Eel  ee  ah  une  eur 
hour  je  me  suis  lev!  keh  jeh  meh  swee 

levai 

You  are  an  early  Vous  etes  matinal  Vooz  ait  matteenal 
riser 

I generally  rise  early  Je  me  live  ordinaire-  Jeh  meh  lave  ordee- 
ment  de  bonne  naremongdeh  bon 

heure  eur 


Breakfast. 


Breakfast  is  ready  Le  dejedner  est pret  Leh  daijeunay  ai 

pray  _ 

Le  dljeibier  est-il  Lehd  aijeunay  ait  eel 
pret?  pray  ? 

Venez  dljetlner  Vennay  daijeunay 

L'eau  bout-elle  Lo  boot-el  ? 

Cette  eau  n’a  pas  Set  o na  pas  booeel- 
bouilli  lee 

Le  thl  est-il  fait?  Leh  tay  ait-eel  fay  ? 
Mettrai-je  du  th/  Mettray-je  du  tay 
vert  dans  la  till-  vair  dong  lah  tai- 

iire  ? yare 

N’en  mettez  que  Ires-  Nong  mettay  keh 
peu  tray  peu 

Cela  est  assez  Sla  ait  assay 

Des  petils pains  Day  pettee  pang 

Prenez-vous  du  the.  Prennay-voo  du  tay 
ou  du  cafl ? oo  du  caffay  ? 


Is  breakfast  ready? 

Come  io  breakfast 

Does  the  water  boil? 

This  water  has  not 
boiled 

Is  the  tea  made  ? 

Shall  I put  some 
green  tea  in  the 
tea-pot 

Very  little 

That  is  enough 

Some  rolls 

Do  you  drink  tea  or  , 
coffee  ? 


English. 

This  cream  is  sour 
Will  you  take  an 

egg? 

These  eggs  are  hard 
We  want  another 
egg-cup 

Give  me  the  salt 


French. 


Pronunciation 


Cette  creme  s' est  Set  crame  sait  agree 
agrie 

Voulez-vous  manger 
un  ccuf  ? 

Ces  ecu fs  son  l durs 
II  nous  faut  un  au- 
tre coquetier 
Donnez-moi  le  sel 


Pass  me  the  butter  Passez-moi  le  betirre 


This  butter  is  not 
fresh 

Bring  some  more 

Give  me  a spoon 

Is  the  coffee  strong 
enough  ? 

We  want  more  cups 

Take  some  more 
sugar 

A piece  of  toast 

Cold  meat 

The  table  cloth 

The  sugar  basin 

Chocolate 

A knife 

This  knife  is  blunt 

We  have  done  break- 
fast 

You  can  take  away 
the  things 


Ce  beurre  n' est  pas 
frais 

Allez-nous  en  cher- 
cher a’ autre 

Donnez-jnoi  une 
cuiller 

Le  cafl  est-il  assez 
fort  ? 

II  nous  manque  des 
tasses 

Prenez  encore  du 
sucre 

Une  rolie 

De  la  viande  froide 

La  nappe 

Le  sucrier 

Du  chocolat 

Un  couteau 

Ce  couteau  ne  coupe 
pas 

Nous  avons  fni  de 
dfedner 

Vous  pouvez  desser- 
vir 


Voolay-voo  maunjay 
un  uf? 

Saze  euf  son  dure 
Eel  noo  fote  un  otr 
coktyai 

Donnay  mouah  leh 
sel 

Passay  mouah  leh 
beur 

Seh  beur  nai  pafrai 

Allay-nooz  ong  shair- 
shai dotr 

Donnay  mouah  une 
eweelyare 

Leh  caffay  ait  eel  as- 
say fore  ? 

Eel  noo  maunk  day 

tass 

Prenaze  auncore  du 
suer 

Une  rotee 
De  lah  veeaund 
frouad 
Lah  nap 
Leh  sucreeay 
Du  shocolah 
Ung  cooto 
Seh  cooto  ne  coop 
pas 

Nooz  avong  feenee 
deh  daijeunay 
Voo  poovai  dessair 
veer 


Ordering  Dinner. 

Have  you  ordered  Avez-vous  commande  Avai-voo  commaun 
diner?  le  diner  ? dai  leh  deenai  ? 

Show  me  the  bill  of  Montrez-moi  la  carte  Mongtray  mouah  tali 
fare  carte 

What  soup  will  you  Quelle  soupe  vous  Kel  soup  voo  sair- 
have?  servirai-je  ? veeraije? 

Maccaroni  soup  De  la  soupe  au  rnaca-  Deh  lah  soup  o mac- 
roni  aroni 

Have  you  any  roast-  ^vez-vous  du  bauf  Avay-voo  du  beuf 
beef?  rSti?  rotee? 

Not  to-day  Pas  aujourd’ hui  Paz  ojoordwee 

We  have  very  fine  Nous  avons  de  tr'es-  Nooz  avong  deh  • 
fish  bon  poisson  tray  bong  pouahs- 

song 

Fried  soles  Des  soles  f rites  Day  sole  freet 

A dozen  of  prawns  Une  douzaine  de  sali-  Une  doozane  deh 
coqties  salleecok 

What  wines  will  you  Qziel  vins  Monsieur  Kel  vang  Mosseeu 
have?  d/sire-t-il  ? dayzeer-t-eel  ? 

Let  us  see  Voyons  Vwoiyong 

Have  you  the  best  Avez-vous  des  vins  Avai-voo  day  vang 
wines  ? fins  ? fang  ? 

Here  is  the  list  En  void  la  lisle  Ong  vwoysee  lah 

leest 

We  shall  dine  at  six  Nous  dinerons  a six  Noo  deenerongs  ah 
o’clock  heures  seece  eur 

Be  punctual  Soyez  exacte  Swoyaiz  exact 

What  shall  I help  Que  vous  servirai-je  ? Keh  voo  sairveerv 
you  to  ? aije  ? 


112 


FRENCH  SELF-TAUGHT. 


English. 


French. 


Will  you  take  some  Voulez-vous  un  peu 
soup  ? de  soupe  ? 

No,  thank  you  Merci  bien 

Willingly  Trls-volontiers 

Help  yourself  Servez-vous 

Well  done,  if  you  Bien  cuil,  s’il  vons 
please  plait 

It  is  excellent  II  est  excellent 

Do  you  take  pepper?  Mangez-vous  le  poi- 
vre  ? 

Cayenne  pepper  Le  poivre  rouge 

Here  are  spinach  Void  des  epinards  et 


and  brocoli 
Peas 

Cauliflower 

Artichokes 

Potatoes 

The  mustard  pot 
Change  the  plates 


des  brocolis 
Des  petils  pois 
Du  choufleur 
Des  artichauls 
Des pommes  de  terre 
Le  moutardier 
Changez  les  assietles 


Give  me  a clean  fork  Donnez-moi  tine 

fourchette  propre 

Are  you  hungry?  Avez-vous  faim? 

I am  hungry  J’ai faim 

Vou  don’t  eat  Vous  ne  mangez pas 

Are  you  thirsty  ? Avez-vous  soif  ? 

I am  very  thirsty  J’ai  bien  soif 
I am  dying  of  thirst  Je  meurs  de  soif 
Take  a glass  of  wine  Prenez  un  verre  de 
vin 

Bring  me  a glass  of  Apportez-moi  un 
water  verre  d’eau  fraiche 

Give  me  something  Donnez-moi  a boire 
to  drink 

This  wine  tastes  of  Ce’vin  sent  le  bou- 
the  cork  chon 

It  is  flat  II  est  e'ventl 

A cork-screw  Un  tire-bouchon 


Pronunciation. 

Voolai-vooz  ung  peu 
deh  soup  ? 

Mairsee  beeang 
Tray  volontyai 
Sairvai  voo 
Beeang  cwee,  see  voo 
play 

Eel  ait  exeellong 
Maunjai  voo  leh  pou- 
ahvr 

Leh  pouahvr  rouge 
Vouasee  daiz  aipee- 
nar  ai  day  brocolee 
Day  pettee  pouah 
Du  shoofleur 
Daiz  arteesho 
Dayz  pom  deh  tare 
Leh  mootardyai 
Shaunjai  laiz  assyett 
Donnay  mouah  une 
foorshet  propr 
Avay-voo  fang? 

Jay  fang 

Voo  neh  maunjay  pa 
Avay  voo  souaf? 

Jay  beeang  souaf 
Je  meur  deh  souaf 
Prennaze  ung  vair  de 
vang 

Apportay-mouah  ung 
vair  do  frashe 
Donnay  mouah  ah 
bouahr 

Seh  vang  song  leh 
booshong 
Eel  ait  aivauntai 
Ung  teer  booshong 


Tea  is  quite  ready 
They  are  waiting  for 
you 

I am  coming 
The  tea  is  verystrong 
Pour  out  the  tea 
Bring  a saucer 

Where  are  the  sugar- 
tongs  ? 

Ring,  if  you  please 
A little  more  milk 


Tea. 

Le  till  est  tout  pret 
On  vous  attend 

Me  void 

Le  thl  est  t res -fort 
Versez  le  thl 
Apportez  une  sou- 
coupe 

Oil  sont  les  pinces  ? 


Leh  tay  ai  too  pray 
On  vous  attong 

Meh  vvvoysee 
Leh  tay  ai  tray  fore 
Vairsay  leh  tay 
Apportaze  une  soo- 
coop 

Ou  song  lay  pangce  ? 


s’il  vous  Sonnay,  see  voo  play 
peu 


Sonnez, 
plait 

Encore  un  peu  de  lait 


English. 

A slice  of  bread  and 
butter 

Hand  the  plate 
Will  you  take  some 
cake  ? 

A small  piece 
Make  more  toast 

Make  haste 
This  is  excellent  tea 

The  tea-tray 
The  milk-jug 
A set  of  tea-things 
Have  you  finished  ? 

Take  another  cup 

No,  thank  you 
Brown  bread 
White  bread 
Stale  bread 
New  bread 


French. 

Une  beurrtlc.  — une 
tarline  de  beurre 
Passez  Tassiette 
Voulez-vous  du  ga- 
teaut 

Un  petit  morceau 
Faites  encore  des 
roties 

Depechez-vous 
Voila  d excellent  tkl 

Le  cabaret 
Le  pot  au  lait 
Un  service 

Avez-vous  ddjci  fini? 

Prenez  encore  une 
tasse 

Merci  bien 
Du  pain  bis 
Du  pain  blanc 
Du  pain  rassis 
Du  pain  frais 


Pronunciation. 

Une  beurray. — Une 
tarteen  deh  beui 
Passay  lassyett 
Voolay  voo  du 
gahto  ? 

Ung  pettee  morso 
Fates  aunebre  day 
rotee 

Daypayshay  voo 
Vwoyla  dexcellong 
tay 

Leh  cabbaray 
Leh  pote  o lay 
Ung  sairveece 
Avay  voo  dayja  fee- 
nee 

Prennaze  auncore 
une  tass 
Mairsee  beeang 
Du  pang  bee 
Du  pang  blong 
Du  pang  rassee 
Dupang  fray 


It  is  late 
It  is  not  late 
What  o’clock  is  it  ? 
It  is  still  early 

Are  you  tired  ? 

Not  at  all 
Not  much 
It  is  only  ten 


to  go 


What  will  you  take  ? Que prendrez-vous  ? 


Auncore  ung 
deh  lay 
Keh  praundray  voo  ? 


It  is  time 
bed 

Is  my  room  ready  ? 

Go  and  see 
Draw  the  curtain 
A blanket 

Good  night 


Evening. 

11  est  tard 
II  n’esl  pas  tard 
Quelle  heure  est-il? 
II  est  encore  de  bonne 
heure 

Etes-vous  fatigul? 
Point  du  tout 
Pas  beaucoup 
II  n’csl  que  dix 
heures 

to  II  est  P heure  de  se 
coucher 

Ma  chambre  est-elle 
pret  ? 

Allez-voir 
Fermez  cerideau 
Une  couverture  de 
laine 
Bon  soir 


I wish  you  a good  Je  vous  souhaite  une 
night  bonne  nuit 

I am  sleepy  J’ai  sommeil 

Are  you  sleepy  ? Avez-vous  sommeil ? 


Eel  ay  tar 
Eel  nay  pa  tar 
Kel  eur  ait-eel  ? 

Eel  ait  auncore  deh 
bon  eur 

Ait  voo  fateegay  ? 
Pouang  du  too 
Pa  bocoo 

Eel  nay  keh  deeze 
eur 

Eel  ai  leur  deh  seh 
cooshay 

Ma  shaumbr  ah-el 
prate? 

Allay  vouahr 
Fairmay  seh  reedo 
Une  coovairture  deh 
lane 

Bong  souahr 
Jeh  voo  sooate  une 
bon  nwee 
J’ay  sommail 
Avay  voo  sommail? 


A good  vocabulary  will  now  enable  the  student  to  progress, 
and  this,  with  the  writing  and  exercises,  will  make  the  diligent 
student  master  of  the  language. 


GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


”3 


ac*  fj 

SSSy^Kv  v 


^LPHy\BET  /ND  pRONUJ^CiyVTIOJL 


The  German  Alphabet  consists  of  the  following  26  letters  : 


English 

Character. 

German 

Character. 

Name 

of  the  letter. 

Pronunciation. 

A a 

31  a 

ah 

as  a in  “ ijart,”  “ far.” 

B b 

8 b 

bay 

as  in  English. 

as  c in  “ cure  ” if  before  a,  0, 

C c 

d c 

tsay 

u,  a consonant  or  when  final. 
“ Ch”  is  pron.  like  the  “ ch” 
in  the  Scotch  word  “ loch.” 

D d 

25  b 

day 

as  in  English. 

E e 

<£  e 

ay 

i as  a in  44  name  when  long, 
1 as  e in  44  t£ll 99  when  short. 

F f ff 

ff  f ff 

ef 

as  in  English, 
as  g in  “ go.” 

G g 

© 9 

gay 

H h 

!>  b 

hah 

like  h in  “ horse.” 

I i 

3 t 

e 

as  i in  “ fit.” 

J j 

3 i 

yot 

as  y in  “ yes.” 

K k 

it  f 

kah 

' 

L 1 

2 1 

el 

M m 

2R  m 

em 

N n 
O 0 

9?  n 
£)  0 

en 

0 

•as  in  English. 

P P 

3>  P 

pay 

Q q 

O q 

koo 

R r 

SR  r 

err 

S s 

© d f 

es 

as  s in  “sin” — sch  is  pron. 

like  sh  in  “ ship.” 

T t 

Z t 

tay 

as  t in  “ table.” 

St 

(®t) 

s-tay 

U u 

11  u 

OO 

as  00  in  “ stool. 

V V 

8 » 

fow 

as  f in  “ far.” 

W w 

SID  tt> 

vay 

as  v in  44  very.” 

X X 

X x 

iks 

as  x in  “ fox.” 

Y y 

§)  P 

ypsilon 

as  y in  “ system.” 

Z z 

3 } 

tset  1 

as  ts  in  “ fits.” 

Simple  Vowels  ares 
a,  f,  t,  0,  u. 

Compound  Vowels  . 

if  x pronounced  as  a in  “ fate.” 

v.  oe  “ like  eu  in  the  French  word  “ feu,”  or  u in 

“ much.” 

> ui  “ "eeyu,”  or  like  u in  the  French  word 

“ sure.” 

The  last  two  have  no  exact  corresponding  sound  in  the 
English  language — Let  a native  pronounce  it  for  you,  and  you 
will  easily  catch  the  sound. 


Masculine  Feminine  Neuter 

ber  bie  ba3  is  the  German  Article 

dar  dee  das 

Every  German  substantive  is  written  with  a capital  letter. 


GOLDEN  RULE: 

Always  learn  the  Gender  of  the  Substantive. 

->Yww^ 


Observation. 

In  the  first  part  of  this  book,  the  German  has  been  printed 
in  the  English  characters  to  facilitate  its  reading,  but  as  most 
German  books  are  printed  in  the  German  characters,  that  type 
has  been  adopted  for  the  second  part,  and  must  there  be 
studied. 


The  Earth. 


English. 

German. 

Pronunciation. 

The  earth 

die  Erde 

dee  airday 

the  fire 

das  Feuer 

das  feuer 

the  water 

das  Wasser 

das  vasser 

the  rainwater 

das  Regenwasser 

das  regenvasser 

the  stream 

der  Strom 

dar  storm 

the  sea 

die  See 

dee  say 

the  weather 

das  Wetter 

das  vetter 

the  summer  weather  das  Sommerwetter 

das  sommervetter 

the  winter  weather 

das  Winterwetter 

das  vintervetter 

the  wind 

der  Wind 

dar  vind 

the  rain 

der  Regen 

dar  regen 

the  storm 

der  Sturm 

dar  stoorm 

the  hail 

der  Hagel 

dar  hahgel 

the  frost 

der  Frost 

dar  frost 

the  summer 

der  Sommer 

dar  sommer 

the  winter 

der  Winter 

dar  vinter 

the  snow 

der  Schnee 

dar  shna 

the  ice 

das  Eis 

das  ice 

the  thunder 

der  Donner 

dar  donner 

the  morning 

der  Morgen 

dar  morgen 

the  day 

der  Tag 

dar  tag 

W-iJSUj, 

axottWocfk' 


GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


H4 


English. 

German. 

Pronunciation. 

the  midday 

der  Mittag 

dar  mittag 

the  night 

die  Nacht 

dee  nacht 

the  moon 

der  Mond 

dar  mond 

the  sun 

die  Sonne 

dee  sonna 

the  star 

der  Stern 

dar  starn 

the  light 

das  Licht 

das  licht 

the  year 

das  Jahr 

das  yahr 

The  Human  Body. 

The  arm 

der  Arm 

dar  arm 

the  beard 

der  Bart 

dar  bart 

the  blood 

das  Blut 

das  bloot 

the  bosom 

der  Busen 

dar  boosen 

the  breast  (chest) 

die  Brust 

dee  broost 

the  eye 

das  Auge 

das  owgay 

the  ear 

das  Ohr 

das  ore 

the  chin 

das  Kinn 

das  kin 

the  eyebrows 

die  Augenbrauen 

dee  ovvgenbrowen 

the  elbows 

der  Elbogen 

dar  elbogen 

the  fist 

die  Faust 

dee  fowst 

the  finger 

der  Finger 

dar  finger 

She  flesh 

das  Fleisch 

das  flyshe 

the  foot 

der  Fuss 

dar  foos 

the  hair 

das  Haar 

das  har 

the  hand 

die  Hand 

dee  hand 

the  right  hand 

die  rechte  Hand 

dee  rechtay  hand 

the  left  hand 

die  linke  Hand 

dee  linkay  hand 

the  heart 

das  Herz 

das  harz 

the  hip 

die  Hiifte 

dee  heeyuftay 

the  knee 

das  Knie 

das  knee 

the  lip 

die  Lippe 

dee  lippay 

the  underlip 

die  Unterlippe 

dee  oonterlippay 

the  upperlip 

die  Oberlippe 

dee  oberlippay 

the  neck 

der  Nacken 

dar  nacken 

the  nose 

die  Nase 

dee  nazay 

the  mouth 

der  Mund 

dar  moond 

Relations. 


The  father 

der  Vater 

dar  fater 

the  grand-father 

der  Grossvater 

dar  grosfater 

the  step-father 

der  Stiefvater 

dar  steeffater 

the  fatherland 

das  Vaterland 

das  faterland 

the  mother 

die  Mutter 

dee  mootter 

the  brother 

der  Bruder 

dar  brooder 

the  sister 

die  Schwester 

dee  shwester 

the  uncle 

der  Onkel 

dar  onkel 

the  aunt 

die  Tante 

dee  tantay 

the  nephew 

der  Neffe 

dar  neffay 

the  niece 

die  Nichte 

dee  nichtay 

the  girl  (maiden) 

das  Madchen 

das  madchen 

the  man 

der  Mann 

dar  nic.: 

the  young  man 

der  junge  Mann 

dar  joongay  man 

the  old  man 

der  alte  Mann 

dar  altay  man 

the  wife  (woman) 

das  Weib 

das  vyb 

the  bride 

die  Braut 

dee  browt 

the  widow 

die  Wittwe 

dee  vitvay 

the  widower 

der  Wittwer 

dar  vitver 

the  guest 

der  Gast 

dar  gast 

the  neighbor 

der  Nachbar 

dar  nachbar 

the  friend 

der  Freund 

der  froind 

Nutriments. 

The  beer 

das  Bier 

das  beer 

the  glass 

das  Glas 

das  glas 

the  flask  (bottle) 

die  Flasche 

dee  flashay 

the  bread 

das  Brod 

das  brod 

English. 

German. 

Pronunciation. 

fresh  bread 

frisches  Brod 

frishes  brod 

the  butter 

die  Butter 

dee  bootter 

fresh  butter 

frische  Butter 

frishay  bootter 

the  cheese 

der  Kase 

dar  casay 

the  honey 

der  Ilonig 

dar  honig 

the  milk 

die  Milch 

dee  milch 

the  buttermilk 

die  Buttermilch 

dee  boottermilch 

the  oil 

das  Oel 

das  eul 

the  fish 

der  Fisch 

dar  fish 

the  flesh  (meat) 

das  Fleisch 

das  flyshe 

the  wine 

der  Wein 

dar  vine 

old  wine 

alter  Wein 

alter  vine 

the  Dunch 

der  Punsch 

dar  poonch 

the  rum 

der  Rum 

dar  room 

the  water 

das  Wasser 

das  vasser 

the  salt 

das  Salz 

das  saltz 

the  pepper 

der  Pfeffer 

dar  pfeffer 

the  salad 

der  Salat 

d3r  salat 

the  soup 

die  Suppe 

dee  sooppay 

the  beefsteak 

das  Beefsteak 

das  beefsteak 

the  pudding 

der  Pudding 

dar  poodding 

the  coffee 

der  Kaffee 

dar  kaffay 

the  tea 

der  Thee 

dar  tay 

the  chocolate 

die  Chokolade 

dee  chocoladay 

the  lemonade 

die  Limonade 

dee  limonaday 

Town  and  Country.  House  and  Garden 


The  house 

das  Haus 

das  house 

the  garden 

der  Garten 

dar  garten 

the  land 

das  Land 

das  land 

the  market 

der  Markt 

dar  markt 

the  street 

die  Strasse 

dee  strassay 

the  church 

die  Kirche 

dee  keerchay 

the  post 

die  Post 

dee  post 

the  bank 

die  Bank 

dee  bank 

the  theater 

das  Theater 

das  tayater 

the  hospital 

das  Hospital 

das  hospital 

the  coffeehouse 

das  Kaffeehaus 

das  kaffayhouse 

the  palace 

der  Palast 

dar  palast 

the  haven  (harbor) 

der  Hafen 

dar  hafen 

the  door 

die  Thiir 

dee  teeyur 

the  bed 

das  Bett 

das  bet 

the  mattress 

die  Matratze 

dee  matratzay 

the  oven 

der  Ofen 

dar  ofen 

the  glass 

das  Glas 

das  glass 

the  beerglass 

das  Bierglas 

das  beerglass 

the  wineglass 

das  Weinglas 

das  vineglass 

the  stool  (chair) 

der  Stuhl 

dar  stool 

the  field 

das  Feld 

das  feld 

the  dale  (valley) 

das  Thai 

das  taal 

the  wood  (forest) 

der  Wald 

dar  vald 

the  bush 

der  Busch 

dar  boosh 

the  heath 

die  Haide 

dee  hiday 

the  hill 

der  Htigel 

dar  heeyugel 

the  mill 

die  Miihle 

dee  meeyullay 

the  corn 

das  Korn 

das  korn 

the  straw 

das  Stroh 

das  shtro. 

The  Professions  and 

Trades. 

The  baker 

der  Backer 

dar  becker 

the  bookbinder 

der  Buchbinder 

dar  boochbinde? 

the  book 

das  Buch 

das  booch 

the  doctor 

der  Doktor 

dar  doktor 

the  hat 

der  Hut 

dar  hoot 

the  hatter 

der  Hutmacher 

dar  hootmachet 

the  shoe 

der  Schuh 

dar  shoe 

GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


ri5 


English. 

German. 

Pronunciation. 

the  shoemaker 

der  Schuhmacher 

dar  shoemacher 

the  beard 

der  Bart 

dar  bart 

the  barber 

der  Barbier 

dar  barbeer 

the  glass 

das  Glas 

das  glass 

the  glazier 

der  Glaser 

dar  glaser 

the  nail 

der  Nagel 

dar  nagel 

the  saddle 

der  Sattel 

dar  sattel 

the  saddler 

der  Sattler 

dar  sattler 

the  mill 

die  Milhle 

dee  meeyullay 

the  miller 

der  Muller 

dar  meeyuller 

the  master 

der  Meister 

dar  miceter 

dancing 

tanzen 

tanzen 

the  dancingmaster 

der  Tanzmeister 

dar  tanzmiceter 

the  post 

die  Post 

dee  post 

the  postmaster 

der  Postmeister 

dar  posmiceter 

to  ride 

reiten 

riten 

the  ridingmaster 

der  Reitmeister 

dar  ritemiceter 

the  school 

die  Schule 

dee  shoolay 

the  schoolmaster 

der  Schulmeister 

dar  shoolmiceter 

the  smith 

der  Schmid 

dar  shmit 

the  smithy 

die  Schmiede 

dee  shmiday 

the  nailsmith  (nail- der  Nagelschmid 

dar  nagelshmit 

maker) 
the  goldsmith 

der  Goldschmid 

dar  goldshmit 

the  coppersmith 

der  Kupferschmid 

dar  koopfershmit 

the  weaver 

der  Weber 

dar  vayber 

the  king 

der  Konig 

dar  keunig 

the  prince 

der  Prinz 

dar  prints 

the  baron 

der  Baron 

dar  baron 

the  officer 

der  Officier 

dar  offeezeer 

the  soldier 

der  Soldat 

dar  soldat 

the  pope 

der  Papst 

dar  papst 

the  archbishop 

der  Erzbischof 

dar  erzbishof 

the  bishop 

der  Bischof 

dar  bishof 

The  jacket 

The  Clothing, 
die  Jacke 

dee  yackay 

the  shoe 

der  Schuh 

dar  shoe 

the  hat 

der  Hut 

dar  hoot 

the  brush 

die  BUrste 

dee  beeyurstay 

the  hairbrush 

die  Haarbiirste 

dee  harbeeyurstay 

the  frock  (coat) 

der  Frack 

dar  frak 

the  wool 

die  Wolle 

dee  vollay 

the  stick 

der  Stock 

dar  stock 

the  cravat 

die  Cravatte 

dee  cravate 

the  purse 

die  Borse 

dee  beursay 

the  cap 

die  Kappe 

dee  kappay 

the  ring 

der  Ring 

dar  ring 

The  Quadrupeds. 

The  hound  (dog) 

der  Hund 

dar  hoond 

the  cat 

die  Katze 

dee  katzay 

the  rat 

die  Ratte 

dee  rattay 

the  mouse 

die  Maus 

dee  mouse 

the  swine  (pig) 

das  Schwein 

das  shvine 

the  hare 

der  Hase 

dar  hazay 

the  roe 

das  Reh 

das  ray 

the  ox 

der  Ochse 

dar  ocksay 

the  bull 

der  Bulle 

dar  boollay 

the  cow 

die  Kuh 

dee  koo 

the  calf 

das  Kalb 

das  kalb 

the  sheep 

das  Schaf 

das  shaf 

the  lamb 

das  Lamm 

das  lam 

the  fox 

der  Fuchs 

dar  fooks 

the  wolf 

der  Wolf 

dar  volf 

the  bear 

der  Bar 

dar  bear 

the  elephant 

der  Elephant 

dar  elefant 

the  camel 

das  Kameel 

das  camale 

Birds, 

Fishes,  and 

Insects. 

English. 

German. 

Pronunciation. 

The  swan 

der  Schwan 

dar  shvan 

the  falcon 

der  Falke 

dar  falkay 

the  goose 

die  Gans 

dee  gans 

the  stork 

der  Storch 

dar  storch 

the  snipe 

die  Schnepfe 

dee  shnepfay 

the  raven 

der  Rabe 

dar  rabay 

the  lark 

die  Lerche 

dee  lerchay 

the  crow 

die  Krahe 

dee  krayay 

the  nightingale 

die  Nachtigal 

dee  nachtigal 

the  cuckoo 

der  Kuckuck 

dar  kookook 

the  swallow 

die  Schwalbe 

dee  shvalbay 

the  finch 

der  Finke 

dar  finkay 

the  sparrow 

der  Sperling 

dar  sperling 

the  fish 

der  Fisch 

dar  fish 

the  carp 

der  Karpfen 

dar  carpfen 

the  herring 

der  Hering 

dar  hering 

the  eel 

der  Aal 

dar  aale 

the  frog 

der  Frosch 

dar  frosh 

the  worm 

der  Wurm 

dar  voorm 

the  spider 

die  Spinne 

dee  spinnay 

the  oyster 

die  Auster 

dee  ouster 

the  crab 

der  Krebs 

dar  kreps 

the  flea 

der  Floh 

dar  flo 

the  fly 

die  Fliege 

dee  fleegay 

the  bee 

die  Biene 

dee  beenay 

the  wasp 

die  Wespe 

dee  vespay 

the  snail 

die  Schnecke 

dee  shneckay 

Minerals  and  Metals,  etc. 


The  gold 

das  Gold 

das  gold 

the  silver 

das  Silber 

das  silber 

the  copper 

das  Kupfer 

das  koopfer 

the  iron 

das  Eisen 

das  isen 

the  tin 

das  Zinn 

das  zin 

the  steel 

der  Stahl 

dar  staal 

the  zinc 

das  Zink 

das  zinc 

the  bronze 

die  Bronze 

dee  bronze 

the  diamond 

der  Diamant 

dar  deeamant 

the  pearl 

die  Perle 

dee  parelay 

the  coral 

die  Koralle 

dee  corallay 

the  marble 

der  M armor 

dar  marmor 

the  gypsum 

der  Gyps 

dar  gyps 

the  lime  (clay) 

der  Lehm 

dar  lame 

the  chalk 

der  Kalk 

dar  calk 

the  coal 

die  Kohle 

die  coalay 

the  earth 

die  Erde 

dee  airday 

the  sand 

der  Sand 

dar  sand 

the  stone 

der  Stein 

dar  stine 

Ships  and  Shipping. 

The  ship 

das  Schiff 

das  sliiflf 

the  boat 

das  Boot 

das  boat 

the  ship  of  the  line 

das  I.inienschiff 

das  leenee-enshift 

the  fisherboat 

das  Fischerboot 

das  fisherboat 

the  anchor 

der  Anker 

dar  anker 

the  deck 

das  Deck 

das  deck 

the  flag 

die  Flagge 

dee  flaggay 

the  mast 

der  Mast 

dar  mast 

the  foremast 

det  Vordermast 

dar  fordermast 

the  sail 

das  Segel 

das  saygel 

the  strand 

der  Strand 

dar  strand 

the  rudder 

das  Ruder 

das  rooder 

the  net 

das  Netz 

das  netz 

the  lading  (freight) 

die  Ladung 

dee  ladung 

GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


1 1 


0 


English. 

German. 

Pronunciation, 

the  freight 

die  Fracht 

dee  fracht 

the  coast 

die  Kiiste 

dee  keeyustay 

the  cliff 

die  Klippe 

dee  klippay 

the  downs 

die  Diinen 

dee  deeyunen 

the  haven 

der  Hafen 

dar  hafen 

the  ground 

der  Grund 

dar  groond 

the  storm 

der  Sturm 

dar  stoorm 

the  fleet 

die  Flotte 

dee  flottay 

the  frigate 

die  Fregatte 

dee  fregatay 

Colors. 

* 

White 

weiss 

vise 

red 

roth 

rote 

blue 

blau 

blou 

brown 

braun 

brouwn 

gray 

grau 

grou 

green 

grun 

greeyun 

yellow 

gelb 

gelb 

orange 

orange 

orange 

purple 

purpur 

poorpoor 

violet 

violett 

veeolet 

Adjectives. 


Old 

alt 

alt 

young 

jung 

joong 

new 

neu 

noi 

great 

gross 

gross 

good 

gut 

goot 

rich 

reich 

riche 

cold 

kalt 

kalt 

warm 

warm 

varm 

long 

lang 

lang 

high 

hoch 

hoch 

full 

voll 

fol 

cool 

kiihl 

keeyul 

near 

nahe 

naay 

hard 

hart 

hart 

light 

leicht 

licht 

wild 

wild' 

vild 

fat 

fett 

fett 

fine 

fein 

fine 

mild 

mild 

mild 

deep 

tief 

teef 

fresh 

frisch 

frish 

ripe 

reif 

rife 

unripe 

unreif 

oonrife 

bitter 

bitter 

bitter 

small 

schmal 

shmal 

wide 

weit 

vite 

open 

offen 

offen 

loud 

laut 

lout 

right 

recht 

recht 

wise 

weise 

visay 

blind 

blind 

blind 

unwell 

unwohl 

oonvole 

hot 

heiss 

hise 

thick 

dick 

dick 

neat 

nett 

net 

thin 

diinn 

deeyunn 

broad 

breit 

brite 

round 

rund 

roond 

false 

falsch 

falsh 

sour 

sauer 

sour 

hollow 

hohl 

hole 

sharp 

scharf 

sharf 

flat 

flach 

flach 

Verbs. 


English. 

German. 

Pronunciation 

To  eat 

essen 

essen 

to  drink 

trinken 

trinken 

to  dream 

traumen 

troy  men 

to  wash 

waschen 

vashen 

to  comb 

kammen 

kammen 

to  go 

gehen 

gayen 

to  speak 

sprechen 

shprechen 

to  laugh 

lachen 

lachen 

to  think 

denken 

denken 

to  learn 

lernen 

lernen 

to  bathe 

baden 

baden 

to  break 

brechen 

brechen 

to  bite 

beissen 

bisen 

to  cost 

kosten 

costen 

to  hear 

horen 

heuren 

to  help 

helfen 

helfen 

to  give 

geben 

gayben 

to  make  (do) 

machen 

machen 

to  do 

thun 

toon 

to  ride 

reiten 

riten 

to  say 

sagen 

sagen 

to  send 

senden 

senden 

to  seek 

suchen 

soochen 

jjjrTlie  most  Necessary  Words  which 
It  Deviate  from  tie  Eniiish. 


The 

World  and  its 

Elements. 

God 

Gott 

got 

the  Creator 

der  Schopfer 

dar  sheupfer 

Nature 

die  Natur 

dee  natoor 

the  sky 

der  Himmel 

dar  himmel 

the  world 

die  Welt 

dee  velt 

the  air 

die  Luft 

dee  looft 

the  cloud 

die  Wolke 

dee  volkay 

the  storm 

das  Gewitter 

das  gevitter 

the  lightning 

der  Blitz 

dar  blitz 

the  rainbow 

der  Regenbogen 

dar  raygenbogen 

the  fog 

der  Nebel 

dar  naybel 

the  river 

der  Fluss 

dar  floos 

the  brook  * 

der  Bach 

dar  bach 

the  lake 

der  See 

dar  zay 

the  sea 

das  Meer 

das  mare 

the  tide 

die  Fluth 

dee  floot 

the  ebb 

die  Ebbe 

dee  ebbay 

the  shore 

das  Ufer 

das  oofer 

the  mountain 

der  Berg 

dar  berg 

the  meadow 

die  Wiese 

dee  veesay 

the  forest 

der  Wald 

dar  vald 

The  Human  Body. 

The  body 

der  Korper 

dar  kurper 

the  skin 

die  Haut 

dee  hout 

the  face 

das  Gesicht 

das  gesicht 

the  head 

der  Kopf 

dar  kopf 

the  forehead 

die  Stirn 

dee  steern 

the  tongue 

die  Zunge 

dee  zoongay 

the  tooth 

der  Zahn 

dar  zaan 

GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


1x7 


English. 

German. 

Pronunciation. 

the  stomach 

der  Magen 

dar  maagen 

the  voice 

die  Stimme 

dee  stimmay 

the  hearing 

das  Gehbr 

das  geheure 

the  sight 

das  Gesicht 

das  gesicht 

the  taste 

der  Geschmack 

dar  geshmack 

the  feeling 

das  Geftihl 

das  gefeeyul 

the  smell 

der  Geruch 

dar  gerooch 

the  neck 

der  Hals 

dar  hals 

the  back 

der  Riicken 

der  reeyucken 

the  leg 

das  Bein 

das.  bine 

Relations. 

The  woman 

die  Frau 

dee  frou 

the  boy 

der  Knabe 

dar  knabay 

the  girl 

das  Madchen 

das  madchen 

the  child 

das  Kind 

das  kind. 

the  old  man 

der  Greis 

dar  grice 

the  parents 

die  Eltern 

dee  eltern 

the  father-in-law 

der  Schwiegervater 

dar  shveegayrfater 

the  mother-in-law 

die  Schwiegermutter  dee  schveegayrmoc 

ter 

the  brother-in-law 

der  Schwager 

dar  shvaager 

the  cousin 

der  Vetter 

dar  fetter 

the  aunt 

die  Tante 

dee  lantay 

the  marriage 

die  Heirath 

dee  hirath 

the  wedding 

die  Hochzeit 

dee  hochzite 

Nutriments. 

The  meal 

die  Mahlzeit 

dee  malzite 

breakfast 

das  Friihstuck 

das  freeyuhsteeyucl 

dinner 

das  Mittagessen 

das  mittagessen 

the  refreshment 

die  Erfrischung 

dee  erfrischoong 

supper 

das  Abendbrod 

das  abendbrode 

boiled  meat 

gekochtes  Fleisch 

gekochtes  flishe 

roast  meat 

Braten 

braaten 

beef 

Rindsfleisch 

rindsflishe 

roast-beef 

Rinderbraten 

rinderbraaten 

veal 

Kalbfleisch 

kalbflishe 

calves-liver 

Kalbsleber 

kalbslayber 

veal-cutlets 

Kalbscoteletten 

kalbscotlett 

mutton 

Hammelfleisch 

hamelflishe 

a leg  of  mutton 

eine  Hammelkeule 

inay  hamelskoylay 

pork 

Schweinefleisch 

shvinayflishe 

ham 

Schinken 

shinken 

bacon 

Speck 

speck 

a sausage 

eine  Wyrst 

inay  voorst 

vegetables 

Gemiise 

gemeeyusay 

a pie 

eine  Pastete 

inay  pastatay 

an  omele1 

ein  Eierkuchen 

ine  eyerkoochen 

cake 

Kuchen 

koochen 

cheese 

Kase 

casay 

eggs 

Eier 

eyer 

Hock 

Rheinwein 

rhinevine 

Port-wine 

Portwein 

portvine 

Sherry 

Xereswein 

xeresvine 

Eating  Utensils. 

The  eating 

das  Essen 

das  essen 

the  drinking 

das  Trinken 

das  trinken 

the  table-cloth 

das  Tischtuch 

das  tischtooch 

the  napkin 

die  Serviette 

dee  serviette 

the  plate 

der  Teller 

dar  teller 

the  knife 

das  Messer 

das  messer 

English. 

German. 

Pronunciation. 

the  fork 

die  Gabel 

dee  gaabel 

the  spoon 

der  Ebfiel 

dar  leuffel 

the  vinegar 

der  Essig 

dar  essig 

the  mustard 

der  Mostrich 

dar  mostrich 

the  cup 

die  Tasse 

dee  t assay 

the  dish 

die  Schiissel 

dee  sheeyussel 

The  Sea. 

The  Ocean 

der  Ocean 

dar  oatsayan 

the  Baltic 

die  Ostsee 

dee  ostsay 

the  North-Sea 

die  Nordsee 

dee  nordsay 

the  channel 

der  Kanal 

dar  canal 

the  island 

die  Insel 

dee  insel 

the  shore 

die  Kiiste 

dee  keeyustay 

the  waves 

die  Wellen 

dee  vellen 

the  tide  . 

die  Fluth 

dee  Hoot 

the  rock 

der  Fels 

dar  fels 

the  beach 

die  Seekiiste 

dee  saykeeyustay 

the  navy 

die  Marine 

dee  mareenay 

the  vessel 

das  Schiff 

das  stuff 

the  steamer 

das  Dampfboot 

das  dampfboat 

the  man-of-war 

das  Kriegsschiff 

das  kreegsshiff 

the  merchant  vessel 

der  Kauffahrer 

dar  kowflaarer 

the  rudder 

das  Ruder 

das  rooder 

the  rigging: 

das  Takelwerk 

das  tackleverk 

the  cabin 

die  Kajiite 

dee  cayutay 

the  stern 

das  Hintertheil 

das  hintertile 

the  bow 

der  Bug 

dar  boog 

the  main-top 

der  Mastkorb 

dar  mastkorb 

the  oar 

das  Ruder 

das  rooder 

the  rope 

das  Tau 

das  tou 

the  captain 

der  Kapitan 

dar  capiten 

the  boatswain 

der  Bootsmann 

dar  boatsman 

the  sailor 

der  Matrose 

dar  matrosay 

the  cabin-boy 

der  Schififsjunge 

dar  schiffsyunge 

the  pilot 

der  Lootse 

dar  loatsay 

the  light-house 

der  Leuchtthurm 

dar  loychtoorm 

the  harbor 

der  Hafen 

dar  hafen 

Time  and  Seasons. 


A century 

ein  Jahrliundert 

ine  yarhoondert 

the  year 

das  Jahr 

das  yar 

the  month 

der  Monat 

dar  monat 

the  week 

die  Woche 

dee  wochay 

the  day 

der  Tag 

dar  tag 

the  hour 

■die  Stunde 

dee  stoondav 

half-an-hour 

tine  halbe  Stunde 

inay  halba / stoondaj 

the  minute 

die  Minute 

dee  minutay 

the  second 

die  Sekunde 

dee  secoonde 

the  seasons 

die  Jahreszeiten 

dee  yaresziten 

spring 

Frllhling 

freeyuling 

summer 

Sommer 

sommer 

autumn 

Herbst 

harebst 

winter 

Winter 

vinter 

January 

Januar 

yanooar 

February 

Februar 

febrooar 

March 

Marz 

mayrz 

April 

April 

apreel 

May 

Mai 

my 

June 

Juni 

yoonee 

July 

Juli 

yoolee 

August 

August 

owgoost 

September 

September 

September 

October 

October 

October 

November 

November 

november 

December 

December 

detzember 

GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


English. 

German. 

Pronunciation. 

the  days  of  the  week  die  Wochentage 

dee  vochentagay 

Sunday 

Sonntag 

sontag 

Monday 

Montag 

monetag 

Tuesday 

Dienstag 

deenstag 

Wednesday 

Mittwoch 

mittvoch 

Thursday 

Donnerstag 

donnerstag 

Friday 

Freitag 

fritag 

Saturday 

Sonnabend 

sonabend 

a holyday 

ein  Feiertag 

ine  firetag 

Christmas 

Weihnachten 

vinachten 

Easter 

Ostern 

ostern 

Whitsuntide 

Pfingsten 

pfingsten 

the  morning 

der  Morgen 

dar  morgen 

noon 

Mittag 

mittag 

the  afternoon 

der  Nachmittag 

dar  nachmittag 

the  evening 

der  Abend 

dar  abend 

the  night 

die  Nacht 

dee  nacht 

midnight 

Mitternacht 

mitternacht 

sunrise 

Sonnenaufgang 

sonnenowfgang 

sunset 

Sonnenuntergang 

sonnenoontergang 

The  Town. 


The  city 

die  Stadt 

dee  stadt 

the  suburb 

die  Vorstadt 

dee  forstadt 

the  gates 

die  Thore 

dee  toray 

the  edifice 

das  Gebaude 

das  geboiday 

the  tower 

der  Thurm 

dar  toorm 

the  cathedral 

der  Dom 

dar  dome 

the  church-yard 

der  Kirchhof 

dar  keerchhof 

the  town  hall 

das  Rathhaus 

das  raathouse 

the  arsenal 

das  Zeughaus 

das  zoyghouse 

the  mint 

die  Miinze 

dee  meeyunzay 

the  custom  house 

das  Zollhaus 

das  zollhouse 

the  library 

die  Bibliothek 

dee  bibleeotake 

the  university 

die  Universitat 

dee  ooniversitate 

the  exchange 

die  Borse 

dee  beursay 

the  prison 

das  Gefangniss 

das  gefengniss 

the  square 

der  Platz 

dar  platz 

the  lane 

die  Gasse 

dee  gassay 

the  bridge 

die  Briicke 

dee  breeyuckay 

the  monument 

das  Monument 

das  monooment 

the  dining-room 

das  Speisehaus 

das  spysayhouse 

the  public  house 

das  Bierhaus 

das  beerhouse 

the  shop 

der  Laden 

dar  laaden 

The  House. 


The  bell 

die  Glocke 

dee  glockay 

the  knocker 

der  Klopfer 

dar  klopfer 

to  open 

offnen 

eufnen 

the  servant 

die  Magd 

dee  magd 

the  staircase 

die  Treppe 

dee  treppay 

the  room 

das  Zimmer 

das  tzimmer 

the  drawing-room 

das  Putzzimmer 

das  pootstzimmer 

the  sitting-room 

das  Wohnzimmer 

das  vohntzimmer 

the  dining-room 

das  Esszimmer 

das  estzimmer 

the  sleeping-room 

das  Schlafzimmer 

das  shlaftzimmer 

the  kitchen 

die  Kiiche 

dee  keeyuchay 

the  cellar 

der  Keller 

dar  keller 

the  window 

das  Fenster 

das  fenster 

the  stove 

der  Ofen 

dar  ofen 

the  chimney 

der  Kamin 

dar  kameen 

the  looking-glass 

der  Spiegel 

dar  speegel 

the  table 

der  Tisch 

dar  tish 

the  chair 

der  Stuhl 

dar  stool 

che  armchair 

der  Armstuhl 

dar  armstool 

the  carpet 

der  Teppich 

dar  teppich 

English. 

German 

Pronunciation. 

the  chest  of  drawers  die  Kommode 

dee  commoday 

the  sofa 

das  Sopha 

das  sofa 

the  candlestick 

der  Leuchter 

dar  loychter 

the  candle 

das  Licht 

das  licht 

the  lamp 

die  Lampe 

dee  lampay 

the  wick 

der  Docht 

dar  docht 

the  oil 

das  Oel 

das  eul 

to  light 

anztinden 

anzeeyuenden 

the  bed 

das  Bett 

das  bet 

the  counterpane  . 

die  Bettdecke 

dee  bettdeckay 

The  sheets 

die  Bettiicher 

dee  betteeyucher 

the  pillow 

das  kopfkissen 

das  kopfkissen 

the  basin 

das  waschbecken 

das  vashbecken 

the  soap 

die  Seife 

dee  sifay 

the  towel 

das  Handtuch 

das  handtooch 

warm  water 

warmes  Wasser 

varmes  vasser 

cold  water 

kaltes  Wasser 

kaltes  vasser 

hot  water 

heisses  Wasser 

heyses  vasser 

to  wash 

waschen 

vashen 

the  comb 

der  Kamm 

dar  kam 

to  comb 

kammen 

kemmen 

Fruits 

, Trees,  and  Flowers. 

The  apple 

der  Apfel 

dar  apfel 

the  apple-tree 

der  Apfelbaum 

dar  apfelbowm 

the  pear 

die  Birne 

dee  beernay 

the  pear-tree 

der  Birnbaum 

dar  beernbowm 

the  plum 

die  Pflaume 

dee  pflowmay 

the  plum-tree 

der  Pflaumenbaum 

dar  pflowmenbowm 

the  cherry 

die  Kirsche 

dee  keershay 

the  chestnut 

die  Kastanie 

dee  kastanyay 

the  peach 

der  Pfirsich 

dar  pfeersich 

the  apricot 

die  Apricose 

dee  apreecosay 

the  orange 

die  Apfelsine 

dee  apfelseenay 

the  lemon 

die  Citrone 

dee  citronay 

the  grape 

die  Weintraube 

dee  vinetrowbay 

the  nut 

die  Nuss 

dee  nooss 

the  walnut 

die  Wallnuss 

dee  valnooss 

the  currant 

die  Johannisbeere 

dee  yohanisbaray 

the  gooseberry 

die  Stachelbeere 

dee  stachelbaray 

the  raspberry 

die  Himbeere 

dee  himbaray 

the  blackberry 

die  Brombeere 

dee  brombaray 

the  strawberry 

die  Erdbeere 

dee  erdbaray 

the  oak 

die  Eiche 

dee  ichay 

the  beech 

die  Buche 

dee  boochay 

the  poplar 

die  Pappel 

dee  papel 

the  lime 

die  Linde 

dee  linday 

the  ash 

die  Eshe 

dee  eshay 

the  fir 

die  Tanne 

dee  tannay 

the  willow 

die  Weide 

dee  viday 

the  rose 

die  Rose 

dee  rosay 

the  pink 

die  Nelke 

dee  nelkay 

the  tulip 

die  Tulpe 

dee  toolpay 

the  lily 

die  Lilie 

dee  leeleeay 

the  violet 

das  Veilchen 

das  filechen 

the  lilac 

der  Flieder 

dar  fleeder 

the  lily  of  the  valley 

das  Maibliimchen 

das  mybleeyumcher 

Animals, 

The  horse 
the  colt 
the  donkey 
the  goat 
the  dog 
the  pig 


Birds,  Fishes, 

das  Pferd 
das  Fiillen 
der  Esel 
die  Ziege 
der  Hund 
das  Schwein 


and  Insects. 

das  pfayrd 
das  feeyullen 
dar  aysel 
dee  tzeegay 
dar  Hoond 
das  shvine 


GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


119 


English, 
the  duck 
the  pigeon 
the  cock 
the  chicken 
the  wild  boar 
the  stag 
the  chamois 
the  rabbit 
the  eagle 
the  hawk 
the  pheasant 
the  bat 
the  partridge 
the  peacock 
the  lobster 
the  pike 
the  perch 
the  salmon 
the  trout 
the  snake 
the  ant 
the  butterfly 


The  clothes 

the  coat 

the  trowsers 

the  pocket 

the  buttons 

the  dressing-gown 

the  slippers 

the  drawers 

the  stockings 

the  shirt 

the  braces 

the  waistcoat 

the  boot 

the  boot-jack 

the  cap 

the  gloves 

the  handkerchief 

the  watch 

the  umbrella 

the  purse 

the  brush 

the  comb 

the  apfron 

the  fan 

the  dress 

the  petticoat 

the  stays 

the  veil 

the  powder 

the  soap 

the  tooth-powder 


The  voyage 
the  traveler 
the  road 
the  rail-road 
the  station 
the  train 
the  engine 
the  carriage 
the  departure 


German. 

die  Ente 

die  Taube 

der  Hahn 

das  Huhnchen 

der  Eber 

der  Hirsch 

die  Gemse 

das  Kaninchen 

der  Adler 

der  Habicht 

der  Fasan 

die  Eledermaus 

das  Rebhuhn 

der  Pfau 

der  Hummer 

der  Hecht 

der  Barsch 

der  Lachs 

die  Forelle 

die  Schlange 

die  Ameise 

der  Schmetterling 


The  Dress. 

die  Kleider 
der  Rock 
die  Hosen 
die  Tasche 
die  Knopfe 
der  Schlafrock 
die  Pantoffeln 
die  Unterhosen 
die  Strilmpfe 
das  Hemd 
die  Hosentrager 
die  Weste 
der  Stiefel 
der  Stiefelknecht 
die  Mutze 
die  Handschuhe 
das  Taschentuch 
die  Uhr  , 
der  Regenschirm 
die  BiJrse 
die  Biirste 
der  Kamm 
die  Sehurze 
der  Facher 
das  Kleid 
der  Unterrock 
der  Schntirleib 
der  Schleier 
der  Puder 
die  Seife 
das  Zahnpulver 


Traveling. 

die  Seereise 
der  Reisende 
die  Landstrasse 
die  Eisenbahn 
die  Station 
der  Zug 
die  Maschine 
der  Wagen 
die  Abreise 


Pronunciation. 

dee  entay 
dee  towbay 
dar  haan 
das  heeyunchen 
dar  ayber 
dar  heersch 
dee  gemsay 
das  caneenchen 
dar  adler 
dar  habicht 
dar  fasan 
dee  flaydermouse 
das  rebhoon 
dar  pfow 
dar  hoommer 
dar  hecht 
dar  barsh 
dar  lacks 
dee  forellay 
dee  shlangay 
dee  amisay 
dar  shmetterling 


dee  klider 
dar  rock 
dee  hozen 
dee  tashay 
dee  kneupfay 
dar  shlafrock 
dee  pantofeln 
dee  oonterhosen 
dee  streeyumpfay 
das  hemd 
dee  hozen  trayger 
dee  vestay 
dar  steefel 
dar  steefelknecht 
dee  meeyutzay 
dee  handshooay 
das  tashentooch 
dee  oor 

dar  raygensheerm 

dee  borsay 

dee  beeyurstay 

dar  kam 

dee  sheeyurzay 

dar  fecher 

das  klide 

dar  oonterrock 

dar  shneeyurlibe 

das  shlier 

dar  pooder 

dee  zifay 

das  tzaanpoolver 


dee  zayreyzay 
dar  reyzenday 
dee  landstrassay 
dee  isenbaan 
dee  statzion 
dar  tzoog 
dee  masheenay 
dar  vaagen 
dee  abreyzay 


English. 

the  arrival 
the  passport 
the  inn  (hotel) 
the  landlord 
the  waiter 
the  bill 
the  interpreter 
the  luggage 
the  trunk 
the  carpet-bag 


The  paper 
the  writing-paper 
the  writing 
the  sheet 
the  pen 
the  steel  pen 
the  penknife 
the  inkstand 
the  ink 
the  pencil 
the  scissors 
the  seal 

the  sealing-wax 
the  wafer 
the  ruler 
the  letter 
the  note 
the  envelope 
the  date 
the  direction 
the  post 


The  country 

the  native  land 

the  state 

the  empire 

the  kingdom 

Europe 

the  European 

America 

the  American 

Asia 

Africa 

the  East  Indies 
the  West  Indies 
the  United  States 

Brazil 

England 

the  Englishman 

Ireland 

the  Irishman 

Scotland 

the  Scotchman 

France 

the  Frenchman 

Germany 

the  German 

Holland 

the  Dutchman 

Austria 

the  Austrian 

Prussia 


German. 

die  Ankunft 
der  Pass 
der  Gasthof 
der  Wirth 
der  Kellner 
die  Rechnung 
der  Dolmetscher 
das  Gepack 
der  Koffer 
der  Reisesack 


Of  Writing. 

das  Papier 
das  Schreibpapier 
die  Schrift 
der  Bogen 
die  Feder 
die  Stahlfeder 
das  Federmesser 
das  Tintenfass 
die  Tinte 
der  Bleistift 
die  Scheere 
das  Petschaft 
derSiegellack 
die  Oblate 
das  Lineal 
der  Brief 
das  Billet 
das  Couvert 
das  Datum 
die  Adresse 
die  Post 


Pronunciation. 

dee  ankoonft 
dar  pass 
dar  gasthof 
dar  veert 
dar  kelner 
dee  rechnoong 
dar  dolmetsher 
das  gepeck 
dar  coffer 
dar  rizayzack 


das  papier 
das  shribepapeer 
dee  shrift 
dar  kogen 
dee  fayder 
dee  staalfayder 
das  faydermesser 
das  tintenfas 
dee  tintay 
dar  blystift 
dee  shayray 
das  petshaft 
dar  seegellack 
dee  oblaatay 
das  leenayal 
dar  breef 
das  bilget 
das  coovayrt 
das  datoom 
dee  adressay 
dee  post 


Countries  and  Nations. 


das  Land 

das  land 

das  Vaterland 

das  faterland 

der  Staat 

dar  staat 

das  Reich 

das  ■‘riche 

das  Konigreich 

das  keunigriche 

Europa 

Europa 

der  Europaer 

dar  Europayer 

Amerika 

America 

der  Amerikaner 

dar  Amerikaaner 

Asien 

Azien 

Afrika 

Afrika 

Ostindien 

Ostindien 

Westindien 

Vestindien 

die  Vereinigten  Staa- 

■ dee  vereinigten  staa 

ten 

ten 

Brasilien 

Brazilien 

England 

England 

der  Englander 

dar  Englender 

Irland 

Eerland 

der  Irlander 

dar  Eerlender 

Schottland 

Shotland 

der  Schotte 

dar  Shottay 

Frankreich 

Frankrich 

der  Franzose 

dar  Frantzosay 

Deutschland 

Doytshland 

der  Deutsche 

dar  Doytshay 

Holland 

Holland 

der  Hollander 

dar  Hollender 

Oesterreich 

Osterrich 

der  Oesterreicher 

dar  Osterricher 

Preussen 

Proyssen 

120 


GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


English. 

German. 

Pronunciation. 

the  Prussian 

der  Preusse 

dar  Proyssay 

Russia 

Russland 

Roossland 

the  Russian 

der  Russe 

dar  Roossay 

Sweden 

Schweden 

Shvayden 

the  Swede 

der  Schwede 

dar  Shvayday 

Denmark 

Danemark 

Danemark 

the  Dane 

der  Dane 

dar  Daynay 

Switzerland 

die  Schweiz 

die  Shvitze 

the  Swiss 

der  Schweizer 

dar  Shvitzer 

Italy 

Italien 

Italyen 

the  Italian 

der  Italiener 

dar  Italiayner 

Spain 

Spanien 

Spanyen 

the  Spaniard 

der  Spanier 

dar  Spaneeare 

Greece 

Griechenland 

Greechenland 

the  Greek 

der  Grieche 

dar  Greechay 

Turkey 

die  Tiirkei 

dee  Teeyurki 

the  Turk 

der  Tiirke 

dar  Teeyurkay 

the  Jew 

der  Jude 

dar  Yooday 

the  Persian 

der  Perser 

dar  Perzer 

Trade. 

The  merchant 

der  Kaufmann 

dar  kowfman 

the  shop 

der  Laden 

dar  laaden 

the  counting-house 

das  Comptoir 

das  congtwor 

the  merchandise 

die  Waare 

dee  vaaray 

the  wholesale  mer- 

•  der  Grosshandler 

dar  grosshendler 

chant 

the  retailer 

der  Kleinhiindler 

dar  klinehendler 

the  correspondent 

der  Correspondent 

dar  correspondent 

the  stock 

das  Lager 

das  laager 

the  daybook 

das  Journal 

das  joornal 

the  ledger 

das  Hauptbuch 

das  howptbooch 

the  cash-book 

das  Kassabuch 

das  cassabooch 

the  invoice 

die  Factur 

dee  factoor 

the  bill  of  exchange 

der  Wechsel 

dar  vechsel 

the  remittance 

die  Rimesse 

dee  rimessay 

the  acceptance 

das  Accept 

das  accept 

the  payment 

die  Bezahlung 

dee  betzaaloong 

the  receipt 

die  Quittung 

dee  quittoong 

the  buyer 

der  Kaufer 

dar  koyfer 

the  seller 

der  Verkaufer 

dar  ferkoyfer 

the  debtor 

der  Debitor 

dar  daybeetor 

the  creditor 

der  Creditor 

dar  credeetor 

Cardinal  Numbers. 


One 

ein,  eins 

ine,  ines 

two 

zwei 

tsvi 

three 

drei 

dri 

four 

vier 

feer 

five 

fiinf 

feeyunf 

six 

sechs 

zex 

seven 

sieben 

zeeben 

eight 

acht 

acht 

nine 

neun 

noyn 

ten 

zehn 

tsane 

eleven 

elf 

elf 

twelve 

zwolf 

tsvelf 

thirteen 

dreizehn 

dreytsane 

fourteen 

vierzehn 

feertsane 

fifteen 

funfzehn 

feeyunftsane 

sixteen 

sechszehn 

zexstsane 

seventeen 

siebenzehn 

zeeben  tsane 

eighteen 

achtzehn 

achttsane 

nineteen 

neunzehn 

noyntsane 

twenty 

zwanzig 

tsvantzig 

English. 

German. 

Pronunciation. 

21 

ein  und  zwanzig 

ine  oond  tsvantzig 

22 

zwei  und  zwanzig 

tsvi  oond  tsvantzig 

23 

drei  und  zwanzm 

dri  oond  tsvantzig 

30 

dreissig 

dritzig 

40 

vierzig 

feertzig 

50 

fiinfzig 

feeyunftzig 

6o 

sechszig 

zechstzig 

70 

siebenzig 

zeebentzig 

8o 

achtzig 

achtzig 

90 

neunzig 

noyntzig 

IOO 

hundert 

hoondert 

IOI 

hundert  und  eins 

hoondert  oond  ines 

102 

hundert  und  zwei 

hoondert  oond  tsvi 

200 

zwei  hundert 

tsvi  hoondert 

300 

drei  hundert 

dri  hoondert 

400 

vier  hundert 

feer  hoondert 

500 

fiinf  hundert 

feeyunf  hoondert 

600 

sechs  hundert 

zex  hoondert 

700 

sieben  hundert 

zeeben  hoondert 

800 

acht  hundert 

acht  hoondert 

900 

neun  hundert 

noyn  hoondert 

IOOO 

tausend 

towzend 

2000 

zwei  tausend 

tsvi  towzend 

3000 

drei  tausend 

dri  towzend 

I OOOO 

zehn  tausend 

tsane  towzend 

a million 

eine  Million 

inay  milleeown 

1859 

ein  Tausend,  acht  ine  towzend  acht 

Hundert  neun  und 

hoondert  noyn 

fiinfzig 

oond  feeyunftzig 

Ordinal  Numbers. 

the 

first 

der  Erste 

dar  ayrste 

“ 

2d 

“ Zweite 

“ tsvitay 

3d 

“ Dritte 

“ drittay 

4th 

“ Vierte 

“ feertay 

5th 

“ Fiinfte 

“ feeyunftay 

t 4 

6th 

“ Sechste 

“ zexte 

it 

7th 

“ Siebente 

“ zeebentay 

{ t 

8th 

“ Achte 

“ achtay 

< t 

9th 

“ Neunte 

“ noyntay 

<( 

10th 

" Zehnte 

“ tsanetay 

i i 

nth 

“ Eilfte 

“ elftay 

t { 

1 2 th 

“ Zwolfte 

“ tsvelftay 

t t 

13th 

“ Dreizehnte 

“ dreytsanetay 

t t 

14  th 

“ Vierzehnte 

“ feertsanetay 

t t 

15  th 

“ FUnfzehnte 

“ feeyunftsanetay 

16th 

“ Sechszehnte 

“ zechtsanetay 

17th 

“ Siebenzehnte 

“ zeebentsanetay 

l t 

1 8 th 

“ Achtzehnte 

“ achtsanelay 

t t 

19th 

“ Neunzehnte 

“ noyntsanetay 

t t 

20th 

“ Zwanzigste 

“ tsvanzigstay 

t l 

2ISt 

“ Ein  und  Zwan- 

“ ine  oond  tsvan- 

zigste 

tsigstay 

t ( 

22d 

“ Zwei  und  Zwan- 

“ tsvi  oond  tsvan- 

zigste 

tsigstay 

t ( 

23d 

41  Drei  und  Zwan- 

“ dri  oond  tsvan- 

zigste 

tsigstay 

‘‘ 

30th 

“ Dreissigste 

“ drysigstay 

‘ ‘ 

40  th 

“ Vierzigste 

“ feertsigstay 

50th 

“ Ftinftzigste 

“ feeyunftsigstay 

t « 

60  th 

“ Sechszigste 

“ zechtsigstay 

4 ( 

70th 

“ Siebenzigste 

“ zeebentsigstay 

t ( 

80th 

“ Achtzigste 

“ achtsigstay 

90th 

“ Neunzigste 

“ noyntsigstay 

< i 

i ooth 

“ Hundertste 

“ hoondertstay 

a 

IOISt 

“ Hundert  und 

“ hoondert  oond 

erste 

ayrstay 

“ 

200th 

“ Zweihundertste 

“ tsvi  hoondertstay 

< ( 

300th 

“ Dreihundertste 

“ dri  hoondertstay 

< t 

1000th 

“ Tausendste 

“ towzendstay 

GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


121 


Collective  Numbers. 


English.  German.  Pronunciation. 


A pair 

ein  Paar 

ine  paar 

a dozen 

ein  Dutzend 

ine  dootsend 

a score 

Zwanzig 

tsvantsig 

firstly 

erstens 

ayrstens 

secondly 

zweitens 

tsvitens 

thirdly 

drittens 

drittens 

the  first  time 

das  Erstemal 

das  ayrstaymal 

the  second  time 

das  Zweitemal 

das  tsvitaymal 

once 

einmal 

inemal 

twice 

zweimal 

tsvimal 

three  times 

dreimal 

drymal 

singly 

einfach 

inefach 

double 

doppelt 

doppelt 

threefold 

dreifach 

dryfach 

fourfold 

vierfach 

feerfach 

one  sort 

einerlei 

inerlye 

two  sorts 

zweierlei 

tsvierlye 

ten  sorts 

zehnerlei 

tzaneriy 

Adjectives. 


Small 

klein 

kline 

narrow 

enge 

engay 

low 

niedrig 

needrig 

beautiful 

schon 

sheun 

handsome 

hubsch 

heeyubsh 

ugly 

hasslich 

hesslich 

bad 

schlecht 

shlecht 

easy 

leicht 

leicht 

heavy 

schwer 

schvare 

soft 

weich 

veich 

true 

wahr 

vaar 

short 

kurz 

koorts 

far 

weit 

vite 

sweet 

suss 

seeyuss 

hollow 

hohl 

hole 

blunt 

stumpf 

stoompf 

delicious 

kostlich 

keustiich 

disagreeable 

unangenehm 

oonangenaym 

honest 

ehrlich 

ayrlich 

polite 

hoflich 

heuflich 

obliging 

gefallig 

gefellig 

kind 

gutig 

geeyutig 

prudent 

klug 

kloog 

stupid 

dumm 

doom 

ridiculous 

lacherlich 

lecherlich 

reasonable 

vernunfiig 

ferneeyunftig 

happy 

gliicklich 

gleeyucklich 

unhappy 

unglUcklich 

oongleeyucklich 

glad 

froh 

fro 

satisfied 

zufrieden 

tSoofreeden 

active 

thatig 

tatig 

rude 

grob 

grobe 

proud 

stoltz 

stolts 

bold 

kiihn 

keeyuhn 

strong 

stark 

stark 

weak 

schwach 

shvach 

attentive 

aufmerksam 

owfmerksam 

clever 

geschickt 

geshickt 

mild 

gelind 

gelind 

sick 

krank 

krank 

pale 

blass 

blass 

healthy 

gesund 

gezoond 

poor 

arm 

arm 

empty 

leer 

lare 

light 

hell 

hell 

dark 

dunkel 

doonkel 

English. 

German. 

Pronunciation. 

dry 

trocken 

trocken 

wet 

nass 

nass 

dirty 

schmutzig 

shmootsig 

cheap 

billig 

billig 

clean 

rein 

rine 

tired 

milde 

meeyuday 

angry 

bose 

beusay 

merry 

lustig 

loostig 

To  breakfast 

Verbs. 

friihstiicken 

freeyusteeyucken 

to  dine 

speisen 

speyzen 

to"  sup 

zu  Abend  essen 

tsoo  abend  essen 

to  arrive 

ankommen 

ankommen 

to  depart 

abreisen 

abreizen 

to  meet 

treffen 

treffen 

to  be  tired 

miide  sein 

meeyude  seyn 

to  be  sleepy 

schlafrig  sein 

shlafrig  seyn 

to  excuse 

entschuldigen 

entshooldigen 

to  understand 

verstehen 

farstayen 

to  believe 

glauben 

glowben 

to  know 

wissen 

vissen 

to  write 

schreiben 

shriben 

to  read 

lesen 

layzen 

to  pronounce 

aussprechen 

owssprechen 

to  pronounce  well 

gut  aussprechen 

goot  owssprechen 

to  translate 

ubersetzen 

eeyubersetsen 

to  recollect 

sich  errinnern 

sich  erinnern 

to  forget 

vergessen 

farg'essen 

to  promise 

versprechen 

farsprechen 

to  expect 

erwarten 

arvarten 

to  converse 

unterhalten 

oonterhalten 

to  express 

ausdriicken 

owsdreeyuken 

to  explain 

erklaren 

arklayren 

to  tell 

sagen 

zaagen 

to  call 

rufen 

roofen 

to  weep 

weinen 

vinen 

to  recommend 

empfehlen 

empfaylen 

to  receive 

empfangen 

empfangen 

to  send 

schicken 

shicken 

to  buy 

kaufen 

kowfen 

to  pay 

bezahlen 

betsaalen 

to  order 

bestellen 

bestellen 

to  furnish 

liefern 

leefern 

to  sell 

verkaufen 

farkowfen 

to  reply 

antworten 

antvorten 

Yes 

indeed 

Adverbs, 
j Ja 

( ja  wohl 
in  der  That 

yah 

yah  vole 
in  dar  tate 

truly 

wahrlich 

vaarlich 

certainly 

gewiss 

gayviss 

surely 

sicherlich 

zicherlich 

only 

nur 

noor 

some 

etwas 

etvas 

nothing 

nichts 

nichts 

much 

v viel 

feel 

quite 

ganzlich 

gehntzlich 

very 

sehr 

zare 

so 

so 

zo 

thus 

also 

alzo 

how? 

wie  ? 

vee  ? 

no 

nein 

nine 

not 

nicht 

nicht 

but 

nur 

noor 

I 22 


GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


English. 

German. 

Pronunciation, 

enough 

genug 

genooch 

scarcely 

kaum 

kowm 

all 

ganz 

gants 

almost 

beinahe 

bynaey 

here 

hier 

heer 

there 

da 

da 

where 

wo 

vo 

in 

herein 

herine 

out 

heraus 

herows 

then 

denn 

den 

now 

jetzt 

yetst 

soon 

bald 

bald 

till 

bis 

bis 

seldom 

selten 

zelten 

since 

seit 

zite 

ever 

immei 

immer 

never 

nie 

nee 

oft 

oft 

oft 

already 

schon 

schone 

to-day 

heute 

hoytay 

yesterday 

gestern 

gestern 

late 

spat 

spate 

why? 

warum  ? 

varoom  ? 

because 

weil 

vile 

if 

wenn 

ven 

perhaps 

vielleicht 

feelleycht 

above 

Prepositions. 

liber 

eeyuber 

about 

urn 

oom 

after 

nach 

nach 

against 

gegen 

gaegen 

before 

vor 

for 

of 

von 

fon 

over 

liber 

eeyuber 

since 

seit 

zite 

for 

fur 

feeyur 

from 

von 

fon 

in 

in 

in 

near 

nahe 

nahay 

under 

unter 

oonter 

up 

auf 

owf 

with 

mit 

mit 

and 

Conj  unctions, 
und 

oond 

also 

auch 

ouch 

even 

sogar 

sogar 

or 

oder 

oder 

nor 

noch 

noch 

yet 

doch 

doch 

because 

weil 

vile 

that 

dass 

das 

therefore 

daher 

dahar 

/ 

ECESSARY  PHRASES. ! 


Affirmative  Phrases. 


English. 

German. 

Pronunciation. 

It  is  true 

(Ed  ifl  mabr 

Es  ist  var 

It  is  so 

Ed  ifl  fo 

Es  ist  zo 

I believe  it 

3<b  glatibc  cd 

Ich  glowbay  es 

I think  so 

3d)  benfe  cd 

Ich  denkay  es 

I say  yes 

3d)  fage  ja 

Ich  zaagay  yah 

I say  it  is 

3cb  fage  ed  iff 

Ich  zaagay  es  ist 

I am  certain 

3<b  bin  gcmig 

Ich  bin  gayviss 

I am  certain  of  it 

3d)  bin  bcffen  gemif 

Ich  bin  dessen  gay- 

viss 

You  are  right 

©ie  baben  9ted)t 

See  haaben  recht 

You  are  quite  right 

©ie  babcn  ganj  SRecbt 

See  haaben  gants 

recht 

I know  it 

3di  mcib  ed 

Ich  vice  es 

I know  it  well 

3d)  tocife  cd  genau 

Ich  vice  es  genow 

I know  him 

3d)  fenne  ibn 

Ich  kennay  een 

I know  it  positively 

3d)  mcif?  ed  ffd)er 

Ich  vice  es  sicher 

I promise  it 

3d)  serfprcdje  cd 

Ich  versprechay  es 

I promise  it  to  you 

3d)  ocrfyrecbe  ed  Jbaen  Ich  versprechay  es 

eenen 

I give  it 

3d)  gcbe  ed 

Ich  gaybay  es 

I give  it  to  you 

3<b  gebe  cd  3bnen 

Ich  gaybay  es  eenen 

I will  give  it  to  you 

3$  will  3f)nen  ae&cit  Ich  vill  es  eenen 

gayben 

You  are  wrong 

©ie  babcn  Unrecbt 

See  haben  oonrecht 

He  is  wrong 

Sr  bat  llnredjt 

Air  hat  oonrecht 

I believe  him 

3d)  glaube  ibm 

Ich  glowbay  eem 

Very  well  j 

©ebr  mobl 
©el)r  gut 

Zare  vole 
Zare  goot 

Negative  Phrases. 


No 

I say  no 
I say  it  is  not 

It  is  not  so 
It  is  not  true 
I say  nothing 
I will  say  nothing 
I have  nothing 
He  is  not  here 
I have  it  not 
He  has  it  not 
We  have  it  not 
You  have  it  not 
He  said  no 
Has  he  said  no  ? 


91  fin 

3d)  fage  item 
3#  fage  cd  iflnicfjt 

Sd  id  nid)t  fo 
Gd  i(I  nid)trca^r 
3d)  fage  nid)td 
3d)  mill  nid)td  fagen 
3d)  babe  nidjtd 
Gr  id  tiid)t  l)ier 
3d)  babe  cd  rtic^t 
Gr  bat  ed  nidbt 
2Bir  babcn  cd  nidbt 
3br  babt  cd  nid)t 
Gr  fagte  nein 
•£>at  cr  nein  gefagt? 


Has  he  said  nothing?  £at  er  nid)td  gefagt? 

I did  not  hear  3dj  babe  nicht  gebort 

I have  not  heard  it  3<b  babe  ed  nicbt  gebort 

You  are  quite  wrong  ©ie  babcn  burd)audUn= 
retbt 


Nine 

Ich  zaagay  nine 
Ich  zaagay  es  ist 
nicht 

Es  ist  nicht  so 
Es  ist  nicht  var 
Ich  zaagay  nichts 
Ich  vill  nichts  zaagen 
Ich  haabay  nichts 
Air  ist  nicht  heer 
Ich  haabay  es  nicht 
Air  hat  es  nicht 
Veer  haaben  es  nicht 
Eer  habt  es  nicht 
Air  zaagtay  nine 
Hat  air  nine  gezaagt? 
Hat  air  nichts  ge- 
zaagt ? 

Ich  haabay  nicht  ge- 
heurt 

Ich  haabay  es  nicht 
geheurt 

Zee  haaben  doorch- 
ows  oonrecht 


GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


123 


Interrogative  Phrases. 


English. 

Who? 

Who  was  it  ? 
What  is  it? 
Who  is  it  ? 

Did  you  say  it  ? 


German. 

2Bcr? 

2Ber  war  ed  ? 
2Bad  til  c<3  ? 
2Ber  ifl  ed? 
©agten  ©ie  ed  ? 


What  are  you  doing  ? 2Bad  tijun  ©ie? 

What  is  he  doing  ? 2Bad  tlfut  cr  ? 

Tell  me  ©agen  ©ie  mir 

Will  you  tell  me  ? SBotlen  ©ie  mir  fagen? 


How  are  you  ? 
How  is  he  ? 

What  for? 

Why? 

Why  do  you  ask  ? 
Why  shall  I go? 


2Bie  get)td  ? 

2Bie  getytd  il)m? 
SBofiir  ? 

SBarum  ? 

©arum  fragen  ©ie  ? 
©arum  foil  id)  gef)en? 


Why  do  you  speak  ? ©arum  fpred)en  ©ie  ? 
Why  are  you  silent  ? ©arum  fd)tt>eigen  ©ie  ? 


Why  did  you  go  ? 

Is  it  ready  ? 

Have  you  heard  ? 

Do  you  hear  ? 

Where  ? 

Where  is  it  ? 

Where  is  he  ? 

Where  is  she  ? 
Where  are  you  ? 
Where  are  you 
going  ? 

Where  do  you  come 
from  ? 

Where  were  you  ? 
What? 

What  is  it? 

What  is  that  ? 

What  time  is  it  ? 
What  o’clock  is  it  ? 
What  have  you  ? 
What  do  you  say  ? 
What  did  you  say? 
What  do  you  mean  ? 
What  do  you  want  ? 
What  will  you  do  ? 


©arum  gingen  ©ic  ? 
3fl  ed  fcrtig? 

•ftabcn  ©ie  gebort? 
|>6ren  ©ie  ? 
ffio? 

©0  ifl  ed? 

©0  ifl  er  ? 

©0  ill  fte  ? 

©0  ftnb  ©ic? 

©0  getyen  ©ie  bin? 

©0  fomnten  ©iefyer? 

©0  marcn  ©ie? 

©ad? 

©ad  ifl  ed? 

©ad  ifl  bad? 

©ad  ifl  bte  Beit? 
©ieriel  Ulfr  ift  ed? 
©ad  baben  ©ie? 

©ad  fagen  ©ie? 

©ad  fagten  ©ie? 

©ad  meinen  ©ie? 

©ad  rnotlen  ©ie? 

©ad  woflen  ©ietbun? 


Pronunciation. 

Vare  ? 

Vare  var  es  ? 

Vas  ist  es  ? 

Vare  ist  es  ? 

Zaagten  zee  es  ? 

Vas  toon  zee? 

Vas  toot  air? 

Zaagen  zee  meer 
Vollen  zee  meer  zaa- 
gen? 

Vee  gales  ? 

Vee  gates  eem  ? 
Vofeeyur  ? 

Varoom  ? 

Varoom  fraagen  zee  ? 
Varoom  zoll  ich 
gayen  ? 

Varoom  shprechen 
zee? 

Varoom  shvigen 
zee  ? 

Varoom  gingen  zee  ? 
Ist  es  fartig  ? 

Haaben  zee  geheurt  ? 
Heuren  zee  ? 

Vo? 

Vo  ist  es  ? 

Vo  ist  air  ? 

Vo  ist  zee  ? 

Vo  zind  zee  ? 

Vo  gayen  zeen  hin  ? 

Vo  commen  zee 
hare  ? 

Vo  varen  zee  ? 

Vas? 

Vas  ist  es  ? 

Vas  ist  das  ? 

Vas  ist  dee  tsite  ? 
Veefeel  oor  ist  es? 
Vas  haaben  zee  ? 

Vas  zaagen  zee  ? 

Vas  zaagten  zee  ? 

Vas  minen  zee  ? 

Vas  vollen  zee  ? 

Vas  vollen  zee  toon  ? 


English. 

Drink 
Hear 
Hear  me 
Look  at  me 
Look  at  him 
Begin 
Continue 
Stop 
Tell  me 
Tell  it  him 
Speak  to  me 

Speak  to  him 

Be  quiet 
Go 

Go  to  him 
Go  to  bed 

Fetch 
Fetch  it 
Bring  it 
Bring  it  to  me 
Let  it  be 
Let  me  have  it 


German. 

Jrinfcn  ©ie 
£>6ren  ©te 
•fboren  ©ie  mid) 

©efjcn  ©ie  micb  an 
©ebeit  ©ie  ibtt  an 
gangen  ©ie  an 
gabren  ©ie  fort 
£alt 

©agctt  ©ie  mir 
©agen  ©ie  ed  il)m 
©prcdjett  ©ie  mil  mir 

©predjcn  ©ie  mil  il)m 

©eien  ©te  rubig 
©epen  ©ie 
©elfen  ©ie  ju  tbm 
©el)en©ie  ju  Sctte 

-Stolen 

■Stolen  ©ie  ed 
©ringcn  ©ie  ed 
Sringen  ©te  ed  mir 
Saffcn  ©ic  ed  fcin 
Caffen  ©ie  ed  mid) 
baben 


Pronunciation. 

Trinken  zee 
Heuren  zee 
Heuren  zee  mich 
Zayen  zee  mich  an 
Zayen  zee  een  an 
Fan  gen  zee  an 
Faaren  zee  fort 
Halt 

Zaagen  zee  meer 
Zaagen  zee  es  eem 
Shprechen  zee  mit 
meer 

Shprechen  zee  mit 
eem 

Zyen  zee  rooig 
Gayen  zee 
Gayen  zee  tsoo  eem 
Gayen  zee  tsoo 
bettay  ? 

Holen 

Holen  zee  es 
Bringen  zee  es 
Bringen  zee  es  meer 
Lassen  zee  es  zeyn 
Lassen  zee  es  mich 
haaben 


EASY  EXPRESSIONS. 


Tell  me  ©agen  ©ie  mir 

If  you  please  gitttigjl  — gcfdfltgfl 

Have  the  goodness  -fbaben  ©ie  - e ©ute 


Yes,  Sir 
Yes,  Madam 
No,  Sir 
No,  Madam 
No,  Miss 


3a,  ntcin  £err 
3a,  9Jlabam 
Slcin,  mein  Serr 
9?cin,  fWabam 
Sfein,  mein  grdulcin 


Zaagen  zee  meer 
geeyutigst— gefelligst 
Haaben  zee  dee 
geeyutay 
Yah,  mine  har 
Yah,  madam 
Nine,  mine  har 
Nine,  Madame 
Nine  mine  froyline 


Do  you  speak 

©predjen  Sie 

Shprechen  zee 

Imperative  Phrases. 

German  ? 
English  ? 

beutfd)  ? 
englifd)  ? 

doytsh  ? 
english  ? 

Come  away ! 

jt'ommen  ©te  fort! 

Kommen  zee  fort ! 

or  French  ? 

cber  fransijfffd)  ? 

oder  frantseuzish 

Come  here  ! 

Commen  ©ie  bierber ! 

Kommen  zee  heer- 

I do  not  speak  Ger-  3*  fprcdje  nid>t  beutfd) 

Ich  shprechay  nicht 

hare  ? 

man 

doytsh 

Go  there  ! 

©elfen  ©ie  bortbtn! 

Gayen  zee  dorthin  ! 

I speak  it  a little 

3d)  fprcd'e  ctmad 

Ich  sprechay  etvas 

Come  back ! 

flommcn  ©ie  jurikf ! 

Kommen  zee  tsoo- 

I understand 

3df  »erflc!)e 

Ich  ferstaye 

Go  on ! 

reeyuck ! 

I understand  it 

3d)  berfle^e  ed 

Ich  ferstaye  es 

©cben  ©ie  meiter! 

Gayen  zee  viter  ! 

but 

aber 

aber 

Sit  down  ! 

©cfcen  Sie  fid)  l 

Setsen  zee  zich ! 

I do  not  speak  it 

3d)  fpredje  ed  nicbt 

Ich  shprechay  es 

Stand  still ! 

©teben  ©ie  flidi 

Stayen  zee  still  1 

nicht 

Wait 

SBarten  ©ie 

Varten  zee 

I speak  English 

3d)  fprecbe  (Englifd) 

Ich  shprechay  Eng- 

Wait  for  me 

SBarten  ©ie  auf  mid) 

Varten  zee  owf  mich 

lish 

Wait  a little 

SBarten  ©ie  ein  mcntg 

Varten  zeeinevaynig 

I am  an  Englishman  3d)  bitt  ein  GtngMttber 

Ich  bin  ine  Englen- 

Make  haste 

fKadten  ©te  fcfeneU 

Machen  zee  shnel 

der 

Be  quick 

Secilctt  ©ic  fid) 

Bayilen  zee  zich 

I speak  French 

a 3d)  fprcdtc  ein  tnenig  Ich  shprechay  ine 

Follow  me 

golgen  ©te  ntir 

Folgen  zee  meer 

little 

fram \o  fifth 

vaynig  frantseuzish 

Follow  him 

gotgen  ©te  ibnt 

Folgen  zee  eem 

I am  not  a French-  3d)  bitt  fcin  granjofe 

Ich  bin  kine  Fran- 

Tell  him 

©agen  ©ie  ilfm 

Zaagen  zee  eem 

man 

tsozay 

Call  him 

SRufen  ©ie  it)n 

Roofen  zee  een 

Do  you  understand  ?lBerftel)en  ©ic  ? 

Ferstayen  zee  ? 

Speak 

©predten  ©ie 

Shprechen  zee 
Essen  zee 

Can  you  understand?  Jtbniten  ©ie  serfle^en  ? 

Keunnen  zee  fer- 

Eat 

Gffen  ©ie 

stayen  ? 

GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


Bnglish. 

German. 

Pronunciation. 

Speak  slower 

©preeben  ©ie  langfamer 

Shprechen  zee  lang- 
zaamer 

You  speak  too  fast 

©ie  fprcd)cn  ju  fcbneH 

Zee  shprechen  tsoo 
shnel 

Give  me 

©eben  ©ie  mir 

Gayben  zee  meer 

some  bread 

2)rob 

Brode 

some  butter 

Sutter 

Bootter 

some  water 

2Baffer 

Vasser 

some  tea 

Tb  ee 

Tay 

some  wine 

SSBein 

Vine 

some  meat 

gieifcb 

Flishe 

something 

etroad 

etvas 

to  eat 

ju  effen 

tsoo  essen 

to  drink 

ju  trinfeit 

tsoo  trinken 

Bring  me 

Sringen  ©ie  mir 

Brir.gen  zee  meer 

some  coffee 

•Staffee 

Kaffay 

some  milk 

fWilcb 

Milch 

some  cheese 

Safe 

Kaysay 

I thank  you 

3d)  banfe  Sbnen 

Ich  dankay  eenen 

Good  morning 
Good  day 
Good  afternoon 
Mow  do  you  do? 
How  are  you? 

Very  well 
I am  very  well 

Pretty  well 
Tolerably 

How  is  your  father? 

How  is  your  mother  ? 

I am  not  well 
I am  unwell 
She  is  not  well 
He  is  not  well 
She  is  ill 
He  is  very  ill 
She  has  a cold 
I have  the  toothache 
I must  go 
I am  going  now 
It  is  time  to  go 
Good  bye 
Farewell 

I wish  you  a good 
morning 


Meeting. 

©utcn  IKorgen 
©utcn  Tag 
©utcn  9?ad)mittag 
2Bie  gebt’d  ? 

2Bie  beftnben  <Ste  ft<b  ? 

©ebr  mobl 

3d)  beftnbe  midj  feljr 
!D0l)l 

3iemlidj  tnoljl 
©o  jicmlid) 

2Bie  bcfinbct  fid)  3br 
£crr  Satcr? 

2Bte  bcfinbct  fldj  3bte 
gran  Gutter? 

3d)  bin  nid)t  rnobl 
3<b  bin  unmobl 
©ie  ijl  nid)t  tuo^t 
(Er  i|I  nid)t  tnobl 
©ic  ifl  franf 
(Er  ifl  febr  franf 
©ic  bat  fid)  erfaltct 
3<b  babe  Sabnmeb 
3d)  ntttg  geben 
3cb  gebe  jef)t 
(Ed  ift  3cit  ju  geben 
Ccbcn  ©ie  n>obI 
Slbiett 

3d)  nmnfcbe  Sbnen  cincn 
guten  IWorgen 


Good  evening  ©then  UIbcnb 

Good  night  ©ute  9?aibt 

I wish  you  good  3d)  mfinfdje  Sbnen 
night  gute  9?ad)t 

My  compliments  at  SJJctne  (Empfcblungcn 
home  bett  Sbciflen 


Gooten  morgen 
Gooten  tag 
Gooten  nachmittag 
Vee  gaytes 
Vee  befinden  zee 
zich? 

Zare  vole 

Ich  befinday  mich 
zare  vole 
Tseemlich  vole 
Zo  tseemlich 
Vee  befindet  zich  eer 
har  fater  ? 

Vee  befindet  zich 
eerefrow  mootter? 
Ich  bin  nicht  vole 
Ich  bin  oonvole 
Zee  ist  nicht  vole 
Air  ist  nicht  vole 
Zee  ist  krank 
Air  ist  zare  krank 
Zee  hat  zich  airkeltet 
Ich  haabay  tsaanvay 
Ich  moos  gayen 
Ich  gayay  yetst 
Esist  tsite  tsoo  gayen 
Layben  zee  vole 
Adeeu 

Ich  veeyunshe  eenen 
inen  gooten  mor- 
gen 

Gooten  abend 
Gootay  nacht 
Ich  veeyunshe  eenen 
gootay  nacht 
Minay  empfayloon- 
gen  dan  eeregen 


A Visit. 


There  is  a knock  (Ed  flopft 
It  is  Mr.  A.  (Ed  ift  &crr  91. 

It  is  Mrs.  B.  (Ed  ift  SKabam  S3. 

I am  glad  to  see  you  3d)  freue  mid)  ©ie 
•feben 

Pray  be  seated  33itte  fefjcn  fte  fid) 


Es  klopft 
Es  ist  har  A. 

Es  ist  madam  B. 

JU  Ich  froyay  mich  zee 
tsoo  zayen 
Bittay  zetsen  zee  zich 


English. 

What  news  is  there  ? 

Good  news 

Do  you  believe  it  ? 

I don’t  believe  a 
word  of  it 

I think  so 

I think  not 

Who  told  you  ? 

It  is  true 

It  is  not  true 

I doubt  it 

Have  you  heard  from 
home  ? 

Thepostman  brought 
me  a letter  to-day 

Sad  news 

Will  you  dine  with 
us  ? 

No,  thank  you 


German. 

SBad  giebtd  9?eued  ? 
©ute  9?ad)rid)ten 
©lauben  ©ie  ed  ? 

3d)  glaube  fein  SBort 
batton 

3<b  betife  (glaube)  fo 

3d)  betife  nicht 
SBer  bat  cd  Sbnen  ge= 
fagt? 

(Ed  ift  tuabr 
(Ed  ift  nid)t  tuabr 
3d)  bejrceifle  ed 
£>abcn  ©ie  son  £aufe 
gebbrt  ? 

(Dcr  Srieftrdger 
brad)te  mir  bcute  einett 
SSrtef 

©<bled)te  9tad)rid)tett 

SGBoOen  ©ie  mit  und 
fpeifen  ? 

Stein,  id)  banfe  Sbnen 


I cannot  stay 
I must  go 

You  are  in  a great 
hurry 

I have  a'  great  deal  3cb  b«be  del  ju  ttjun 
to  do 


3d)  fann  nicht  bleiben 
3d)  mu§  geben 
©ie  finb  in  grofjer  (Eilc 


Pronunciation. 

Vas  geebts  noyes? 
Gootay  nachrichten 
Glowben  zee  es  ? 

Ich  glowbay  kins 
vort  dafon 
Ich  denke  (glowbay) 
zo 

Ich  denke  nicht 
Var  hat  es  eenen  ge 
zaagt  ? 

Es  ist  var 
Es  ist  nicht  var 
Ich  betsviflay  es 
Haaben  zee  von 
howsay  geheurt  ? 
Dar  breeftrayger 
brachtay  meerhoy 
tay  inen  breef 
Shlechtay  nachrich- 
teai 

Vollen  zee  mit  oons 
spizen  ? 

Nine,  ich  dankay 
eenen 

Ich  kann  nicht  bliben 
Ich  moos  gayen 
Zee  zind  in  grosser 
ilay 

Ich  haabay  feel  tzoo 
toon 


Expressions  of  Joy. 


What  ! 

Is  it  possible  ! 

Can  it  be ! 

How  can  it  be  pos- 
sible ! 

Who  would  have  be- 
lieved it ! 

Indeed ! 

It  is  impossible 
That  cannot  be 
I am  astonished  at  it 

You  surprise  me 

It  is  incredible 


2Bad ! 

3fl  cd  moglicb ! 

Sann  ed  fein! 

2Bie  fann  ed  moglicb 
fein! 

©er  tofirbe  bad  ge- 
glaubt  baben! 

SBivflid) ! 

(Ed  ijl  unmoglid) 

(Ed  fann  nidjt  fein 

3d)  rounbere  micb  bar* 
fiber 

©ie  fibertafeben  micb 

(Ed  iff  unglaublid) 


Vas  ! 

Ist  es  meuglich ! 

Kan  es  zine ! 

Vee  kan  es  meuglich 
zine  ! 

Var  veeyurday  das 
geglowbt  haaben  ! 

Virklich  ! 

Es  ist  oonmeuglich 

Es  kann  nicht  zine 

Ich  voonderay  mich 
dareeyuber 

Zee  eeyuberrashen 
mich 

Es  ist  oonglowblich 


Of  Sorrow  and  Joy. 


I am  sorry 
I am  very  sorry 

What  a pity 
It  is  a great  pity 
It  is  a sad  thing 


(Ed  tbut  mir  Icib 
(Ed  tbut  mir  febr  leib 

SBie  febabe 

(Ed  iff  febr  febabe 

(Ed  eine  traurige  ©acbe 


It  is  a misfortune  (Ed  ift  ein  Unglficf 


It  is  a great  mis- 
fortune 
I am  glad 
I am  glad  of  it 


(Ed  iff  ein  gro§ed  Urn 
glficf 

(Ed  ift  mir  lieb 
3d)  freue  micb  barfiber 


I am  very  glad  (Ed  ift  mir  febr  lieb 
It  gives  me  pleasure  (Ed  maefit  mir  23ergnib 
gen 


Es  toot  meer  lide 
Es  toot  meer  zare 
lide 

Vee  shaday 
Es  ist  zare  shaday 
Es  ist  inay  trowrigay 
zachay 

Es  ist  ine  oon- 
gleeyuck 

Es  ist  ine  grosses 
oongleeyuck 
Es  ist  meer  leeb 
Ich  froyay  mich  dar- 
eeyuber 

Es  ist  meer  zare  leeb 
Es  macht  meer  fer- 
gneeyugen 


GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


r25 


* 


English. 


German. 


Pronunciation. 


It  gives  me  great  joy  £3  ma4t 
jfreube 


I am  happy 
How  happy  I am  * 

I wish  you  joy 

I congratulate  you 


Es  macht  meer  gros- 
say  froyday 
3 4 bin  gliuflicf)  Ich  bin  gleeyucklich 

©ie  glutflid)  i4  bin  Vee  gleeyucklich  ich 
bin 

34  tnunf4e  s^ncn  Ich  veeyunshe  eenen 
©lucf  gleeyuck 

34  gratulire  S^ncn  Ich  gratooleeray 
eenen 


Of  Anger  and  Blame. 


I am  angry 
He  is  angry 
He  is  very  angry 
Don’t  be  angry 


34  bin  drgerli4 
£r  if!  drgerli4 
£r  i|l  jebr  argerlkb 
©eien  ©ie  ni4t  argerlkb 


You  are  wrong  ©it  babcn  Unre4t 
You  are  right  ©ie  babcn  9?ed>t 

Why  don’t  you  do  it?  ©arum  tbun  ©ie  eg 
ni4t? 

Be  quiet  ©eien  ©icrubig 

What  a shame  ! ©el4e  ©4anbe ! 

How  could  you  do  ©ie  fonnten  ©ie  eg 
it?  tbun? 

I am  ashamed  of  you  34  I4dme  mi4  Sbrer 

You  are  very  much  ©ie  finb  jebr  ju  tabeln 
to  blame 


Don’t  answer 
Be  patient 
I will  improve 


Slntroorten  ©ie  ni4t 
©ebulben  ©ie  jt4 
34  tnerbe  mi4  befjern 


Age. 

How  old  are  you  ? ©ie  alt  flnb  ©ie  ? 

I am  twenty  34  bin  jmanjig  3<4r 

alt 

I shall  soon  be  thirty  34  roerbe  balb  breifjig 
fein 

He  looks  older  £r  fiebt  alter  aug 
She  is  younger  ©ie  i|l  jiinger 
She  cannot  be  so  ©ie  fann  ni4t  jo  jung 
young  fein 

He  must  be  older  (Sr  mufj  alter  fein 
I did  not  think  you  34  glaubte ni4t bag  ©ie 
were  so  old  jo  alt  fein 

He  is  at  least  sixty  £r  ifl  roenigfleng 


She  must  be  forty 


your 


How  old  is 
father? 

He  is  nearly  eighty 
Is  he  so  old? 

How  old  i 
sister  ? 

She  is  fifteen 


je4«jig 

©ie  mu§  sierjig 
alt  fein 

©ie  alt  ifl  3br  33ater? 


3<4r 


(Sr  ifl  nabe  a4tjig 
3fl  er  fo  alt? 
your  ©ie  alt  i|l  ibre 
©4n>efler  ? 

©ie  ill  funftebn 


Is  she  so  young?  3fl  fte  jo  jung  ? 

How  old  is  your  ©ie  alt  ifl  3bre  Jante  ? 
aunt  ? 

She  is  nearly  ninety  ©ie  ifl  fafl  neunjig 
It  is  a great  age  £0  ifl  cin  bobed  Sllter 
He  begins  to  grow  gr  fdngt  an  alt  ju 
old  tterben 


Ich  bin  argerlich 
Air  ist  argerlich 
Air  ist  zare  argerlich 
Zyen  zee  nicht  ar- 
gerlich 

Zee  haaben  oonrech.. 
Zee  haaben  recht 
Varoom  toon  zee  es 
nicht  ? 

Zyen  zee  rooig 
Velchay  shanday ! 
Vee  konten  zee  es 
toon  ? 

Ich  shamay  mich 
eerer 

Zee  sind  zare  tsoo 
tadeln 

Antvorten  zee  nicht 
Gedoolden  zee  zich 
Ich  varday  mich 
bessern 


Vee  alt  zind  zee  ? 

Ich  bin  tsvantsig 
yaar  alt 

Ich  varday  bald  dry. 
sig  zine 

Er  zeet  elter  ows 
Zee  ist  yeeyanger 
Zee  kan  nicht  zo 
yoong  zine 
Air  moos  elter  zine 
Ich  glowbtay  nicht 
das  zee  zo  alt  zyen 
Air  ist  venigstens 
zechtsig 

Zee  moos  feertsig 
yaar  alt  zine 
Vee  alt  ist  eer  faater  ? 

Air  ist  nahay  achtsig 
Ist  ar  zo  alt  ? 

Vee  alt  ist  eeray 
shvester? 

Zee  ist  feeyunftsane 
Ist  zee  zo  yoong  ? 
Vee  alt  ist  eeray 
tantay  ? 

Zee  ist  fast  noyntsig 
Es  ist  ine  hohes  alter 
Air  fengt  an  alt  tsoo 
vayrden 


To  ask  Questions. 


Englisn. 

What  do  you  say  ? 
Do  you  hear? 

Do  you  hear  me  ? 

I don’t  speak  to  you 

Do  you  understand 
me? 

Listen 
Come  here 

What  is  that  ? 
Answer 

Why  don’t  you  an- 
swer ? 

What  do  you  mean  ? 
What  do  you  mean 
by  that  ? 

You  speak  German 
I suppose 
Very  little.  Sir 
Do  you  know  me  ? 
Do  you  know  Mr.  H? 
I know  him 
I do  not  know  him 
I know  you 
I know  him  by  sight 

I know  him  by  name 

I know  him  well 

What  do  you  call 
that  ? 

What  is  that  in  Ger- 
man ? 

What  do  you  call 
that  in  English  ? 
What  does  that 
mean  ? 

What  is  it  good  for  ? 
It  is  good  for  nothing 

Is  it  good  ? 

Is  it  bad  ? 

Is  it  eatable? 

Is  it  drinkable  ? 

Is  it  nice? 

Is  it  fresh  ? 


German. 


Pronunciation. 


©ag  jagcn  ©it  ? Vas  zaagen  zee  ? 

■£>bren  ©ie  ? Heuren  zee? 

•£>orcn  ©ie  mi4  ? Heuren  zee  mich  ? 

34  jprc4c  mit  3bnen  Ich  sprechay  mit 
ni4t  eenen  nicht 

S3er|leben  ©ie  mi4  ? Fershtayen  zee  mich: 


£oren  ©te 
itommen  ©ic  bierber 

©ag  ifl  bag  ? 
Slntroorten  ©ie 
©arum  antmorten  ©te 
ni4t? 

©ag  meinen  ©ie? 

©ag  meinen  ©ie  bamit  ? 

34  Pcrmutbe  ©te  fpre= 
4en  beutf4 

©cbr  roenig,  mein  $err 
ft'ennen  ©ie  mi4  ? 
.R'ennen  ©te  -£>errn  ■£>  ? 
34  fenne  ibn 
34  Fenne  ilpt  ni4t 
34  Fenne  ©ie 
34  Fenne  ibn  son  5ln= 
feben 

34  fenne  ibn  bei  Seamen 
£r  ifl  mir  rnobl  befannt 
©ie  nennen  ©ie  bag  ? 


Heuren  zee 
Kommen  zee  heer 
hare 

Vas  ist  das? 
Antvorten  zee 
Varoom  antvorten 
zee  nicht  ? 

Vas  minen  zee? 

Vas  minen  zee  da- 
mit  ? 

Ich  fermootay  zee 
shprechen  doytsh 
Zare  vanig  mine  hare 
Kennen  zee  mich  ? 
Kennen  zee  harn  H ? 
Ich  kennay  een 
Ich  kennay  een  nicht 
Ich  kennay  zee 
Ich  kennay  een  von 
anzane 

Ich  kennay  een  by 
naamen 

Air  ist  meer  vole  be- 
kant 

Vee  nennen  zee  das? 


©ie  bft§i  aufVee  histe  das  owf 

2)eutf4  ? Doytsh? 

©ie  beifjt  bag  attfVee  histe  das  owf 


£nglif4  ? 

©ag  beifjt  bag  ? 

2Boju  tjl  eg  gut  ? 
gg  ifl  ju  ni4tg  gut 

3(1  eg  gut  ? 

3fl  eg  j41e4t  ? 

3fl  eg  efitxir  ? 

3 ft  eg  trinfbar  ? 
3ft  eg  j4on? 

3ft  eg  frif4? 


English  ? 

Vas  histe  das? 

Votsoo  ist  es  goot  ? 
Es  ist  tsoo  nichts 
goot 

Ist  es  goot  ? 

Ist  es  shlecht? 

Ist  es  esbar  ? 

Ist  es  trinkbar? 

Ist  es  sheun  ? 

Ist  es  frish  ? 


An  early  morning 
Early 

It  is  a fine  morning 

What  o’clock  is  it  ? 
It  is  nearly  eight 
Light  the  fire 

Light  a candle 


Morning. 

£in  fritber  fWorgctt 
Oritb 

£g  i|l  cin  f46ner  2J?or= 
gen 

©ag  ifl  bie  Ubr? 

£g  ifl  nabe  a4t  Ubr 
3itnben  ©ie  bag  Seucr 
an 

Sitnbcn  ©ie  ein  2i4t  an 


I am  going  to  get  up  34  tuiH  anffteben 
Get  me  some  hot  SBringcn  ©ie  mir  ctmag 
water  bf*§eg  ©affer 

Some  cold  water  gtrnag  falteg  ©ajfer 
Some  spring-water  £tmag  Hrinfmaffer 
Make  haste  5Wa4en  ©ie  f4neH 


Ine  freeyuer  morgen 
Freeytt 

Es  ist  ine  sheuner 
morgen 

Vas  ist  dee  oor? 

Es  ist  naay  acht  ooi 
Tseeyunden  zee  das 
foyer  an 

Tseeyunden  zee  ine 
licht  an 

Ich  vill  owfstayen 
Bringen  zee  meet 
etvas  hises  vasser 
Etvas  kaltes  vasser 
Etvas  trinkvasser 
Machen  zee  shnel 


X 


tf* — 

1 X20 


GERMAN  SELF-TAUGHT. 


English. 

There  is  no  towel 


German. 


Sd  ift  fettt  £anbtud)  ba 
Bring  me  some  soap  Sringen  tote  mir  ©eife 


I want  to  wash  my- 
self 

How  have  you  slept? 

Did  you  sleep  well  ? 

Very  well,  thank  you 

.Not  very  well 
I could  not  sleep 

I was  so  tired  from 
traveling 


3d)  mimfdje  mid)  ju  ma* 
jd)en 

2Bte  babcn  ©ie  gcftbla= 
fen  ? 

£aben  ©ie  gut  gefc^la= 
fen  ? 

©ebr  gut,  3d)  banfe 
Sbnen 
id)t  fcljr  gut 

3d)  fonnte  nid)t  fd)lafcn 

3d)  tt>ar  fo  mitbe  son  ber 
fReife 


Pronunciation. 

Es  ist  kine  handtooch 
da 

Bringen  zee  meer 
zifay 

Ich  veeyunshe  mich 
tsoo  vashen 

Vee  haaben  zee  gay- 
shlafen  ? 

Haaben  zee  goot  gay- 
shlafen  ? 

Zare  goot,  ich  dan- 
kay  eenen 

Nicht  zare  goot 

Ich  konntay  nicht 
shlafen 

Ich  vare  zo  meeyude 
fon  dar  risay 


Breakfast. 


Breakfast  is  ready  T>ad  ftrubfiud  tfl  fertig 
Is  breakfast  ready  ? 3 ft  bad  3ritl)flucf  fertig  ? 


Come  to  breakfast 

Let  us  breakfast 

Does  the  water  boil  ? 
This  water  has  not 
boiled 

Is  the  tea  made  ? 
Give  me  a cup  of  tea 

A cup  of  coffee 
A roll 

Do  you  drink  tea  or 
coffee  ? 

This  cream  is  sour 


flommcn  ©ie  jum 

SrubRim 

Saffctt  ©ie  und  frill)* 
ftiicfcn 

flod)t  bud  5Ba||er? 
T>icfcd  SBaffer  l)nt  nid)t 
gefod)t 

3|1  ber  Lbee  fertig? 
©cbcn  ©ie  mir  eine 
Jaffc  S()ee 
(Eine  jaffe  flaffee 
Sin  50?ildrbrob 
SrinFcn  ©ie  2djee  ober 
flaffee  ? 

£>iefe  ©abne  ift  fauer 


Das  freeyusteeyuck 
ist  faretig  ? 

Ist  das  freeyu- 
steeyuck faretig  ? 
Kommen  zee  tsoom 
freeyusteeyuck 
Lassen  zee  oons 
freeyusteeyucken 
Kocht  das  vasser? 
Deezes  vasser  hat 
niclit  gekocht 
Ist  dar  tay  faretig  ? 
Gayben  zee  meer 
inay  tassay  tay 
Inay  tassay  kaffay 
Ine  milchbrodt 
T rinken  zee  tay  oder 
kaffay? 

Deezay  zaanay  ist 


English.  German. 

Willyou  take  an  egg?  ffiotlen  ©ie  eln  Sieffen  ? 

These  eggs  are  hard  £>iefe  Sier  ftnb  bart 

Give  me  the  salt  ©eben  ©ie  mir  bad  ©alj 

Pass  me  the  butter  fRcicben  ©ie  mir  bie 
Sutter 

This  is  fresh  butter  2)ad  ift  frifdje  Sutter 

This  butter  is  not  T>icfe  Sutter  ift  nidjt 
fresh  frifd) 

Bring  some  more  Sringen  ©ie  ettuad  rnebr 
butter  Sutter 

Give  me  a spoon  ©ebcu  ©ie  mir  eineit 
Cbffcl 

Is  the  coffee  strong  3ft  ber  flaffee  flarf  ge= 
enough  nug 

We  want  more  cups  2Bir  braudjen  mebr  £nf* 
fen 

Take  some  more  fftebmcn  ©ie  nod)  etroad 
Sucfer 

flailed  Sleifcb 
3Dad  lifdjtud) 


sugar 
Cold  meat 
The  table-cloth 
The  sugar-basin 


Tue  3ucferbiid)fe 

(Ebofolabe 
Sin  SEUeffer 
Sine  ©abel 


Chocolate 
A knife 
A fork 

The  knife  is  blunt  2)ad  fWeffer  i|t  ftumpf 

We  have  done  break-  2Bir  ftnb  mit  bent  grub* 
fast  fliitf  fertig 

You  can  take  away  ©ie  fbnnen  bie 
the  things  fad)en  fortnebmen 


Pronunciation. 

Vollen  zee  ine  eye 
essen? 

Deezay  eyer  zind 
hard 

Gayben  zee  meer  das 
zalts 

Richen  zee  meer  dee 
bootter 

Das  ist  frishay  boot- 
ter 

Deezay  bootter  ist 
nicht  frish 

Bringen  zee  etvas 
mare  bootter 
Gayben  zee  meer 
inen  leuffel 
Ist  dar  kaffay  stark 
genoog  ? 

Veer  browchen  mare 
tassen 

Naymen  zee  noch  et- 
vas tsoocker 
Kaltes  flishe 
Das  tishtooch 
Dee  tsoocker- 
beeyuchsay 
Chocoladay 
Ine  messer 
Ine  gabel 
Das  messer  ist 
stoompf 

Vir  sind  mit  dem 
freeyusteeyuck 
faretig 

Zee  keunnen  deetay- 
zachen  fortnaymen 


The  student  being  now  well  afloat,  will  be  able  to  steer  by 
the  aid  of  a good  vocabulary. 


L'BRASY 

Of  THE 

UNIVERSITY  Of  iLLlfiOiS 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


'F  we  listen  to  the  perform- 
ances of  two  pianoforte- 
players,  one  good  and  the  other 
bad,  and  try  to  analyze  the  dif- 
ferences which  exist  between  their 
renderings  of  the  same  composition, 
two  points  force  themselves  chiefly 
upon  our  attention,  and  this  even 
supposing  both  players  capable  of 
playing  all  the  written  notes  cor- 
rectly. The  first  of  these  points  is 
touch ; the  passages  of  the  good 
player  being  distinct  and  brilliant, 
while  those  of  the  other  are  slurred 
and  ineffective,  and  in  listening  to  them  one  cannot 
always  feel  sure  that  each  note  of  the  written  pas- 
sage has  been  fairly  struck.  Again,  the  cantabile  or 
melody  playing  of  the  one  is  rich  and  full  in  tone, 
and  the  expression  vocal — the  instrument  seems  to 
sing  ; whereas  a melody  played  by  the  supposed  bad 
performer  is  weak  and  short  in  tone,  and  often  over- 
powered by  heavy  accompaniment.  The  second 
of  the  two  points  of  difference  to  be  noticed  is  the 
different  rendering  or  conception  of  the  whole  work 
given  by  the  two  players.  In  the  one  case  the  whole 
is  intelligible  and  satisfactory,  while  in  the  other 
much  of  the  music  appears  vague  and  unmeaning, 
and  one  is  inclined  to  wonder  what  the  composer 


SBfcr- 


could  have  meant  by  it.  No  doubt  the  question  of 
the  general  conception  and  reading  of  a complete 
composition  is  a wide  one,  and  must  necessarily  in- 
clude a great  number  of  details,  extending  even  to 
the  capability  of  the  performer  to  enter  into  and 
understand  the  intentions  of  the  composer  ; still,  in 
this  book  we  have  to  do  less  with  the  intentions  of 
either  composer  or  performer,  than  with  the  me- 
chanical expression  of  those  intentions,  supposing 
them  to  have  been  correctly  conceived,  and  from 
this  point  of  view  it  will  be  found  that  the  chief  dif- 
ference between  the  readings  of  our  two  imaginary 
performers  lies  in  their  good  or  bad  phrasing. 
Touch  and  Phrasing  will  then  chiefly  claim  our  at- 
tention, and  first  of  all 


TOUCH. 

Touch  is  to  the  pianist  what  a good  management  of  the 
voice  is  to  the  vocalist,  or  a good  action  of  the  bow  to  a 
violinist — the  means  of  producing  agreeable  sounds  and  of 
executing  difficulties.  True,  the  tone  produced  by  an  inex- 
perienced hand  on  the  pianoforte  is  not  so  disagreeable  as  the 
earliest  attempts  of  a beginner  on  the  violin,  because  the 
former  is  a more  purely  mechanical  instrument  than  the  latter  ; 
still,  a good  touch  is  one  of  the  greatest  excellences  of  a 
pianist,  and  to  play  good  music  with  bad  touch  is  very  like 
attempting  to  read  a fine  poem  in  a language  which  one  is 
unable  to  pronounce  properly. 

Touch  is  of  two  kinds  : legato,  or  connected,  and  staccato, 
or  detached  touch.  Of  these  legato-touch  is  by  far  the  most 


128 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


important  and  the  most  frequently  used,  and  it  must  there- 
fore be  considered  first. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  legato-touch — namely,  brilliant 
touch,  suitable  for  rapid  passages  ; cantabile,  or  melody-touch, 
used  for  sustained  melody  ; and  accompaniment-touch.  Each 
of  these  may  be  employed  either  singly  or  in  combination  ; 
thus  the  touch  proper  to  melody  and  that  belonging  to  accompa- 
niment are  naturally  generally  met  with  together,  and  other 
combinations  are  perfectly  admissible  in  their  proper  place. 
Moreover,  although  the  classification  here  given  is  sufficiently 
practical,  there  are  cases  in  which  the  most  appropriate  touch 
seems  to  partake  of  the  qualities  of  two  of  the  above  kinds  ; 
for  instance,  a passage  may  be  sufficiently  melodious  and  not 
too  rapid  to  require  somewhat  of  a cantabile  touch,  or  so  light 
and  delicate  as  to  be  best  rendered  by  a touch  approximating 
to  that  proper  for  accompaniment. 

Of  the  three  kinds  of  legato-touch  just  mentioned,  the  touch 
for  brilliant  passages  is  at  once  the  most  difficult  to  acquire, 
and  the  most  important,  as  being  the  foundation  of  all  other 
kinds.  It  consists  of  a rapid  and  decided  blow,  struck  with 
the  tip  of  a bent  finger  (but  rather  rounded  than  angular),  and 
just  escaping  the  finger-nail.  In  order  to  insure  a correct 
position  of  the  hand  for  this  kind  of  touch,  the  best  method  is 
as  follows  : — Place  the  middle  finger  of  the  right  hand  on  any 
note — say  E,  the  fourth  space  of  the  treble  stave  ; let  the  back 
of  the  hand  be  kept  level,  so  that  a pencil  laid  upon  it  would 
not  roll  off,  and  then  point  as  nearly  straight  upwards  as  pos- 
sible with  the  three  free  fingers  and  the  thumb.  Now  lower 
the  front  joints  of  the  first  and  third  fingers,  slowly  and 
gradually,  but  without  altering  the  position  of  the  joints  at 
which  the  fingers  are  connected  with  the  hand,  and  watch  for 
the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  finger-nails.  As  soon  as  this 
has  taken  place,  and  the  nails  are  just  hidden  from  view  by 
the  bend  of  the  finger,  the  hand  is  in  a good  position,  and  the 
first  finger  is  ready  to  strike  D,  or  the  third  finger  F,  as  may 
be  required.  As  for  the  thumb  and  little  finger,  they  will,  in 
all  probability,  have  become  slightly  lowered  during  the  bend- 
ing of  the  other  fingers,  and  will  now  be  on  a level  with  the 
back  of  the  hand,  but  stretched  out,  which  is  their  proper  po- 
sition. 

The  hand  being  thus  well  placed,  and  resting  on  the  note 
E played  by  the  second  finger,  with  all  the  other  fingers  (in- 
cluding the  thumb)  held  at  a distance  of  about  two  inches 
above  the  keys,  let  us  now  consider  the  best  way  of  striking  the 
next  note,  D,  so  as  to  produce  a bright,  full,  and  decided 
tone.  To  this  end  three  things  are  requisite,  the  blow  of  the 
finger  upon  the  key  must  be  rapid,  vertical,  and  from  a 
sufficient  distance.  Any  one  or  two  of  these  qualities  might 
be  present  without  the  others.  For  example,  the  finger  might 
fall  rapidly  and  in  a vertical  direction,  but  from  an  insufficient 
distance  ; or,  the  distance  being  sufficient,  the  blow  might  yet 
be  oblique,  from  the  fingers  having  been  too  much  or  too 
little  bent,  or  slow  in  movement,  and  therefore  deficient  in 
percussion.  In  none  of  these  cases  would  the  touch  be  good, 
but  if  all  three  qualities  are  present,  and  if  the  finger  which 
is  already  upon  E leaves  its  key  at  precisely  the  moment  at 
which  the  first  finger  strikes  D,  and  in  springing  upwards  ob- 
serves the  same  rules — that  is,  moves  rapidly,  vertically,  and 


to  a sufficient  distance — then  the  note  D has  been  played  with 
good  touch,  and  the  second  finger  is  in  a position  to  play  E 
again  in  the  same  manner. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  when  the  hand  has  once  been 
correctly  placed,  as  described  above,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
fingers  should  be  kept  absolutely  motionless  until  the  moment 
of  striking  the  next  note,  as  otherwise  the  three  conditions  of 
good  touch  could  not  be  fulfilled.  For  suppose  the  first  finger 
to  have  been  allowed  to  sink  before  striking  its  note,  the 
blow  would  not  be  given  “ from  a sufficient  distance  : ” or 
suppose  that  it  became  too  much  bent  or  too  much  extended, 
the  blow  would  not  be  “ vertical.”  It  is  therefore  of  the  first 
importance  that  the  fingers  should  be  kept  absolutely  still 
during  the  whole  time  which  intervenes  betweeen  the  striking 
of  one  note  and  the  next  ; whether  that  time  be  long,  as  in 
the  slow  practice  of  finger  exercises,  or  short,  as  in  a finished 
rapid  passage  ; and  this  fact  leads  me  to  speak  of  secondary 
motion. 

Any  movement  of  a finger  which  does  net  produce  a note, 
and  which  is  therefore  wasted,  is  called  secondary  motion. 
Such  movements  are  found  in  all  untrained  hands,  and  consist 
of  involuntary  extensions  and  contractions,  tremblings,  or 
(very  frequently)  sinkings  of  the  finger.  Secondary  motion  is 
the  very  opposite  of  good  touch,  and  the  possibility  of  acquir- 
ing the  latter  depends  in  the  first  place  entirely  upon  overcom- 
ing the  tendency  to  the  former — in  other  words,  upon  learning 
to  hold  the  fingers  still.  This  is  the  reason  why  all  finger 
exercises  should  be  practiced  very  slowly,  in  order  that  the 
student  may  be  able  to  watch  the  behavior  of  the  fingers 
between  the  striking  of  the  notes,  and  assure  himself  that  they 
are  held  not  only  in  a good  position,  but  quite  free  from 
secondary  motion. 

The  proper  speed  for  the  practice  of  finger-exercises  is,  sup- 
posing them  to  be  written  in  quavers,  about  M.M.  J'  = 60. 
But  although  they  should  be  practiced  thus  slowly,  the  touch 
must  not  be  slow  but  rapid  (according  to  the  requirements  of 
the  three  good  qualities  mentioned  above)  ; and  this  is  a point 
too  often  neglected  by  teachers,  who  merely  tell  their  pupils 
to  practice  slowly,  without  explaining  why,  and  so  allow  them 
to  form  a touch  adapted  for  nothing  more  lively  than  a 
funeral  march. 

Let  us  suppose,  for  the  sake  of  illustration,  that  the  notes 
of  an  exercise  are  being  played  at  the  rate  of  one  per  second, 
and  that  the  fingers  of  the  player  are  so  slow  in  their  move- 
ments as  to  require  a whole  second  to  rise  or  fall  in  ; such  a 
player  will  obviously  be  unable  to  play  notes  in  the  smallest 
degree  quicker  than  the  speed  mentioned  ; but  if  the  fingers 
can  be  held  quite  stationary  for  (say)  eleven-twelfths  of  a sec- 
ond, and  the  movements  of  lifting  one  finger  and  striking  with 
the  other  (which  movements  are,  of  course,  simultaneous)  can 
be  made  to  occupy  only  the  remaining  twelfth,  then  the  player 
will  be  in  a position  to  play  twelve  notes  per  second  if  re- 
quired. 

All  that  has  been  said  so  far  applies  of  course  to  every  couple 
of  fingers  and  to  each  hand,  the  only  additional  point  to  be 
noticed  being  that  the  thumb  and  little  finger  should  be  kept 
quite  straight,  except  where  the  player  has  very  long  fingers, 
when  the  little  finger  may  be  slightly  bent,  though  never  so 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


much  as  the  other  three.  All  the  principles  of  good  touch  are 
so  clearly  brought  before  the  student  in  the  preceding  descrip- 
tion, that  there  is  no  exercise  so  entirely  indispensable,  not 
only  for  the  beginner  but  for  the  advanced  performer,  as  the 
so-called  “slow  trill,”  or  exercise  for  two  fingers. 

The  kind  of  touch  just  described  has  for  its  object  the  per- 
formance of  vigorous  and  brilliant  passages ; but  there  are 
also  passages  to  be  met  with,  particularly  in  Chopin’s  works, 
which  require  to  be  played  with  great  rapidity,  and  also  with 
extreme  lightness  and  delicacy,  pianissimo.  Such  passages 
should  always  be  studied,  in  the  first  place  with  the  same  touch 
as  forte  passages,  to  insure  accuracy ; and  when  perfect, 
should  be  played  with  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same  amount 
of  finger-movement,  but  v*th  very  little  force  ; and  I have 
often  found  it  useful  to  endeavor  to  play  them  at  the  proper 
speed,  but  on  the  surface  of  the  keys  -without  sounding  them  ; as 
when  this  has  been  accomplished,  the  slightest  possible  amount 
of  difference  in  the  direction  of  increased  force  will  produce 
the  effect  required.  Examples  of  passages  of  this  kind  may  be 
found  in  Chopin’s  Polonaise  in  E flat,  op.  22,  bars  57,  61,  &c. 

We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  the  other  kinds  of 
legato-touch — those  used  for  cantabile  playing  and  accompani- 
ment ; and  as  they  are  so  often  met  with  in  combination,  it  will 
be  convenient  to  examine  both  at  once.  They  both  differ  from 
passage-touch  in  requiring  but  little  finger-movement,  and  that 
at  a slow  speed  ; in  this  respect  they  resemble  each  other,  as 
well  as  in  the  fact  that  the  fingers  are  laid  upon,  or  at  least 
brought  very  close  to  the  surface  of  the  keys  before  sounding 
them,  instead  of  striking  them  from  a distance,  no  percussion 
being  required.  The  chief  difference  between  them  is  that 
the  accompaniment-touch  requires  little  or  no  pressure,  the 
keys  being  moved  gently  downwards,  and  the  tone  produced 
being  therefore  quiet  and  subdued,  while  in  that  proper  to  can- 
tabile the  pressure  must  be  firm  and  decided,  the  key  being 
moved  slowly  or  quickly,  according  as  the  tone  produced  is  re- 
quired to  be  soft  or  full,  since  the  quicker  the  movement  of 
the  key,  the  louder  will  be  the  resulting  sound. 

The  pressure,  however,  though  firm,  must  not  be  made  with 
a rigid  finger  held  with  immovable  joints,  or  the  tone  will  be 
hard  and  noisy.  The  proper  condition  of  the  hand  during  the 
sustaining  of  a note  is  one  not  very  easy  to  describe  in  words, 
or  to  realize  from  a written  description.  Thalberg,  in  the  pre- 
face to  his  work,  L' Art  du  Chant,  calls  it  a “hand  without 
bones  ” (main  disossie),  and  the  hand  should  in  fact  feel  as 
though  each  finger-joint  were  in  an  elastic  state,  ready  to  yield 
in  every  direction,  but  nevertheless  not  yielding  in  any. 

Melody  and  accompaniment  have  frequently  to  be  played  by 
the  same  hand,  and  when  the  arrangement  is  similar  to  that 
shown  in  Ex.  1,  the  combination  presents  no  particular  diffi- 
culty. When,  however,  it  happens  that  a note  of  the  melody 
and  one  of  the  accompaniment  have  to  be  played  at  the  same 
moment,  as  in  Ex.  2,  the  case  is  different,  and  demands  special 
study  in  order  to  produce  two  different  qualities  of  sound  in 
the  same  hand  at  the  same  time.  In  such  a passage,  break- 


<*•> 


(*•) 

-I 1 1 - 


cs  d S3  a =d  sdd  sad 


ing  the  first  chord  of  a group — i.  e.,  playing  the  B of  Ex.  2 after 
the  D which  accompanies  it — must  by  no  means  be  allowed, 
although  a very  common  habit  in  such  cases,  and  an  easy 
method  of  making  a difference  in  the  strength  of  the  two 
sounds.  Playing  a chord  arpeggio  is  very  rarely  permissible 
unless  it  is  indicated  by  the  composer.  In  our  present  case  we 
have  to  seek  to  produce  as  great  a difference  of  tone  as  pos- 
sible between  the  melody-notes  and  those  of  the  accompani- 
ment without  separating  them  in  the  slightest  degree,  and  this 
may  be  accomplished  by  holding  the  hand,  immediately  before 
sounding  the  notes,  in  such  a position  that  the  tip  of  the  finger 
. which  is  to  produce  the  strongest  tone  is  on  a slightly  lower 
level  than  that  of  the  other  finger.  Of  course  the  exact  amount 
of  difference  in  the  position  of  the  two  fingers  can  only  be  de- 
termined by  experiment  and  practice,  and  exercises  such  as 
those  shown  in  Ex.  3 — in  which  the  notes  which  are  to  be 
played  strongest  are  written  with  minim  heads — will  be 
found  very  serviceable  in  this  direction.  Most  valuable  also 
as  studies  of  this  kind  are  the  arrangements  by  Thalberg,  en- 
titled II Art  du  Chant  applique  au  Piano,  and  also  Henselt’s 
Liebeslied. 


Before  passing  from  the  subject  of  melody  and  accompani- 
ment played  by  the  same  hand,  one  very  important  principle 
remains  to  be  observed.  Accompaniment  necessarily  consists 
of  chords,  which  may  be  either  unbroken,  as  in  Ex.  4,  or 
broken  as  in  Ex.  5.  The  principle  is  in  both  cases  the  same, 
and  may  be  expressed  as  follows  : The  last  note  or  chord  of 
the  accompaniment  must  be  slightly  shortened,  and  thus  released 
before  melody  passes  to  its  next  note.  The  correct  rendering 
of  such  passages,  at  least  while  practicing  them,  is  therefore 
nearly  as  in  Ex.  6. 


The  object  of  this  is  to  allow  of  the  legato  progression  of  the 
melody  from  one  note  to  the  next,  and  to  prevent  a very  com- 
mon fault  (shown  in  Ex.  7),  in  which  the  actual  legato  takes 
place  between  the  last  note  of  the  accompaniment  and  the  fol- 
lowing melody-note,  instead  of  from  one  melody-note  to  the 
next. 


rsftpszd 


In  the  foregoing  paragraph  I have  said  “at  least  while  prac- 
ticing,” because  in  some  cases,  when  the  passage  has  been  suf- 
ficiently studied  and  the  proper  connection  of  the  melody-notes 
insured,  it  is  not  always  necessary  or  desirable  that  the 


13° 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


last  note  of  the  accompanying  group  should  remain  shortened, 
particularly  in  slow  tempo.  Nevertheless,  the  method  indi- 
cated will  always  be  found  conducive  to  clearness  of  melody,  and 
may  often  be  retained  with  advantage  in  the  finished  perform- 
ance. Many  of  Mendelssohn’s  Lieder  ohne  Worte  afford  valu- 
able practice  in  the  rendering  of  melody  and  accompaniment 
in  the  same  hand  ; in  particular,  No.  i of  Book  I.  may  be 
mentioned,  which  should  be  practiced  as  follows  : 


perseverance,  and  as  it  is  at  first  fatiguing,  it  should  not  be 
practiced  for  long  at  a time,  but  often,  and  at  first  pianissimo 
increasing  the  force  of  the  blow  as  the  wrist  gains  strength 
and  speed  of  movement.  Studies  of  octaves  and  other  stac- 
cato passages  abound,  and  need  not  be  specified  ; but  exercises 
such  as  those  given  in  Ex.  9 will  be  found  extremely  useful 
as  preparatory  studies.  In  practicing  them  the  wrist  should 
be  held  low,  about  on  a level  with  the  key-board,  and  the 
hand  drawn  back  so  that  the  tips  of  the  fingers  may  be  from 
three  to  four  inches  off  the  keys.  Each  note  is  to  be  played 
with  the  second  finger,  and  to  be  made  as  short  as  possible, 
the  hand  returning  instantly  to  its  raised  position,  in  which  it 
is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  it  should  remain  motionless 
during  the  rests  in  each  bar.  Exercises  of  this  kind  may  be 
found  in  Plaidy’s  Technical  Studies. 


Staccato-touch,  like  legato,  may  be  divided  into  three  kinds, 
suitable  respectively  for  passages,  melody,  and  accompaniment. 
The  last-named  kind  is  the  simplest,  and  will  require  but  brief 
consideration.  It  is  obvious  that  the  notes  in  staccato  accom- 
paniment must  be  light  and  delicate,  and  not  strong  enough  to 
interfere  with  the  melody  which  they  accompany.  When 
they  are  required  to  be  soft,  and  yet  bright  in  tone  and  dis- 
tinctly articulated,  which  is  often  the  case,  they  must  be  played 
with  a steady  hand,  the  fingers  being  held  in  a bent  position 
and  with  little  or  no  movement  of  the  joints,  and  the  hand 
lifted  from  the  key  with  great  rapidity,  but  to  a very  short  dis- 
tance. This  movement  which  is  very  slight  though  quick, 
comes  from  the  action  of  the  elbow-joint,  and  the  tone  pro- 
duced is  crisp  and  short,  with  very  little  percussion.  This 
touch  is  suitable  for  such  passages  as  the  bass  in  the  Scherzo 
of  Beethoven’s  Sonata  in  E flat,  op.  31,  No.  3,  or  the  chords  of 
the  right  hand  in  the  108th  and  following  bars  of  the  first  move- 
ment of  the  same. 

Staccato-touch  for  passages  is  of  two  kinds,  wrist-touch  and 
finger-staccato,  the  former  being  most  frequently  required.  In 
this  kind  of  touch  the  wrist  must  be  slightly  depressed  and  the 
hand  drawn  back  as  far  as  is  convenient  ; the  note  is  then 
struck  by  means  of  a free  action  of  the  hand  from  the  wrist- 
joint,  with  more  or  less  force  according  to  the  strength  of  tone 
required,  but  always  with  rapidity,  the  hand  immediately 
springing  back  to  its  former  position,  so  as  to  be  in  readiness 
for  the  next  note.  Wrist-touch  is  most  used  for  passages  of 
staccato  chords  and  octaves,  though  it  may  also  be  applied  to 
single  notes  if  they  are  to  be  brilliant  and  vigorous  ; but  when 
a staccato  passage  of  single  notes  has  to  be  played  at  a speed 
too  great  to  allow  of  the  proper  action  of  the  wrist,  the  finger- 
staccato  must  be  employed.  This  consists  in  a movement  of 
each  individual  finger,  similar  to  that  of  the  legato-touch  for 
passages,  but  with  the  difference  that  the  finger  quits  its  key 
immediately  after  striking  it,  instead  of  waiting  until  the  next 
note  is  struck,  and  in  rising  must  be  bent  slightly  more  inwards 
than  in  legato.  Finger-staccato  is  particularly  suited  to  rapid 
and  delicate  passages,  in  which,  according  to  Hummel  (Art  0/ 
Playing  the  Pianoforte),  “ the  hand  must  not  be  taken  up  at  all, 
but  the  fingers  must  be  hurried  away  from  the  keys  very  lightly 
and  in  an  inward  direction.” 

The  study  of  wrist-staccato  demands  much  patience  and 


(9) 


— m — — 

‘l 

I !*•  te 

&c. 


Staccato-touch  in  cantabile  must  of  necessity  be  very  differ- 
ent from  that  just  described.  Cantabile  signifies  “ in  the 
style  of  singing,”  and  it  would  not  be  possible  to  sing  notes  so 
short  and  detached  as  those  of  a brilliant  pianoforte  passage. 
If  the  notes  of  a cantabile  phrase  be  sung  to  the  syllable  la,  as 
in  Ex.  10,  the  separation  of  the  sounds  caused  by  the  forma- 
tion of  the  letter  l at  the  beginning  of  each  syllable  will  give 
an  idea  of  the  kind  of  effect  required.  Such  a passage  must 
therefore  be  played  with  a slight  pressure  from  the  hand  and 
with  but  little  percussion,  the  duration  of  the  notes  being 
made  about  as  in  Ex.  11. 


(10.)  > _ (n.) 


pi  f=  n 

-/»■-»  f f r -r 

r 

La,  la,  la,  la,  la. 


II.— EXERCISES  AND  HOW  TO  USE  THEM. 

Closely  connected  with  the  subject  of  touch  is  that  of  the 
exercises  by  the  use  of  which  touch  may  be  cultivated  and  de- 
veloped ; and  it  will  be  my  purpose  in  this  section  to  speak  of 
such  exercises  as  are,  in  my  belief,  essential  to  the  formation  of 
a good  touch,  and  to  arrange  them  in  the  order  in  which  they 
are  most  useful,  at  the  same  time  giving  certain  rules  and  sug- 
gestions as  to  the  best  method  of  practicing  them. 

The  first  exercise  is  a slow  trill,  or  exercise  for  two  fingers. 
Alike  serviceable  to  the  beginner  and  the  advanced  per- 
former, it  contains  in  itself  all  the  elements  of  good  touch, 
and  should  be  practiced  daily  with  every  couple  of  fingers 
before  proceeding  to  any  other  exercise  ; as  by  this  means 
the  formation  of  bad  habits  is  prevented,  and  the  hand  is 
brought  into  a fit  state  to  attack  greater  difficulties. 

After  this  comes  the  exercise  for  three  fingers,  in  practicing 
which  a new  and  very  important  rule  has  to  be  observed.  This 
rule  may  be  stated  as  follows  : When  striking  a note  with  the 

middle  finger  of  any  three,  be  sure  that  the  finger  just  used  is 
sufficiently  raised,  and  especially  that  the  finger  which  is  to 
follow  is  kept  at  a proper  distance  from  the  key.  Thus  in 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


**■ 


playing  an  exercise  such  as  Ex.  12,  with  the  fingering  there 
given,  it  is  important  that  at  the  moment  of  striking  E in  as- 
cending, not  only  should  the  first  finger  be  raised,  but  the 
third  finger  should  be  kept  at  a distance  from  its  key  ; and  on 
playing  the  descending  E the  third  finger  must  be  raised  and 
the  first  finger  kept  away  from  its  key. 


(12.) 


It  is  true  that  this  rule  is  nothing  more  than  a re-statement 
of  the  principles  laid  down  in  section  7,  according  to  which 
every  finger  must  strike  its  key  “ from  a distance  neverthe- 
less, it  will  be  found  a great  advantage  to  keep  the  rule  in 
view  in  the  form  just  given,  and  to  endeavor  to  carry  it  out  to 
the  letter  in  the  practice  of  all  finger-exercises.  For  it  is  not 
only  in  exercises  for  three  fingers  that  it  is  of  service ; it  is  of 
far  wider  application,  and  in  fact  extends  to  the  practice  of  all 
brilliant  passages  of  single  notes.  Let  us  see  how  its  due  ob- 
servance will  assist  the  practice  of  an  exercise  for  five  fingers, 
such  as  Ex.  13  : 


(X3-) 

X I 2 3 4 3 2 I 


In  the  above  example,  the  thumb  being  placed  on  C,  and 
the  hand  properly  held,  we  may  consider  the  next  finger  (the 
first  finger)  as  “the  middle  finger  of  three,”  since  it  is  pre- 
ceded by  the  thumb,  and  followed  by  the  second  finger.  Ac- 
cording to  the  rule,  therefore,  the  thumb  must  be  raised  at 
the  moment  of  striking  the  note  D,  and  the  second  finger  be 
kept  away  from  its  key.  The  hand  is  now  resting  on  the  first 
finger,  and  the  second  finger  becomes  in  its  turn  the  “ middle 
finger  of  three”  (being  preceded  by  the  first  and  followed  by 
the  third  finger);  consequently  when  the  note  E is  struck  the 
first  finger  must  be  raised  and  the  third  kept  away  from  its 
key.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  each  finger,  excepting  only  the 
little  finger  and  the  thumb,  will  in  turn  stand  in  the  position 
of  “ middle  finger  of  three  ; ” and  the  result  of  observing  the 
rule  in  each  case  will  be  that  the  whole  exercise  will  be  played 
in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  good  touch,  at  least  so  far 
as  regards  striking  the  notes  “from  a sufficient  distance”  is 
concerned. 

In  like  manner  each  note  of  a brilliant  passage  of  whatever 
length  (excepting  only  the  first  and  last  notes)  stands  between 
two  other  notes,  and  each  finger  in  its  turn  may  therefore  be 
said  to  occupy  the  position  of  “middle  finger  of  three,”  and 
the  rule  we  have  been  speaking  of  must  in  all  cases  be  obeyed. 
But  it  is  of  course  not  possible  to  give  sufficient  attention  to 
each  individual  note  of  a rapid  passage  to  insure  this,  and 
therefore  habit  must  in  the  first  place  be  acquired  by  means  of 
the  diligent  practice  of  finger-exercises.  This  is  the  reason 
why  finger-exercises  are  absolutely  necessary,  and  why  touch 
and  execution  cannot  be  acquired  by  merely  practicing  the 
difficult  passages  which  occur  in  sonatas,  etc.,  as  has  some- 
times been  pretended. 

Five-finger  exercises  in  abundance  may  be  found  in  any 


book  of  elementary  studies,  such  as  Plaidy’s  Technical  Studies, 
Loschhorn’s  Klavicr  Technik , etc. ; but  in  playing  finger-exer- 
cises from  notes  there  is  always  some  danger  of  the  attention 
being  diverted  from  the  principles  of  good  touch,  particularly 
at  first,  before  good  habits  have  been  formed.  All  such  ex- 
ercises must  therefore  be  learnt  by  heart,  and  then  practiced 
with  the  whole  attention  directed  to  the  position  of  the  hand 
and  the  quality  of  the  touch;  and  at  first,  and  indeed  always 
chiefly,  with  one  hand  at  a time;  for  it  is  impossible  for  the 
beginner  to  practice  with  both  hands  at  once  without  making 
mistakes  of  touch  in  one  or  the  other. 

After  the  exercises  have  been  sufficiently  practiced  on  the 
first  five  notes  of  the  scale  of  C,  they  should  be  transposed 
into  various  other  keys,  so  as  to  accustom  the  fingers  to  the 
use  of  the  black  keys.  This  transposition,  in  itself  not  diffi- 
cult, may  be  made  very  easy  by  writing  down  the  fingering  of 
an  exercise  without  any  notes,  thus  : — x 213243  1.  The 
hand  being  then  placed  in  any  given  position,  the  exercise  is 
easily  played  by  merely  using  the  fingers  in  the  written  order. 
Thus  in  the  key  of  C the  exercise  above  given  would  read : - 


(14-) 


- * | — r -m 

In  the  key  of  D,  thus  : — 

(15-) 

and  so  on. 

The  following  example  shows  the  most  useful  positions  for 
the  practice  of  five-finger  exercises,  arranged  in  the  order  of 
increasing  difficulty  : — 


We  may  now  pass  on  to  the  second  division  of  finger-exer- 
cises, namely,  chord-passages,  or  arpeggios .*  In  studying  these 
we  have  two  great  objects  in  view,  first  to  improve  the  exf.cu- 
tion,  and  in  particular  to  strengthen  the  hand  by  the  employ- 
ment of  good  touch ; and,  secondly,  to  learn  something  about 
the  construction  of  the  passages  themselves — a point  of  great 
practical  importance,  and  one  which  it  is  clear  the  mere  unin. 
telligent  practice  of  exercises  from  an  instruction-book  will 
not  help  us  to  understand. 


* A rpcggio—irom  arpeggiare , to  play  upon  the  harp. 


'3  2 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


As  regards  touch,  but  little  need  be  said  in  addition  to  what 
has  gone  before.  The  same  kind  of  touch  must  be  used  for 
chord -passages  as  for  five-finger  exercises,  but  owing  to  the 
stretched  condition  of  the  hand  the  fingers  will  be  found  less 
easy  to  move  “rapidly,  and  to  a sufficient  distance’’ — in  other 
words,  there  will  be  a greater  tendency  in  the  fingers  to  seek 
the  surface  of  the  keys  before  striking  them.  On  this  account 
greater  watchfulness  is  necessary,  and  chord -passages  should 
not  be  attempted  until  some  certainty  has  been  attained  in 
five-finger  exercises. 

In  order  to  understand  the  construction  of  chord  passages 
some  slight  knowledge  of  musical  theory  is  necessary.  It  may 
be  hoped  that  the  reader  possesses  this  knowledge,  useful  if 
not  essential  in  so  many  various  ways ; however,  lest  any 
should  not,  it  will  be  wise,  before  proceeding  farther,  to  give 
a short  series  of  definitions  of  certain  terms  which  we  shall 
find  it  necessary  to  employ.  Whoever  is  ignorant  of  the  theory 
of  music  should  commit  these  definitions  to  memory  before 
reading  farther. 

(1) .  A semitone  is  the  distance  from  one  note  to  the  next 
immediately  above  or  below  it,  as  from  B to  C,  C to  C #,  D 
to  Ep. 

(2) .  A tone  is  a distance  equal  to  two  semitones,  as  from  B 
to  Cft  C to  D,  D to  E. 

(3) .  A scale  is  a series  of  eight  sounds  arranged  in  alpha- 
betical order,  and  extending  from  one  note  to  its  repetition  in 
the  octave  above,  thus  : — C D E F G A B C.  When  we  say 
“in  alphabetical  order,”  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  only  the 
first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  used  (at  least  in  English), 
and  that  as  these  are  employed  over  and  over  again,  the  note 
immediately  following  G will  be  A. 

(4) .  A degree  is  the  proper  term  fora  note  of  a scale.  Each 
degree  bears  a number  counting  from  the  key-note — that  is, 
the  note  which  gives  the  scale  its  name  ; thus  in  the  key  of 
C,  C is  the  key-note  or  first  degree,  D is  the  second  degree,  E 
the  third,  and  so  on. 

(5) .  A major  scale  is  a scale  in  which  there  are  semitones 
between  the  third  and  fourth  and  between  the  seventh  and 
eighth  degrees,  and  tones  between  all  other  degrees.  The 
scale  of  C given  above  (Definition  3)  agrees  in  every  particu- 
lar with  this  definition,  but  all  other  scales  will  require  the 
addition  of  one  or  more  sharps  or  flats  to  make  them  correct 
major  scales.  Minor  scales  will  be  explained  later  on. 

(6) .  A chromatic  scale  is  a scale  proceeding  entirely  by 
semitones,  and  having  thirteen  notes  to  the  octave. 

(7) .  An  interval  is  the  distance  between  any  two  sounds. 
Intervals  are  named  according  to  the  number  of  degrees  they 
contain  ; thus  from  the  first  to  the  third  of  a scale  (C  to  E in 
the  scale  of  C)  is  the  interval  of  a third,  because  it  contains 
three  degrees  ; from  the  second  to  the  fourth  degree  (D  to  F) 
is  also  a third  ; from  the  first  to  the  fifth  degree  (C  to  G)  is  a 
fifth,  and  so  on. 

(8) .  A common  chord  is  a combination  of  three  sounds, 
viz.  : the  root,  or  note  which  gives  the  name  to  the  chord,  to- 
gether with  its  third  and  fifth.  Common  chords  are  of  two 
kinds,  major  and  minor.  If  we  construct  a major  scale, 
starting  from  the  root  of  any  given  chord,  and  if  we  find  that 
the  third  and  fifth  of  the  chord  are  also  the  third  and  fifth  de- 


grees of  that  scale,  it  is  a major  chord  ; but  if  only  the  fifth  of 
the  chord  agrees  with  that  scale,  while  the  third  is  one  semitone 
lower,  it  is  a minor  chord.  For  example,  let  the  given  chord 
be  C E G,  a major  scale  constructed  on  the  note  C will  show 
the  two  notes  E and  G as  third  and  fifth  degrees  ; C E G is 
therefore  a major  chord.  But  C Ep  G would  be  a minor 
chord,  because  the  third  (Ep)  is  a semitone  lower  than  the 
third  degree  of  the  major  scale.  The  terms  major  and  minor 
as  applied  to  chords  speak  for  themselves,  they  refer  to  the 
interval  of  the  third,  which  is  greater  in  the  major  and  less  in 
the  minor.  Church  music  printed  in  the  last  century  had  very 
commonly  such  titles  as  the  following  : “ Te  Deum  in  the  key 
of  F with  the  Greater  Third,”  “in  the  key  of  D with  the 
Lesser  Third,”  instead  of  F major,  D minor. 

(9).  A chord  of  the  seventh  is  a chord  of  four  notes,  being 
a common  chord  with  the  addition  of  a new  note  distant  a 
seventh  from  its  root — for  example,  C E G B,  G B D F,  etc. 

We  are  now  in  a position  to  play  correctly  any  chord,  either 
major  or  minor,  that  may  be  required.  For  we  have  only  to 
construct  a major  scale  on  the  root  of  the  chord,  according  to 
Definition  5,  and  then  to  combine  the  first,  third,  and  fifth 
degrees  of  that  scale  in  order  to  produce  a major  chord  ; while 
if  a minor  chord  be  required  the  same  process  will  be  gone 
through,  and  the  third  then  lowered  a semitone  ; suppose,  for 
example,  we  require  the  chord  of  E jp  minor,  our  first  step  will 
be  to  construct  the  major  scale  of  E^j  thus  : Ep  F G Aj?,  Bp 
C D E p ; from  these  we  select  the  first,  third,  and  fifth 
degrees,  Ep  G and  B|p,  and  then  lower  the  third.  This  gives 
the  combination  E|p  G|p  B|p,  which  is  the  chord  required. 

We  may  now  return  to  the  practical  part  of  our  subject. 
For  purposes  of  finger-exercises  common  chords  may  be  played 
in  three  different  positions,  either  the  root,  the  third,  or  the 
fifth  of  the  chord  being  used  as  lowest  note.  They  may  also 
be  played  either  as  stnall  chords , consisting  of  three  notes  only, 
or  full  or  complete  chords , in  which  the  octave  of  the  lowest 
note  is  added.  In  the  following  example  the  chord  of  C is 
shown  in  its  three  positions,  both  small  and  complete  : 


(17.)  a.  Small  Chords.  b.  Complete  Chords. 

First  Second  Third  First  Second  Third 

Position.  Position.  Position.  Position.  Position.  Position. 


The  chord-passages  which  I propose  to  consider  in  this 
book  are  four  in  number,  and  are  all  founded  on  the  complete 
chords  ; those  derived  from  the  small  chords  being  less  impor- 
tant as  exercises,  and  quite  easy  to  understand  when  met  with. 

The  first  chord-passage  consists  of  the  three  positions  of 
the  chord  in  complete  form  (as  in  Ex.  17  b),  broken  in  regular 
order,  both  ascending  and  descending,  thus  : — 


(18.) 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


The  fingering  given  in  Ex.  18  is  in  accordance  with  a rule 
which  should  be  invariably  observed,  even  in  cases  which  may 
at  first  appear  to  stretch  the  hand  more  than  is  convenient. 
This  rule  is  as  follows  : The  second  finger  is  used  in  the 

first  position  in  the  right  hand  and  in  the  third  position  in  the 
'•  left,  all  other  positions  being  fingered  with  the  third  finger. 

Apart  from  the  accent  which  always  belongs  to  the  first 
note  of  a bar,  of  which  I shall  have  more  to  say  presently,  the 
accent  of  the  passage  requires  careful  consideration.  For  the 
same  regularity  which  is  evident  to  the  eye  in  such  a passage 
as  Ex.  18  must  also  be  made  perceptible  to  the  ear,  and  this 
can  only  be  done  by  strongly  marking  the  first  note  of  each 
group  of  four.  Whoever  listens  to  a well  and  brilliantly 
played  chord-passage,  paying  particular  attention  to  the  accent, 
will  probably  be  surprised  to  find  how  great  a difference  of 
'\orce  is  made  between  the  first  note  of  a group  and  the  other 
three  ; and  this  strongly-marked  accent  does  not  appear  at  all 
disproportionate,  as  it  would  if  it  occurred  at  irregular  inter- 
vals, but  merely  renders  the  whole  passage  brilliant  and  effec- 
tive. Such  passages  may  be  said  to  affect  the  ear  in  some- 
what the  same  way  that  a regular  geometrical  pattern  or  border 
appeals  to  the  eye;  and  just  as  a pattern  of  this  kind  may  be 
made  more  effective  by  means  of  a thicker  line  or  deeper  shade 
of  color  regularly  introduced  throughout,  so  the  symmetry  of 
a chord-passage  is  made  more  pronounced — and  therefore 
more  easy  to  be  appreciated — by  means  of  a regularly-recur- 
ring accent. 

In  Ex.  18  the  accent  always  falls  on  the  lowest  note  of  each 
chord  or  position  of  a chord — the  chord  and  the  group  coincide. 
But  this  is  not  always  the  case  in  chord-passages ; the  group 
may  begin  on  any  note  of  the  chord,  and  as  the  accent  is 
always  given  to  the  first  note  of  the  group,  it  follows  that 
some  other  note  of  the  chord  will  be  the  marked  note  instead 
of  the  lowest.  This  will  be  best  understood  by  comparing 
together  the  four  bars  of  Ex.  19,  in  each  of  which  the  accent 
falls  upon  a different  note  in  the  various  positions  of  the 
chord,  because  each  note  becomes  in  turn  the  first  note  of  the 
group.  In  the  first  bar  the  accented  note  is  the  lowest  note 
of  each  chord  position  ; in  the  second  bar  it  is  the  second  note  ; 
in  the  third  bar  the  third  note  ; and  in  the  fourth  bar  the 
highest  note.  The  position  in  which  the  various  chords  stand 
with  respect  to  the  groups  is  pointed  out  by  means  of  brack- 
ets drawn  above  the  notes,  each  bracket  including  a complete 
chord  : 


The  consequence  of  this  is  that  although  the  order  of  both 
notes  and  fingering  is  absolutely  the  same  in  all  four  bars,  the 
effect  of  the  passage,  both  to  the  eye  and  the  ear,  is  so  differ- 
ent that  each  bar  appears  almost  a new  passage.  Whenever, 

k, 


therefore,  we  meet  with  such  passages  as  the  above,  our  first 
care  must  be  to  ascertain  on  which  note  of  the  group  the  chord 
begins,  as  that  note,  when  found,  will  require  to  be  played 
with  the  thumb  or  little  finger  according  as  the  passage 
ascends  or  descends,  in  order  that  the  whole  cord  may  lie  under 
the  hand  at  once.  In  Ex.  19  the  chord  begins  and  the  thumb 
will  be  used  at  a on  the  first  note  of  the  group,  at  b on  the 
last  note,  at  c on  the  third,  and  at  d on  the  second  note. 

The  first  chord-passage  may  now  be  practiced  in  the  four 
forms  shown  in  Ex.  19,  in  every  key,  both  major  and  minor, 
with  the  same  fingering  as  that  given  for  C major  ; and  the 
best  (although  of  course  not  the  only/  way  of  arranging  it 
for  practice  will  be  to  imagine  it  writtefi  in  bars  of  common 
time,  four  groups  of  four  semiquavers  each  (and  therefore  four 
accents)  in  a bar.  Counting  aloud  one  to  each  group  greatly 
facilitates  the  placing  of  the  accent,  and  is  much  to  be  recom- 
mended in  this  as  in  all  passages  which  require  strongly  marked 
accent.  The  whole  passage  must  be  practiced  slowly  (about 
M.M.  J = 52),  and  great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  additional 
strength  of  the  accent  is  produced  by  a more  forcible  blow 
from  the  finger  only,  and  not  by  pressure  from  the  hand. 
The  best  compass  for  the  entire  exercise  is  three  octaves  and  a 
third,  and  if  the  highest  and  lowest  notes  are  repeated  each  time 
they  occur,  without  interrupting  the  rhythm,  the  accent  will  be 
kept  in  the  right  place  both  in  ascending  and  descending.  I 
have  written  out  the  whole  passage  in  full  in  the  next  example, 
and  have  pointed  out  the  repeated  notes  by  means  of  an  aster- 
isk. The  fingering  given  underneath  the  notes  is  for  the  left 
hand,  and  the  passage  should  be  played  two  octaves  lower. 
The  same  plan  will  be  adopted  for  left-hand  fingering  in  all 
future  examples. 


The  disagreement  of  position  of  the  chord  and  group  has 
already  been  explained,  and  in  all  the  examples  given  the  num- 
ber of  notes  (four)  of  both  chord  and  group  has  been  the  same. 
But  it  is  also  possible  for  chords  of  three  notes  to  be  grouped 
in  fours,  or  chords  of  four  notes  in  threes  or  sixes,  and  so  on  ; 
the  result,  in  each  case,  being  a re-arrangement  of  the  accent, 
so  as  to  produce  an  apparently  new  passage,  although  the  order 
of  notes  and  fingering  is  unaltered.  Examples  of  this  kind  of 
passage  are  given  below,  and  maybe  practiced  with  advantage, 
but  not  until  the  ordinary  first  chord  passage  (Ex.  20)  has  beeo 
made  perfect. 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


(21.)  Chord  of  three  notes  grouped  Chord  of  four  notes  grouped 

in  fours.  in  threes. 


Chord  of  four  notes  grouped  in  sixes. 


The  remaining  three-chord  passages  may  be  treated  more 
briefly  than  the  first,  since  the  observations  already  made  re- 
specting accent  anc^ fingering  will  apply  to  all.  The  second 
chord-passage  consists  of  the  same  positions  as  the  first,  but 
differently  broken,  thus  : x 2 1 4,  instead  of  x x 2 4 ; and 
in  descending,  4 1 2 x , instead  of  4 2 1 x . 


Although  the  positions  of  the  chord  are  the  same  as  in  the  first 
chord-passage,  the  hand  will  appear  more  stretched,  owing  to 
the  necessity  for  keeping  the  fingers  over  the  whole  of  the 
chord  at  once,  so  that  each  may  fall  “ vertically”  at  its  proper 
time  ; and  in  consequence  there  will  be  a greater  tendency  in 
the  fingers  to  seek  their  keys  improperly.  As  a help  towards 
accustoming  the  fingers  to  remain  stationary  over  the  whole 
chord  at  a time,  the  following  preparatory  exercise  will  be 
found  useful  t 


The  second  chord-passage  may  be  practiced  in  all  keys, 
major  and  minor,  with  the  same  fingering,  and  the  accent  may 
also  be  varied  as  in  the  first  chord-passage.  The  compass, 
three  octaves  and  a third,  and  the  rhythm,  four  groups  in  a bar, 
is  the  same  as  in  the  first  chord-passage  ; but  the  repetition  of 
the  extreme  notes — which  is  in  itself  a disadvantage,  as  break- 
ing the  legato — is  not  necessary  here,  since  a slight  alteration 
of  the  last  groups  of  both  ascending  and  descending  passages 
will  enable  the  connection  between  the  two  to  be  made,  and 
the  regularity  of  the  accent  preserved.  This  alteration  is 
pointed  out  by  means  of  an  asterisk  in  the  next  example : 


The  practice  of  the  first  and  second  chord-passages  in  the 
keys  of  F}f  major  and  Ep  minor  will  be  found  particularly 
useful,  because  they  consist  entirely  of  black  keys  ; and  the 
surface  of  these  being  narrower  than  that  of  the  white  keys 
they  require  greater  precision  in  striking,  lest  the  finger  should 
slide  off  the  key  at  one  side  or  the  other,  or  lest  (which  would 
be  worse)  the  finger  should  give  way  to  the  temptation  to  in- 
sure safety  by  seeking  its  key  before  striking  it.  In  connec- 
tion with  this  point  it  may  be  observed  that  the  beginner  will 
always  find  it  easier  to  play  the  notes  of  a passage  correctly 
with  the  wrong  touch  than  with  the  right,  and  that  therefore 
if  mere  note-playing  were  the  sole  object  sought,  good  touch 
could  never  be  acquired.  In  view,  then,  of  the  possibility  of 
a fatal  mistake  in  this  respect,  the  following  axiom  may  be  laid 
down  : Better  a wrong  note  with  the  right  touch,  than 
a right  note  with  the  wrong  touch  ; that  is  to  say,  an  oc- 
casional false  note,  caused  by  the  uncertain  movement  of  a 
properly-lifted  finger,  is  comparatively  unimportant,  and  will 
be  corrected  by  practice,  whereas  playing  every  note  correctly 
with  fingers  that  creep  and  anxiously  seek  their  keys  will  always 
hinder,  if  not  entirely  prevent,  the  formation  of  good  touch. 

The  third  and  fourth  chord-passages  closely  resemble  each 
other,  since  they  consist  of  the  same  order  of  notes  and  are  fin- 
gered in  the  same  manner,  differing  only  in  respect  to  their  ac- 
cent, much  as  the  four  forms  of  the  first  chord-passage  differ 
(Ex.  19).  Strictly  speaking,  they  might  perhaps  be  considered 
as  one  passage,  but  the  practical  difference  caused  by  the  change 
of  accent  is  greater  than  in  the  first  chord-passage,  and  it  will 
therefore  be  more  convenient  to  study  and  practice  them  sep- 
arately. 

The  third  chord-passage  consists  of  alternate  groups  of 
the  second  chord-passage,  every  other  position  being  omitted, 
thus . 


As  regards  touch,  the  only  new  points  to  be  attended  to  are, 
first,  a contraction  of  the  hand,  which  must  take  place  at  the 
moment  of  striking  the  fourth  note  of  each  group,  so  as  to 
bring  the  thumb  (or  in  descending  the  little  finger)  vertically 
over  its  key ; and  secondly,  a corresponding  extension  im- 
mediately after  the  thumb  has  been  used,  in  order  that  the 
three  following  fingers  maybe  held  directly  above  their  respec- 
tive keys  before  striking.  In  making  such  contractions  there 
is  always  a tendency  to  raise  too  much  the  inner  or  thumb  side 
of  the  hand  in  ascending,  and  the  outer  or  little-finger  side  in 
descending  ; it  must  therefore  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  back 
of  the  hand  should  be  kept  as  level  as  possible  throughout. 

The  compass  for  the  practice  of  the  third  chord-passage 
should  be  three  octaves,  and  the  rhythm  four  groups  in  a bar, 
as  before,  with  a similar  alteration  in  the  fourth  group  of  the 
bar  to  that  made  in  the  second  chord-passage  (Ex.  24),  in  order 
that  the  return  passage  may  be  played  without  break  of  con- 
nection. 

The  notes  and  fingering  of  the  fourth  chord-passage  are 
the  same  as  those  of  the  third,  but  the  accent  is  reversed-^ 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


!35 


that  is,  it  falls  on  the  highest  note  of  each  position  in  ascend- 
ing instead  of  on  the  lowest,  and  on  the  lowest  note  in  de- 
scending instead  of  on  the  highest. 


The  first  complete  position  of  the  above  example  begins  on 
the  second  note  of  the  group,  and  the  note  before  it  (the  first 
note  of  the  passage)  is  in  reality  the  highest  note  of  a still  lower 
position  which  is  not  made  use  of.  According  to  strict  rule, 
therefore,  this  note  would  be  played  with  the  little  finger,  like 
the  first  notes  of  all  the  following  groups  ; but  this  would  be 
inconvenient,  and  is  not  necessary,  as  the  first  finger  can  easily 
be  used  in  its  stead.  Such  slight  exceptions  as  this,  made  for 
the  sake  of  convenience,  are  always  allowable  at  the  beginning 
of  a passage.  For  instance,  we  should  certainly  begin  a de- 
scending scale  of  C in  the  right  hand  with  the  little  finger  in- 
stead of  the  thumb,  although  the  thumb  properly  belongs  to 
the  key-note,  and  would  be  so  used  in  all  succeeding  octaves. 
In  the  same  way  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  forms  of  the  first 
chord-passage  (Ex.  19)  may  be  begun  in  the  position  of  the  first 
complete  chord , instead  of  in  the  lowest  or  first  position  ; and 
thus  one  movement  of  the  hand  will  be  spared.  For  example  : 


4X42.  X42I 


The  fourth  chord-passage  should  be  practiced  with  a com- 
pass of  four  octaves  and  a third,  and  with  two  different 
rhythms,  at  first  with  four  notes  in  a group  and  six  groups  in 
a bar,  and  afterwards  with  three  notes  in  a group  and  four 
groups  in  a bar.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  ascending  pas- 
sage stops  short  of  the  highest  note  of  all,  this  being  only  re- 
quired for  the  descending  passage. 

8va 


So  far  the  same  fingering  has  been  employed  in  all  chord- 
passages.  But  in  the  third  and  fourth  chord-passages  this 
fingering  becomes  inconvenient  when  applied  to  such  chords 
as  would  require  the  use  of  the  thumb  on  the  black  keys;  and 
on  this  account  the  various  chords  have  to  be  divided  into 
three  classes,  and  a different  fingering  adopted  for  each. 

The  first  class  includes  those  chords  which  are  composed  of 
either  white  or  black  keys  exclusively,  and  for  this  class  the 
chord  of  C major  will  serve  as  model ; the  second  class  con- 
sists of  those  chords  which  have  one  black  key — these  may  be 
represented  by  the  chord  of  D major  ; and  the  chords  of  the 
third  class  have  but  one  white  key — of  these  the  chord  of  E 1 
shall  be  chosen  as  representative. 

The  fingering  of  the  chords  of  the  first  class  has  already 
been  shown  in  the  examples  ; it  may  be  thus  described  : — A 
complete  chord  in  every  position — that  is  to  say,  wherever 
the  thumb  (or  in  descending  the  little  finger)  takes  its  place 
upon  a key,  three  more  fingers  follow  it,  so  that  the  hand  exe- 
cutes a complete  chord  of  four  notes  before  changing  its  posi- 
tion. In  the  chords  of  the  other  two  classes  this  is  not  the 
case.  In  the  second  class  the  first  position  is  complete,  as  be- 
fore, but  it  is  followed  by  only  two  notes  of  the  next  position, 
and  these  again  by  a complete  position.  The  rule  is  therefore 
as  follows  : — A complete  chord  and  a half  chord  alter- 
nately. In  the  next  example  I have  pointed  out  this  alterna- 
tion of  chord  and  half  chord  by  means  of  brackets. 


The  fingers  used  for  the  two  notes  forming  the  half  chord 
must  be  those  which  would  be  used  for  the  same  notes  if  the 
chord  were  complete.  Thus  the  complete  fingering  of  the 
second  group  of  Ex.  29  would  be  x 3 1 4,  and  the  fingers  for 
the  half  chord  must  therefore  be  x 3,  and  not  x 2,  as  such 
passages  are  sometimes,  though  incorrectly,  fingered. 

The  chord-passages  of  the  third  class  follow  the  same  rule, 
and  are  fingered  with  a complete  and  a half  chord  alternately  ; 
but  as  there  is  only  one  white  key,  the  thumb  must  necessarily 
be  placed  upon  it,  and  the  half  chord,  consisting  of  two  black 
keys,  will  be  played  with  the  first  and  fourth  fingers.  If, 
therefore,  the  passage  begins  on  the  key-note,  we  shall  have 
to  commence  with  the  half  chord,  thus  : 


F2  ^ ^ N ''  i* 


H l4-3.il 


4 1 3 


4143  I 4 1 4 


x 3 1 4 


1413 


All  the  rules  of  fingering  just  given  apply  equally  to  the 
same  passages  for  the  left  hand,  except  in  the  following  single 
instance.  In  the  chords  ,of  the  second  class  (Ex.  29)  in  the 
right  hand,  the  complete  chord  was  played  in  the  first  posi- 
tion, and  the  half  chord  was  a part  of  the  third  position  of  the 
chord ; in  the  left  hand  this  is  reversed,  the  complete  chord  is 


0 


*3° 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


y 


played  in  the  third  position,  and  the  half  chord  is  a part  of 
the  first,  thus  : 


(3°  □! 


The  fingering  of  the  first  two  notes  in  the  above  example  is 
not  marked,  and  the  question  arises,  how  should  they  be 
fingered  ? Properly,  they  form  the  upper  part  of  a complete 
chord,  starting  from  the  A below  first  D,  and  should,  there- 
fore, be  fingered  with  the  second  finger  and  thumb.  But  since 
the  third  ar  d fourth  notes  of  the  group  have  to  be  played 
with  third  finger  and  thumb,  the  fourth  and  first  fingers 
are  already  in  a position  to  play  the  first  two  notes  ; and  by 
employing  them  one  unnecessary  change  of  position  of  the 
hand  will  be  spared.  This  explains  itself. 

In  practicing  the  third  and  fourth  chord-passages  in  the 
keys  wf  D and  E \?  and  similar  keys,  it  will  be  found  that  there 
is  some  danger  of  the  accent  becoming  lost  or  changed,  as  the 
recurrence  of  complete  chord  at  every  sixth  note  would 
naturally  lead  one  to  group  the  passage  in  sixes  instead  of 
fours,  thus : 

(32  ) 


It  will,  therefore,  be  necessary  to  watch  for  this  tendency, 
and  to  guard  against  it. 

In  the  following  table  we  have  classified  the  chords  accord- 
ing to  their  fingering,  and  have  repeated  the  rules : 


CLASS  I. 
Models  - C 


A P major  A minor 
Db  „ C#  „ 

Fif  „ 


' Rule — A complete  chord  and  a half  chord 
alternately. 


The  complete  chord 
to  be  in  the  first 
position,  right  hand, 
and  in  the  third 
position,  left  hand. 

The  half  chord  to 
be  played  with  the 
thumb  and  third 
finger. 


The  complete  chord 
to  be  in  the  second 
position,  both  hands. 


The  half  chord  to 
be  played  with  the 
first  and  fourth  fin- 
gers. 


hr 


The  chords  of  B and  B b,  major  and  minor,  are  exceptional. 


The  chords  of  B and  B[?,  major  and  minor,  are  not  included 
in  the  above  table,  as  their  fingering  is  slightly  exceptional 
and  will  require  a few  words  of  additional  explanation.  They 
follow  the  same  rules  as  the  other  chords,  but  with  this  differ- 
ence, that  another  position  is  chosen  for  the  complete  chord. 
The  reason  of  this  is  as  follows  : The  chords  of  B major  and 

Bj?  minor  both  contain  one  white  key  and  two  black  ones,  and 
should  thus  belong  to  the  third  class  ; but  in  all  other  chords 
of  this  class  the  white  key  is  the  third  of  the  chord,  whereas  in 
B major  it  is  the  root  of  the  chord,  and  in  B [7  minor  the  fifth. 
Now,  as  the  only  proper  place  for  the  thumb  is  on  the  white 
key,  it  follows  that  in  B major  the  complete  chord  will  have 
to  be  in  the  first  position,  and  in  B|?  minor  in  the  third,  in- 
stead of  in  the  second  position,  as  with  the  other  chords  of  the 
same  class.  So  also  in  the  case  of  Bjy  major  and  B minor, 
which  have  but  one  black  key,  and  should  therefore  belong  to 
the  second  class  ; the  complete  chord  cannot  be  in  the  first 
position  in  the  right  hand  and  the  third  in  the  left,  as  with  the 
other  chords  of  this  class,  because  this  would  bring  the  thumb 
on  a black  key.  Here  again  then  the  choice  of  a different 
position  becomes  necessary,  and  the  complete  chord  is  played 
in  major  in  the  third  position  with  the  right  hand  and  the 
second  position  with  the  left,  and  in  B minor  in  the  second 
position  in  the  right  hand  and  the  first  position  in  the  left. 
The  half  chords  in  each  case  follow  the  usual  rules,  being 
played  with  the  first  and  fourth  fingers  in  B major  and  B'y 
minor,  and  with  the  thumb  and  third  in  Bj?  major  and  B 
minor  ; except  that  in  the  half  chord  in  the  keys  of  B minor 
in  the  right  hand  and  Bij  major  in  the  left,  the  second  finger 
may,  if  preferred,  be  used  instead  of  the  third,  on  account  of 
the  half  chord  being  smaller  than  usual  (a  fifth  instead  of  a 
sixth) — 


(33-) 


(3) 


(3) 


>3) 


Chord-passages  of  all  kinds  may  be  formed  from  the  chords 
of  the  seventh  as  well  as  from  common  chords.  In  this  case 
the  addition  of  the  octave  is  not  necessary  to  form  a complete 
chord,  as  the  chord  itself  already  contains  four  notes.  The 
chord  of  the  seventh  may  therefore  be  played  in  four  posi* 
tions,  thus — 


and  the  construction  of  the  first  and  second  chord-passages 
will  present  no  difficulty.  They  will  read  as  follows  : , 

— Hf? 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER, 


»37 


r 


The  formation  of  the  third  and  fourth  chord-passages  from 
the  chord  of  the  seventh,  however,  requires  a new  rule — the 
complete  chord  is  played  alternately  with  two  half 
chords  instead  of  one,  as  in  the  common  chords.  It  is  better 
not  to  attempt  to  classify  the  chords  of  the  seventh  like  the 
common  chords,  for  the  various  combinations  of  black  and 
white  keys  are  so  numerous  that  we  should  require  almost  as 
many  classes  as  there  are  chords.  A simple  and  sufficient 
method  is  as  follows  : Choose  from  among  the  four  positions 

of  the  chord  the  one  most  convenient  to  the  hand  for  the  com- 
plete chord  (there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  finding  this),  and 
then  introduce  two  half  chords  between  this  and  its  recurrence 
in  the  next  octave.  The  fingering  of  the  half  chords  will  de- 
pend upon  their  size,  and  on  the  question  whether  they  are 
composed  of  black  keys  or  white.  The  choice  lies  between 
thumb  and  third  finger,  thumb  and  second,  and  first  and 
fourth  ; and  after  due  study  of  the  passages  founded  on  com- 
mon chords,  the  student  will  find  no  difficulty  in  choosing  the 
most  suitable  fingering,  the  only  point  to  be  borne  in  mind 
being  that  it  is  never  well  to  finger  two  successive  chords  with 
the  same  fingers.  Here  are  two  examples,  one  containing 
black  keys  and  the  other  exclusively  white,  the  study  of  which 
will  make  clear  the  application  of  the  rules : 


In  some  cases  it  will  be  found  possible  to  combine  the  two 
half  chords  so  as  to  form  a second  complete  chord ; the  whole 
passage  will  then  consist  of  two  complete  chords,  played 
alternately,  and  this  is  perhaps  the  best  method  of  fingering 
all  such  passages  as  consist  entirely  of  white  keys,  and  it  may 
sometimes  be  convenient  to  employ  it  for  such  as  have  a single 
black  key,  for  example  : 


% 


We  now  approach  the  most  important  of  all  finger-exercises, 
the  scale.  As  this  requires  a position  of  the  hand  in  some 
respects  opposed  to  that  proper  for  all  the  foregoing  exer- 


cises, it  should  not  be  attempted  until  most  if  not  all  of  the 
chord-passages  have  been  sufficiently  practiced,  and  a con. 
siderable  degree  of  certainty  acquired. 

In  all  previous  exercises  the  change  of  position  of  the  hand 
to  a higher  or  lower  octave  has  been  accomplished  by  means 
of  contractions  and  extensions,  but  in  the  scale  this  is  not  the 
case  ; the  hand  changes  its  position  by  passing  the  thumb 
under  the  fingers  or  the  fingers  over  the  thumb.  To  facilitate 
this  it  is  necessary  that  the  hand  should  be  turned  slightly  in- 
ward, so  that  a line  drawn  from  the  center  of  the  wrist  straight 
down  the  middle  finger  of  the  right  hand  would  point  to  the 
left,  while  a similar  line  drawn  down  the  middle  finger  of  the 
left  hand  would  incline  to  the  right.  This  attitude  must  be 
preserved  throughout  the  scale,  in  order  that  the  thumb  may 
find  itself  directly  over  the  key  it  has  to  strike,  and  to  avoid 
the  awkwardness  of  reaching  the  thumb-note  from  one  side. 

The  rule  for  fingering  the  scale  is  simple  : the  thumb  is 
placed  on  the  first  white  key  which  occurs  in  ascending,  and’ 
afterwards  follows  the  second  and  third  fingers  alternately. 
In  descending,  each  note  is  played  with  the  same  finger  as  in 
ascending,  and  the  same  rule  is  thus  followed,  but  in  reversed 
order,  the  third  and  second  fingers  passing  alternately  over 
the  thumb.  In  the  left  hand  the  fingering  of  the  ascending 
scale  follows  the  rule  of  the  descending  scale  in  the  right,  and 
vice  vend. 

Let  us  now  play  the  first  eight  notes  of  the  scale  of  C with 
the  right  hand,  and  consider  separately  the  movements  re- 
quired for  each  note. 

The  thumb  is  placed  on  C,  and  the  wrist  drawn  outwards, 
so  that  the  wrist  bone,  which  should  be  slightly  prominent, 
may  be  about  on  a level  with  A.  The  first  finger,  being  well 
raised  and  bent,  will  now  be  directly  above  its  key. 

The  first  finger  strikes  D,  and  at  the  same  moment  the  thumb 
passes  underneath  it,  so  as  to  be  above  E.  In  passing  the 
thumb  there  is  always  some  danger  of  bending  the  first  or 
thumb-nail  joint.  This  is  not  allowable,  and  to  prevent  it  it 
is  well  to  look  down  on  the  back  of  the  hand,  and  see  that 
the  tip  of  the  thumb  is  visible  between  the  first  and  second 
fingers. 

The  second  finger  strikes  E,  and  the  thumb  passes  under- 
neath it,  so  as  to  be  above  F,  while  the  first  finger  is  lifted 
with  rapidity  and  to  a considerable  distance.  These  move- 
ments, which  must  of  course  be  simultaneous,  form  the  chief 
difficulty  in  scale-playing,  and  require  the  greatest  attention. 
There  are  two  things  to  be  feared  : first,  the  thumb  may  have 
become  bent,  and  secondly,  the  first  finger  may  be  insuffi- 
ciently lifted.  If  both  these  dangers  have  been  escaped,  the 
hand  will  now  be  resting  on  the  second  finger,  with  the  thumb 
held  exactly  above  F,  and  not  too  close  to  it,  and  the  first 
finger  raised  until  its  tip  is  nearly  on  a level  with  the  second 
joint  of  the  middle  finger. 

The  thumb  strikes  (not  presses)  F,  the  second  finger  is 
lifted,  and  the  whole  hand  makes  a decided  movement  of  about 
an  inch  and  a half  to  the  right,  without  altering  its  position 
as  regards  being  inclined  inwards.  The  effect  of  this  move- 
ment will  be  to  bring  the  first  finger  into  the  same  position 
with  respect  to  its  next  note,  G,  as  it  held  at  the  beginning  of 
the  scale  with  respect  to  D. 


138 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


The  first  finger  strikes  G with  the  movements  described 
for  D. 

The  second  finger  strikes  A with  the  movements  described 
for  E. 

The  third  finger  strikes  B,  the  second  finger  being  lifted 
and  the  thumb  passed  on  (still  without  bending),  so  as  to  ar- 
rive over  C. 

The  thumb  strikes  C,  and  a still  farther  movement  of  the 
hand  to  the  right  brings  the  first  finger  into  readiness  to  go  on 
with  the  next  octave. 

The  movements  for  the  descending  scale  in  the  right  hand 
are  as  follows  : 

The  thumb  being  placed  on  C,  the  whole  hand  is  turned 
inwards,  so  that  the  third  finger  may  be  directly  over  B,  and 
at  a proper  distance  from  its  key. 

The  third  finger  strikes  B,  and  the  thumb  is  raised  inside 
the  hand,  so  as  to  touch  very  gently  the  root  of  the  third 
finger. 

The  second  finger  plays  A,  the  third  finger  is  raised,  and 
the  thumb  passes  freely  out  into  view,  so  as  to  be  held  over 
F. 

The  first  finger  plays  G,  the  second  finger  being  simply 
lifted  as  in  a five-finger  exercise. 

The  thumb  plays  F,  and  at  the  same  moment  the  second 
finger  is  passed  over  it,  so  as  to  be  in  readiness  to  play  E. 

The  second  finger  plays  E,  and  the  thumb  is  lifted  so  as  to 
touch  the  root  of  the  second  finger. 

The  first  finger  plays  D. 

The  thumb  strikes  C,  and  (if  the  scale  is  to  b&  continued 
beyond  this  note)  the  third  finger  passes  over  it,  so  as  to  be  in 
readiness  to  play  B. 

The  same  movements  take  place  in  scales  played  by  the  left 
hand,  the  ascending  scale  employing  the  movements  of  the 
right  hand  descending  series,  and  the  descending  scale  those 
of  the  right  hand  ascending  series.  At  first  it  is  best  to  prac- 
tice only  the  ascending  seale  in  the  right  hand,  and  the  de- 
scending scale  in  the  left,  and  when  these  are  perfect  the 
scales  in  the  opposite  directions.  They  should  be  practiced 
very  slowly  (each  note  equal  to  M.M.  84)  and  through  a com- 
pass of  three  octaves. 

As  tending  to  facilitate  the  use  of  the  third  finger  over  the 
thumb,  the  following  exercise  will  be  found  very  useful,  if 
practiced  with  careful  attention  to  the  rules  given  above.  It 
may  be  transposed  into  various  keys,  provided  the  first  note  of 
the  scale  is  a white  key  : 


(38) 


, I X 1 Z.  I I 




■»  * * * 


I 


2 1 jZJJi 


Left  hand. 


3 XJ2  } 2 1 XJ2  1 


After  good  habits  have  been  formed  by  the  diligent  practice 
of  scales  in  one  direction  at  a time,  complete  scales  ascending 
and  descending  without  interruption,  may  be  practiced.  They 
are  to  be  played  as  if  grouped  in  fours,  with  a strong  accent  on 
the  first  note  of  each  group.  Perhaps  a compass  of  three  oc- 
taves distributes  the  accent  among  the  different  fingers  better 
than  any  other  ; but  they  should  also  be  frequently  practiced 
through  four  or  five.  Scales  of  one  octave,  or  with  a pause  on 
the  first  note  of  each  octave,  are  useless.  The  highest  note  in 
the  right  hand  and  the  lowest  in  the  left,  provided  it  is  a white 
key,  should  be  played  with  the  little  finger 

Minor  scales  are  played  precisely  like  major  as  regards 
such  and  fingering,  but  their  construction  will  require  some 
little  explanation.  All  scales  are  said  to  be  more  or  less 
closely  related  to  each  other,  according  as  they  contain  more  or 
fewer  notes  in  common  ; thus  the  scale  of  G is  more  nearly  re- 
lated to  that  of  C than  the  scale  of  D is,  because  it  contains 
only  one  note  which  is  not  in  the  scale  of  C,  namely  F $, 
whereas  D contains  two,  F Jf  and  C$.  In  like  manner,  any 
given  major  scale  has  one  minor  scale  which  is  more  closely 
related  to  it  than  all  the  rest,  and  the  terms  relative  majorzwA 
relative  minor  are  used  to  express  this  relationship  between 
the  two.  The  relative  minor  scale  begins  on  the  sixth  degree 
of  its  relative  major  scale,  and  consists  of  the  same  notes  as 
the  relative  major,  with  the  exception  of  its  own  seventh 
degree,  which  is  raised  one  semitone.  The  relative  minor 
of  C major  is  therefore  A minor,  which  begins  on  the  sixth 
degree  of  C,  and  consists  of  the  notes  A B C D E F and  G 

Such  a scale  as  this,  which  contains  between  its  sixth 
and  seventh  degrees  an  interval  greater  than  a tone,  and 
termed  an  augmented  second,  is  called  the  harmonic  minor 
scale , because  its  notes  form  the  component  parts  of  all  the 
harmonies  of  a minor  composition.  But  it  is  not  the  only 
kind  of  minor  scale  in  use  ; another,  called  the  melodic  minor 
scale,  is  still  more  frequently  met  with  in  passage-writing.  In 
this  the  ascending  scale  differs  from  the  descending,  since  in 
the  former  both  the  sixth  and  seventh  degrees  are  raised  one 
semitone,  and  in  the  latter  both  these  alterations  are  omitted 
— ABODE  F#G#  A and  A G^  Ft)  ED  C B A.  Thus 
the  descending  scale  consists  of  the  same  notes  as  its  relative 
major. 

In  most  instruction-books  the  minor  scale  is  only  given  in  its 
melodic  form,  but  both  forms  should  be  practiced,  because  the 
harmonic  form  is  frequently  met  with  in  pianoforte  music,  and 
also  because  the  greater  stretch  which  it  contains  helps  to 
strengthen  the  third  finger. 

After  the  scales  have  become  quite  perfect  in  each  hand 
separately,  they  may  be  practiced  with  both  hands  together, 
at  first  in  slow  tempo  and  afterwards  at  increased  speed  and 
with  every  variety  of  strength  of  tone.  The  hands  need  not 
always  be  an  octave  apart,  but  may  move  in  thirds,  sixths, 
and  tenths.  Space  will  not  allow  me  to  give  examples  of 
scales  of  this  kind,  nor  is  it  necessary,  as  they  are  to  be  found 
in  every  book  of  technical  studies  ; or,  better  still,  the  student 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


*39 


may,  with  a little  trouble,  learn  to  play  them  without  book. 
To  conclude  then  this  part  of  my  subject,  I would  say,  in 
words  addressed  by  a very  eminent  teacher  to  a pupil  in  my 
hearing  the  other  day,  “ Go  now,  and  play  tens  of  thousands 
of  scales.” 

After  the  scale  comes  the  so-called  grand  arpeggio.  This 
passage,  which  is  of  very  frequent  occurrence  in  brilliant 
pianoforte  music,  consists  in  the  regular  breaking  of  either  a 
common  chord  or  a chord  of  the  seventh  throughout  a compass 
of  two  octaves  or  more,  without  repeating  any  note,  for 
example  : 


As  the  grand  arpeggio  requires  the  thumb  to  be  passed 
under  the  fingers  and  the  fingers  over  the  thumb,  it  closely 
resembles  the  scale,  and  its  movements  are  nearly  the  same, 
allowing  for  the  extra  stretch  between  the  notes.  At  first  it  is 
best  to  practice  it  with  a repetition  of  the  thumb  and  second, 
or  thumb  and  third  fingers,  as  the  case  may  be,  much  as  the 
scale  was  practiced  in  Ex.  38,  but  without  any  regular  rhythm, 
thus : 


When  by  this  means  the  action  of  the  thumb  and  second  (or 
third)  finger  has  been  rendered  free  and  the  touch  vigorous, 
the  arpeggio  must  be  practiced  without  the  repetition,  and  with 
a strong  accent.  This  accent  should  fall  on  every  fourth  note 
when  the  passage  is  formed  from  a common  chord,  and  on 
every  third  note  when  it  is  derived  from  a chord  of  the 
seventh  : 


The  fingering  of  the  arpeggio  will  present  no  difficulty  ; the 
thumb  falls  on  the  first  white  key  which  occurs  in  the  ascend- 
ing passage,  and  on  every  succeeding  octave  of  that  note. 

In  alternation  with  the  scales  and  arpeggios  the  chromatic 
scale  should  be  practiced.  There  are  three  ways  of  fingering 
the  chromatic  scale,  all  of  which  are  shown  in  the  next 
example  ; the  fingering  given  in  the  lowest  line  is  the  most 
generally  useful,  and  should  be  studied  first,  the  practice  of 
the  other  two  being  postponed  until  the  first  is  perfect : 


I2XIXI2XI2  3XIX32IX2I  X 1 X 2 1 

I2XIXI2XIXIXIXIXIX2I  XIX*  I 

I 2 X 2 X 1 2 X 2X2XIX2X2X2I  X2X2  I 


X I X 2 
X 2 X 2 


W*~*' 


1X33 
I X I * 

I X 2 X 


IX2IXJ2XI23X  I 2 X I X 

IX2IXI2XIX1X  12X1  X 

2X2IXI2X2X2X  12X2  X 


After  the  foregoing  exercises,  passages  of  double  notes  may 
be  practiced.  These  are  of  twoktnds,  exercises  with  stationary 
hand,  such  as  those  in  the  next  example,  and  scales.  The 
stationary  exercises  should  be  practiced  first,  care  being  taken 
that  the  two  fingers  which  are  used  together  shall  strike  their 
keys  at  precisely  the  same  moment,  and  be  afterwards  lifted 
to  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  distance.  The  exercises 
should  be  transposed  into  various  keys  for  practice  : 

(43-) 

3 4 3 4 4 3 4 3 

1212  2121 

2323  4131  1343  432-3  123432  432123 

XIXI  I X 1 X X I 2 1 2 I X I XXI  2 I X 21XXXI 

2121  1242  21x1  xizi  2ixxxi  xxizix 

4 3 4 3 3 4 3 4 43*3  *343  43*1*3  12343* 

I X I X XIXI 

3 2 3 1 * 3 * 3 

Various  methods  of  fingeriqg  the  scale  of  double  notes  have 
been  adopted  by  different  teachers.  The  most  simple  rule  is 
this — The  little  finger  is  used  once  in  each  octave,  and 
on  the  same  note,  thus  : 


The  place  of  the  little  finger  varies  in  the  different  scales, 
and  different  pianoforte  schools  do  not  always  assign  the  same 
place  to  it  even  in  the  same  scale.  The  following  table  gives 
a place  for  the  little  finger  in  all  the  major  and  minor  scales, 
which  will  be  found  practical  ; and  the  method  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  available  for  descending  as  well  as  ascend 
ing  scales,  and  for  both  the  harmonic  and  melodic  forms  of 
the  minor  scales : 


MAJOR  SCALES. 


Key. 

Right  Hand. 

Left  Hand. 

C 

Fourth  finger  on  G 

Fourth  finger  on  C 

G 

“ “ I) 

“ “ D 

D 

“ “ A 

“ “ A 

A 

“ “ E 

“ •'  A 

E 

“ “ B 

“ “ A 

B 

“ Ft 

“ At 

FS 

“ FJf 

“ At 

Db 

“ Gh, 

“ “ B [? 

A1? 

“ “ G 

ii  ii 

Ei> 

“ “ G 

“ “ c 

Bt> 

««  it  Q 

“ “ G 

F 

“ “ G 

ii  i * 

£40 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


MINOR  SCALES. 


1 

Key. 

Right  Hand. 

Left  Hand. 

A 

Fourth  finger  on  B 

— 

Fourth  finger  on  E 

E 

“ “ B 

A 

B 

“ “A  and  A ft 

“ “A  and  A if 

Fff 

“ “E  “ Eff 

A 

c# 

“ “B  “ Bjf 

“ “A  “ A # 

G# 

“ “Fff“  Fx 

“ “E  “ Eff 

Eb 

Gb 

“ “c  “ cb 

Bb 

“ “G  “ Gb 

Bp 

F 

“ “ G 

“ “ y 

C 

“ “ c 

“ “ c 

G 

“ “ D 

“ “ G 

D 

“ “ E 

“ “ G 

There  is  also  another  method  of  fingering  the  scale,  which 
is  in  some  keys  decidedly  easier  than  the  above.  In  this 
method  the  little  finger  occurs  twice  in  the  octave,  and  the 
thumb  is  used  on  two  consecutive  notes,  thus  : 


This  kind  of  fingering  will  be  found  suitable  for  the  scale  of 
A,  E,  A b,  E b,  B b,  F,  and  G,  in  the  right  hand,  and  E b,  Ab> 
E,  A,  D,  G,  and  F,  in  the  left. 

The  chromatic  scale  of  double  notes  generally  consists  of 
minor  thirds,  and  is  fingered  in  two  ways.  In  the  first  method 
the  little  finger  of  the  right  hand  is  used  upon  G and  D,  and 
that  of  the  left  upon  D and  A ; and  in  the  second  method  the 
upper  part  of  the  scale  in  the  right  hand  and  the  lower  part 
in  the  left  is  played  by  the  second,  third  and  fourth  fingers, 
and  the  other  part  (that  is,  the  lower  part  in  the  right  hand, 
and  the  upper  part  in  the  left)  by  the  thumb  and  first  finger. 
Both  methods  are  shown  in  the  next  example,  and  it  may  be 
observed  that  most  players  find  the  fingering  of  the  upper 
line  best  for  ascending  scales  in  the  right  hand  and  descend- 
ing in  the  left,  and  that  of  the  lower  line  for  descending  in 
the  right  and  ascending  in  the  left. 


(46.)  2 

X 

3 4 * 

£ * I 

3 * 

X X 

3 2-  1 

1 * 1 

4 

X 

* 3 

I X 

2 

3 i j 

4 2 

3 * 3 

Z 

3 4 

* 

I X I 

2 * 

-4-, r-A— 

1 * 1 

1 l~l  „ ” 

X 

1 2 

-9T-T 

* Z 

I 

XX  I 

* I 

X I X 

X 

I X 

3 

2 l 2 

4 I 

2 l 2 

3 

2 4 

1 

3 

* 2 1 

2 4 3 

* I 

2-  3 

X ! X 

2 l 2 

2 

4 

1 x 

3 * 

Other  exercises  in  double  notes,  such  as  scales  of  sixths,  etc. 
need  not  be  given  here,  as  they  may  be  found  in  every  book  ot 
technical  studies. 


III.— FINGERING. 


A good  method  of  fingering  is,  for  the  pianoforte  player,  an 
absolute  necessity,  as,  without  it,  easy  passages  become  diffi- 
cult, and  difficult  ones  impossible.  Such  a method  can  only 
be  the  result  of  the  careful  study  and  application  of  certain 
principles,  which  I shall  now  endeavor  to  explain. 

As  regards  their  fingering,  all  passages  may  be  broadly  di- 
vided into  two  classes,  scales  .'nd  chords.  In  most  cases  this 
classification  is  self-evident — as,  for  instance,  in  the  following 
example  : 


and  although  it  is  sometimes  more  difficult  to  recognize,  yet, 
as  we  shall  see  presently,  a little  consideration  will  generally 
prove  that  even  passages  which  present  the  most  irregular  ap- 
pearance belong  in  reality  to  one  of  these  two  classes,  and 
have  to  be  fingered  accordingly. 

Let  us  in  the  first  place  consider  those  passages  which  are 
founded  on  scales.  And  here  let  me  remark  that  I use  the 
word  passage  in  its  widest  sense,  including  not  only  brilliant 
passages,  but  slow  progressions — in  a word,  any  continuous 
legato  movement. 

If  such  a passage  does  not  extend  beyond  five  notes  it  will 
be  proper  to  use  the  five  fingers,  or  as  many  as  may  be  re- 
quired, in  what  is  called  their  natural  position,  one  finger  for 
each  note  without  contraction  or  extension.  Here  is  a series  of 
simple  passages  of  this  kind,  the  fingering  given  being  correct 
and  incorrect  in  alternate  bars,  the  comparison  of  which  will 
help  us  to  understand  the  rules. 


14  ' 2 4 1 2 1 23432  12321 


J_  2 I 2 3_2I  I 4^  3 2 I 2 


il 


I X 1 " I 123^2  321212 


In  the  above  example  the  first  bar  is  correctly  fingered,  ac- 
cording to  the  rule — One  finger  for  each  note  in  natural 
position. 

Bar  2 is  incorrect ; there  is  an  unnecessary  contraction  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  notes.  Rule — Never  make  un- 
necessary contractions. 

Bar  3 is  the  correct  fingering  of  bar  2. 

Bar  4 is  incorrect  ; there  is  an  unnecessary  extension  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  notes  of  the  bar.  Rule — Never 
make  unnecessary  extensions. 

Bar  5 is  bar  4 corrected. 

Bar  6 is  incorrect : the  thumb  is  used  on  a black  key.  Rule 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


I4v 


— The  thumb  is  not  to  be  used  on  a black  key  unneces- 
sarily. 

Bar  7 is  bar  6 corrected. 

Bar  8 is  incorrect  ; the  thumb  passes  under  the  first  finger 
unnecessarily,  thus  changing  the  position  of  the  hand.  Rule 

— Do  not  change  the  position  of  the  hand  unnecessarily. 

Bar  9 is  bar  8 corrected. 

Bar  io  is  incorrect  ; the  second  finger  passes  over  the  first, 
and  the  first  over  (or  under)  the  second.  Rule — The  first, 
second,  and  third  fingers  may  pass  over  the  thumb,  and 
in  rare  cases  over  the  little  finger,  but  never  over  each 
other,  at  least  in  passages  of  single  notes. 

Observe  that  in  nearly  every  one  of  the  rules  just  given  the 
word  “unnecessarily”  is  employed,  and  the  faulty  fingerings 
referred  to  are  in  fact  only  wrong  because  they  are  unneces- 
sary, and  interfere  with  the  natural  position  of  the  hand.  Ex- 
tensions and  contractions  are  necessary  when  the  hand  has  to 
pass  to  a higher  or  lower  position,  or  in  order  to  cover  a com- 
pass of  more  than  five  notes  at  once.  Therefore  the  two  bars 
in  the  next  example,  although  they  contain  the  same  contrac- 
tion and  extension  as  bars  2 and  4 of  Ex.  48,  are  yet  correctly 
fingered,  the  changes  of  position  being  justified  by  necessity. 


So  also  the  use  of  the  thumb  on  the  black  key,  and  the 
passing  of  the  thumb  under  the  first  finger,  forbidden  in  bars 
6 and  8 of  Ex.  48,  are  perfectly  correct  in  the  following  ex- 
ample, because  there  they  are  necessary: 


The  fingering  of  the  complete  scale  has  already  been  de- 
scribed, and  all  scale  passages  should,  if  possible,  be  fingered 
with  the  regular  fingering.  But  this  depends  very  much  upon 
the  position  of  the  hand  at  the  moment  of  commencing  the 
scale,  and  is  not  always  possible.  Each  of  the  two  bars  of 
the  next  example  contain  the  scale  of  D,  and  in  the  first  bar 
the  regular  fingering  will  be  perfectly  convenient,  and  will 
therefore  be  used  ; but  in  the  second  bar  the  position  of  the 
hand  causes  the  first  note  of  the  scale  (E)  to  be  played  with 
the  little  finger,  and  to  follow  this  by  the  thumb  on  D,  though 
strictly  according  to  the  rule,  would  be  impossible,  or  at  least 
extremely  inconvenient. 


In  such  a case  we  have  a choice  of  two  methods  ; either  the 
passage  is  fingered  as  if  the  note  on  which  it  begins  were  the 
key-note  of  the  scale,  or  else  the  third  finger  is  passed  over 
the  thumb  every  time  instead  of  alternately  with  the  second 
finger,  until  at  length  the  regular  fingering  of  the  scale 
is  reached  (which  will  always  be  the  case  sooner  or  later), 


after  which  the  remainder  of  the  passage  is  fingered  regu- 
larly. In  the  second  bar  of  Ex.  51  the  first  of  these  two 
methods  is  adopted  ; the  first  note  of  the  descending  passage 
is  E,  which  is  treated  as  the  key-note,  the  thumb  falling  on 
A and  E,  just  as  it  would  if  the  passage  were  really  the  scale 
of  E.  In  the  next  example  we  see  the  application  of  the  other 
method,  the  point  at  which  the  regular  fingering  of  the  scale 
is  arrived  at  being  indicated  by  the  asterisk. 


This  last  method  is  only  suitable  for  descending  scales  in 
the  right  hand  and  ascending  in  the  left  ; whereas  the  other 
plan,  in  which  the  first  note  of  the  scale  is  treated  as  the  key- 
note, is  available  in  either  direction  and  for  both  hands.  In- 
stances will,  however,  be  met  with  of  ascending  passages  for 
the  right  hand  and  descending  for  the  left,  in  which  neither  the 
regular  scale  fingering,  nor  the  method  which  treats  the  first 
note  as  key-note,  is  convenient  ; and  in  these  cases  the  best 
way  is  to  choose  such  a fingering  as  shall  bring  the  thumb  into 
its  proper  place  in  the  scale  as  early  as  possible,  after  which 
the  regular  scale  fingering  will  be  used.  For  example  : 


Chromatic  passages  are  fingered  like  the  chromatic  scale 
(Ex.  42),  and  it  will  generally  be  found  best,  for  passages  re- 
quiring vigor  and  force,  to  choose  that  fingering  which  em- 
ploys the  second  finger  upon  all  the  black  keys,  and  that  in 
which  the  third  finger  is  used  upon  B [7  for  such  as  require  speed 
and  lightness.  Chromatic  scales  are  often  met  with — espe- 
cially in  Beethoven’s  works — which  increase  in  speed  towards 
the  end.  In  these  it  is  well  to  use  both  methods  of  fingering, 
beginning  the  passage  with  the  second  finger  on  the  black 
keys,  and  changing  where  the  rate  of  movement  changes.  For 
example  : 


(54-) 


Besides  regular  scale  passages,  there  are  others  which  con- 
sist of  scales  with  one  or  more  notes  omitted,  or  with  one  or 
more  extra  notes  introduced.  In  each  case  there  are  two 
methods  of  fingering.  Scales  with  notes  omitted  may  be 
played  either  by  not  using  the  fingers  which  belong  to  the 
omitted  notes  (Ex.  5517),  or  else  bypassing  the  thumb  under 
the  second  finger  every  time,  instead  of  under  second  and 
third  alternately  (Ex.  (55^).  The  latter  method  is  not  avail- 
able if  more  than  one  note  in  the  octave  is  omitted. 


142 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


(55) 

i 

The  introduction  of  an  extra  note  into  a scale  always 
causes  a chromatic  progression,  and  the  simplest  fingering  is  a 
mixture  of  the  fingerings  of  the  ordinary  and  chromatic 
scales,  according  as  each  may  be  required  (Ex.  56a)  ; or,  if  the 
scale  does  not  contain  more  than  one  extra  note  in  the  octave, 
the  thumb  may  be  passed  under  the  third  finger  (or  this  over 
the  thumb)  every  time,  instead  of  under  second  and  third 
alternately  (Ex.  56^). 


(56-) 


The  fingering  of  chord-passages  has  already  been  fully  ex- 
plained, and  need  not  occupy  much  of  our  space  here.  It 
follows  the  simple  rule  that  whatever  fingers  are  suitable  for 
an  unbroken  chord,  are  equally  correct  when  applied  to  the 
separate  notes  of  the  same  chord  in  a broken  form.  The 
correct  fingering  of  any  kind  of  chord-passage  will  therefore 
depend  on  the  due  observance  of  the  various  complete  and 
half  chords  of  which  it  is  composed.  In  most  cases  there  is 
no  difficulty  in  discovering  them ; the  four  fundamental 
chord-passages  will  be  readily  recognized  wherever  they  occur, 
while  in  most  other  varieties  the  chords  on  which  the  passage 
is  founded  will  be  sufficiently  obvious.  For  example,  it  is 
clear  that  the  first  bar  of  Ex.  57,  taken  from  Mendelssohn’s 
Concerto  in  G minor,  consists  entirely  of  complete  chords  in 
various  positions,  while  in  the  second  bar  (from  Mendelssohn’s 
Presto  Agitato  in  B minor),  each  group  is  formed  of  a com- 
plete chord  an  1 a half  chord. 


Passages  derived  from  chords  are,  however,  not  always  so 
regular  as  those  just  quoted  ; sometimes  the  chords  on  which 
they  are  founded  contain  extra  notes,  in  which  case  the  hand 
will  not  be  able  to  cover  a whole  octave  without  change  of 
position.  Still,  the  principle  remains  the  same  ; the  passage 
is  divided  into  chords  and  half  chords,  though  not  always  fol- 
lowing each  other  in  regular  order,  and  is  nngered  accordingly. 
For  example : 


In  such  passages  as  the  above  the  chord  need  not  be  a real 


harmony,  such  as  would  sound  well  if  its  notes  were  struck 
all  together.  Any  set  of  four  notes  played  without  moving  the 
hand  may  be  considered  a complete  chord  so  far  as  regards 
the  fingering,  and  any  set  of  two  a half  chord.  Thus  the 
passage  in  the  first  bar  of  Ex.  59  is  founded  on  the  chords 
shown  in  the  second  bar,  and  fingered  accordingly,  although 
these  chords  certainly  cannot  be  called  real  harmonies. 


The  complete  chords,  besides  being  irregularly  formed,  as 
above,  will  sometimes  require  exceptional  fingering,  as  in  the 
next  example,  where  the  second  of  the  two  complete  chords  is 
fingered  with  the  third  finger  instead  of  the  fourth,  for  greater 
convenience. 


Passages  are  often  composed  of  scales  and  chords  mixed,  as 
in  the  following  example,  from  Weber’s  Invitation  a la  Valse , 
in  which  the  scales  are  indicated  by  means  of  curved  lines  and 
the  chords  by  square  brackets. 


Passages  often  consist  of  a series  of  groups,  or  sets  of 
groups,  each  set  containing  the  same  number  of  notes  ar- 
ranged in  the  same  order  of  ascent  or  descent,  though  not 
necessarily  always  separated  by  the  same  intervals.  In  such 
passages  the  progression  which  is  repeated  is  called  the  figure 
of  the  passage,  and  may  consist  of  any  number  of  notes  ; thus 
the  two  passages  quoted  in  Ex.  57  are  formed  by  the  repetition 
of  a figure  of  four  notes  and  six  notes  respectively.  The  rule 
for  such  passages  is  as  follows  : All  repetitions  of  the 
same  figure  should  be  fingered  with  the  same  fingering 
— and  this  in  spite  of  its  occasionally  causing  such  irregulari- 
ties as  placing  the  thumb  on  a black  key,  &c.  This  rule  is 
a comparatively  modern  one,  and  is  invaluable  as  facilitating 
the  execution  of  the  difficult  passages  of  modern  music,  such 
as  that  by  Chopin,  Rubinstein,  &c.  As  an  example  I will 
quote  a passage  from  Chopin’s  Scherzo  in  Bi^  minor,  Op.  31, 
in  which  the  figure  consists  of  no  less  than  twenty-four  notes, 
which  figure  will  require  to  be  played  with  the  same  fingering, 
even  where  it  occasions  such  unusual  movements  as  I have 
pointed  out  by  the  asterisks  in  the  example. 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


*43 


In  simple  passages,  when  the  figure  consists  of  but  few 
notes,  and  lies  easily  under  the  hand,  it  is  a question  whether 
the  rule  just  given  should  in  all  cases  be  observed.  In  the 
opinion  of  many  modem  teachers  it  should  ; but  for  my  ®wn 
part  I believe  that  a more  elegant  position  of  the  hand  is  ob- 
tained without  prejudice  to  certainty  (which  is  the  aim  and 
object  of  the  rule),  by  permitting  such  deviations  from  regu- 
larity of  fingering  as  will  prevent  the  placing  of  the  thumb 
on  a black  key,  or  any  other  awkwardness  of  the  kind.  For 
instance,  the  fingering  given  in  the  lower  line  of  the  next  ex- 
ample is  far  preferable  to  that  written  above  it,  although  this 
latter  is  strictly  according  to  rule. 


A somewhat  similar  departure  from  rule  will  enable  us  to 
finger  the  first  chord-passage  in  the  key  of  D and  similar  keys 
without  using  the  thumb  on  the  black  key,  thus  : 


An  interesting  example  of  the  difference  between  the  older 
and  more  modern  methods  of  fingering  a simple  passage  is 
found  in  the  edition  of  dementi’s  Gradus  ad  Parnassum , 
fingered  by  Tausig,  in  which  the  fingering  of  the  first  study 
(No.  16  of  the  original  edition)  is  altered  thus : 


(6s-) 


X I 2 3 4 3 2 I 


X I z 34321 
&c. 


As  has  already  been  shown,  changes  of  position  of  the  hand 
are  effected  by  means  of  contractions  and  extensions,  and  by 
passing  the  thumb.  And  there  is  yet  another  method  to  be 
mentioned  which  is  of  great  value  in  legato  passages,  espe- 
cially of  double  notes.  This  is  the  substitution  of  one  finger 
for  another  on  the  same  key,  in  effecting  which  the  finger 
which  first  strikes  the  note  must  press  its  key  firmly,  or  there 
will  be  danger  of  the  note  being  repeated  by  the  finger  which 
follows.  Changes  of  finger  are  marked  by  two  figures  brack- 
eted together,  as  in  the  example  : 


The  formation  of  a good  system  of  fingering  will  be  greatly 


assisted  by  the  habit  of  paying  careful  attention  to  the  marks 
of  fingered  editions  of  studies,  &c.,  always  supposing  these  to 
have  been  added  by  a competent  teacher.  Even  then  altera- 
tions will  probably  have  to  be  made  in  some  cases,  for  the 
method  adopted  by  any  one  player  will  probably  not  be  en- 
tirely convenient  to  any  but  his  own  pupils,  who  have  been 
trained  in  his  own  peculiar  school.  Such  alterations,  which 
are  not  to  be  made  capriciously,  but  always  with  the  object 
of  rendering  more  perfectly  the  intentions  of  the  composer, 
should  always  be  marked  in  the  copy,  and  the  fingering,  once 
determined  on,  should  be  scrupulously  adhered  to,  as  nothing 
tends  more  to  produce  uncertain  execution  than  the  habit  of 
fingering  the  same  passage  differently  at  different  times. 

There  are  two  methods  of  marking  fingering  : one,  with 
which  the  student  is  already  acquainted,  used  in  English  edi- 
tions, and  the  other  in  all  music  published  abroad.  It  is  no 
doubt  unfortunate  that  such  difference  should  exist,  as  it  in- 
creases the  difficulty  of  reading  ; nevertheless,  as  foreign  edi- 
tions are  continually  met  with,  it  is  necessary  that  the  student 
should  become  familiar  with  the  system  of  fingering  which 
they  adopt.  In  this  system  the  first  five  numerals  are  em. 
ployed  : I stands  for  the  thumb  ; 2 for  the  first  finger  ; 3 for 
the  middle  finger  ; and  so  on.  In  learning  to  read  them,  it  is 
better  not  to  think  of  the  fingers  by  their  new  numbers  Jor  it 
would  surely  be  very  unnatural  to  speak  of  the  thumb  as  a 
“first  finger  ”),  but  rather  to  accustom  oneself  in  the  first 
place  to  look  upon  1 and  3 as  the  signs  for  the  thumb  and 
second  finger  ; the  figure  5 for  the  little  finger  presents  no 
difficulty,  as  it  does  not  occur  in  the  English  system,  and 
after  these  three  have  been  learnt,  the  other  two  signs,  2 for 
the  first  finger  and  4 for  the  third,  will  be  easily  remembered. 


IV.— PHRASING. 


Phrasing  may  be  said  to  bear  the  same  relation  to  musical 
performance  that  correct  accentuation  and  punctuation  bear 
to  speaking  or  reading  aloud.  It  is  the  means  by  which  the 
composition  is  rendered  intelligible  to  the  listener  : and  just 
as  a wrong  emphasis  or  false  punctuation  will  make  nonsense 
of  a written  sentence,  so  a musical  composition  may  be  ren- 
dered uninteresting  and  meaningless  by  false  phrasing. 

The  two  subjects  which  have  to  be  considered  in  regard  to 
phrasing  are  the  same  as  those  which  I have  already  spoken 
of  as  influencing  good  reading,  namely,  accentuation  and  punc- 
tuation,, and  I propose  to  speak  of  each  in  its  turn. 

All  music  is  divided  into  equal  portions  called  bars.  The 
parallel  between  music  and  spoken  words  will  therefore  be 
closer  if  we  make  the  comparison  with  verse  instead  of  prose, 
because  verse  may  also  be  said  to  consist  of  regular  bars,  called, 
in  literary  composition,  feet.  Let  us  now  take  these  two  lines 
of  verse  : 

As  thro’  the  land  at  eve  we  went, 

And  pluck’d  the  ripen’d  ears, 


and  try  to  adapt  them  to  the  first  phrase  of  No.  I in  Book  6 of 
Mendelssohn’s  Lieder  ohne  Worte  : 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


*44 


We  see  here  a perfect  correspondence  of  accent  between  words 
and  music  ; and  just  as  in  reading  the  verse  we  should  lay  a 
stress  on  certain  syllables,  thus  : “As  thro’  the  land  at  eve  we 
went,  and  pluck’d  the  ripen’d  ears  ; ” so  in  playing  the  musi- 
cal phrase  we  must  give  to  the  notes  which  correspond  to  these 
syllables  an  additional  amount  of  force,  and  this  will  bring 
about  an  accent  on  the  first  and  fifth  quavers  of  each  bar. 

This  is  in  strict  accordance  with  the  first  principle  of  musi- 
cal accentuation,  which  is  that  there  must  be  an  accent  on  the 
first  note  of  each  bar,  and  if  the  bar  is  long  enough  and 
complicated  enough  to  bear  division  into  two  or  more  sections, 
there  will  be  an  accent  on  the  first  note  of  each  section. 
This  accent  is  weaker  than  that  on  the  first  of  the  bar,  and  is 
called  a sectndary  accent. 

The  natural  accents  are  as  follows  : 

(1)  In  2-4  time  generally,  and  in  6-8  time  and  common  or 
alia  breve  time  in  rapid  tempo,  there  are  two  beats  in  a bar 
and  one  accent. 

(2)  In  3-8  time,  and  in  3-4  and  3-2  time  in  moderate  or 
quick  tempo,  there  are  three  beats  in  a bar  and  one  accent. 

(3)  In  2-4  time  in  slow  tempo,  and  in  common  time  in  slow 
or  moderate  tempo,  there  are  four  beats  in  a bar  and  two 
accents. 

(4)  In  3-4  and  3-2  time  in  slow  tempo,  and  in  9-8  and  9-4 
time  generally,  there  are  respectively  six  and  nine  beats  in  a bar 
and  three  accents. 

(5)  In  4-4  or  common  time,  in  slow  tempo,  there  are  eight 
beats  in  a bar  and  four  accents. 

(6)  In  12-8  time  there  are  twelve  beats  in  a bar  (usually 
counted  as  four  for  convenience)  and  four  accents. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  each  accent  is  followed  by  at  least 
one  unaccented  note,  and  in  all  naturally  accented  passages 
this  is  the  case,  no  two  accents  ever  appearing  in  immediate 
succession. 

In  brilliant  passages  the  number  of  accents  required  in  a 
bar  will  depend,  to  some  extent,  on  the  nature  of  the  passage. 
As  a rule,  one  accent  on  the  first  note  of  each  group  will  suf- 
fice, the  strongest  being  of  course  on  the  first  of  the  bar  ; but 
when  the  harmonies  which  accompany  the  passage,  or  on 
which  the  passage  is  founded,  change  rapidly,  a greater  num- 
ber of  accents  may  be  necessary  to  give  effect  to  these  changes. 
Thus,  in  the  following  example,  the  figure  of  the  passage  is  in 
both  bars  the  same,  but  in  the  first  bar  each  group  is  accom- 
panied by  a single  harmony,  while  in  the  second  there  are  two 
accompanying  chords  to  each  group.  The  second  bar  will 
therefore  require  twice  as  many  accents  as  the  first ; and  the 
case  would  be  precisely  the  same  if  the  passage  were  unaccom- 
panied, as  the  group  of  notes  would  then  represent  the  same 
harmonies  as  those  played  by  the  left  hand  in  the  example  : 


I (634 


This  variety  of  accent  is  even  more  important  in  scale-pas- 
sages, for  they  possess  no  particular  figure,  and  their  agree- 


ment with  the  harmonies  by  which  they  are  accompanied  will 
therefore  depend  entirely  upon  their  accents. 


As  an  example  of  varied  accent  depending  on  changes  of 
harmony,  I will  quote  the  Trio  of  the  Scherzo  of  Beethoven’s 
Sonata  in  Eg-,  op.  7.  In  this  case  the  proper  rendering  of  the 
harmonies  represented  by  the  passage  will  even  require  the 
omission  of  the  regular  accent  at  the  beginning  of  the  bars 
marked  with  an  asterisk  in  the  sample : 


(7°-) 


The  omission  of  the  accent  from  the  first  beat  of  a bar,  as 
in  the  above  example,  is  often  met  with  in  compositions  of 
rapid  movement,  written  in  bars  of  short  duration.  This 
seeming  irregularity  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the 
bar,  as  understood  by  the  listener,  is  in  reality  composed  of 
two  or  more  of  the  written  bars,  and  the  beat  from  which  the 
accent  is  missing  is,  in  fact,  not  the  first  beat  of  a bar  at  all. 
This  is  the  case  in  Ex.  70,  as  will  be  seen  by  comparing  it 
with  the  next  example,  in  which  the  same  melody  is  written  in 
6-4  time,  two  beats  to  a bar,  the  triplet  movement  having  been 
omitted  for  the  sake  of  showing  the  actual  melody  more  clearly: 
(71-) 


In  triple  time,  particularly  in  waltz  movements,  a compound 
rhythm  is  frequently  met  with  in  which  two  bars  are  so  com- 
bined as  to  form  one  long  bar  of  three  beats,  instead  of  along  bar 
of  two  as  in  the  foregoing  example  ; in  other  words,  the  rhythm 
perceptible  to  the  listener  is  that  of  3-2  time,  not  6-4.  Ex. 
72  is  an  instance  of  this  ; it  is  an  extract  from  Schumann’s  Con- 
certo, and  is  written  as  in  the  example,  the  effect  being  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  if  it  were  written  in  3-2  time,  as  in  Ex.  73  : 


-1 — ^ — | VjO- 

m— 

.SIS*: 

^ -S-4 L -1 — 1 — ps- 

<73-) 

r_i — i — 1—  ' 

-1— fir 
— 1 — 1 — 

HU  2 -J 

^ JfS'  g ; » _ 

i=>  tst  E~- 

— Li k_ 

Ip  p~l ta- 

A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


*45 


In  this,  as  in  Ex.  70,  the  primary  accent  falls  upon  the  first 
of  every  alternate  bar  only,  but  the  place  of  the  secondary  ac- 
cents differs,  as  a comparison  of  the  two  examples  will  show. 

This  kind  of  combination,  of  two  or  more  bars  into  one, 
does  not  generally  continue  throughout  the  whole  composition, 
but  is  intermingled  with  bars  of  the  written  length,  contain- 
ng  their  proper  accents,  and  thus  the  whole  work  gains  in 
variety.  So,  in  the  movement  quoted  in  Ex.  70,  the  6-4 
rhythm  only  continues  as  far  as  the  tenth  bar,  the  six  next  fol- 
lowing bars  being  in  ordinary  3-4  rhythm,  as  is  also  the  greater 
part  of  the  movement  from  Schumann’s  Concerto. 

Another  kind  of  rhythmic  variety  very  frequently  employed 
consists  in  the  displacement  of  the  accent ; the  accent  which 
belongs  to  any  part  of  a bar  being,  not  omitted,  but  anticipated. 
This  occurs  whenever  a note  is  struck  on  a non-accented  part 
of  the  bar,  and  prolonged,  so  as  to  include  in  its  duration  the 
next  following  accented  beat.  In  this  case  the  accent,  which 
cannot  fall  on  its  proper  beat  by  reason  of  the  previous  note 
not  having  come  to  an  end,  is  anticipated,  being  given  to  the 
note  which  prevents  its  appearance  in  its  proper  place  : 


In  this  example  the  C in  the  first  bar  falls  on  the  second 
beat,  but  being  prolonged  beyond  the  third  or  accented  beat, 
it  takes,  by  anticipation,  the  accent  which  properly  belongs  to 
the  latter.  The  same  is  true  of  the  E in  the  second  bar ; 
while  the  fourth  note  of  the  same  bar,  F,  takes  the  accent  be- 
longing to  the  first  beat  of  the  next  bar,  to  which  it  is  tied 
In  the  third  bar  each  note  falls  on  the  half-beat,  and  each  note, 
except  the  last,  will  require  a slight  accent ; because,  when 
two  halves  of  a beat  are  present,  the  first  half  is  always  slightly 
accented  in  comparison  with  the  second  ; and  as  in  the  present 
case  only  the  second  halves  are  sounded,  they  will  each  take 
the  accent  belonging  to  the  next  following  first  half-beat,  over 
which  they  are  prolonged.  The  last  note  in  the  bar,  not  be- 
ing tied  to  the  next  following  accent,  will  only  possess  its 
own  proper  force,  and  will  be  unaccented.  Such  passages  as 
the  above,  which  form  the  only  exception  to  the  rule  that  no 
two  accents  can  occur  in  juxtaposition,  are  called  syncopa- 
tions or  syncopated  passages. 

Having  thus  considered  the  various  kinds  of  accentuation 
used  in  music,  I have  now  to  speak  of  the  other  part  of  phras- 
ing— punctuation.  By  punctuation  is  to  be  understood  the 
division  of  music  generally  into  separate  phrases,  and  also  the 
proper  employment  of  legato  and  staccato  in  the  rendering  of 
the  phrase  itself.  With  respect  to  this  last  point  there  are 
abundant  means  by  which  a composer  may  express  his  inten- 
tions even  to  the  smallest  detail,  and  correct  phrasing  in  this 
respect  is  therefore  merely  a matter  of  sufficient  acquaintance 
with  the  signs  employed.  But  the  power  of  dividing  a com- 
plete work  into  its  component  phrases,  there  being  no  written 
sign  of  any  such  division,  and  of  so  executing  it  that  the  di- 
vision may  be  appreciated  by  the  listener,  is  a more  difficult 
matter,  and  demands  careful  study.  And  here  again  we  shall 
be  assisted  by  the  same  idea  which  has  already  helped  us  to 


understand  the  nature  of  accent — namely,  by  the  attempt  to 
adapt  words  to  the  music,  as  in  Ex.  67.  If  this  can  be  done 
so  that  there  is  no  disagreement  between  the  accents  of  the 
words  and  those  of  the  music,  then  the  beginnings  and  end- 
ings of  the  musical  phrases  will  coincide  with  the  beginnings 
and  endings  of  the  sentences  to  which  they  are  set.  This  is 
the  principle  upon  which  vocal  music  is  composed,  and  the 
principle  upon  which  instrumental  music  must  be  phrased  is 
nearly  related  to  it  ; it  is  this — that  the  whole  composition 
must  be  divided  into  separate  phrases,  answering  to  the  lines 
of  a composition  in  verse  ; which  phrases,  though  they  need 
not  be  all  of  the  same  length — and,  in  fact,  rarely  are,  except 
in  very  simple  compositions — yet  must  each  have  a definite 
beginning  and  ending. 

I do  not,  of  course,  pretend  that  it  is  desirable  or  even  pos- 
sible to  adapt  actual  words  to  all  instrumental  music  ; the  ex- 
ample given  above  was  chosen  from  a particularly  favorable 
source,  from  one  of  the  Songs  -without  Words,  which,  like  most 
of  the  others,  might  very  easily  be  made  a song  with  words. 
But  the  illustration  will  serve  to  make  clear  the  principle. 
Very  often  the  end  of  a phrase  is  followed  by  a rest,  and  when 
this  is  the  case  both  the  end  of  one  phrase  and  the  beginning 
of  the  next  is  perceptible  as  a matter  of  course  ; when,  how- 
ever, one  phrase  follows  the  other  without  interruption  it  is 
not  so  easy  to  distinguish  between  the  two,  and  it  becomes  the 
performer’s  duty  to  make  the  division  clear  to  the  listener. 
This  is  accomplished  by  ending  the  first  phrase  softly,  and 
then  giving  a slight  increase  of  force  to  the  first  note  of  the 
new  one,  and  the  effect  may  be  assisted  by  slightly  shortening 
the  last  note  of  the  first  phrase,  if  the  character  of  the  music 
will  permit  it.  In  the  following  examples,  which  will  be  rec- 
ognized as  extracts  from  Mendelssohn’s  Lieder  ohne  Worte,  I 
have  marked  the  points  of  separation  between  the  phrases  by 
means  of  a vertical  dotted  line,  and  the  varieties  of  force 
which  will  be  required  to  make  these  separations  perceptible 
by  the  usual  signs  of  piano  and  forte  ; but  it  must  be  under- 
stood that  these  marks  are  merely  indications  of  the  strength 
of  the  notes  relatively  to  each  other,  and  are  not  intended  to 
express  any  great  degree  of  actual  difference.  In  the  two  first 
examples  the  whole  melody  is  legato,  even  at  the  moment  of 
passing  from  the  end  of  one  phrase  to  the  beginning  of  the 
next ; the  separation  of  the  two  phrases  will  therefore  depend 
entirely  on  the  relative  strength  of  the  notes  at  the  point  of 
division,  as  the  above-mentioned  shortening  of  the  final  note 
cannot  be  allowed.  In  the  third  and  fourth  examples,  how- 
ever, such  a curtailment  is  permissible,  and  will  add  to  the 
effect.  I have  indicated  its  place  by  means  of  a comma  (,),  a 
sign  which  has  also  been  used  for  a similar  purpose  by  Dr. 
Lebert  in  his  Instructive  Edition  of  Beethoven’s  Sonatas  (Vol. 
i.,  p.  21). 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


Sometimes  the  same  note  serves  for  the  end  of  one  phrase 
and  the  beginning  of  the  next,  as  in  Ex.  76.  In  such  a case 
the  beginning  of  the  new  phrase  is  the  most  important, 
and  the  note  which  serves  a double  purpose  (and  which  is 
marked  with  an  asterisk  in  the  example)  must  be  played 
strong. 


(76.)  Mendelssohn.  Concerto  in  D minor. 


One  more  subject  in  connection  with  phrasing  remains  to 
claim  our  attention  ; this  is  the  employment  of  legato  and 
staccato.  Here  the  intentions  of  the  composer  are  more  clearly 
expressed  than  in  the  matter  of  division  into  phrases,  as 
definite  signs  are  used.  These  are  the  dot,  the  dash,  and  the 
slur. 

The  dot  and  dash,  placed  either  above  or  below  the  notes, 
both  express  staccato  or  detached  notes,  but  with  this  dif- 
ference, that  notes  marked  with  a dash  are  to  be  played  as 
short  as  possible,  while  the  dot  expresses  a lesser  degree  of 
staccato,  the  notes  being  made  about  half  their  written  length. 
Another  sign  consisting  of  dots  placed  inside  a curved  line  ex- 
presses what  is  called  mezzo  staccato , or  sometimes  portamento. 
in  which  the  notes  are  closely  pressed  and  barely  detached 
from  each  other.  The  three  signs,  with  their  proper  rendering, 
as  nearly  as  may  be  expressed  in  notes,  are  here  shown. 


The  distinction  between  dot  and  dash,  though  considered 
of  the  first  importance  by  the  great  masters,  has  unfortunately 
Dot  been  always  observed  by  modern  editors  and  printers,  and 
on  this  account  the  proper  rendering  of  a staccato  passage  will 
depend  less  upon  a strict  observance  of  the  written  signs  than 
upon  a just  appreciation  of  the  general  character  of  the  music 
in  which  they  occur.  Thus  notes  marked  staccato,  whether 
with  dots  or  dashes,  cannot  properly  be  played  so  short  in  an 
adagio  movement,  such  as  Ex.  78 a,  as  in  an  allegro  such  as 
Ex.  78 b.  Besides  this,  the  effect  which  a mark  of  staccato  is 


(78.)  Mozart.  Sonata  in  G.  Mozart.  Sonata  in  D. 
a.  Adagio.  b.  Allegro . 


allowed  to  have  upon  a note  must  depend  to  some  extent  on 
the  written  length  of  the  note  itself.  For  instance,  in  Beet- 
hoven’s Sonata  Pathetique  we  find  the  same  sign  applied  to 


both  minims  and  crotchets  (Ex.  79),  but  the  former  ought 
certainly  to  be  considerably  less  staccato  than  the  latter,  al- 
though no  exact  proportion  between  the  two  need  be  observed. 

(79-) 


- s S „ 

i 3— f= 

Jm  | 1 | 

v - - 

1 1 

1 r 

So  also  in  passages  consisting  of  longer  and  shorter  notes 
alternately,  as  in  Ex.  80,  from  Beethoven’s  Sonata,  Op.  7,  a 
slight  but  perceptible  difference  must  be  made  in  the  amount 
of  staccato  given  to  each  note. 


As  a rule,  a staccato  passage  which  consists  of  notes  of  the 
same  written  length  should  be  perfectly  equal,  no  single  note 
being  made  more  or  less  staccato  than  the  rest,  for  on  this 
regularity  much  of  the  beauty  of  such  passages  depends.  But 
an  exception  may  sometimes  be  made  in  the  case  of  a staccato 
passage  which  leads  either  with  or  without  rallentando  to  a 
new  theme.  In  such  a case  a good  effect  may  be  produced  by 
gradually  lessening  the  amount  of  staccato  so  that  the  last  few 
notes  are  scarcely  detached  at  all: 

(Si. ) Beethoven.  Sonate  Pastorale,  Op.  28. 


— 4 

— -n 

pi* — ^ — — f." 

3 

M- 

=4 — 1 — f- 

4_  p + m wt 

1 * 

* * • 

m J. 

L 1 — m — r 

The  proper  sign  to  denote  a legato  or  connected  passage  is 
a curved  line  drawn  either  above  or  below  the  notes ; but  as 
all  passages  not  marked  staccato  are  intended  to  be  played 
legato,  whether  they  bear  this  curved  line  or  not,  the  sign  as 
ordinarily  met  with  is  introduced  rather  for  the  sake  of  giving 
a finished  appearance  to  the  passage  than  from  necessity  ; and 
except  where  it  follows  a staccato  passage,  and  is  therefore 
required  as  a sign  of  contradiction,  might  perfectly  well  be 
omitted. 

The  curved  line  is,  however,  also  used  to  indicate  an  effect 
which  differs  from  simple  legato,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  and  striking  of  all  phrasing  effects.  This  is  the 
slur,  which  is  expressed  by  a curved  line  connecting  two  notes 
in  moderate  or  quick  tempo,  and  rendered  by  emphasizing  the 
first  note  and  making  the  second  weak  in  tone  and  shorter 
than  it  is  written.  The  slur  is  more  easy  to  render  on  the 
violin  or  in  singing  than  on  the  piano.  In  singing  it  is  produced 
by  singing  two  notes  to  one  syllable,  on  the  violin  by  playing 
them  with  one  stroke  of  the  bow  ; on  the  piano  the  effect  is 
analogous  to  the  pronunciation  of  a word  of  two  syllables 
having  the  whole  accent  on  the  first,  such  as  ever. 


(82.)  Mozart.  Sonata  in  C Minor. 


This  stress  must  be  laid  on  the  first  of  two  slurred  notes. 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


147 


* 


even  when  it  falls  on  an  unaccented  part  of  the  bar  ; and  thus  a 
disolacement  of  accent  may  be  caused  by  the  slur,  which  is  in 
many  cases  highly  effective. 


(83.)  Mozart. 


Fantasia  in  C minor. 


As  the  curved  line  signifying  simple  legato  is  often  applied 
to  a group  of  two  notes  (in  which  case  the  second  note  is  of 
course  not  shortened),  it  is  always  important  to  be  able  to  tell 
whether  an  actual  slur  is  intended  or  merely  a legato.  To 
distinguish  between  the  two  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  for 
a couple  of  notes  to  be  really  slurred  the  tempo  must  be  suffi- 
ciently rapid,  and  the  second  of  the  two  notes  must  be  either 
of  equal  length  with  the  first,  or  else  shorter,  but  not  longer. 
Thus  it  would  not  be  proper  to  slur  the  passages  in  Ex.  84,  in 
the  first  example  because  the  notes  are  too  slow,  and  in  the 
second  because  the  second  note  is  the  longer  of  the  two.  The 
curved  lines  in  both  cases  must  therefore  be  understood  to 
mean  legato. 

(84.5 

Beethoven.  Sonata,  Op.  io,  No.  i.  Beethoven.  Sonata,  Op.  31,  No.  i. 


f 


IE 


It  would  scarcely  be  possible  to  fix  the  exact  rate  of  move- 
ment at  which  a curved  line  over  two  notes  should  cease  to  be 
a slur  and  become  a legato.  In  general  terms  it  may  be  said 
that  notes  of  equal  length  and  moving  at  a rate  equal  to  about 
M.  M.  1 12,  or  quicker,  may  be  slurred,  but  not  slower  notes. 

There  is,  however,  another  kind  of  phrasing,  in  which  the 
second  of  two  notes  connected  by  a curve,  although  the  longer 
of  the  two,  is  yet  slightly  shortened  by  the  slur,  in  opposition 
to  the  rule  given  above.  An  example  of  this  effect  is  given 
below,  in  playing  which  the  second  of  the  two  slurred  notes  is 
to  be  slightly  shortened.  The  correct  rendering  of  the  passage 
differs,  however,  in  two  particulars  from  the  real  slur.  In  the 
first  place  the  accent  remains  in  its  proper  place  in  the  bar, 
instead  of  being  transferred  to  the  first  of  the  two  notes  (as  in 
Ex.  83),  and  in  the  second  place  the  crochet,  the  second  of 
the  two  notes,  is  only  slightly  curtailed,  instead  of  being  made 
quite  staccato. 


Mendelssohn. 


Andante  Cantabite  and  Presto  Agitato. 
Written. 


m E- 


Played. 


Not  thus. 


The  slur  is  often  followed  by  one  or  more  staccato  notes  in 
the  same  group,  as  in  Ex.  86.  In  passages  of  this  kind  the 
second  of  the  two  slurred  notes  must  be  played  both  shorter 
and  with  less  force  than  the  succeeding  staccato  note,  and  it  is 
important  that  this  rule  should  be  thoroughly  understood  and 
carefully  observed,  as  the  appearance  of  the  sign  of  staccato 
on  the  note  following  the  slur  often  tempts  the  player  to  make 
that  the  shortest  note  (as  in  Ex.  87),  in  consequence  of  which 
the  effect  of  the  slur  is  entirely  lost : 


(86.) 

Beethoven.  Sonata,  Op.  49,  No.  1. 


Written. 


Beethoven, 

Sonata,  Op.  31,  No.  3. 


Strictly  speaking,  the  slur  is  only  applied  to  groups  of  two 
notes,  and  the  curved  line  drawn  over  three  or  more  notes  is 
to  be  considered  a sign  of  legato  merely,  and  is  not  to  cause 
any  shortening  of  the  last  note  of  the  group  ; unless,  of 
course,  there  is  a sign  of  staccato  in  addition  (as  in  Ex.  87). 
This  is  at  lease  always  the  case  when  the  curved  lines  corre- 
spond to  the  rhythmic  divisions  of  the  bar,  and  it  would  there- 
fore be  quite  incorrect  to  phrase  such  passages  as  those  in  Ex. 
88  with  a short  note  at  the  end  of  the  group  : 


But  when  the  position  of  the  curved  lines  does  not  agree 
with  rhythmic  division  of  the  bar,  but  ends  either  on  or  im- 
mediately after  an  accent,  there  must  be  a break  of  legato  be- 
tween the  end  of  one  curved  line  and  the  beginning  of  the 
next  ; and  so  the  phrasing  of  the  passage  resembles  the  slur  in 
the  shortening  of  the  last  note  of  the  group,  although  there 
is  not  necessarily  any  displacement  of  accent. 


The  same  break  of  legato  is  also  occasionally  expressed 
without  the  use  of  the  curved  lines,  by  varying  the  grouping 
of  the  notes  so  as  to  make  it  disagree  with  the  rhythmic  di- 
visions of  the  bar  ; for  example  : 


(9°.) 


An  example  of  this  kind  occurs  in  Schumann’s  Toccata,  Op.  6. 

Passages  which  consist  of  notes  of  the  same  length  through- 
out, or  of  a repetition  of  the  same  figure,  and  are  intended  to 
be  played  either  legato  or  staccato,  are  often  marked  with  the 
appropriate  sign  at  the  beginning  only,  the  sign  being  then  un- 
derstood to  remain  in  force  so  long  as  the  character  of  the  pas- 
sage remains  the  same,  or  until  a contradictory  sign  occurs. 
Such  a passage  as  Ex.  91  must  therefore  be  played  staccato 
throughout,  although  only  the  commencement  is  so  marked  J 


r 


148 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


since  if  any  change  had  been  intended  it  would  certainly  have 
been  indicated  as  in  Ex.  92  : 


(91.)  Mendelssohn.  Prelude,  Op.  35,  No.  3. 


Sometimes  a staccato  melody  is  combined  with  a legato  ac- 
companiment, as  in  the  next  example  (from  Mendelssohn’s 
Lieder  ohtie  Worle,  Book  6,  No.  4).  When  this  is  the  case  it 
is  not  necessary  to  lift  the  hand  after  the  staccato  note,  be- 
cause the  staccato  has  reference  to  the  melody  only,  and  not 
to  the  accompaniment.  In  the  example,  the  melody  notes  are 
written  as  quavers  and  have  to  be  played  as  semi-quavers,  be- 
ing thus  reduced  to  one-half  their  written  value.  At  the  rapid 
tempo  at  which  the  movement  is  played  this  will  be  a sufficient 
amount  of  staccato  for  the  melody  without  injury  to  the  legato 
of  the  accompaniment.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  notes  were 
made  actually  staccato,  as  in  Ex.  94,  the  legato  of  the  accom- 
paniment would  be  destroyed.  The  correct  rendering  of  the 
passage  will  therefore  be  that  shown  in  Ex  95,  the  prominence 
of  the  melody  being  secured  by  strongly  marking  each  note. 


(93.)  Presto. 


Passages  similar  in  effect  to  the  above  example  are  some- 
times met  with  in  which  the  notes  forming  the  melody  are 
marked  with  a sign  of  staccato  alone,  without  separate  stems. 
Ex.  96  (from  Beethoven’s  Sonata  Op.  14,  No.  1)  is  an  instance 
of  this,  and  is  played  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the  fore- 
going example  ; the  staccato  is  understood  to  refer  only  to  the 
melody,  and  not  to  the  accompaniment.  As  a matter  of  fact, 
a real  staccato  with  lifted  hand  is  next  to  impossible  at  the 
speed  of  the  movement,  but  the  endeavor  to  produce  one  re- 
sults in  giving  just  that  amount  of  force  to  the  notes  which  is 
necessary  to  render  the  melody  prominent. 


(96-) 


r - 


&c. 


THE  TURN. 


The  turn  is  an  ornament  consisting  of  an  essential 
note,  together  with  its  upper  and  lower  auxiliary  notes,  ar- 


ranged in  one  of  two  ways.  First,  the  turn  begins  with  the 
upper  auxiliary  note,  this  is  followed  by  the  principal  note, 
and  this  by  the  lower  auxiliary  note  and  the  principal  note 
again  (Ex.  97 <7).  This  is  called  the  direct  turn,  and  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  sign  ~ placed  over  the  principal  note.  The 
other  arrangement  is  the  reverse  of  this,  and  begins  with  the 
lower  auxiliary  note,  followed  by  the  principal,  upper  auxiliary, 
and  principal  note  again.  This  is  called  the  inverted  turn, 
and  is  expressed  by  the  sign  ? (Ex.  97^).  But  the  sign  is 
but  rarely  used,  as  when  the  inverted  turn  is  employed  it  is 
generally  written  out  in  full. 


If  it  is  necessary  to  sharpen  or  flatten  either  of  the  two 
unwritten  notes  of  the  turn,  the  requisite  signs  are  placed 
above  or  below  the  mark  of  the  turn,  or,  as  some  composers 
have  preferred  to  write,  right  before  and  after  it,  thus  : 


(98.)  Written.  # 


But  the  turn  is  often  left  without  any  sign  of  alteration  even 
when  alterations  are  necessary  and  it  is  therefore  important 
that  the  player  should  understand  when  and  where  to  introduce 
them.  The  rule  by  which  they  are  governed  is  as  follows  : — 
The  upper  auxiliary  note  agrees  with  the  key  in  which  the 
turn  occurs,  but  the  lower  auxiliary  note  is  usually  only  a 
semitone  removed  from  the  principal  note.  Whenever, 
therefore,  the  natural  order  of  the  scale  would  give  a lower 
auxiliary  note  a whole  tone  distant  from  its  principal,  it  is 
right  to  raise  it  one  semitone  in  playing  the  turn,  even  though 
there  may  be  no  written  indication  of  such  a change.  There 
are,  however,  cases  in  which  this  raising  is  not  necessary,  as  will 
have  been  gathered  from  the  wording  of  the  above  rule,  and 
in  order  to  understand  these  exceptions  it  will  be  well  to  ex- 
amine the  construction  of  a series  of  turns  made  upon  each 
note  of  the  scale,  thus  : 


In  all  the  turns  of  the  above  series,  excepting  those  on  the  first 
and  fourth  degrees,  it  was  necessary  to  raise  the  lower  auxiliary 
note  in  order  to  make  it  one  semitone  distant  from  its  principal 
note  ; but  even  when  this  has  been  done  the  turns  are  not  all 
absolutely  alike.  If  we  look  at  "those  on  the  third  and  seventh 
degrees,  we  find  that  in  those  two  cases  the  order  of  the  scale 


I 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


149 


gives  an  upper  auxiliary  which  is  only  a semitone  from  its 
principal  note,  and  that  in  consequence  of  this  the  whole  turn 
is  chromatic — that  is,  it  proceeds  by  semitones.  Now  a chro- 
matic ornament  is  not  wrong,  and  in  certain  cases  is  very  effect- 
ive ; but  a turn  containing  an  interval  of  a tone  on  one  side 
or  the  other  is  smoother  and  more  melodious,  and  therefore 
more  commonly  useful  ; and  on  this  account  the  lower  notes  of 
turns  which  already  have  a semitone  between  the  principal 
note  and  the  upper  auxiliary  are  better  generally  left  unal- 
tered. 

There  is  another  case  in  which  the  alteration  of  the  lower 
note  can  be  dispensed  with  : this  is  in  the  turn  on  the  sec- 
ond degree,  when  followed  by  either  the  key-note  of  the  scale 
or  the  third  degree — as  in  the  next  example.  Here  the  sharp- 
ening of  the  lower  note  would  interfere  to  some  extent  with 
the  next  following  harmony,  and  produce  a certain  harsh 
effect,  called  in  musical  theory  a false  relation. 


(100.) 


In  minor  the  same  rules  are  observed  ; but  it  should  be 
noticed  that  on  the  fifth  degree  the  chromatic  turn  is  a ne- 
cessity. The  turns  of  the  minor  scale  are  as  follows  : 


(101.) 


If  the  sign  of  the  turn  is  placed  directly  above  the  note, 
its  execution,  according  to  strict  rule,  should  be  that  shown  in 
the  examples.  It  should  consist  of  a group  of  four  notes  be- 
ginning with  the  upper  auxiliary,  and  the  value  of  the  princi- 
pal note  should  be  so  apportioned  among  the  notes  of  the 
turn,  that  the  first  three  are  played  quickly  and  the  last  sus- 
tained, or,  if  the  time  allowed  for  the  whole  turn  is  too  short 
to  admit  of  this  difference,  the  four  notes  are  played  of  equal 
length,  and  fill  up  the  entire  value  of  the  principal  note : 


(102.)  Mozart.  Violin  Sonata  in  G.  Haydn.  Sonata  in  G minor. 


But  this  commencement  with  the  upper  note  has  in  many 
cases  a somewhat  incomplete  effect  to  modern  ears,  and  it  is 
therefore  often  advisable  in  the  case  of  a turn  on  a short  note 
to  prefix  an  additional  principal  note  to  the  commencement  of 
the  turn,  so  that  the  principal  note  may  be  heard  before  the 
auxiliaries  (Ex.  103a).  This  is  especially  suitable  when  the 
note  which  bears  the  turn  is  preceded  by  a rest  or  a staccato 


note,  as  in  Ex.  1030,  or  by  a note  one  degree  higher  than  it- 
self (Ex.  121(5).  But  when  the  turn  is  on  the  second  of  two 
repeated  notes,  as  in  Ex.  103^,  the  additional  note  is  not  nec- 
essary, the  principal  note  having  already  been  heard  before 
the  turn  begins. 


(103.)  Mozart.  Sonata  in  A minor. 


Brethoven.  Sonata,  Op.  2,  No.  3. 


When  a turn  is  applied  to  a long  note — by  which  is  to 
be  understood  any  note  long  enough  to  admit  of  variety  in  the 
length  of  the  notes  of  the  turn — it  is  either  placed  directly 
above  it  or  a little  to  the  right.  In  the  first  case,  which  oc- 
curs but  seldom,  its  execution  is  that  shown  in  Ex.  102a  ; in 
the  second  case  the  principal  note  is  played  first,  and  held  for 
nearly  its  full  value,  and  the  four  notes  of  the  turn  are  played 
at  the  end  (Ex.  104).  This  rule  does  not  fix  the  exact  speed 
at  which  the  turn-notes  are  played,  as  they  may  begin  earlier 
and  be  played  slower,  or  later  and  therefore  more  quickly,  ac- 
cording to  taste.  As  a rule,  the  rapid  turn  is  most  appropriate 
to  a quick  movement. 


(104.)  Beethoven.  Sonata,  Op.  10.  Beethoven.  Son.,  Op.  2.  No.  1. 


When  a turn  is  placed  over  or  after  a dotted  note,  the 
principal  note  is  played  first,  and  the  turn  comes  between 
that  and  the  dot,  so  that  the  last  note  of  the  turn  falls  in  the 
place  of  the  dot.  This  rule,  like  the  last,  is  elastic,  as  it 
allows  of  the  turn  being  made  quicker  or  slower  according  to 
circumstances,  provided  always  the  last  note  falls  in  its  proper 
place. 


(105.)  Mozart.  Sonata  in  D.  Hummel.  Sonata,  Op.  13- 


The  rule  just  given  only  applies  to  doited  notes  such 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


I5° 


as  those  in  the  last  example,  which  are  followed  by  notes  of 
half  the  value  of  the  principal  note  without  its  dot,  in  order  to 
complete  rhythm.  When,  however,  the  dotted  note  repre- 
sents a bar  of  triple  time,  or  half  a bar  of  6-8  or  6-4  time,  it 
is  treated  simply  as  a long  note  (Ex.  106a),  and  the  same  is  the 
case  when  it  is  followed  by  two  or  more  short  notes  (Ex. 
106  b . 


(106.)  Heethoven.  Sonata,  Op.  10.  Mozart.  Sonata  in  C minor. 


In  all  the  foregoing  examples  the  turn  has  been  exe- 
cuted during  some  part  of  the  value  of  its  principal  note,  either 
at  the  beginning  (Ex.  102),  the  end  (Ex.  104),  or  throughout 
the  whole  (Ex.  103).  But  there  are  cases  in  which  it  has  to 
be  played  before  the  principal  note,  so  that  the  principal  note 
itself  forms  the  last  note  of  the  turn.  Tiiis  occurs  when  the 
sign  stands  over  the  second  of  two  tied  notes  (Ex.  107 a),  and 
occasionally  also  when  it  is  over  the  second  of  two  notes  of  the 
same  name  which  are  not  tied  (Ex.  lo6<£). 


(107.)  Haydn.  Sonata  in  Ejj.  Haydn.  Trio  in  G. 


Examples  of  the  latter  kind  are  frequent  in  Haydn’s 
works,  and  the  explanation  of  them  appears  to  be  that  the 
second  of  the  two  repeated  notes  stands  in  the  place  of  a dot, 
and  therefore  serves  perfectly  for  the  last  note  of  a turn.  Thus 
Ex.  io~jb  might  have  been  written  as  in  Ex.  108,  in  which  case 
the  rendering  would  have  been  precisely  the  same,  according 
to  the  rule  that  the  last  note  of  the  turn  must  coincide  with  the 
dot. 


(108.) 


But  that  the  mere  fact  of  the  turn  being  over  the  sec- 
ond of  two  repeated  notes  is  in  itself  not  sufficient  to  cause  the 
turn  to  be  played  before  its  principal  note  will  have  been  seen 
from  Ex.  102b,  and  will  be  noted  by  the  student  in  numerous 


other  instances. 

Having  now  given  illustrations  of  the  various  uses  of 
the  turn,  it  will  be  well  to  sum  up  the  principal  rules  relating 
to  it,  which  may  be  done  as  follows  : 

(1)  The  turn  over  the  long  note  is  played  at  the  beginning  of 
the  note. 

(2)  The  turn  after  the  long  note  is  played  at  the  end  of  the 
note. 

(3)  The  turn  over  the  short  note  divides  the  note  into  either 
four  or  five  equal  parts. 

(4)  The  turn  over  the  dotted  note  is  played  so  that  the  last 
note  of  the  turn  falls  in  the  place  of  the  dot. 

h, 


In  concluding  the  subject  there  are  two  points  relating 
to  the  performance  of  the  turn  to  which  I would  call  atten- 
tion. First,  it  is  a not  uncommon  though  very  great  mistake 
which  is  made  whenever  the  principal  note  is  in  the  slightest 
degree  separated  from  the  next  following,  as  though  Ex.  104 
should  be  rendered  somewhat  as  follows  : 


(ioq.) 


This  is  of  course  entirely  false  phrasing,  the  legato  should 
be  unbroken  throughout.  The  second  point  is  the  fact  that  in 
all  turns  which  follow  the  principal  note  the  first  auxiliary 
note  should  fall  a little  later  or  a little  earlier  than  the  rhythmic 
division  of  the  bar,  as  the  turn  will  thereby  be  made  more 
graceful  than  if  it  began  precisely  with  a beat.  This  difference 
is  not  easy  to  express  in  notes,  but  is  nearly  as  follows  : — 


(no.)  Should  be  thus.  Instead  of. 


THE  TRILL. 


The  trill  or  shake  is  the  most  brilliant  of  all  ornaments.  It 
is  indicated  by  the  letters  tr  placed  above  the  note,  and  con- 
sists in  the  rapid  and  regular  alternation  of  a principal  note 
with  its  upper  auxiliary. 

Whether  the  trill  should  begin  with  the  auxiliary  or  the 
principal  note  is  a question  much  disputed  among  teachers, 
some  agreeing  with  Emanuel  Bach  and  the  earlier  masters, 
who  taught  that  it  should  begin  with  the  auxiliary  note,  while 
others,  including  Hummel,  Czerny,  and  other  celebrated  teach- 
ers, prefer  to  begin  with  the  principal  note.  This  latter  view, 
which  is  shared  by  most  modem  teachers,  appears  to  me  the 
correct  one,  at  any  rate  as  regards  modern  music  ; and  I would 
therefore  always  begin  the  trill  with  the  principal  note,  ex- 
cepting only  when  the  composer  has  indicated  the  contrary  by 
means  of  a small  appoggiatura  placed  before  the  principal 
note,  as  has  been  done  by  Beethoven  in  the  Finale  of  the  Son- 
ata, Op.  53. 

(mi.) 


S=M=ffiE=»= 


A trill  may  be  either  complete  or  incomplete.  If  complete 
it  is  finished  by  a turn  ; if  incomplete  it  consists  in  the  simple 
alternation  of  its  two  notes.  The  turn  of  a complete  trill  is 
formed  by  adding  two  notes,  the  lower  auxiliary  and  the  prin- 
cipal note,  to  the  last  note  of  the  trill.  If  the  trill  is  inverted, 
as  in  Ex.  in b,  this  addition  takes  place  immediately  after  the 
last  couple  of  notes  (Ex.  112 a)  ; but  in  order  to  add  the  turn 
to  a direct  trill,  such  as  Ex.  in«,  an  extra  principal  note  has 
to  be  introduced  immediately  before  the  turn,  so  as  to  avoid 
passing  by  a skip  from  the  last  of  the  upper  auxiliary  notes  to  the 


r 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


'5* 


lower  auxiliary  (Ex.  1123).  Strictly  speaking,  the  turn  ought 
to  be  said  to  consist  of  the  last  four  notes  of  the  whole  passage, 
but  as  the  first  two  of  these  are  but  the  ordinary  notes  of  the 
trill,  it  is  more  convenient  to  speak  of  the  two  notes  which  are 
added  to  them  as  forming  the  turn. 


The  turn  of  a trill  is  usually  indicated  by  means  of  small 
notes,  as  in  the  above  example,  but  it  has  to  be  added  by  the 
player  even  when  there  is  no  such  indication,  provided  the 
next  following  note  is  accented  (Ex.  11411).  If,  however,  the 
trill  is  followed  by  an  unaccented  note  (Ex.  1143)  it  should  be 
played  incomplete — that  is,  without  a turn — but  with  an  ad- 
ditional principal  note  at  the  end,  in  order  to  avoid  leaving  off 
on  the  upper  auxiliary  note,  for  all  trills,  whether  direct  or 
inverted,  complete  or  incomplete,  must  end  on  the  prin- 
cipal note. 

(113d 


a.  tr  tr 


The  number  of  notes  which  go  to  form  a trill  will  depend 
on  the  length  of  the  written  note  ; and  speaking  broadly,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  more  rapid  the  trill  the  better,  provided 
the  notes  are  perfectly  distinct.  In  the  case  of  a trill  on  a 
long  note  the  exact  number  of  notes  is  immaterial,  the  trill  is 
continued  throughout  the  length  of  the  note,  and  the  turn  is 
played  at  the  same  rate  as  the  notes  of  the  trill.  But  when 
the  trill  is  on  a short  note  it  becomes  necessary  to  define  more 
exactly  the  number  of  notes  of  which  it  is  composed,  in  order 
that  the  effect  may  be  complete  and  satisfactory. 

For  the  purpose  of  reckoning  the  number  of  notes,  the  whole 
trill  is  divided  into  bents,  each  beat  consisting  of  a couple  of 
notes,  one  principal  and  one  auxiliary.  The  turn  itself  is  con- 
sidered as  the  last  beat,  but  if  the  trill  is  direct  an  extra  prin- 
cipal note  will  have  to  be  introduced  immediately  before  the 
turn  and  in  consequence  of  this  the  last  beat  but  one 
will  consist  of  three  notes,  and  will  be  a triplet.  If  there 
is  no  turn  the  extra  principal  note  which  is  then  added  to  the 
end  of  the  trill  causes  the  last  beat  of  all  to  contain  three 
notes,  and  the  triplet  thus  falls  at  the  end  of  the  trill. 
According  to  this  system  of  measurement,  bar  a in  the  next 
example  is  a complete  trill  of  four  beats,  and  bar  3 one  of  two 


beats,  while  bars  c and  d are  incomplete  trills  of  four  and  two 
beats  respectively. 


(U4-) 

a . tr  b . tr  c.  tr  d.  tr 


The  trill  of  two  beats,  as  in  bar  3 above,  is  the  shortest 
complete  trill  that  can  be  made  : but  a yet  shorter  incomplete 
trill  is  possible,  consisting  of  a single  beat  of  three  notes  (Ex. 
1 1 5).  Trills  such  as  these  are  only  suitable  for  very  short 
notes. 

(115.)  Written.  Played. 


When  the  written  note  is  long  enough  to  allow  of  a trill  of 
more  than  two  beats,  the  exact  number  of  notes  will  depend 
upon  two  things  : first,  the  manner  in  which  the  turn  (if  any) 
is  written  ; and,  second,  the  character  of  the  accompaniment. 

In  very  many  instances  of  a trill  on  a short  note,  the  turn, 
instead  of  being  indicated  by  two  small  notes,  as  in  our  ex- 
amples hitherto,  is  written  in  notes  of  full  size  and  occupying 
their  proper  place  in  the  rhythm  of  the  bar  ; when  this  is  the 
case,  they  govern  the  rate  of  movement  of  the  whole  trill,  be- 
cause both  trill  and  turn  should  always  be  played  at  the  same 
speed.  A trill  written  as  in  the  following  example  would 
therefore  be  played  as  a trill  of  four  beats,  because  the  two 
demisemiquavers  which  form  the  turn  require  that  the  trill 
should  consist  of  demisemiquavers  also,  and  the  division  of  the 
whole  dotted  quaver  into  demisemiquavers  will  give  us  three 
beats — two  of  two  notes  each,  and  one  (the  usual  triplet  which 
precedes  the  turn)  of  three,  the  turn  itself  counting  as  fourth 
beat. 

( 1 16.)  Written.  Played. 


When  there  is  no  turn,  or  when  the  turn  is  written  in  small 
notes  (which  leaves  the  question  of  speed  to  the  discretion  of 
the  performer),  the  number  of  notes  must  depend  on  the  num- 
ber of  the  notes  by  which  the  trill  may  be  accompanied.  For 
instance,  supposing  a trill  to  be  accompanied  by  a group  of 
four  notes,  it  should  consist  of  either  two,  four  or  eight  beats, 
according  to  the  duration  of  the  note  or  the  tempo  of  the  whole 
movement  (Ex.  117),  while  a trill  accompanied  by  three  notes 
would  consist  of  either  three  or  six  beats  (Ex.  118),  and  so  on. 


( 1 j 7.)  Allegro.  Allegretto.  Moderato. 

tr  tr  tr 

A aftm — I e=a-d 


'52 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


7 


( 1x8.) 


Andante. 


Athough  the  rules  just  given  will  apply  to  most  instances  of 
accompanied  trills,  it  will  sometimes  happen  that  a trill  ac- 
companied by  four  notes  cannot  well  be  played  like  either  of 
those  in  Ex.  117,  on  account  of  the  tempo  being  too  quick  to 
allow  of  the  distinct  rendering  of  four  beats,  and  yet  too  slow 
for  two  beats  to  appear  sufficient.  In  such  a case  the  trill  of 
three  beats  is  to  be  used,  although  against  four  notes  of  ac- 
companiment, and  the  whole  seven  notes  of  the  trill  have  to 
be  re-arranged,  being  divided  into  two  halves,  with  three  notes 
in  the  first  half  and  four  (which  must  therefore  be  slightly 
quickened)  in  the  second  (Ex.  119).  This  arrangement  is 
certainly  different  from  all  others,  as  the  accent  falls  first  on 
the  principal  and  then  on  the  auxiliary  note  ; but  when  played 
at  the  proper  tempo,  the  second  accent  (which  of  course  need 
not  be  very  pronunced)  is  not  perceptible,  and  the  effect  of  the 
whole  is  far  more  satisfactory  than  the  slow  trill  of  two  beats, 
or  the  indistinct,  because  too  rapid,  trill  of  four  beats. 

(119.)  Mozart.  Sonata  in  C.  Allegro. 
tr 


n i ! -nil 


In  the  same  way  a trill  of  two  beats  may  sometimes  De  used 
with  an  accompaniment  of  three  notes,  when  the  tempo  is  too 
quick  to  allow  of  a trill  of  three  beats.  In  this  case  the  notes 
of  the  trill,  which  are  five  in  number  should  be  played  of 
equal  length. 

(120.)  Mozart. 


Sonata  in  A. 
tr 

=5  > 


-=% *r=wr 


kr 


_ ^ ^ 

The  exact  number  of  notes  in  an  unaccompanied  trill,  or  a 
trill  accompanied  by  a single  note,  is  of  less  importance,  but 
will  nevertheless  be  generally  governed  by  the  rhythmic  divis- 
ion of  the  note  ; for  example,  a trill  on  a crotchet  or  quaver 
in  simple  common  time  will  usually  contain  either  two,  four, 


or  eight  beats,  while  a trill  on  a dotted  note  in  either  triple  or 
compound  common  time  will  be  best  rendered  by  three  beats. 

The  rule  for  the  trill  on  a dotted  note,  a position  which  it 
frequently  occupies,  is  the  same  as  that  which  governs  a turn 
similarly  placed  ; the  last  note  of  the.  trill  falls  on  the  dot. 
The  most  frequent  use  of  a trill  in  this  position  occurs  in 
the  works  of  Bach  and  Handel,  where  it  usually  forms  part 
of  a cadence  with  the  final  note  anticipated.  When  the  prin- 
cipal note  of  the  trill  is  situated  below  the  short  note  which 
follows  it,  a turn  is  required  (Ex.  121a)  ; but  when  the  trill  is 
on  the  note  above  the  short  note  the  turn  is  not  necessary,  and 
it  is  sufficient  to  end  the  trill  with  a principal  note  falling  in 
the  place  of  the  dot  (Ex.  121b). 

(121.)  Bach. 


Suites  Anglaises,  No.  2. 
tr 


Fugue  No.  1,  Vol.  1. 
tr 


Nevertheless  a turn  to  such  a trill  as  the  second  of  the 
above  is  not  impossible,  and  should  always  be  made  in  the 
case  of  two  trills  occurring  together,  as  in  the  Sonatas  by  Bach 
for  Pianoforte  and  Violin. 


(122.)  Sonata  No.  : 
4*  Violin.  t. 


Played. 


mk- 


Pianoforte.  tr 


Played. 


In  modern  music  in  quick  tempo,  the  execution  of  a trill  on 
a dotted  note  differs  from  the  above  ; the  trill  is  continued 
without  pausing  on  the  dot,  and  the  short  note  which  follows 
is  slightly  curtailed,  so  as  to  become  of  equal  length  with  the 
notes  of  the  trill.  Here,  as  before,  there  will  be  a turn  if  the 
note  bearing  the  trill  is  below  the  short  note  which  follows  it 
(Ex.  123(7),  but  not  if  it  is  above  (Ex.  123(5). 


(123.)  Mozart.  Sonata  in  C. 
tr 


Weber.  Polacca  in  E. 
tr 


D ~m 

-ff:  • 

1= 

m *i — m — m 

4*7  — . - ^ — 

tr  I n -,*j  fi 

When  a trill  is  made  on  a tied  note,  or  on  a note  followed 
by  another  of  the  same  name,  a single  lower  auxiliary  note  is 
introduced  immediately  before  the  tied  or  repeated  note  so  as 
to  form  a turn.  This  single  note  is  sometimes  written  in,  as 
in  the  4th  bar  after  the  first  Tutti  of  Beethoven’s  Concerto  in 
E|?,  but  even  if  not  indicated  it  must  in  any  case  be  intro- 
duced by  the  player,  thus — 


4 


A GUIDE  FOR  THE  PIANOFORTE  PLAYER. 


r 


*53 


y 


(124.)  Bach.  Fugue  No.  15,  Vol.  2. 

tr  as  111  as 

7Hi-SEn  rrn 


05 

g 

-f-hS 

%m»m  *m*m- 1 


The  rules  relating  to  the  distance  of  the  lower  auxiliary 
from  the  principal  note  of  a trill  follow  in  all  respects  those 
which  govern  the  lower  auxiliary  note  of  the  turn. 

In  old  music  the  trill  is  often  expressed  by  a zigzag  line, 
or  by  the  sign  ■»■&■»,  instead  of  the  usual  sign. 

(125.)  Handel.  Air  in  Bfe. 

-W 


£ 


The  same  sign  is  also  found  sometimes  with  a small  curved 
line  or  hook  at  one  or  both  ends,  thus^,^^,  or 
The  meaning  of  these  marks  is  as  follows  : The  hook  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sign  signifies  a variation  in  the  commencement 
of  the  trill  ; if  the  hook  comes  up  from  below  ( jvv)  the  trill 
begins  with  the  lower  auxiliary  note  (Ex.  126a)  ; if  it  is  drawn 
downwards  from  above  (Uv ) the  trill  begins  on  the  upper 
auxiliary  note,  but  passes  down  to  the  lower  auxiliary  note 
before  making  the  regular  alternation  of  principal  note  and 
auxiliary  (Ex.  I2bb). 

(126.) 


9 — * m 

~w — H 

1 1 

=r — H 

-m 

1= m m-V-rff-pf-p- 

mi 

In  modem  music  the  prefix  to  the  trill  is  indicated  by  a 
small  note  or  notes.  Thus  Ex.  126a  would  now  be  written  as 
in  the  next  example.  The  prefix  Ex.  1263  is  not  used  in 
modern  music. 

(1 


E22 

* W-P 

The  hook  at  the  end  of  the  sign  is  always  turned  upwards, 
and  merely  signifies  that  a turn  is  to  be  made.  A zigzag  line 
with  a hook  at  each  end  means,  therefore,  a trill  with  both 
prefix  and  turn. 


(128.) 


i 


(7W2 


Besides  the  hook  at  the  end,  the  turn  is  also  sometimes  in- 
dicated by  a small  vertical  stroke  through  the  end  of  the  zig- 
zag (not  through  the  middle — this  indicates  the  extended  mor- 
dent) or  by  an  ordinary  turn  placed  above  or  after  the  sign. 


(127  ) 


The  execution  of  each  of  these  three  examples  is  the  same 
as  that  of  Ex.  128a. 


1 

&r 


4 


A PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  SINGERS. 


4r- 


INGING  is  an  art,  and 
one  of  the  most  difficult 
of  the  arts  to  master ; 
and  any  one  who  at- 
tempts to  learn  it  must 
be  prepared  to  give  the  same 
devotion  to  it  as  is  demanded 
by  the  sister  arts  of  painting 
and  sculpture. 

Remember  that  the  human 
voice  is  the  most  delicate  of  all 
instruments,  susceptible  to  more 
and  more  varied  influence  than 
any  other.  The  singer  has  to 
combine  in  himself  the  instru- 
ment and  the  performer ; and  while  all  the  artistic 
and  intellectual  qualities  necessary  for  the  instru- 
mentalist are  required  by  him,  he  is  compelled  be- 
yond that  to  realize  that  he  is  a living  instrument,  and 
to  exercise  over  himself  all  the  care — and  indeed  far 
more  than  all — that  players  exercise  over  their  most 
cherished  “weapons.”  He  has  not  only  to  learn 
how  to  sing,  but  how  to  be  and  to  remain  fit  for  sing- 
ing. He,  more  than  any  other  musical  artist,  will  find 
that  he  is  affected  by  moral  as  well  as  physical  and 
intellectual  cuases,  and  he  must  face  this  fact  boldly. 

HABITS,  DIET,  ETC. 

Practice  early  rising,  and,  if  possible,  take  a short  walk  be- 
fore breakfast. 

Strict  cleanliness  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 

If  a mustache  is  worn,  let  it  be  kept  within  bounds,  and 
not  allowed  to  fall  over  the  mouth,  where  it  would  affect  the 


tone  of  the  voice.  Do  not  cut  it  straight  along  the  lip,  but 
train  it  right  and  left,  allowing  it  to  grow  naturally  and  uncut. 

The  advantages  of  the  mustache  are  two : it  acts  to  a certain 
extent  as  a respirator,  and  protects  the  mouth  and  throat  as 
the  eyelash  does  the  eye,  and  it  helps  to  conceal  any  slight 
distortion  of  the  mouth  in  singing. 

Clean  the  teeth  the  first  thing  in  the  morning,  and  the  last 
thing  at  night.  Use  a moderately  hard  brush,  better  too  soft 
than  too  hard,  with  cold  water,  or,  better  still,  just  lukewarm. 
Avoid  all  “ dentifrices  ” and  advertised  nastinesses  in  the  way 
of  powders  and  “fragrant”  washes.  If  you  find,  in  spite  of 
your  care,  that  your  teeth  become  discolored,  the  cause  is  prob- 
ably that  your  stomach  is  out  of  order.  In  that  case  go  straight 
to  a doctor,  for  the  consequence  of  such  derangement  is  that 
“tartar”  is  formed  on  the  teeth,  and  this  grows,  and  pushes 
back  the  gums,  altering  the  form  of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth, 
and  so  affecting  the  tone  of  the  voice. 

Be  as  much  as  you  can  in  the  open  air.  Take  moderate 
walking  exercise,  but  of  course  do  not  tire  yourself  before 
singing  or  practicing.  For  male  singers,  rowing,  riding  and 
football,  racquet  or  tennis,  and  above  all  an  hour  or  two 
weekly  in  a gymnasium,  are  excellent  things  : while  for  ladies, 
walking,  riding,  lawn  tennis,  “ la  grace,”  and  calisthenics  are 
equally  useful.  If  you  live  in  a town,  always  walk  in  prefer- 
ence to  taking  a conveyance,  when  time  and  weather  permit  it. 

Never  breathe  through  your  mouth  in  walking,  especially  at 
night  or  on  coming  out  into  the  open  air  after  singing.  Keep 
the  lips  closed,  and  inhale  the  air  through  the  nostrils. 

Nothing  can  be  said  in  favor  of  our  climate  for  singing. 

In  going  out  of  hot  rooms  into  the  open  air  much  pains 
should  be  exercised  to  keep  the  chest  and  throat  covered  up 
with  an  overcoat  or  cloak — however  warm  the  weather  may 
be.  In  very  severe  winter  weather  the  singer  will  derive  much 
comfort  by  wearing  a flannel  chest-protector.  Sitting  about 
in  gardens,  and  on  lawns,  in  the  evenings  on  even  the  warmest 
days  is  not  a safe  indulgence  for  the  student  who  is  in  earnest 
in  the  pursuit  of  his  art. 

4 


A PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  SINGERS. 


'55 


One  caution  is  necessary  as  to  “wrapping  up,”  however. 
Do  not  over-do  it.  The  constant  use  of  a “ comforter  ” ren- 
ders the  throat  delicate  and  susceptible.  All  you  have  to  fear 
is  damp,  not  cold,  in  the  atmosphere.  A comforter,  closely 
wound  round  the  throat,  promotes  prespiration,  and  the  risk 
of  chill  in  removing  it  is  greater  than  in  not  wearing  it  at  all. 
Common  sense  must  guide  every  one.  It  is  impossible  to 
made  a rule  for  all. 

As  to  diet  : avoid  everything  that  is  at  all  indigestible.  Live 
well,  and  take  plenty  of  varied  nourishment.  The  singer’s 
system  must  be  well  nourished.  Chocolate  and  coffee  are 
better  than  tea  ; the  latter  is  too  astringent,  and  affects  the 
nerves  too  much  if  taken  in  abundance.  Sugar,  in  modera- 
tion, should  always  be  used  with  those  beverages,  and  they 
should  never  be  taken  very  hot.  Bread  is  better  than  toast, 
but  avoid  hot  or  very  new  bread.  Eggs  and  butter  are  good. 
Meat  should  be  plainly  cooked  and  not  too  well  done.  Pork 
tries  the  digestion  too  severely  to  be  a desirable  food  for  a 
singer,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  veal.  Fish  is  good  for 
the  singer,  and  he  should,  if  possible,  let  it  form  a part  of  his 
daily  menu.  Creams  and  pastry  are  simply  poison,  and  cheese 
should  only  be  taken  in  great  moderation.  Fruit  is  an  excel- 
lent thing  if  judiciously  used.  But  here,  again,  hard  and  fast 
rules  are  impossible,  because  constitutions  vary.  Only  re- 
member the  old  proverb,  “ We  must  eat  to  live,  and  not  live 
to  eat.” 

Never  practice  or  sing  on  an  empty  stomach,  or  soon  after 
a meal : either  of  these  habits  will  unfairly  tax  your  digestive 
organs,  and  in  so  doing  damage  your  voice.  After  a meal, 
all  the  energy  of  the  body  is  required  for  the  stomach  ; in  a 
healthy  person  the  extremities  will  generally  be  cold  after  a 
full  meal,  and  the  reason  is  that  the  digestive  organs  are  using 
all  the  heat  and  blood  that  the  body  can  give  for  their  special 
work.  Nature  thus  points  to  a rest  of  every  other  organ  at  that 
time,  and  you  must  not  fight  against  Nature  by  attempting 
any  such  severe  physical  strain  as  the  practice  of  the  voice  de- 
mands. 

All  acids  and  astringents  are  bad  for  a healthy  throat  and 
stomach.  Vinegar,  highly  flavored  sauces,  almonds  and 
raisins,  nuts  of  every  kind  should  be  avoided.  Some  of  these 
are  useful  as  remedies  in  relaxed  throat,  or  congestion  of  the 
throat  no  doubt,  but  I am  speaking  simply  of  what  is  desirable 
for  a person  in  a state  of  health.  In  cases  of  cold,  hoarseness, 
or  indisposition  of  any  kind,  my  prescription  is,  “ Don’t 
doctor  yourself,  but  (as  Abernethy  said)  * Take  a'dvice.’  ” Be 
very  careful  and  abstemious  in  the  use  of  spirits.  Brandy  is 
decidedly  injurious  ; it  heats  and  inflames  the  throat,  and  tends 
to  constipate  the  bowels.  Gin  or  whisky  is  the  most  whole- 
some spirit,  but  take  as  little  as  possible  of  either.  If  you 
drink  beer  or  ale,  take  draught  and  not  bottled,  and  always  in 
great  moderation.  All  effervescing  liquors  are  objectionable  ; 
therefore  eschew  champagne.  The  fluids  called  port  and 
sherry  are  cruel  foes  to  singing.  The  best  drink  for  singers 
is  claret,  or  any  light  wine,  French,  German,  or  Italian.  Fluids 
are  apt  to  produce  congestion  or  mucus  in  the  throat  and 
glands  of  the  mouth,  and  that  of  course  interferes  with  the 
free  action  of  the  muscles  in  singing. 

As  a general  rule  it  may  be  laid  down  that  smoking  is  a bad 


habit  for  the  singer,  male  or  female  (for  there  are  females  who 
are  proud  of  being  able  to  smoke  cigarettes  nowadays  ! ). 

A cigarette  is  certainly  a safeguard  against  taking  cold  in 
coming  out  of  a hot  room  into  the  open  air,  especially  after 
singing  ; but  strong  cigars  or  strong  tobacco  in  pipes  are  to  be 
avoided,  because  of  their  effect  on  the  nerves. 

Avoid  late  hours.  You  require,  not  only  a certain  amount 
of  sleep,  but  to  take  that  sleep  before  the  body  and  mind  are 
at  all  overtaxed.  From  many  causes,  it  is  well  known,  the 
human  frame  is  always  at  its  lowest  from  about  2 A.  M.  till  5 
A.  M.,  and  the  nearer  you  approach  those  hours  in  going  to 
bed,  the  less  able  you  are  to  derive  all  the  benefit  which  you 
require  from  sleep.  Twelve  o’clock  is  late  enough  for  any 
one. 

The  sensualist  can  never  become  an  artistic  singer.  Sen- 
suality dulls  the  purity  of  thought  which  marks  all  true  art, 
deadens  the  intellect  which  art  requires,  and  injures  the 
physical  powers,  without  which  all  a singer’s  study  may  be 
suddenly  rendered  useless  to  him. 

THE  STUDY  OF  PRONUNCIATION  AND 
“WORDS”  IN  SINGING. 

A few  words  as  to  nervousness.  You  will  often  hear  per- 
sons boast  that  they  are  not  the  least  nervous  in  public  ; and, 
perhaps,  will  feel  inclined  to  envy  them.  Get  rid  of  any  such 
notion  at  once.  If  by  “nervous”  is  meant  “frightened,” 
that  is  another  thing  altogether  ; and  it  is  perfectly  true  that 
there  are  hundreds  of  persons  who  are  not  in  the  least  afraid 
of  appearing  in  public,  nor  affected  by  timidity  when  so  ap- 
pearing. But  fear  is  only  one  form  of  nervousness.  Do  not 
be  ashamed  to  admit  that  you  are  nervous,  if  it  be  so.  Nerves 
are  a cruel  master,  but  a splendid  servant  ; instead  of  letting 
them  overcome  you,  force  them  to  do  your  bidding  ; and  in- 
stead of  “nervousness”  meaning  “fear,”  you  will  find  that 
it  means  courage  and  power  to  do  your  best. 

Study  correctness  of  pronunciation  and  propriety  of  emphasis 
quite  apart  from  singing.  Remember  that  in  speaking  or 
singing  in  a large  space  and  to  a number  of  persons,  every 
sound  must  have  not  only  additional  force,  but  additional 
volume.  And  that  comes  to  mean  that  every  vowel-sound  in 
the  words  sung  must  be  intensified,  and  every  consonant  be 
delivered  with  more  accuracy  than  is  necessary  in  ordinary 
speaking.  If  you  were  to  pronounce  the  syllable  “die”  (for 
instance),  in  singing,  exactly  as  you  do  in  speaking,  you  would 
produce  on  the  notes  or  note  to  which  that  word  belonged  a 
thinness  of  tone  which  would  be  very  ugly,  and  probably 
would  not  “carry”  far.  And  the  same  with  any  vowel-sound 
— even  “ Ah,”  or  “ Oh,” — which,  though  not  producing  a thin 
tone,  would  certainly  produce  a coarse  one,  if  sung  exactly  as 
spoken  in  ordinary  conversation. 

The  reason  of  the  need  of  this  slight  change  is  as  follows  : 
Every  vowel-sound,  like  every  musical  sound  (for  vowel- 
sounds  are  nothing  less  than  musical  sounds)  is  composed  of 
two  sounds.  Combined  with  the  prominent  and  chief  sound 
which  first  attracts  the  ear  is  a second,  which,  though  not 
prominent,  lends  point  and  force  to  the  other.  Thus  our 
English  vowel-sound  “ A ” is  really  Eh-J  ; “E  ’’  is  E-t ; “ I ” 
is  Ah-d  ; “O”  O-do,  or  even  A w-00  j “U”  is  dze-do.  Of 


A PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  SINGERS. 


l56 


course  we  do  not  mean  to  say  that  those  absurd-looking  syl- 
lables really  express  exactly  the  sounds  which  we  produce  in 
speaking  the  vowels,  for  no  combination  of  letters  can  do  that, 
or  can  bring  within  reach  of  the  eye  the  subtleties  of  sound  in 
human  speech  ; but  if  you  attempt  to  pronounce  those  syllables, 
you  will  find  that  you  are  really  pronouncing  the  vowels  from 
which  we  “translated  ” them. 

Now,  in  conversation  or  rapid  speaking,  the  subordinate 
sound  of  the  vowel  is  scarcely  noticeable,  while  the  more 
prominent  sound  is  heard  for  the  short  interval  of  time  re- 
quired. But  in  singing  or  public  speaking,  where  the  produc- 
tion is  more  deliberate,  the  space  to  be  filled  with  sound 
larger,  or,  in  other  words,  the  column  of  air  to  be  set  vibrat- 
ing is  greater  and  heavier,  the  complex  sound  of  the  vowel 
must  not  be  ignored.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  set  of 
rules  by  which  the  student  may  overcome  this  difficulty  ; but 
every  one,  by  bearing  in  mind  the  absolute  necessity  of  atten- 
tion to  this  point,  may  easily  accustom  himself  to  the  slight 
change  of  pronunciation  (as  it  will  at  first  appear)  which  is  re- 
quired to  give  vowel-sounds  when  sung,  or  spoken  “ ore  ro- 
tundo,"  the  same  tone,  to  the  hearer’s  ear  as  they  have  in 
ordinary  speaking.  As  a general  rule  this  is  done  by  keeping 
the  throat  more  open,  the  larynx  (or  “ Adam’s  apple  ”)  as  low 
down  as  possible,  and  the  root  of  the  tongue  flat,  depressed, 
even  hollowed  like  the  bowl  of  a spoon.  The  truth  of  all  this 
may  easily  be  tested  by  singing  any  short  passage  deliberately 
and  distinctly,  with  the  exact  pronunciation  of  ordinary  speak- 
ing, and  then  repeating  it  with  attention  to  the  above  hints. 
In  the  first  instance  the  result  will  be  meagre,  hard  to  be  heard 
at  a moderate  distance,  and  very  likely  extremely  ludicrous  to 
the  hearer.  In  the  second,  you  will  find  that  the  tone  of  the 
notes  gains  in  roundness  and  fullness,  while  the  words  are 
clearly  heard  in  every  part  of  the  room  with  the  exact  effect 
belonging  to  them. 

In  pronouncing  consonants,  be  careful  to  give  each  its  due 
value,  but  without  exaggeration.  Be  especially  particular  to 
sound  the  last  letter  of  each  word  distinctly.  But  take  care  to 
avoid  adding  a slight  sound  (as  of  an  /mute)  after  the  final 
letter;  for  instance,  do  not  say  “When  other-/lips,”  etc.,  or 
“ bright-/ days,”  and  so  on.  Do  not  over-aspirate  the  letter 
“ H.”  “ N,"  “ L,"  “A/,”  “ B,”  “A,”  and  “ V,”  are  all  let- 

ters requiring  care  in  firm  pronunciation. 

Avoid  prefixing  a slight  sound  of  “ N ” to  the  first  word  of 
a song  or  passage  in  singing.  It  is  a common  trick  with  be- 
ginners to  do  this,  and  they  frequently  do  it  without  being  in 
the  least  conscious  of  it.  It  is  produced  by  a kind  of  nervous 
feeling  of  the  teeth  with  the  tongue,  as  if  to  make  sure  that  all 
is  right  for  the  start  ! We  have  heard  an  aspiring  youth  ac- 
tually begin  a well-known  song  thus:  “ Nwaft  her  Rangels 
N through  the  sky”  etc. 

The  English  language  is  not  the  most  suitable  one  under 
the  sun  for  singing  purposes  ; nevertheless,  it  is  not  nearly  so 
intolerable  and  unfavorable  an  one  as  it  is  the  fashion  to  make 
out.  The  grand  old  Scripture  passages  which  Handel,  Men- 
delssohn, and  others  have  set  to  music  testify  to  this.  Yet 
musical  care  is  needed  when  singing  English  words,  and 
especially  in  pronouncing  the  “sibilants,”  as  S,  etc.  These 
“sibilants”  must  never  be  enunciated  rapidly,  or  their  ill 

- 


effects  will  soon  be  found  in  a series  of  hissings.  Let  it  be 
your  study,  then,  to  avoid  this  ill  effect  in  singing  English 
words,  and  to  utter  such  sounds  slowly  and  carefully,  with  the 
endeavor  to  produce  a soft  and  agreeable  effect  ; for  it  is,  in- 
deed, unpardonable  to  hear  an  English  singer  unable  to  render 
perfectly  the  words  (if  not  the  music)  of  his  native  country’s 
songs  and  ballads. 

Having  accustomed  yourself  to  carefulness  over  each  letter 
in  your  pronunciation,  the  next  thing  is  to  study  correctness  of 
emphasis,  etc.  All  this  is  apart  from  the  strictly  musical 
portion  of  your  studies,  and,  while  you  can  work  at  this  with- 
out music,  you  will  certainly  spoil  the  effect  of  your  singing 
(however  good  your  voice  and  voice  production  may  be),  unless 
you  do  so  study  your  “words.”  We  should  recommend  you 
to  practice  reading  aloud  for  not  less  than  a quarter  of  an  horn 
at  a time,  say  once  a day.  Read  standing ; place  your  book 
on  a desk,  on  a level  with  your  eyes,  and  speak  out  deliberately, 
and  with  full  tone  of  voice,  and  as  much  variety  of  intonation  as 
the  matter  read  requires.  Shakespeare  is  your  best  author  for 
this  study.  You  will  feel  at  first  as  if  you  were  doing  a very 
absurd  thing,  but  never  mind  that — do  it,  and  do  it  as  well 
and  as  carefully  as  you  can. 

In  speaking  and  reading  aloud  during  your  preliminary 
training  for  singing,  be  very  careful  that  there  be  no  change  in 
the  aperture  of  the  mouth  or  position  of  the  lips  while  uttering 
any  one  sound,  however  prolonged.  If  the  lips  move  from  their 
first  position,  however  slightly,  the  tone  immediately  changes, 
and  the  pronunciation  ceases  to  be  pure  and  refined. 

The  words  of  a song  are  as  much  worthy  of  the  singer’s 
study  as  the  music,  that  is,  if  the  song  is  worth  singing  at  all. 
Study  the  text,  therefore,  apart  from  the  music.  Read 
the  words  aloud  deliberately  ; master  the  sentiment  of  them, 
and  note  the  prominent  words  and  phrases,  so  as  to  be 
able  to  give  them  their  due  value  when  you  have  to  combine 
them  with  the  music.  Avoid  giving  prominence  to  such  words 
as  “of,”  “ for,”  “ the,”  “ and,”  “ in,” etc., etc.,  but  yet  let  each 
be  distinctly  pronounced,  and  not  slurred  over  in  an  indefinite 
murmur.  Learn  the  words  of  your  song  by  memory.  Master 
the  text,  and  consider  the  whole  from  an  elocutionist’s  point 
of  view  before  you  attack  the  musical  side  of  the  matter.  A 
singer  when  singing  in  public  should  not  be  troubled  with  his 
words  and  music  too. 

For  a singer  to  be  successful,  he  or  she  must  be  in  a position 
to  express,  and  bring  home  to  an  audience,  such  emotions  as 
love,  hatred,'  anger,  fear,  grief,  and  pity  ; all  these,  and  many 
other  such  feelings,  have  constantly  to  be  transmitted  by  the 
singer,  and  it  is  to  the  most  natural  and  faithful  exposition 
of  these,  and  that  most  consistent  with  the  other  equally 
important  points  of  the  art  of  singing,  that  the  student’s  atten- 
tion should  for  a long  while  be  patiently  and  perseveringly 
directed. 

To  be  a successful  public  singer,  even  in  the  concert-room, 
one  must  be  more  or  less  an  actor  ; and,  therefore,  the  time 
and  money  bestowed  in  acquiring  a sound  knowledge  of  drar 
matic  action  and  elocution  will  be  well  spent.  For  the  lyric 
stage,  such  a study  is  imperative  ; but  its  utility  to  artists  who 
aspire  no  higher  than  to  ballad  or  oratorio  singing  cannot  be 
too  highly  estimated. 


A PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  SINGERS. 


i57 


VOICES  AND  THEIR  VARIOUS  QUALITIES. 

Naming  the  Voice. — “ YVhat  is  your  voice?”  is  a very 
common  question,  sometimes  expressed  in  the  rather  less  polite 
but  more  intelligent  form,  “ What  do  you  call  your  voice?” 
The  answer  almost  invariably  is  either  “Soprano,”  “Con- 
tralto,” “Tenor,”  “ Bass,”  or  “ Barytone.”  Here  is  a warning 
for  you  at  starting.  Do  not  limit  your  notions  of  what  voices 
are  to  those  four  or  five  generic  names.  Because  choral  music 
is  generally  written  in  four  parts,  for  soprano,  alto,  tenor,  and 
bass,  the  non-musical  public,  and  a great  many  musical  people 
(some  composers  included),  seem  to  think  that  those  names  are 
an  inclusive  description  of  every  human  voice. 

Remember  always  that  the  character  of  a voice  is  determined 
not  by  compass  or  range  of  notes,  but  by  quality,  or  body  and 
timbre,  of  tone.  Two  ladies  may  have  voices  ranging  from 
A to  A — two  octaves — and  yet  one  might  be  a pure  light 
soprano,  and  the  other  a genuine  contralto  ; while  in  length  of 
compass  a mezzo-soprano  may  even  beat  them  both.  And  so 
with  male  voices  (the  variety  in  which  is  even  greater  than  in 
female),  you  may  have  a voice  of  pure  tenor  quality,  and  yet 
of  such  limited  compass  that  your  energetic  barytone  friend 
next  door  may  make  your  life  miserable  with  jealousy  of  the 
ease  with  which  he  bellows  high  Gs,  G sharps,  and  even  on 
great  occasions  an  A or  so. 

But  compass  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  name  of 
the  voice  ; it  may  limit  the  quantity  of  music  which  can  be 
performed,  but  it  should  have  no  influence  on  the  choice  of  the 
style  of  music  to  be  studied.  This  is  a point  of  the  greatest 
importance,  therefore  we  repeat  it  briefly  once  more — Your 
voice  must  be  described  and  used  with  reference  to  its  quality,  or 
volume  and  timbre,  and  not  with  reference  to  the  number  of  notes 
which  you  can  sing. 

Male  and  Female  Voices. — The  actual  varieties  in  tone 
and  quality  in  different  voices  cannot,  of  course,  be  expressed 
on  paper  ; but  a careful  use  of  your  ears  in  listening  to  good 
public  singers  will  soon  teach  you  to  discriminate.  Female 
voices  are  of  at  least  four  kinds  : soprano,  mezzo-soprano, 
mezzo-contralto,  and  contralto.  Male  are  of  five  or  six  or 
even  more.  Alto  ; tenore-leggiero  or  light  tenor ; tenore- 
robusto  or  strong  heavy-voiced  tenor  ; barytone  ; basso-can- 
tante  (erroneously  identified  with  the  barytone  by  some  per- 
sons) ; basso-profondo  or  bass. 

Besides  all  these  divisions  or  species,  voices  must  be  again 
classed  according  to  their  power.  Any  one  who  has  ever  heard 
an  opera  singer  in  a moderate-sized  private  drawing-room,  will 
readily  appreciate  the  difference  between  a voce  di  camera,  or 
“ chamber  voice,”  and  a voce  di  teatro. 

Compass. — The  respective  compasses  of  the  several  voices 
may  be  roughly  set  down  as  follows,  but  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  it  is  by  no  means  a matter  of  course  that  a singer  of 
any  particular  voice  should  possessor  cultivate  the  whole  range 
of  notes  supposed  to  belong  to  that  voice.  He  or  she  may  be 
none  the  less  a tenor  or  a soprano  because  the  one  cannot  pro- 
duce an  “ Ut  de  poi  trine,"  or  the  other  “ F in  AH"  There 
is  a special  individuality  in  every  voice,  as  in  every  face,  and 
therefore  every  voice  must  be  treated,  by  a good  teacher,  on 
its  own  merits,  as  a thing  in  some  respects  unique. 


Perhaps  it  will  be  best,  therefore,  instead  of  saying  that  the 
compass  of  any  given  kind  of  voice  is  from  — to  — , to  say 
that  music  for  such  and  such  a voice  is  generally  written  be- 
tween such  and  such  limits.  The  range  allotted  by  com- 
posers to  the  various  voices  is  about  two  octaves  to  each — for 
solo  work,  of  course— and  is  as  follows,  it  being  understood 
that  the  male  voices  are  an  octave  lower  in  pitch  than  the 
female : 


from 


Soprano,  and  Tenore-Leggiero , and  in  operatic 
music  a certain  kind  of  Tenore-Robusto. 


Mezzo-Soprano  and  Tenore-Robusto, 


Mezzo-Contralto  and  Barytone. 


Contralto  and  Bass. 


The  basso-cantante  is  a low  barytone,  or  high  bass  with  a 
lighter  quality  of  tone  than  the  basso  profondo.  The  alto 
voice,  or  counter-tenor,  as  it  used  to  be  called,  is  not  a natural 
voice  at  all,  but  is  artificially  produced  by  training  the  falsetto 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  parts  of  the  voice.  It  is  totally 
distinct  from  the  contralto  voice  of  a female,  in  quality, 
average  compass,  and  the  style  of  music  best  suited  to  it.  It 
is  of  more  use  in  part-singing  and  cathedral  music  than  for 
solo  work,  although  in  some  oratorios  solo  parts  have  been  al- 
lotted to  it.  It  is  rarely  pleasing  when  heard  alone,  for  very 
few  alto  singers  are  able  to  avoid  the  appearance  of  singing 
with  effort ; and  the  whole  performance,  except  in  some  in- 


A PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  SINGERS. 


158 


stances,  appears  unnatural  and  forced.  The  alto  voice  ranges 
generally 


but  its  best  notes  are  confined  to  the  octave 
of  B flat. 


Soprano. — The  soprano  is  generally  clear,  oright,  and  pene- 
trating in  tone  ; capable,  if  rightly  produced,  of  “carrying” 
far  without  any  appearance  of  force  or  effort.  Its  lower 
register  is  often  weak  and  ineffective,  and  the  forcing  of  these 
notes  by  a bad  singer  often  damages  the  voice,  and  spoils  the 
evenness  of  tone,  which  is  of  far  more  importance  than  power 
and  noise  in  singing.  Low  notes,  even  if  naturally  weak,  may 
be  trained  to  take  their  proper  share  of  the  work  of  the  voice, 
and  every  year  will  add  to  their  natural  power.  Most  soprano 
voices  have  a “ break  ” on 


and  another  and  more  difficult  one  to  deal  with,  on 


or 


The  lower  notes  are  the  (so-called)  “ chest”  register  ; the  mid- 
dle ones,  between  the  breaks,  the  ‘ ‘ falsetto,”  and  the  upper 
ones  the  “ head  ” notes.  We  shall  speak  of  these  often-used 
and  frequently  misapplied  words  presently  ; we  merely  men- 
tion them  now  for  the  sake  of  pointing  out  to  soprani  what 
many  young  lady  amateurs  utterly  ignore,  that  they  have  these 
“ breaks,”  and  possess  “chest,”  “ falsetto,”  and  “head”  notes, 
as  well  as  male  singers. 

Soprano  voices  are  frequently  capable  of  great  flexibility, 
and  passages  are  easy  to  them  that  tax  the  powers  even  of  a 
light  mezzo-soprano  severely.  The  high  notes,  especially,  are 
in  many  cases  easily  produced  in  a staccato  manner,  like  notes 
of  a piccolo  flute,  and  an  effect  is  thus  made,  which,  though 
pretty  and  pleasing  if  judiciously  employed,  becomes  a great 
snare  to  many  singers,  who,  for  the  sake  of  astonishing  their 
audience,  work  the  upper  part  of  their  voices  unfairly,  and, 
neglecting  steady  use  and  practice  of  the  lower  registers,  will 
very  soon  find  that  they  have  weakened  the  power  and  thinned 
the  tone  of  the  whole  voice. 

But  there  are  many  voices  of  pure  soprano  tone  which  lack 
this  flexibility  : let  the  fair  owners  console  themselves  with 
the  recollection  that  good  sostenuto  singing  is  quite  as  pleasing 
in  the  long  run  as  displays  of  vocal  gymnastics.  You  may  not 
be  able  to  attempt  the  “ Dinorah"  Shadow  Song,  or  the  “ Re- 
joice Greatly”  in  the  “ Messiah ,”  but  you  will  find  that  you 


have  plenty  of  good  work  left  for  you  in  such  music  as  “ Dove 
Sono,”  “ Deh  vieni,  non  tardar”  (“ Figaro ”),  or  “Jerusalem’’ 
(“Si.  Paul"). 

Mezzo-Soprano. — The  mezzo-soprano  voice  is  perhaps  the 
commonest  of  all  female  voices,  and  yet  one  of  the  rarest  met 
with  in  perfection.  It  is  fuller  and  rounder  in  quality  than 
soprano — less  flexible,  and  more  adapted  to  a sostenuto  or  de- 
clamatory style.  Mezzo-soprano  voices  vary  so  much  that  it 
is  difficult  to  name  any  note  on  which  the  “break”  will  be 
found.  Sometimes  it  is  on  the  same  as  a soprano — sometimes 
on  the  same  as  a contralto — on  the  average,  perhaps,  nearer 
the  former.  Wherever  it  may  be,  however,  a judicious  teacher 
will  soon  point  it  out,  and  put  the  student  into  the  way  of 
rightly  treating  it. 

What  lies  within  the  sphere  of  a good  mezzo-soprano  has 
been  shown  in  late  years  by  a Grisi  and  a Tieljens,  the  latter 
of  whom  will  live  in  the  recollection  of  all  who  ever  heard 
her,  as  the  perfect  model  for  every  mezzo-soprano  in  the  pro- 
duction of  pure  tone  and  even  quality. 

Mezzo  - Contralto. — The  name  mezzo-contralto  speaks 
for  itself.  It  is  by  no  means  an  uncommon  voice,  and  if  used 
with  discrimination  is  an  effective  and  useful  one.  Both  in 
compass  and  quality  it  lies  between  the  contralto  and  the 
mezzo-soprano.  Heavier  in  tone,  less  resonant  and  less  flexible 
than  the  mezzo-soprano,  it  is  yet  lighter  than  the  contralto. 

Contralto. — The  quality  of  a true  contralto  voice  is  so  pe- 
culiar that  it  is  impossible  to  mistake  it  for  any  other  voice, 
although  other  voices  may  be  mistaken  for  it.  Of  course, 
there  are  exceptional  cases  in  which  the  contralto  and  mezzo- 
contralto  are  combined  in  one  voice  : the  lower  range  being 
of  full  and  pure  contralto  quality,  while  instead  of  the  some- 
what limited  upper  notes  of  the  contralto,  a rich  mezzo-con- 
tralto range  of  notes  may  develop  themselves  ; and  in  such  a 
case  careful  training  will  be  able  to  soften  these  two  into  each 
other,  so  that  a complete  voice  of  peculiar  charm  and  great 
usefulness  will  result.  But  such  cases,  if  not  rare,  are  cer- 
tainly the  exception  and  not  the  rule,  the  deep  and  powerfully 
resonant  tone  of  the  true  contralto  being  comparatively  sel- 
dom met  with.  There  is  generally  an  awkward  break  between 
the  low  B and  the  D above  it  in  this  voice,  and  the  E j?  or  E 
are  the  highest  notes  within  reach  of  the  average  contralto. 
Voices  of  this  class  are  better  adapted  for  a species  of  ballads, 
for  solemn  declamation,  or  music  of  a calm  and  flowing  char- 
acter, than  for  elaborate  execution  or  lively  melodies. 

Alto. — The  alto  or  counter-tenor  voice  is  ‘ ‘ simply  a develop 
ment  of  the  falsetto — generally  the  falsetto  of  an  inferior  bass 
voice.”  Of  course,  in  a voice  which  is  so  artificial,  there  must 
be  expected  a worse  “ break”  than  usual — the  break  in  this 
case  being  the  point  below  which  the  falsetto  cannot  be  ex- 
tended, and  where  the  natural  “chest  ” quality  of  tone  has  to 
be  used.  This  break  generally  lies  near  the  same  place  as  the 
contralto  break — if  anything,  rather  higher — say  between  C 
and  E in  the  middle  of  the  voice.  The  effective  notes  of  an 
alto  usually  lie  in  the  octave  of  B or  B J7 , and  the  repertoire  of 
music  for  which  this  voice  is  suited  is  comparatively  limited. 
That  repertoire,  however,  includes  the  greater  number  of  ora- 
torios, a good  deal  of  fine  old  Italian  music,  and  a few  old 
English  songs  ; while  a singer  of  cleverness  and  cultivation 


A PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  SINGERS. 


will  find  many  ballads  which  he  may  make  his  own  by  the 
help  of  transposition  and  the  style  of  delivery. 

Great  pains  must  be  taken  by  the  possessor  of  an  alto  voice 
in  the  formation  and  production  of  a good  tone.  The  voice 
must  be  made  to  sound  as  natural  as  possible  ; and,  if  neces- 
sary, power  must  unhesitatingly  be  sacrificed  to  sweetness. 
There  is  great  danger  of  producing  a harsh,  reedy,  or  nasal 
tone,  which,  to  the  hearer,  is  simply  distressing  or  offensive. 
Above  all,  let  him  be  content  to  develop  his  own  means,  and 
to  keep  to  music  suited  to  or  written  for  his  voice. 

Let  him  also  beware  of  the  snare  of  contralto  music.  The 
alto  in  a man  is  tota.  y distinct  from  the  contralto  in  a woman. 
The  tone  is  utterly  different — the  best  notes  of  the  one  are  cer- 
tainly not  the  best  notes  of  the  other  ; and  although  in  certain 
cases  a contralto  may  sing  with  good  effect  music  written  for 
a male  alto  ( e . g. , in  some  oratorios),  yet  the  converse  is 
scarcely  ever  true.  The  low  notes,  which  are  so  fine  in  a 
contralto,  and  so  unlike  any  other  tone,  except  perhaps  a few 
notes  of  some  tenors,  are  utterly  wanting  in  charm,  and  gen- 
erally in  power,  in  a male  alto  ; while  the  sweet  and  ringing 
middle  notes  of  the  latter  are  far  more  effective  in  alto  music 
than  the  (frequently)  weak  and  uncertain  middle  notes  of  a 
contralto.  Choose  your  music,  as  you  name  your  voice,  by  the 
quality  of  tone  you  can  produce,  and  not  by  the  range  of 
notes. 

Tenore-Leggiero. — The  tenore  leggiero,  or  “light  tenor,” 
is  the  male  voice  corresponding  to  the  female  soprano  ; it  is 
perhaps  the  most  delicate  and  difficult  to  manage  of  all  human 
voices. 

The  tone  of  a light  tenor  is  generally  clear,  resonant,  and 
penetrating  ; sometimes  there  is  a metallic  ring  about  it  which 
is  extremely  pretty,  if  not  forced. 

A light  tenor  must  be  careful  not  to  force  up  the  lower 
register  of  his  voice  beyond  its  natural  and  easy  limit.  The 
charm  of  the  voice  is  in  the  perfect  blending  together  of  the 
lower,  middle,  and  upper  registers,  and  to  do  this  the  upper 
notes  of  each  register  should  be  equally  at  command,  as  the 
upper  notes  of  that  register  or  the  lower  notes  of  the  one  above 
it.  In  order  to  attain  this,  the  change  from  one  register  to 
another  should  generally  be  made  considerably  lower  than  the 
place  where  the  real  “break”  in  the  voice  comes.  For  in- 
stance, supposing  the  “ break  ” to  be  on  E \l,  the  singer  should 
be  able  to  change  his  register  as  low  as  B or  B \z,  and  to  take 
all  the  notes  between  those  two  places  either  in  the  upper  or 
lower  register  with  equal  effect. 

In  voices  of  this  character  there  is  often  one  note  which  re- 
quires to  be  made — i.  e.,  which  is  so  naturally  defective  in  tone 
and  quality  that  it  can  only  be  produced  effectively  by  imi- 
tating as  nearly  as  possible  the  quality  of  the  register  above  or 
below  it.  The  note  is  generally  E,  F,  Fjf,  or  (sometimes)  G, 
between  the  middle  and  upper  registers  ; and  if  you  find  that 
you  unfortunately  have  such  a refractory  note,  remember  not 
to  try  and  force  the  tone  of  it  from  the  next  note  above  or  be- 
low ; e.  g.,  if  your  bad  note  is  F,  do  not  try  to  improve  it  by 
singing  E well  and  then  passing  on  to  the  F ; but  try  and  form 
the  note  from  the  fifth  above  or  below  (whichever  it  happens 
to  resemble  most  in  tone).  Rounden  the  refractory  note — 
give  it  a full  tone  in  practicing,  and  produce  it  well  from  the 


I 


chest,  letting  the  sound  reverberate  from  the  center  of  the 
roof  of  the  mouth — neither  too  far  back  towards  the  throat, 
nor  too  much  on  the  teeth. 

Tenore-Robusto. — The  robust  or  strong  tenor  is  the  male 
voice  corresponding  to  the  mezzo-soprano  of  a female.  It  is 
not  an  uncommon  voice,  but  is  rarely  met  with  in  anything 
like  perfection.  A robust  tenor  voice  of  large  compass  and 
round  full  tone  is  a treasure  of  the  utmost  value.  The  fact  is, 
that  too  frequently  the  possessor  of  a good  voice  of  this  kind, 
instead  of  taking  care  of  it  and  training  it  for  the  future,  be- 
gins using  it  too  soon,  strains  and  forces  it  into  coarseness, 
and  spoils  it  forever.  People  do  not  realize  that  a voice  may 
be  strong  in  quality  and  powerful  in  tone,  and  yet  in  itself  be 
an  excessively  delicate  thing  to  keep  in  order. 

Moreover,  voices  of  this  kind  in  their  youth  frequently  re- 
semble barytones,  and  their  owners,  fired  with  ambition  to 
rival  some  popular  barytone  singer,  mistake  their  vocation, 
and  shout  and  bellow  on  the  very  part  of  the  voice — the  upper 
“ chest”  register — which  requires  the  tenderest  nursing  to  fit 
it  for  future  difficulties.  Consequently,  when  the  voice  de- 
velops with  age,  and  the  singer  finds  that  barytone  work  is  too 
heavy  for  the  lower  part  of  the  voice,  and  that  he  can  without 
much  difficulty  extend  his  compass  beyond  the  barytone  limits, 
he  discovers  that  what  he  has  been  using  as  the  top  of  his 
voice  is  nearer  the  middle  of  it,  and  that  the  mode  of  using 
those  notes  which  he  has  practiced  is  excessively  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  with  those  which  now  lie  above  them.  The 
result  is  either  the  creation  of  a very  awkward  “break,” 
which  even  time  and  practice  can  never  entirely  remove,  or 
else  (and  this  is  a commoner  case)  the  same  process  of  forcing 
which  has  been  employed  hitherto  is  applied  to  the  upper 
notes,  as  far  as  strength  can  take  it ! 

Barytone  and  Basso-Cantante. — The  barytone  voice  is 
a voice  of  fuller  quality  than  a tenor,  and  lighter  than  a bass, 
having  a compass  partly  included  in  both. 

The  distinctive  character  which  this  voice  has  assumed 
within  the  present  century  is  due,  we  believe,  to  the  great 
change  in  the  pitch  of  musical  instruments  which  has  taken 
place.  In  the  last  century  the  pitch  was  so  much  lower  than 
that  at  present  in  use,  that  a “high  barytone”  was  much  the 
same  as  “ robust  tenor.”  Consequently,  music  was  not  written 
exclusively  for  the  barytone  voice,  its  existence  as  a separate 
class  of  voice  not  being  sufficiently  recognized.  Gradually,  as 
the  pitch  was  raised,  the  barytone  separated  itself  clearly  from 
other  voices,  and  has  now  a repertoire  of  music  and  a style  of 
singing  of  its  own  ; and  instead  of  appropriating  tenor  music, 
it,  if  anything,  has  stolen  away  some  of  the  property  of  the 
bass  ; for  the  raising  of  the  pitch  which  placed  tenor  music  be- 
yond the  reach  of  a barytone  has  also  rendered  a good  deal 
of  music  originally  written  for  a bass  far  more  suitable  for  a 
barytone,  or  at  all  events  for  a basso-cantante. 

Bass. — Of  the  bass  voice  less  need  be  said  here,  not  be- 
cause it  is  a less  important  voice  than  any  of  the  others,  but 
because  it  is  more  generally  known  and  better  understood.  A 
perfectly  pure  bass  voice  is,  however,  a rare  thing.  This 
voice  has  no  upper  register,  properly  speaking  ; the  whole 
voice  consisting  of  “chest”  notes,  and  not  admitting  of  even 
the  process  of  developing  upper  notes  of  extraordinary  quality 


i6o 


A PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  SINGERS. 


which  is  part  of  the  training  of  a barytone  or  basso-cantante. 
Power  and  richness  are  the  chief  qualities  of  charm  in  a bass, 
while  flexibility  and  true  intonation  are  the  qualities  most 
rarely  found  in  that  voice.  The  young  singer  who  finds  that 
he  certainly  is  not  meant  by  nature  for  a tenor,  and  also  that 
with  all  his  efforts  the  upper  notes  of  a barytone  are  quite  out 
of  his  reach,  need  not  be  discouraged  by  any  lightness  or  thin- 
ness of  quality  in  his  voice  from  the  hope  that  he  may  develop 
into  a good  bass. 

Buffo. — A clever  and  good  buffo  singer  may  very  likely  be 
able  to  sing  other  music  well,  but  the  style  is  so  entirely  dra- 
matic and  so  utterly  out  of  place  anywhere  except  on  the 
stage,  that  no  amateur  should  ever  attempt  it,  and  no  pro- 
fessional should  appear  in  a concert-room  as  an  exponent  of 
such  music.  Therefore,  for  those  who  wish  to  sing,  any  re- 
marks on  the  peculiarities  of  a buffo  bass  would  be  super- 
fluous ; those  who  wish  to  study  that  line  as  a profession,  for 
stage  work,  must  learn  all  that  they  need  from  a regular  dra- 
matic teacher ; while  those  who  wish  to  execute  English 
“comic”  songs,  may  spare  themselves  any  anxiety  as  to  their 
voices:  if  they  have  any  voice  naturally,  “comic”  singing 
will  soon  destroy  its  charm,  and  that  will  not  matter  to  them, 
for  the  last  thing  necessary  to  sing  a “ comic  ” song  is  the 
possession  of  a voice  of  any  kind.  Therefore,  if  you  have  a 
bass  (or  any  other  voice,  indeed),  avoid  “ comic  ” songs,  and 
leave  the  “ buffo  ” business  to  those  who  can  do  nothing  better. 

Qualities  of  Voice,  Good  and  Bad. — It  may  not  be  un- 
welcome to  the  student  to  have  pointed  out  to  him  those  quali- 
ties of  voice  which  are  to  be  aimed  at  or  cultivated,  and  also 
those  which  are  to  be  avoided  or  overcome. 

The  charms  of  a voice  are  found  among  the  following  quali- 
ties : clearness,  sweetness,  evenness,  flexibility,  power,  extent 
of  compass,  variety,  brilliancy,  firmness,  persuasiveness. 

On  the  opposite  side  must  be  ranked  roughness,  huskiness, 
feebleness  (or  want  of  power),  shrillness  (or  want  of  depth), 
hardness  and  want  of  flexibility,  dullness,  or  want  of  “ ring,” 
etc. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  for  any  one  voice  to  unite  in 
itself  all  these  merits  or  all  these  defects  ; and  you  cannot 
give  yourself  merits  which  Nature  has  withheld  ; but  you  may 
marvelously  improve  what  natural  merits  you  have,  and  do 
wonders  in  overcoming  any  difficulties  which  Nature  has 
placed  in  your  way. 

ON  THE  PRACTICE  OF  SINGING. 

it  is  of  great  importance  to  bear  in  mind  that  no  two  voices 
are  exactly  alike.  To  some  singers  is  given  quality  of  voice, 
to  others  quantity.  And  for  each  alike,  steady,  well-aimed, 
»nd  well-ordered  practice  is  indispensable.  But,  whatever  you 
&ing  ought,  like  your  voice,  to  have  some  touch  of  individuality  : 
the  song  should  seem  to  come  naturally  from  you,  and  to  be 
the  spontaneous  expression  of  your  thoughts.  At  the  same  time 
you  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  all-important  guide  which  you 
have  in  the  composer’s  intentions  and  wishes.  Remember 
that  a small  and  delicate  voice  may  be  made  to  go  as  far  as,  if 
not  farther  than,  a voice  of  large  volume  and  long  compass. 
By  judicious  management,  by  touching  expression  of  the  softer 
feelings,  by  careful  selection  of  music  to  be  performed,  the 


obstacles  which  are  placed  in  a singer’s  way  by  want  of  powet 
may  be  effectually  removed,  because  the  audience  will  irre 
sistibly  feel  the  influence  of  the  singer’s  individuality.  The 
difficulties  of  the  singer  who  has  the  gift  of  quantity  rather 
than  quality  of  voice  are  in  some  respects  greater,  because  the 
necessity  for  thus  impressing  on  his  audience  a sense  of  his 
own  individuality  is  not  so  strongly  forced  on  him  by  circum- 
stances. 

The  surest  means  of  improving  and  strengthening  the  voice 
is  by  constantly  exercising  and  practicing  it.  Just  as  the 
muscles  and  fibres  of  the  legs  of  a pedestrian  are  increased  and 
made  capable  of  great  exertion  by  careful  training,  so  is  it  with 
the  nerves  and  muscles  of  the  throat.  With  judicious  training, 
the  compass  of  the  voice  is  extended,  its  quality  is  improved, 
its  tones  grow  rounder  and  firmer  ; and,  if  the  master  is  a good 
one,  and  the  pupil  is  willing  to  study  patiently  for  some  time, 
never  resting  content,  but  always  aiming  at  further  progress 
as  year  succeeds  year,  he  may  not  unreasonably  hope  to  attain 
a well-earned  place  in  his  profession,  and  its  attendant  reward. 

A looking-glass  should  form  a part  of  the  furniture  of  a sing- 
ing student’s  study,  for  it  is  most  important  to  watch  the  face 
— its  features  and  expressions — when  singing  ; and  it  is  none 
the  less  useful  for  insuring  the  constant  right  position  of  the 
mouth.  In  respect  of  the  facial  expression  when  singing,  there 
is  a very  great  tendency  to  look  too  serious,  too  severe,  and  too 
hard  when  earnestly  studying.  Now,  a cheerful  and  good- 
humored  expression  does  not  necessarily  imply  carelessness, 
and  it  is  far  more  agreeable  to  the  audience  than  an  anxious 
and  troubled  look.  Some  people  look  quite  savagt  when  sing- 
ing ; and  when  rendering  passages  of  love  and  tenderness, 
their  features  are  far  more  indicative  of  rage,  revenge  and 
murder  ! And  this  very  common  fault  is  generally  quite  an 
unconscious  habit.  It  is  only  to  be  remedied  by  constant  care, 
and  to  this  end  practice  before  a looking-glass  will  be  found 
very  helpful. 

How  to  stand  when  singing  has  been  explained  by  a great 
number  of  writers  on  the  subject,  and  most  of  the  explanations 
given  have  been  chiefly  remarkable  as  being  entirely  erroneous 
and  false.  The  body  should  not  be  kept  in  a perfectly  upright 
position,  as  it  is  (too  popularly)  believed  that  it  should.  The 
best  position  is  when  the  body  is  well  collected,  with  its  chief 
weight  upon  the  right  leg  and  foot,  with  the  head  gently  lean- 
ing forward,  and  the  arms,  and  indeed  the  whole  carriage, 
disposed  in  that  manner  which  would  indicate  to  the  audience 
a sort  of  desire  on  your  part  to  persuade  them  and  bring 
them  over  to  your  feelings  and  sentiments.  When  the  right 
leg  begins  to  tire  with  the  weight  of  the  body,  the  left  leg  can 
take  its  duty,  when  the  right  may  be  gracefully  drawn  back  as 
in  dancing.  The  best  lesson  on  this  subject,  however,  can  be 
gleaned  by  carefully  watching  the  pose  of  a good  Italian  singer 
during  singing. 

A sitting  position  is  a very  bad  one  in  which  to  practice. 
All  singing  should  be  done  in  a standing  position,  and  the 
student  is  strongly  urged  to  adhere  to  this  rule.  Instead  of 
sitting  at  the  pianoforte,  and  accompanying  an  exercise  01 
“solfeggio,”  it  is  far  better  to  sound  the  first  note  of  each  pas- 
sage therein,  and  master  the  same  without  any  accompaniment. 
The  advantages  of  this  mode  of  practicing  must  be  obvious? 


A PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  SINGERS. 


i6t 


but  one  of  the  most  important  is,  that  the  attention  is  not 
divided  between  the  pianoforte  and  the  voice,  while  it  leaves 
the  singer  free  to  give  all  his  attention  and  care  to  the  produc- 
tion of  the  notes  which  he  is  endeavoring  to  sing  artistic- 
ally. 

We  would  urge  upon  the  student  to  hold  a piece  of  music  in 
his  hands  while  he  practices.  There  is  a place  for  the  hands 
when  singing  in  public  ; but  this  place  is  neither  the  trowsers 
pockets,  nor  on  the  hips,  nor  behind  the  back,  nor  across  the 
chest,  but  rather  that  position  which  is  secured  by  leisurely 
holding  the  music-sheet,  not  as  if  actually  singing  therefrom, 
but  as  though  it  were  merely  intended  for  reference,  if  required. 
This  easy  attitude  not  only  gives  the  hands  and  arms  their 
legitimate  position,  but  also  lends  a grace  and  freedom  to  other 
parts  of  the  body,  all  which  points  must  be  attended  to  in 
singing.  Remember  to  keep  the  arms  well  away  from  the 
body.  Some  singers  stick  the  elbows  into  the  waist,  as  though 
to  give  support ; instead  of  doing  which  they  hinder  the  free 
action  of  the  lungs,  besides  giving  an  awkward  look  to  the 
whole  figure. 

Do  not  let  your  hands  hang  down,  but  keep  them  well  be- 
fore you,  in  some  position  which  allows  of  your  turning  the 
palms  uppermost.  In  this  way  you  (as  it  were)  lock  the  joints 
of  the  shoulders,  and  put  a check  on  the  tendency  to  raise  the 
shoulders,  which  is  an  invariable  consequence  of  taking  breath 
wrongly.  Keep  your  shoulders  well  back,  your  elbows  de- 
pressed, and  your  hands  with  the  palms  uppermost,  and  you 
will  find  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  indulge  in  the  vice  of 
heaving  the  chest  and  shoulders  up  and  down,  like  the  piston 
of  a steam  engine  ! 

One  of  the  first  conditions  of  singing  well  is  to  keep  the 
throat  open.  To  have  the  throat  in  its  proper  position  the 
tongue  must  be  kept  down,  and  hollowed  like  the  bowl  of  a 
spoon,  its  root  being  well  depressed.  Nor  must  the  throat  ever 
be  allowed  to  screw  itself  up  small,  a common  failing  of  many 
singers  whenever  they  approach  a high  note.  Most  of  our 
readers  have  yawned  once  or  twice  in  their  lives  ; if  they  will 
do  it  once  more,  in  front  of  their  looking-glass,  and  watch  the 
inside  of  the  mouth  as  they  yawn,  they  will  see  and  feel  the 
exact  position  in  which  the  throat  should  be  during  good  sing- 
ing. It  will  be  useful  to  repeat  this  proceeding  until  the  mind 
is  thoroughly  impressed  and  the  memory  familiarized  with  the 
feeling  of  the  mouth  and  throat  in  this,  the  correct  position  for 
singing. 

When  singing  softly,  or  piano,  as  it  is  called,  take  great  pains 
to  keep  your  throat  as  open  as  you  would  for  singing  loudly, 
leaving  it  entirely  to  the  mouth  and  lips  to  keep  the  tone  soft, 
yet  steady  and  firm.  Do  not  forget,  too,  that  in  soft  singing 
it  is  a great  advantage  to  keep  the  mouth  in  a smiling  position. 

The  tongue,  while  being  so  useful,  is  nevertheless  a very  un- 
ruly member  in  singing,  it  has  so  great  a tendency  to  get  out 
of  its  place.  Its  legitimate  office  is  to  rest  quite  flat,  or  even 
hollow,  in  the  bottom  of  the  mouth,  with  its  root  well  down, 
as  this  keeps  ^ie  throat-passage  clear,  and  with  the  tip  of  it 
just  touching  the  lower  teeth.  Get  a looking-glass,  and  con- 
tinually watch  the  position  of  the  tongue.  Never  allow  it  to 
roll  up  or  turn  about  when  singing,  or  the  effect  produced  will 
be  scarcely  worth  repeating.  The  tongue  should  occupy  the 


least  possible  space  in  the  mouth,  and  this  is  the  case  when  the 
directions  here  given  are  carried  out. 

The  larynx,  or  upper  part  of  the  windpipe,  plays  a most  im. 
portant  part  in  singing.  Upon  it  depends  all  the  beauty  and 
quality  and  richness  of  the  voice.  The  singer  will  do  well  to 
constantly  think  about  the  larynx,  to  watch  it,  to  feel  that  it  is 
well  down  below  the  mouth  before  commencing  the  first  note 
of  a song,  which  note  must,  under  such  circumstances,  be  rich 
round,  and  penetrating.  Then  the  larynx  must  never  be  al- 
lowed to  rise  above  this  fixed  point.  It  may  be  deepened, 
and  must  be,  for  the  higher  notes,  but  it  must  never  ascend, 
or  nearly  approach  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  or  the  sound-passage 
is  closed,  and  the  sound  becomes  at  once  impure,  vitiated,  and 
without  body  or  foundation. 

Try  and  guard  against  the  bad  habit  of  pushing  forward  the 
chin  when  singing,  otherwise  the  tone  cannot  fail  to  be  faulty. 
The  chin  should  be  well  down  on  the  chest,  and  the  larynx 
quite  low,  to  lead  to  an  easy  and  pure  production  of  tone.  To 
be  constantly  moving  both  the  jaws  for  every  note,  continually 
displacing  the  larynx,  impairs  the  purity  of  the  tone,  spoils  the 
articulation  of  the  words,  and,  what  is  worse  than  all,  pro- 
duces a hideous  expression  of  the  features,  which  latter  fault 
would  alone  be  sufficient  to  prejudice  seriously  the  chances  of 
any  singing  artist.  The  lower  parts  of  the  jaws,  not  the  up- 
per ones,  should  do  the  work  ; and  when  a high  passage  or 
note  is  before  the  singer,  the  lower  parts  of  the  jaws  should  be 
exercised  to  drop  as  the  notes  increase  in  height.  The  singer’s 
face  should  be  controlled,  if  no  other  member  can  be  so  regu- 
lated. 

There  is,  in  all  beginners,  a tendency  to  sing  too  much  in  the 
head,  that  is,  to  have  the  foundation  of  the  tones  too  high  up 
in  the  throat.  This  fault  is  due  to  the  difficulty  experienced 
by  beginners  in  keeping  the  larynx  sufficiently  below  the  mouth. 
The  fullness  of  tone,  the  rich,  round,  and  mellow  quality  which 
is  so  much  admired  in  all  good  singers,  is  almost  entirely  ow- 
ing to  the  voice  being  pitched  low  down,  and  not  high  up  in 
the  throat,  towards  the  back  of  the  head  (as  it  appears  to  be). 

Throatiness,  or  singing  in  the  throat,  is  the  common  enemy 
of  all  English  speaking  singers.  Our  language  is  the  chief 
cause  of  this  disagreeable  habit,  which  we  begin  to  acquire  as 
soon  as  we  learn  to  talk.  Still,  by  diligence,  the  evil  can  be 
cured,  and  no  better  plan  can  be  followed  than  to  constantly 
practice  singing  the  vowel-sounds  Ah,  A,  E,  O,  throughout 
the  compass  of  the  voice,  taking  every  possible  care — and  this 
is  the  point — never  to  allow  the  tone  to  vary,  nor  to  leave  the 
teeth,  and  not  to  screw  up  the  throat,  especially  in  high 
notes.  It  is  impossible  to  produce  a “ throaty  ” quality  of 
voice  if  the  throat  is  well  open,  and  the  tone  is  firmly  directed, 
and  kept  on  the  upper  teeth  and  front  of  the  mouth.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  student  screws  up  the  throat,  rolls  the 
tongue,  or  practices  singing  without  being  constantly  on  the 
look-out  for  the  “voice  on  the  teeth,”  the  result  must  be  a 
“ throatiness,”  which  is  most  disagreeable  to  all  people  who 
have  any  real  knowledge  of  what  singing  should  be. 

Singers,  good  and  bad,  are  often  troubled  with  an  apparent 
stoppage  in  the  throat,  and  this  inconvenience  seems  to  be  at 
its  worst  just  at  that  moment  when  they  wish  to  sing.  To  dis- 
place or  to  cure  this  stoppage,  thev  begin  hacking  and  cough- 


162 


A PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  SINGERS. 


lng  (“  clearing  the  throat  ” as  it  is  called),  which  proceeding, 
however,  only  makes  bad  worse  for  the  time  being,  and  finally 
grows  into  a habit,  till  at  last  such  people  cannot  venture  to 
open  their  mouths  without  first  subjecting  the  throat  to  a series 
of  these  irritating  ‘ ‘ hacks.  ” It  is  in  many  cases  simply  a nerv- 
ous trick,  and  if  the  singer  will  accustom  himself  to  swallow 
instead  of  coughing,  whenever  he  feels  the  sensation  of  which 
we  are  speaking,  he  will  soon  get  rid  of  it.  If  it  results  in  any 
case  from  real  weakness  of  the  throat,  it  may  be  beneficial  to 
gargle  three  or  four  times  a day  with  moderately  strong  salt 
and  water,  especially  before  singing. 

Many  people  find  great  difficulty  in  counting  with  any  de- 
gree of  certainty  upon  the  top  notes  of  their  register.  We 
know  of  no  greater  assistance  towards  bringing  these  out  than 
that  of  well  contracting  the  mouth  and  lips  at  the  beginning 
of  the  passage  in  which  these  high  notes  occur,  dropping  the 
lower  jaw,  and  securing  a good  play  of  the  mouth  as  the 
highest  note  is  reached,  at  the  same  time  keeping  the  throat 
as  open  as  possible,  ejecting  the  sound  to  the  audience  with 
as  much  “ lip  force  ” as  can  be  secured,  being  careful  that  the 
tone  is  safe  “ on  the  teeth  ” before  the  note  is  “opened.” 

There  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  grand  ground- 
work of  all  singing  is  the  diatonic  scale.  On  it  is  built  all  the 
graceful  forms  and  figures  which  belong  to  the  great  artist. 
Yet  how  few  seem  to  know  and  to  appreciate  this  fact ! To 
excel,  the  diatonic  scale  must  be  practiced  most  seriously  and 
assiduously  in  its  plain  and  simple  form  ; nor  must  it  be  left 
until  the  student  can  sing  every  note  therein  purely,  without 
wavering  or  flutter,  and  with  precision,  in  the  soft,  medium, 
and  loud  voices. 

The  singer  will  derive  much  advantage  by  bearing  in  mind 
that  the  voice  has  three  main  gradations,  which  the  Italians 
class  as  the  forte , the  mezzo  di  voce , and  the  piano.  The  man- 
agement of  these  three  is  of  vital  importance,  and  the  singer 
should  certainly  practice  the  scales  in  all  three  voices,  and 
have  each  at  command  for  every  exereise  and  passage  which 
he  studies. 

The  tone  of  the  voice  must  never  be  vitiated  or  rendered  im- 
pure from  any  cause  whatever.  There  is  always  a danger  of 
this  in  passages  of  great  energy  and  passion,  but  it  should  be 
remembered  that  whatever  be  the  effect  aimed  at,  it  cannot  be 
attained  by  any  means  which  involves  a change  in  the  tone 
of  the  voice.  The  first  and  chief  consideration  must  always 
be  to  produce  a good  tone  in  the  right  manner.  If  the  tone 
be  not  good,  the  singing  cannot  be  agreeable  : and  if  it  be  not 
produced  in  the  right  manner,  you  have  no  security  that  it  will 
be  equally  good  throughout  the  voice,  or  in  passages  of  all 
kinds. 

The  changes  of  sound  which  are  spoken  of  as  “ chest,” 
“falsetto,”  and  “ head  ” voices  are  due  to  changes  in  the  position 
of  the  larynx  and  its  surroundings,  and  in  the  action  of  the  vocal 
cords.  What  those  changes  are,  and  how  or  why  they  cause 
the  results  which  we  hear,  has  yet  to  be  discovered  ; there  are 
severai  theories,  but  no  one  has  yet  ventured  to  claim  the  cer- 
tainty of  truth  for  any  one  of  them. 

The  ‘ ‘chest  ” voice  is  probably  so  called  because  the  vibrations 
of  the  notes  in  that  register  may  be  distinctly  felt  in  the  chest  ; 
and  because  the  breath  passes  directly  from  the  chest,  as  it 


seems,  without  any  opposit-'on  in  the  throat,  producing  the 
sound  on  its  way.  The  “ falsetto,”  or  range  of  notes  above 
the  chest,  is  so  called  (and  rightly  so)  because  in  that  register 
of  voice  the  tone  feigns , or  imitates,  the  tone  of  the  “ chest  ” 
notes  below,  although  it  is  certain  that  the  sounds  are  not  pro- 
duced in  the  same  way,  for  the  position  of  the  vocal  cords  and 
their  attendant  parts  is  different,  and  changes  suddenly  on  the 
passage  of  the  voice  from  the  chest  to  the  upper  register. 
A falsetto,  rightly  trained  and  used,  is  one,  therefore,  which  is 
true  to  its  name,  and  so  well  imitates  the  “ chest,”  that  the 
hearer  cannot  distinguish  the  “false”  from  the  real  “chest 
tone.”  The  “head  voice,”  which  many  people  persist  in 
confusing  with  the  falsetto,  is  so  called  because  to  the  singer  it 
feels  as  though  the  notes  so  produced  came  from  the  head. 
This  is  due  to  the  larynx  itself  rising  up  in  the  throat  and  ap. 
proaching  the  back  of  the  head.  It  comprises,  in  reality,  all 
that  part  of  the  voice  which  lies  above  the  “chest”  register, 
all  the  lower  part  of  it  being  shared  by  the  “ falsetto,”  exactly 
as  the  falsetto  shares  the  greater  part  of  the  chest  register. 
The  falsetto,  therefore,  belongs  to  both,  and  its  use  is  to  carry, 
by  its  power  of  imitation,  the  tone  of  the  lower  or  chest 
register  into  the  upper  or  head  register,  so  combining  them 
that  no  audible  change  of  quality,  or  “break”  is  perceptible. 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon,  or  too  frequently 
pointed  out  to,  the  singer  (no  matter  what  may  be  the  stage  of 
his  or  her  artistic  development)  how  desirable  and  advan- 
tageous it  is  to  be  constantly  singing  exercises  and  solfeggi  in 
preference  to  songs. 

Bear  in  mind,  first,  all  that  has  already  been  said  here  about 
taking  your  breath,  the  position  of  standing,  the  form  of  your 
mouth,  and  place  of  throat,  tongue,  teeth,  etc.,  and  study  the 
following  exercises  daily,  say  to  the  extent  of  thirty  minutes 
three  times  a day,  with  full  attention  to  all  the  above  points  : 

i 


Sing  this  fully  and  firmly.  It  should  be  begun  and  ended 
with  the  same  quality  and  “ thickness  ” of  sound,  as  suggested 
by  the  even  line  over  each  note.  You  should  be  able  to  hold 
each  note  out  in  one  breath  for  twenty  seconds  without  the 
slightest  alteration  being  preceptible  in  the  tone,  any  more 
than  there  would  be  if  it  was  a note  proceeding  from  an  organ- 
pipe.  Practice  it  on  each  of  the  following  sounds  consecu- 
tively : “ A ” in  “ Bard,”  “ A ” in  “ Fate,”  “ E ” in  “ Steel,” 
“ I ” in  “ Life,”  “ O ” in  “ Pole,”  “ U ” in  “ Rule,”  prefixing 
each  sound  by  L,  and  so  singing  Lah,  Lay,  Lee,  Li,  Lo,  Loo. 
In  singing  this  first  exercise,  which  for  basses  and  barytones 
will  be,  of  course,  an  octave  lower,  be  careful  not  to  force  the 
lower  notes,  and  do  not  seek  to  get  a powerful  tone  thereupon. 
The  tone  does  not  need  to  be  full  and  heavy  on  these  notes, 
but  rather  should  be  a WELL-PRODUCED,  light,  and  thin  quality 
of  note.  The  way  to  proceed  is  : (i)  To  inspire  the  breath 

from  the  bottom  of  the  lungs  as  it  were — not  raising  the  shoul. 
ders.  (2)  Steady  the  breath  for  a second  or  so  in  the  chest 
while  you  THINK  the  note  you  are  about  to  sing,  and  while 
you  prepare  your  throat  and  mouth  for  singing  by  lowering 
the  larynx  and  opening  the  throat.  (3)  Then  begin  to  sound 


A PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  SINGERS. 


163 


the  note — not  from  the  back  of  the  mouth,  but  from  the  tip  of 
the  tongue  and  the  front  teeth — thus  taking  the  whole  of  the 
tone  out  of  the  mouth,  which  is  what  is  required  to  be  done. 
Sustain  the  note  till  you  have  only  a little  breath  left — then 
finish  off  in  a clean  manner,  and  allow  the  remaining  breath  to 
leave  the  lungs  and  body  in  an  orderly  way.  Repeat  the  same 
operation  for  every  note,  and  if  you  desire  to  make  progress, 
give  a minute’s  attention  of  this  kind  to  every  single  note. 


which  is  certainly  the  highest  that  you  ought  to  attempt  at 
present. 

Exercise  No.  2 is  a first  step  towards  joining  notes,  and  is 
another  difficulty  in  the  matter  of  production.  The  object  to 
be  aimed  at  is  to  sing  the  two  notes  which  are  bound  (or  tied) 
together  with  the  same  breath,  and  the  same  body  or  quality 
of  tone.  To  step  from  C to  E,  the  first  movement  in  the  ex- 
ercise, is  to  raise  the  voice  a major  third  ; but  the  student  must 
pass  from  his  mind  any  notion  of  raising  the  throat  in  order  to 
sound  the  higher  third.  As  the  note  E is  higher  than  the  C, 
the  tone  of  the  former  must  be  generated  lower  in  the  chest 
than  had  been  the  case  with  the  C.  The  higher  the  note  to  be 
sung,  the  lower  must  be  its  generating-point  in  the  chest. 
This  is  the  only  way  to  open  the  voice,  and  I need  scarcely 
say  that  it  produces  an  entirely  different  tone  and  method  than 
are  secured  by  the  common  habit  of  screwing  and  tightening 
the  throat  in  proportion  as  the  notes  ascend  in  pitch. 

Another  good  exercise,  which  may  be  combined  with  the 
last-given,  is  the  following  : 


This  exercise  (3)  must  be  sung  in  the  same  manner  as  indi- 
cated with  No.  2,  care  being  taken  as  each  note  gets  higher  to 
pass  under  the  preceding  note,  and  not,  as  it  were,  to  gene- 
rate a high  note  over  a lower  one. 

After  which  you  may  take  this  : 

4 


but  sing  it  very  slowly  and  deliberately,  bearing  in  mind  the 
production  of  the  high  notes. 

As  you  begin  to  get  all  these  notes  firm  and  round,  you  may 
take  these  same  exercises  in  D,  Dp,  and  Ejy,  but  be  very  care- 
ful not  to  force  the  upper  notes. 


Exercise  5 is  one  where  the  question  of  the  breath  and  its 
proper  management  becomes  of  vital  importance.  The  reader 
will  observe  the  notes  are  bound  together,  and  the  student’s 
attention  should  be  turned  towards  passing  from  one  note  to 
the  other  without  any  appreciable  difference  in  the  quality — 
we  do  not  say  pitch — of  the  tone.  Having  inspired  in  the 
manner  already  explained,  the  singer  will  sound  the  Do  with 
a pure,  sympathetic,  not  harsh  or  forced,  sound  ; and  by  press- 
ing- down  the  breath,  will  lift  the  voice  on  to  Re.  When  he 
has  succeeded  with  the  step  of  a second,  he  can  go  on  to  the 
step  of  a third,  fourth,  etc.  The  care  must  be  to  utilize  the 
breath,  always  supporting  the  tone  with  the  breath.  If  the 
sound  wavers,  then  there  is  something  wrong  with  the  breath. 
You  are  either  singing  with  too  little,  or  are  forcing  the 
breath. 


6 


y . 

iffis:  , 1 T7-t=E 

— 1 ~ I . ! ' 1 H 

. i ^=L  cJ  jtcJ 

L— 1 

122^  &lS> 

And  so' on. 
„ 7 1 


G b- 


rP~  ; ~ ^ -VS 7rj-\trJ~ 


And  so  on,  descending  the  scale  by  semitones. 


-J=L 


&s>- 


A PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR  SINGERS. 


164 


Duration  of  Practice. — Always  guard  against  over-strain- 
ing and  over-working  the  voice.  Do  not  sing  or  practice  for  a 
longer  time  than  half  an  hour  without  allowing  the  voice  rest 
for  some  time.  If  you  have  three  hours  at  your  disposal  daily 
to  devote  to  singing,  the  most  economical  use  of  the  time  is  to 
divide  it  equally  between  the  morning,  afternoon,  and  even- 
ing. 

Singing  in  Tune. — Whatever  be  your  voice,  do  not  take 
for  granted  that  even  the  possession  of  a good  ear  will  always 
insure  your  singing  in  tune.  Never  practice  (nor  sing,  if  you 
can  help  it)  with  a pianoforte  which  is  not  well  in  tune  and 
well  “ up  to  pitch.”  And  be  very  constant  in  practicing  in- 
tervals, such  as  major  and  minor  sixths  and  sevenths,  so  as  to 
be  able  to  strike  them  as  perfectly  in  tune  and  as  unvarying  in 
quality  as  the  notes  of  an  organ  diapason. 

How  to  Begin. — Many  people  never  make  a good  start 
when  beginning  to  sing  any  piece.  Now  a very  good  remedy 
for  a part  of  this  evil  is  not  to  prepare  yourself  loo  soon.  Use 
the  bar  immediately  preceding  that  in  which  your  part  com- 
mences to  gather  up  your  faculties,  and,  to  use  a common 
phrase,  “ to  pull  yourself  together  then  let  the  muscles  of 
the  body  gently  settle  down.  The  ease  and  freedom  acquired 
by  this  momentary  call  upon  the  system  is  very  remarkable  ; 
and  for  the  singer  especially  the  hint  cannot  be  too  often  acted 
upon. 

Chorus  Singing. — If  you  are  studying  seriously  for  solo 
singing,  you  must  discontinue  all  chorus  singing,  especially 
during  training.  Singing  in  church  choirs  and  choral  socie- 
ties must  be  abandoned.  And  this  not  because  there  is  no 
good  to  be  learned  there,  but  because  the  little  good  is  by  no 
means  commensurate  with  the  great  amount  of  harm  which  is 
acquired  along  with  the  good.  To  enumerate  here  all  the 
evil  habits  so  easily  learnt  would  be  impossible.  Not  the 


least  of  them,  however,  is  the  tendency  to  shout  louder  than 
your  neighbor,  to  use  yourself  to  the  bad  habits  of  those  on 
each  side  of  you  ; to  produce  a bad  tone  ; to  “ chop  ” the  pas- 
sages instead  of  phrasing  them  ; to  attack  notes  carelessly  ; to 
sing  coarsely  ; to  depend  on  others  ; to  get  into  a machine- 
like regularity  of  rendering  the  music. 

Studying  Songs. — Be  careful,  in  studying  a new  song, 
not  to  waste  either  time  or  strength  by  a trifling  and  super- 
ficial treatment  of  it.  “Whatever  is  worth  doing  at  all,  is 
worth  doing  well.”  First  of  all,  sol-fa  the  melody  a few 
times  in  a full  mezzo-voce.  Then  study  it  with  rather  stronger 
tone,  paying  attention  to  lights  and  shades,  yet  at  the  same 
time  being  chiefly  occupied  with  the  melody  itself.  Then 
make  your  breath-marks,  and  adhere  to  the  same  unfailingly. 
Then  sing  the  melody  once  throughout,  in  order  to  find  the 
weak  places  ; having  found  which,  you  need  no  more  practice 
the  whole  of  the  melody,  but  give  all  the  attention  to  these 
latter  phrases.  Having  mastered  these,  the  melody  will  be 
complete.  It  will  then  be  necessary  to  determine  where  the 
notes  shall  be  made  to  bend  into  each  other,  to  add  the  nuances, 
a few  graceful  figures  and  effects  which  belong  alone  to  the 
true  artist. 

General  Music  Study. — If  you  want  to  be  a good  singing 
artist,  many  more  things  besides  singing  should  be  studied. 
You  should  be  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  pianoforte  to 
play  your  own  accompaniments,  even  of  the  most  difficult 
songs,  well  enough  to  get  an  idea  of  them.  Then  a knowl- 
edge of  harmony,  counterpoint,  and  orchestration  is  of  the 
greatest  value.  The  study  of  the  best  scores,  orchestral  and 
vocal,  should  not  be  neglected,  and  further,  the  student 
should  make  himself  or  herself  otherwise  familiar  with  the 
rise  and  progress  of  the  art,  by  reading  all  the  best  books  on 
the  subject,  whether  historical,  critical,  or  biographical. 


HE  chief  difficulty  with 
stammerers  is  to  enunciate 
words  or  syllables  that 
begin  with  a consonant ; 
or,  in  other  words,  con- 
sonant initials.  2.  Any 
violent  effort  to  speak  only  in- 
creases the  difficulty  ; therefore 
to  facilitate  this  process,  speak 
slowly,  with  an  affected  ease,  in  a 
style  approaching  to  chanting  as 
distinguished  from  staccato  ; in 
other  words,  let  the  words  flow 
out  rather  than  attempt  to  jerk 
them  out.  3.  When  it  is  recommended  to  prefix 
the  sound  of  e — as  in  the  French  words  le,  de,  me, 
se,  etc. — it  is  not  intended  that  this  sound  should 
be  conspicuous,  but  inwardly,  and  little  more  than 
mentally,  simply  to  open  the  glottis  and  make  a 
free  passage  for  the  consonant  initial  succeeding. 
4.  The  letters  w,  y,  and  u , as  initials,  present  special 
difficulties,  which  may  be  obviated  by  close  atten- 
tion to  what  follows.  5.  The  statement  sometimes 
made,  that  no  stammerer  ever  experienced  any 
difficulty  in  enunciating  a vowel  sound,  is  not  true  ; 
all  that  can  be  said  is  that  the  chief  difficulty  is 
invariably  found  with  the  consonants. 

Of  course  this  constant  observation  of  words 
about  to  be  uttered  is  attended  by  some  degree  of 
mental  strain  ; but  the  life  of  an  inveterate  stam- 
merer is  attended  by  incessant  strain  from  January 
to  December,  and  without  hope  of  amelioration : in 
the  one  case  the  strain  is  productive  of  good,  and 
increases  confidence  ; in  the  other  it  is  unpro- 
ductive, and  attended  with  an  amount  of  mental 
misery  inconceivable  to  all  but  the  sufferer. 

x.  Commencing,  then,  with  a word  standing  at 
the  beginning  of  a sentence  or  phrase,  and  having  a 
consonant  initial ; for  instance,  “ My  friend  who 


hr 


has  just  spoken,”  etc.  Here  the  m of  my  presents 
an  insuperable  difficulty  ; but  prefix  to  my  the  sound 
of  e,  as  in  the  French  words  le,  de,  me,  se,  etc.— 
inwardly  and  little  more  than  mentally  as  already 
described — and  the  my  will  flow  out,  and  with  it, 
probably,  the  whole  of  the  sentence  that  follows. 
Again  : “i?ut  there  is  a fatality  which  attends  us,” 
etc.  The  above  remarks  apply  equally  to  “ Tut  ” 
and  the  words  following  ; and  the  same  directions 
will  apply  equally  to  the  following  and  all  other 
sentences  or  phrases  having  consonant  or  compound 
consonant  initials,  such  as  br,  pr,  dr,  si,  si,  etc.: 
“Z>own  with  tyranny,”  etc.;  “Arom  the  beginning,” 
etc.;  “ To  infinity,”  etc.;  “ JV ow  all  that  has  to  be 
changed,  etc.;  “ AAere  is  one  side  of  our  political 
life,”  etc.;  “ TI12X  shewed  the  power,”  etc.;  “dur- 
ing the  existence,”  etc.;  u No r is  that  the  only  mat- 
ter,” etc.;  ybhn,  Charles,  .Samuel,  77/omas,  Cenesis, 
Zeviticus,  Afiimbers,  A>euteronomy,  .Scotland,  .S^ain, 
etc.  For  this  class  of  words,  the  directions  for  pre- 
fixing the  sound  of  e as  in  the  French  le,  etc.,  will 
prove  amply  sufficient. 

2.  Where  one  or  more  words,  having  consonant 
initials,  stand,  not  at  the  beginning  but  in  the  body 
of  a sentence,  let  the  following  plan  be  adopted  : 
Write  the  sentence  out  first  in  the  ordinary  way,  for 
instance,  “ May  he  rest  in  peace.”  Then  divide  it 
artificially,  so  as  to  bring  every  initial  consonant  at 
the  end  of  a division,  thus  : “ Im-ay  heer-est  inp- 

eace.” Practice  the  reading  of  this  latter  form 
aloud  many  times,  studying  to  make  it  sound  as 
much  as  possible  like  the  original  sentence. 

In  the  same  way  : Time  discloses  all  things — Timed-iscloses 
allth-ings.  Laws  are  silent  in  the  midst  of  arms — Laws  ars- 
ilent  inth-um-idst  of  arms.  Virtue  alone  is  true  nobility — Vir- 
tue alone  istr-oon-obility.  Every  man  has  his  own  pleasures 
— Everym-an  has  his  ownpl-easures.  I came,  I saw,  I con- 
quered— Ic-ame,  Is-aw,  Ic-onquered.  A rare  bird  in  the 
earth,  and  very  like  a black  swan — Ur-areb-ird  inth-e  earth 
andv-eryl-ike  ubl-acksw-on. 

* 


i66 


HINTS  TO  STAMMERERS. 


1 


Here  it  must  be  noted  that  every  sentence,  in 
speaking  or  reading,  need  not  be  so  divided,  but 
only  where  an  obstacle  presents  itself  ; and  this  can 
mostly  be  anticipated  by  the  stammerer  with  con- 
siderable certainty  ; and  further  it  will  be  found, 
that  where  some  formidable  word  is  conquered  in 
this  way,  a whole  host  of  succeeding  words  will 
flow  with  comparative  ease.  The  above  examples 
will  suffice  to  give  a sufficiently  intelligible  idea  of 
the  mode  of  treating  words  with  consonant  initials 
in  the  body  of  a sentence. 

3.  Next  among  deadly  enemies  are  to  be  recog- 
nized the  letters  w,y,  and  11,  as  initials.  Whenever 
w stands  as  initial,  substitute  for  it  the  sound  of  00, 
as  in  moon.  In  this  way  write  out  and  repeat  aloud, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  apply  it  in  colloquial  speak- 
ing : What  = oo-ot,  when  = ooen,  why  = ooy, 
where  = ooare,  whence  = ooence,  Watkins  = 00- 
otkins,  wheel  = ooeel,  window  = ooindow,  wait  = 
ooiat,  way  = ooay,  wine  = ooine,  will  = ooil.  If 
the  speaker  avoid  hanging  upon  the  00,  no  peculiar- 
ity will  be  observed  in  his  pronunciation,  and  he 
will  astonish  both  himself  and  others  by  his  enuncia- 
tion of  words  of  this  class.  It  is  a most  difficult  letter, 
and  this  substitution  will  be  found  most  effective. 

Whenever  y stands  as  initial,  substitute  for  it  the  sound  of 
ee,  as  in  bee,  see,  etc.  In  this  way  write  out  and  repeat 
aloud  as  before  : Young  = eeung,  yea  — eeay,  yet  = ee-et, 
youth  = eeooth,  yonder  = eeonder,  Yates  = eeates,  yeast  = 
ee-east,  yesterday  = ee-esterday,  Yankee  = eeankee,  year  = 
ee-ear,  yore  = eeore,  yacht  = eeot. 

Whenever  u,  having  the  long  sound  as  in  the  alphabet. 


stands  as  initial,  substitute  for  it  the  sound  of  ee,  as  in  bee, 
followed  by  00,  as  in  moon.  In  this  way  write  out  and  repeat 
aloud  as  before  : Universe  = eeooniverse,  universal  = eeooni- 
versal,  unity  = eeoonity,  unit  = eeoonit,  unanimous  = eeoon- 
animous,  unanimity  = eeoonanimity,  ubiquity  = eeoobiquity, 
uniform  = eeooniform,  uniformity  = eeooniformity,  unicorn 
— eeoonicorn,  usage  = eeoosage,  usual  = eeoosual,  usurer  =» 
eeoosurer,  usury  = eeoosury.  etc. 

In  each  of  the  above  cases,  the  substitution  of  the 
equivalent  sounds  for  w,  y,  and  u affords  an  amount 
of  relief  almost  incredible  ; but  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  dwell  on  these  substituted  sounds,  but  to  pro- 
nounce them  nearly  as  one  syllable.  Practice  is  in 
every  case  indispensable.  Any  one  so  affected  will 
not  grudge  the  labor  of  adding  to  these  examples, 
and  practising  the  same  ; and  our  conviction  is  that 
he  will  find  his  labor  well  rewarded.  By  the  adop- 
tion of  these  artifices,  I,  a deplorable  stammerer, 
was  enabled  to  accomplish  for  myself  what  the  most 
eminent  professors  of  the  day  failed  in  effecting. 

To  a man  who  never  in  his  life  experienced  any 
difficulty  in  saying  what  he  wished  to  say,  doubtless 
these  directions  may  appear  very  superfluous  ; but 
to  one  whose  daily  bread  is  dependent  on  a tolerably 
distinct  utterance,  the  matter  will  assume  a perfectly 
different  aspect. 

The  late  Canon  Kingsley  has  touchingly  said : 
“For  the  torments  I have  suffered  since  I was  six 
years  old,  God  alone  knows  or  will  know — still  to 
me  every  stammerer  is  a friend  at  once,  by  unity  of 
sorrow  ; after  all,  perhaps,  the  most  sacred  unity 
on  earth.” 


-4 


r 


PENMANSHIP. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  ITS  RISE  AND  PROGRESS. 


WRITING  is  the  art  of  ex- 
pressing ideas  by  visible 
signs  or  characters  in- 
scribed on  some  material. 
It  is  either  ideographic 
or  phonetic.  Ideographic 
writing  may  be  either  pic- 
torial, representing  ob- 
jects by  imitating  their 
forms,  or  symbolic,  by  im- 
itating their  nature  or  pro- 
portions. Phonetic  writ- 
ing may  be  syllabic  or 
alphabetic  ; in  the  former 
each  character  represents 
a syllable  ; in  the  latter,  a single  letter.  Of  the 
origin  of  this  art  nothing  is  positively  known.  The 
Egyptians  ascribed  it  to  Thoth  ; the  Greeks,  to 
Mercury  or  Cadmus  ; and  the  Scandinavians,  to 
Odin. 

The  first  step  towards  writing  was  probably  the 
rude  pictorial  representation  of  objects,  without  any 
indication  of  the  accessories  of  time  or  place  ; the 
next,  the  application  of  a symbolic  signification  to 
some  of  the  figures,  so  that  the  picture  of  two  legs, 
for  example,  represented  not  only  two  legs,  but  also 
the  act  of  walking.  Pictures,  abbreviated  for  con- 
venience, gradually  became  conventional  signs,  and 
in  time  these  characters  were  made  to  stand  for  the 
sound  of  spoken  language. 

The  various  systems  of  writing  of  the  ancient 
world  had  probably  at  least  three  different  sources — 
the  Egyptian,  the  Assyrian  and  the  Chinese  systems, 


all  of  which  were  originally  hieroglyphic.  The  Egyp- 
tians practiced  four  distinct  styles  of  writing — the 
hieroglyphic,  hieratic,  demotic  or  enchorial,  and 
Coptic.  Hieroglyphic  writing,  which  was  in  use 
much  earlier  than  3,000  B.C.,  was  probably  at 
first  ideographic  ; its  symbols  became  gradually  used 
to  represent  abstract  ideas,  and  in  time  acquired  a 
phonetic  value.  The  phonetic  characters  are  both 
syllabic  and  alphabetic.  In  the  latter,  pictoral 
figures  are  used  to  express  the  initial  letters  of  the 
words  which  they  represent  ; for  example,  the  figure 
of  an  eagle,  akhom , stands  for  a , of  an  owl,  mulag, 
for  tn,  etc. 

The  hieratic  writing,  which  probably  came  into 
use  2,000  B.C.,  was  a simplified  form  of  the  hie- 
roglyphic style,  in  which  the  pictorial  symbols  de- 
veloped through  a stage  of  linear  hieroglyph  into  a 
kind  of  curious  hand.  The  demotic  or  enchorial 
writing  was  of  a still  simpler  form  of  the  hieroglyphic, 
and  a nearer  approach  to  the  alphabetic  system.  It 
was  in  use  from  about  the  7th  century  B.C.  till  the 
2d  century  A.D.,  when  it  was  gradually  superseded 
by  the  Coptic,  which  grew  out  of  the  hieratic  and 
demotic  under  Greek  influences. 

The  Ethiopians  also  used  hieroglyphs  similar  to 
those  of  the  Egyptians,  and  their  current  written 
language  resembled  the  Egyptian  demotic,  but  its 
alphabet  had  fewer  symbols.  At  a later  period  a third 
graphic  system,  somewhat  analogous  to  the  Coptic, 
came  into  use,  which  may  be  called  Ethiopic  Greek. 
With  what  people  the  Assyrian  Cuneiform  or  Spheno- 
graphic  styles  of  writing  originated  is  not  known,  but 
it  was  originally  without  doubt  a hieroglyphic  sys- 
tem, and  became  gradually  modified  by  the  different 


i6S 


PENMANSHIP. 


nations  which  occupied  the  Assyrian  empire,  until  it 
assumed  the  form  of  the  present  known  inscriptions. 

There  are  three  classes  of  Cuneiform  characters — 
the  Assyrian  or  Babylonian,  the  Scythian  or  Median, 
and  the  Persian.  The  first  is  the  most  complicated. 


containing  from  600  to  700  symbols  ; the  second  is 
less  complicated,  but  contains  about  100  symbols,  or 
three  times  as  many  as  the  third,  which  is  almost 
purely  alphabetic.  Of  these  three  original  systems, 
the  Egyptian  is  by  far  the  most  important,  for  from 

4: 


its  hieratic  symbols  was  probably  derived  the  Phoe- 
nician alphabet,  the  parent  of  almost  all  the  princi- 
pal graphic  systems  of  the  world. 

The  Roman  letters  were  used  in  Italy  until  the 
latter  part  of  the  6th  century,  when  the  Lombardic 

style  was  introduced. 
This  is  also  sometimes 
called  Roman,  because 
used  by  the  Popes  in 
their  bulls  ; it  continued 
in  use  until  the  13th 
century. 

The  Visigothic  style, 
carried  into  Spain  by 
the  Visigoths,  was  legally 
abolished  in  1091,  and 
Latin  letters  were  adopt- 
ed for  all  public  instru- 
ments. In  France  the 
Merovingian  style  pre- 
vailed from  the  close  of 
the  6th  century  to  the 
end  of  the  8th.  Char- 
lemagne introduced  the 
Caroline,  which,  having 
degenerated  before  the 
close  of  the  10th  century, 
was  restored  by  Hugh 
Capet,  and  was  subse- 
quently called  the  Cape- 
tian.  It  was  in  use  in 
England,  France,  and 
Germany  till  the  middle 
of  the  12th  century, 
when  the  modern  Gothic 
spread  all  over  Europe. 
The  present  German  al- 
phabet is  a modification 
of  this. 

There  are  no  traces  of 
writing  in  Britain  before 
the  Roman  conquest, 
when  Latin  letters  were 
introduced.  What  is 
called  the  Roman-Saxon,  resembling  the  Roman, 
prevailed  until  the  middle  of  the  8th  century  ; the 
set  Saxon  succeeded  it,  lasting  until  the  middle 
of  the  9th  ; this  was  followed  by  the  running- 
hand  Saxon  of  the  time  of  Alfred ; the  mixed 

—4 


PENMANSHIP. 


169 


Saxon,  combining  the  Roman,  Lomba/dic,  and 
Saxon  letters ; and  the  elegant  Saxon,  which  was 
introduced  in  the  10th  century,  and  did  not  become 
obsolete  until  the  middle  of  the  12th.  The  Norman 
style,  quaint,  illegible,  affected,  and  composed  of 
letters  nearly  Lombardic,  came  in  with  William  the 
Conqueror. 

The  modern  Gothic  dates  in  England  from  the 
12th  century  ; the  old  English,  from  the  middle  of 
the  14th.  The  English  court  had  a barbarous  -cor- 
ruption of  the  Norman,  which  was  contrived  by  the 
lawyers  of  the  16th  century,  and  lasted  till  the 
reign  of  George  II.,  when  it  was  abolished  by  law. 

The  utmost  diversity  exists  among  different 
nations  in  the  manner  or  direction  of  writing ; but 
in  general  the  Semitic  races  wrote  from  right  to  left, 
and  the  Aryan  from  left  to  right. 

In  form  ancient  manuscripts  were  either  rolls, 
volumnia,  or  flat  pages  like  our  printed  books, 
codices.  The  Egyptian  papyri  are  usually  in  rolls  of 
an  indefinite  length,  according  to  the  subject 
matter,  but  some  of  the  smaller  ones  are  flat. 

The  transcripts  of  manuscripts  were  committed  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  principally  to  slaves,  who 
were  esteemed  of  great  value  when  they  excelled  in 
the  art.  There  were  also  at  Rome  professional  copy- 
ists, some  of  whom  were  women.  About  the  5th 
century,  associations  of  scribes,  who  worked  under 
stringent  rules,  were  formed.  In  the  middle  ages 
copying  was  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of 
ecclesiastics,  who  were  called  clerks,  clerici.  In  the 
Imperial  library  at  Vienna  is  a Roman  calendar 
executed  in  the  first  half  of  the  4th  century.  In  the 
Vatican  there  is  a fragment  of  a Virgil  of  the  4th 
century.  The  most  ancient  manuscripts  extant  are 
the  papyrus  rolls  from  the  tombs  of  Egypt,  where 
the  dryness  of  the  climate  and  of  the  sand  beneath 
which  they  were  buried  preserved  them  in  an  almost 
perfect  condition  for  thousands  of  years. 


HOW  TO  LEARN  TO  WRITE. 


EGIN  with  good  paper,  good  pens,  good  ink. 

In  a good  copy  the  letters  should  be  of  elegant 
form,  and  constructed  on  natural  principles. 
Every  letter  should  be  as  perfect  as  it  is  possi- 
ble for  human  skill  to  execute,  that  wherever  it 
occurs  it  may  present  an  unvarying  model  to 
pupil.  The  turns  and  slopes  should  be  alike, 
loops  of  the  same  length  and  width,  the 
proper  distances  between  the  letters  carefully  ob- 
served, and  shade  duly  distributed. 

Curlicues,  flourishes,  and  ornamental  capitals,  may  delight 
an  amateur  in  a show-case  ; a thorough  business  man  detests 
them  in  his  correspondence.  In  a lady’s  writing  they  are  sim- 
ply vulgar. 

The  course  of  instruction  given  in  the  copies  should  consti- 
tute a system,  arranged  in  that  order  of  progression  which  ic 
indicated  by  a careful  analysis  of  the  forms  of  the  letters  and  of 
the  powers  of  the  human  hand,  so  that  each  advance  may  pre- 
pare the  way  for  the  next,  and  the  steps  not  be  farther  apart 
than  the  necessities  of  the  case  compel.  To  this  end,  the 
simpler  forms  should  precede  the  more  complex  ; the  short 
the  long.  Those  that  have  similar  curves  and  turns  and  iden- 
tical parts  should  be  together.  Words  should  precede  sen- 
tences. The  columns  should  be  first  narrow,  then  broader,  to 
accustom  the  hand  by  degrees  to  move  easily  on  the  given 
rests  across  the  longest  word.  These  columnar  sections,  in- 
tended to  be  written  down,  are  the  gradual  preparation  for 
the  sentences,  which  occupy  the  width  of  the  page.  The  se- 
lection of  the  words  for  the  columns  should  be  in  accordance 
with  the  same  principle  of  progressiveness, — first  the  easier, 
then  the  more  difficult  combinations.  In  them  the  loops  should 
so  occur  that  when  the  copy  is  written  they  may  be  hand- 
somely distributed,  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  page  be 
harmonious. 

A good  paper  costs  more,  but  it  is  indispensable.  It  should 
be  tolerably  thick,  well  laid,  with  a smooth  surface,  moder- 
ately glazed  ; so  that  the  ink  will  not  show  through  when  dry, 
and  that  there  may  be  no  roughness  or  little  hairs  for  the  pen 
to  pick  up,  and  that  the  pen  may  glide  along  without  jar  on 
the  muscles  or  nerves  of  the  fingers  and  hand, — a very  impor- 
tant consideration  now  that  steel  pens  are  used,  as  paralysis 
has  in  several  instances  resulted  from  their  use,  and  their  in- 
jurious effect  must  needs  be  greater  on  a rough  surface.  A 
white  paper  is  generally  to  be  preferred  to  a blue,  indeed  is 
almost  invariably  used. 

The  pen  should  be  fine-pointed,  so  that  a good  hair-line  can 
be  made,  and  have  a good  springy  nib,  that  the  shades  may 
be  cleanly  cut,  and  that  the  writing  may  not  be  rendered  stiff, 
a result  inevitably  following  the  use  of  a “ hard  ” pen.  They 
should  be  of  a uniform  character  as  much  as  possible, — not  one 


PENMANSHIP. 


very  hard  and  another  very  soft.  Slight  differences  cannot  be 
avoided  ; those  that  vary  least  are  the  best,  if  they  are  right  in 
other  respects. 

A new  pen  is  often  greasy,  owing  to  a certain  process  in  the 
manufacture,  and  will  not  retain  the  ink.  Dip  it  and  raise  it 
from  the  ink  slowly,  then  wipe  it  ; repeat  this  two  or  three 
times  and  the  trouble  will  be  removed. 

Good  ink  is  a very  difficult  thing  to  procure.  It  should  be 
sufficiently  fluid  to  flow  easily  from  the  pen,  dark  enough  to 
enable  the  pupil  to  see  at  the  time  what  he  is  writing,  and  to 
judge  of  hair-strokes  and  shades.  It  must  not  evaporate 
rapidly  from  the  inkstand,  nor  leave  a layer  of  mud  in  it ; 
neither  should  it  mould.  Frost  should  not  affect  it.  Ink 
should  stain  the  paper  in  order  to  be  permanent.  Its  color 
when  thoroughly  dry  should  be  a deep  black,  which  neither 
time  nor  exposure  to  the  sun  can  change. 

Pupils  will  learn  by  experiment  that,  if  they  raise  the  pen 
from  the  ink  suddenly,  it  will  be  too  full,  and  apt  to  blot ; if 
very  slowly,  the  attraction  of  the  fluid  will  leave  none  in  the 
pen  ; and,  therefore,  a moderate  motion  must  be  used.  One 
experiment  is  worth  hours  of  talking.  Attention  to  this  will 
save  many  a blot.  Cleanliness  is  as  absolutely  necessary  for 
the  well-being  of  the  pen  as  for  our  own. 

Pens  should  be  carefully  cleaned  at  the  close  of  the  exercise. 
Always  dip  and  wipe  a new  pen  two  or  three  times  before  it  is 
written  with,  or  it  will  be  very  likely  to  make  a blot.  To 
avoid  the  same  mishap,  the  pen  should  never  be  wiped  on  the 
outside  of  the  pen-wiper,  but  always  between  the  leaves  of  it. 
Should  the  pen-wiper  then  happen  to  get  on  the  book,  no  dam- 
age will  be  done. 

A stiff  blotter  will  last  the  longest,  but  common  blotting- 
paper,  or  a piece  of  newspaper,  or  any  paper,  will  answer,  not 
indeed  for  blotting,  but  for  the  use  we  now  designate.  The 
copy-book  must  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  and  the  blotter  is  to 
be  used  for  that  purpose.  The  right  hand  does  not  soil  the 
book,  for  it  rests  on  the  nails  of  two  fingers  and  only  touches 
the  page  with  them.  It  is  the  left  hand  that  does  the  mischief. 
To  obviate  it,  place  the  blotter  90  as  to  cover  each  column  as 
soon  as  it  is  dry  after  being  written,  and  rest  the  left  hand  on 
that,  and  not  on  the  page. 


I Position,  Rests,  and  Movements, 

' ^‘1  rryinryivi  ii"V',Trvr^  sr*’  w ’ w 

HE  immediate  human  instrument  in  writing  is 
the  arm.  It  consists  of  three  parts,  the  upper- 
arm,  the  fore-arm,  and  the  hand.  The  two 
connections  of  these  are  the  elbow  and  wrist. 
The  arm  is  attached  to  the  body  by  the  shoulder- 
joint.  The  position  of  the  body  must,  there- 
fore, evidently  depend  upon  the  use  we  wish  to 
make  of  the  arm  and  hand.  This  use,  then,  must 
be  determined  first.  Various  ones  have  been  advo- 


cated by  different  teachers.  The  three  following  are  the  most 
strongly  distinguished  ; the  others  arise  from  combinations  of 
two  or  more  of  them.  First,  considering  the  shoulder  as  a 
point  of  suspension,  and  moving  the  whole  arm  without  any 
support  and  without  any  motion  of  the  finger-joints.  There 
are,  however,  very  few  who  possess  sufficient  muscular  strength 
and  steadiness  of  nerve  to  write  thus.  It  is  the  true  move- 
ment for  striking  large  capitals  and  flourishing.  Secondly, 
resting  the  fore-arm  near  the  elbow  and  on  the  nails  of  the 
third  and  fourth  fingers,  and  forming  the  letters  by  its  move- 
ment without  any  help  from  the  pen-fingers.  Thirdly,  rest- 
ing the  fore-arm  and  hand  as  in  the  last,  while  the  letters  are 
formed  by  the  movement  of  those  fingers  only  which  hold  the 
pen.  This  generally  leads  to  a feeble,  constrained  style. 

There  Must  Be  Freedom  of  Style. — This  condition  can 
only  be  fulfilled  by  keeping  the  arm  free  from  all  unnatural 
constraint.  This  precludes  it  from  affording  any  support  to 
the  body.  Again,  the  letters  are  to  be  written  across  the  page 
on  a horizontal  line.  A requirement  of  beauty  is  that  this 
line  should  be  straight.  This  is  secured  without  much  diffi- 
culty where  the  base  is  ruled.  The  only  important  thing  is  to 
keep  on  it.  If,  now,  we  take  pen  in  hand,  use  the  elbow, 
placed  opposite  the  middle  of  the  page,  for  a pivot,  and  move 
the  hand  across,  we  find  that  the  arc  of  a circle  is  described, 
touching  the  base  line  in  only  two  points.  In  the  middle  it 
rises  a full  half  inch  above  the  base  line.  This  is  a difficulty 
to  be  overcome.  Once  more,  whilst  mere  form  does  not  de- 
mand consideration  here,  because  readiness  in  shaping  letters 
can  only  be  acquired  by  practice,  yet  uniformity  of  slope  and 
similarity  of  turns,  which  are  required,  will  evidently  greatly 
depend  upon  the  maintenance  of  the  same  relative  position  of 
the  pen,  hand,  and  fore-arm  for  each  letter.  If  we  now  ob- 
serve a little  farther  the  movement  above  described,  we  find 
that  in  it  the  position  of  the  hand  in  relation  to  each  succeed- 
ing letter  is  changed,  and  assumes  a new  direction.  How  can 
this  difficulty  be  overcome  ? Again,  it  is  clear  that  we  shall 
be  able  to  write  much  faster,  if  the  pen  touches  the  paper 
lightly,  than  if  it  presses  on  it  heavily  : this  also  contributes 
greatly  to  freedom  of  style.  Finally,  in  order  to  boldness  of 
style,  powerful  muscles  must,  if  possible,  be  brought  into  play 
in  aid  of  the  slight  muscles  of  the  fingers,  while  forming  the 
letters.  This  would  also  help  to  prevent  fatigue.  To  sum 
up,  the  essentials  of  the  work  to  be  done  are  : long  continu- 
ance, freedom,  forming  the  letters  on  a horizontal  straight  line 
across  the  page,  uniformity  of  slope  and  similarity  of  turns, 
rapidity  and  boldness.  The  conditions  we  have  found  to  be 
hereby  imposed  on  the  arm  are  : avoidance  of  unnatural  con- 
straint, relief  of  all  unnecessary  pressure,  movement  of  the 
hand  and  fore-arm  across  the  page  with  the  same  relative  po- 
sition to  each  letter,  and  counteraction  of  the  curve  arising 
from  this  movement,  adequate  support,  and  use  of  powerful 
muscles. 

The  Human  Instrument. — A little  in  front  of  the  elbow, 
at  the  thickest  part  of  the  fore-arm,  we  find  a mass  of  muscle. 
If  the  arm  is  placed  on  the  desk,  suspended  from  the  shoulder, 
and  resting  lightly  on  this  mass  as  a support,  we  find  an  ex- 
cellent ability  for  moving  the  fore-arm  on  it  with  freedom  from 
left  to  right  and  back  again,  within  a certain  limited  distance. 


PENMANSHIP. 


the  muscle  rolling  under  the  arm.  We  will  name  this  support 
the  tolling  rest.  It  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  observe  the 
peculiar  movement  of  the  fore-arm  on  this  rest.  It  is  not  to 
be  so  used  as  that,  when  the  hand  passes  to  the  left,  the  elbow 
moves  to  the  right,  and  vice  versa.  The  fore-arm  moves  side- 
ways as  the  muscle  rolls  under  it,  with  sufficient  play,  when  it 
is  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  base  line  and  opposite  the  mid- 
dle of  a word  or  short  clause,  to  carry  the  hand  across  from 
one  end  of  it  to  the  other  without  changing  its  direction. 
Bending  the  wrist  sideways  to  the  right — a most  cramping 
movement,  and  painful  if  frequently  repeated — is  thus  rendered 
quite  unnecessary,  and  should  be  carefully  watched  against. 

By  turning  the  third  and  fourth  fingers  under,  so  that  the 
hand  can  rest  on  the  comer  of  their  nails,  or,  if  preferred,  on 
the  little  finger  only,  another  support,  like  the  runners  of  a 
sleigh,  is  provided,  capable  of  moving  freely  over  the  paper. 
We  name  this  the  sliding  rest.  To  avoid  friction,  the  wrist 
should  not  touch  the  desk  ; by  means  of  the  two  rests,  it  may 
easily  and  comfortably  be  kept  a little  raised. 

These,  then,  we  conceive  to  be  the  natural  positions  and 
rests, — namely,  the  right  hand  and  fore-arm  in  the  same 
straight  line,  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  writing,  and  oppo- 
site the  middle  of  a long  word  or  a clause  of  moderate  length. 
The  fore-arm  is  supported  on  the  rolling  rest,  the  hand  on  the 
sliding  rest,  and  the  wrist  slightly  raised. 

The  left  fore-arm  and  hand  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  the 
right  fore-arm,  with  the  fingers  on  the  blotter,  which  covers 
the  part  already  written,  to  steady  the  book,  and  move  it  when 
necessary.  The  left  fore-arm  is  therefore  in  the  direction  of 
the  line  of  writing. 

What  now  are  the  movements  of  the  right  fore-arm  and 
hand?  On  the  rolling  rest  the  whole  fore-arm  moves,  so  as 
always  to  be  parallel  to  its  first  position,  and  carries  with  it  the 
hand  supported  on  the  sliding  rest.  The  rolling  rest  is  sta- 
tionary ; the  sliding  rest  glides  along  the  paper  on  a horizon- 
tal line, — that  is,  parallel  to  the  line  of  writing  : this  is  its  only 
movement.  The  whole  fore-arm  and  hand  move  gradually  to 
the  right  in  this  way,  with  a nearly  continuous  motion,  for  ihe 
formation  of  the  successive  letters,  so  that  their  relative  posi- 
tion to  every  letter  is  the  same.  All  stoppages  of  the  nails  and 
jerks  to  get  the  hand  forward  are  to  be  absolutely  forbidden. 
This  movement  oi  the  hand  is  named  the  sliding  movement ; 
the  movement  ol  the  fore-arm  we  have  named  the  comital 
movement  (Lat.  comes , a companion),  because  it  accompanies 
the  hand. 

Since  the  con.ual  movement  is  more  or  less  limited,  some 
further  means  must  be  found  of  keeping  the  fore-arm  and  hand 
in  the  right  relative  position  to  the  letters.  Two  methods 
offer  themselves  to  us  for  selection.  One  is,  to  draw  the  paper 
to  the  left  as  we  write.  The  other,  which  we  prefer,  is,  by 
means  of  a lift  from  the  shoulder,  to  place  the  fore-arm  and 
hand  in  a position  farther  to  the  right  : this  should  be  done 
inly  at  the  end  of  a word.  To  distinguish  this  movement,  we 
have  named  it  the  lateral  movement.  In  performing  it,  the 
hand  slides  as  before.  Experiment  will  now  demonstrate  that, 
by  the  adoption  of  the  rolling  rest  and  the  lateral  movement, 
the  difficulty  mentioned  above,  of  the  curve  formed  by  the  hand 
crossing  the  page,  is  entirely  done  sway  with. 


For  the  attaining  of  Boldness  of  Style,  the  powerfut 
muscles  of  the  fore-arm  must  be  brought  into  action  by  a slight 
play  of  the  whole  fore-arm  forwards  and  backwards,  in  direc. 
tion  of  the  slope  on  the  rolling  rest,  over  the  sliding  rest, — r 
fixed  point,  so  far  as  this  movement  is  concerned.  This  gives 
a full  heft,  through  the  medium  of  the  hand,  to  the  fingers 
which  move  the  pen,  and,  as  a consequence,  boldness  of  style  , 
just  as  a large  and  massive  stone  rolling  down  a hill  maintains 
its  course  over  considerable  inequalities  of  surface,  while  the 
slightest  obstacle  diverts  a small  and  light  one.  This  play  of 
the  fore-arm  we  name  the  muscular  movement.  The  resulting 
play  of  the  hand,  as  the  medium  of  its  transmission  to  the  pen- 
fingers,  we  name  the  medial  movement. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  form  a correct  judgment  as  to  the 
best  position  of  the  body  for  the  accomplishing  of  these  move- 
ments most  naturally,  and  consequently  with  the  least  fatigue. 
It  may  be  summed  up  in  two  words.  The  body  must  be 
upright  and  self-supported.  Its  relative  position  to  the 
desk  is  a matter  of  comparative  indifference  ; only,  all  the  pupils 
should  conform  to  one  plan.  Each  position  has  its  advantages 
and  inconveniences.  The  simplest  division  of  positions  is 
twofold  ; the  right  side  to  the  desk,  and  the  face  to  the  desk. 

Where  we  adopt  the  former,  we  direct  the  pupil  to  turn  on 
his  seat,  so  that  his  right  side  may  be  directly  to  the  desk  with- 
out touching  ; the  body  to  be  erect,  and  supported  by  the  spi- 
nal column  ; the  left  foot  slightly  advanced.  The  book  is  ad- 
justed with  the  back  to  the  front  edge  of  the  desk,  and  at  a 
two-seated  desk,  the  top  edge  of  one  at  the  outside  edge  of 
the  desk,  of  the  other  in  a line  with  the  inkstand.  When 
opened,  the  left  side  of  the  page  to  be  written  is  to  be  placed 
at  the  edge  of  the  desk.  The  left  hand  is  brought  across,  and 
the  fingers  placed  on  the  left  side  of  the  page  to  keep  it  steady. 
The  right  fore-arm  is  placed  on  the  desk,  parallel  with  the 
front  edge.  If  necessary,  from  short-sightedness  or  bad  adap- 
tation of  the  height  of  the  seats  to  the  desks,  the  body  maybe 
inclined  forward  from  the  seat, — never  by  rounding  the  back 
and  contracting  the  chest, — and  the  head  may  be  bowed  some- 
what forward  by  bending  the  neck.  The  advantages  of  this 
plan  of  seating  the  scholars  are  : the  perfectly  natural  position 
of  the  body  ; the  freedom  of  the  right  arm  from  all  avoidable 
weight,  and  its  ability  to  form  the  movements  required  ; the 
certainty  that  both  rests  are  on  the  desk  ; and  the  facility  with 
which  the  teacher  can  look  down  the  files  and  along  the  lines 
in  large  classes,  and  see  that  every  pen  is  rightly  held,  and 
every  movement  correctly  made.  An  objection  to  this  posi- 
tion is  made  on  the  ground  that,  in  business,  when  using  large 
account-books,  it  is  impossible.  We  reply,  that  we  adopt  this 
position  for  learners,  because  it  is  very  convenient  for  the 
teacher.  When  the  art  is  acquired,  the  position  becomes  com- 
paratively a matter  of  indifference. 

Where  we  adopt  the  second  method  of  seating,  namely,  the 
body  fronting  the  desk  fairly,  or  with  more  or  less  inclination 
of  the  right  or  left  side  to  it,  we  take  care  of  these  two  points  : 
that  both  rests  of  the  right  fore-arm  shall  be  on  and  be 
kept  on  the  desk,  and  that  the  book  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
right  fore-arm.  The  following  troubles  are  apt  to  arise  : A 
tendency  to  sprawl  over  the  desk,  and,  as  a necessary  conse- 
quence, to  press  the  chest  against  it, — a practice  most  injuri* 


*7* 


PENMANSHIP. 


ous.  The  book  gets  turned  from  its  proper  position  at  right  ] 
angles  to  the  right  fore-arm.  When  writing  down  a column, 
a habit  we  strongly  commend  for  learners,  the  book  must  be 
continually  pushed  up,  or  the  back  rest  of  the  arm  will  get 
more  and  more  off  the  desk.  Indeed,  pupils  are  sometimes 
found  actually  resting  the  wrist  on  the  front  edge  of  the  desk. 
On  the  other  hand,  this  is  often  the  only  position  the  seats  ad- 
mit of  ; it  is  the  position  that  must  be  adopted,  when  writing 
in  large  account-books  ; and  there  is  no  necessity  that  the 
above  faults  should  prevail.  They  certainly  will  not  under  the 
care  of  a faithful  teacher.  We  conclude,  then,  that  the  posi- 
tion of  the  body  at  the  desk  is  matter  of  indifference,  provided 
it  is  upright  and  self-supported. 

The  next  point  which  claims  our  attention  is  the  manner  of 
holding  the  pen,  and  the  movement  of  the  pen-fingers.  We 
have  seen  that  the  hand  is  supported  on  the  sides  of  the  nails 
of  the  third  and  fourth  fingers.  Their  ends,  being  bent  under, 
are  separated  from  the  others,  and  there  is  room  for  the  execu- 
tion of  the  pen-finger  movements.  The  fingers  should  touch 
one  another  at  the  second  joints,  as  far  as  the  shape  of  the 
hand  permits  : this  gives  unity  and  support. 

The  pen  is  held  by  means  of  the  thumb  and  the  first  and 
second  fingers.  Place  the  right  extremity  of  the  holder  against 
the  left  side  of  the  second  finger  just  below  the  nail  ; the  end 
of  the  finger  will  thus  be  above  the  pen.  Next,  adjust  the 
holder  obliquely  across  the  left  side  of  the  third  portion  of  the 
first  finger,  just  behind  the  second  joint,  the  middle  finger  be- 
ing at  the  same  time  slightly  bent.  The  first  two  portions  of 
the  forefinger  may  now  be  closed  down  on  the  holder,  which 
will  be  found  to  cross  and  touch  them  diagonally.  The  first 
and  second  fingers  touch  throughout.  Next,  let  the  upper  cor- 
ner of  the  fleshy  part  of  the  thumb,  near  the  nail,  be  placed, 
by  slightly  bending  the  thumb,  against  the  lower  half  of  the 
left  side  of  the  holder,  opposite  the  first  joint  of  the  middle 
finger,  and  the  pen  will  be  found  in  a secure  and  natural  po- 
sition, both  for  extension  and  retraction.  It  will  be  observed 
that  we  have  given  the  medium  position  of  the  pen.  The  fin- 
gers and  thumb  with  the  joints  slightly  bent  outwards,  straight- 
ening them  would  extend  the  pen  ; bending  them  still  more 
would  retract  it.  The  pen  is  really  held  between  three 
points, — the  side  of  the  end  of  the  second  finger,  the  side  of 
the  third  portion  of  the  first  finger  behind  the  second  joint  in 
front  of  the  knuckle,  and  the  side  of  the  end  of  the  thumb. 
The  first  finger  is  like  the  lid  of  a box  placed  on  it  to  keep 
the  pen  from  jumping  out  ; it  is  also  the  principal  agent  in  ef- 
fecting the  pressure  for  the  shades.  As  to  movement,  the 
thumb  may  be  regarded  as  a spring.  The  first  and  second 
fingers,  by  contraction  of  their  muscles,  press  against  it ; we 
relax  its  muscles,  and  it  yields  by  bending  : thus  the  downward 
strokes  are  made.  By  relaxing,  in  turn,  the  muscles  of  the 
fingers,  and  straightening  the  thumb  by  calling  its  muscles 
into  action,  it  pushes  back  the  fingers,  and  the  up-strokes  are 
formed.  The  movement  is  twofold  and  alternate,  extending 
and  retracting,  to  form  oblique  lines,  ovals,  or  horizontals. 

The  pen  must  be  held  with  the  least  possible  grasp.  It  is 
to  be  at  right  angles  to  the  base  line,  and  thus  in  a line  with 
the  fore-arm.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  guard  against  a 
wrong  position  of  the  hand  and  pen.  The  pen  must  be  so  held 


] that  the  right  side  is  turned  a little  down,  so  that  the  right  nib 
touches  the  paper  first  when  the  pen  is  put  down.  With  this 
right  nib  the  hair-strokes  are  made.  The  nibs,  so  to  speak, 
are  at  right  angles  to  the  slope;  not  horizontal.  By  this  means 
the  shades  can  be  made  smooth.  When  it  is  neglected,  the 
shades  will  be  “ scratchy,”  or  rough  on  one  side.  A glance  at 
the  holder  tells  the  teacher  in  a moment  if  the  hand  is  right. 
With  beginners,  it  will  be  found  almost  as  variable  as  a weath- 
ercock. Now  it  is  inclined  to  the  right,  showing  that  the  hand 
is  lying  down,— a fault  requiring  constant  watchfulness,  and 
arising  from  neglect  of  the  comital  movement  of  the  fore-arm  ; 
now  to  the  left,  showing  that  the  hand  is  turned  too  far  over 
in  that  direction.  Now  the  end  points  outwards,  showing  the 
elbow  has  got  away  ; again,  it  points  inwards,  showing  that 
the  wrist  is  bent  to  the  right. 

The  body  with  the  right  side  to  the  desk,  or  directly  facing 
it,  or  with  either  side  more  or  less  turned  to  it.  It  is  to  be  up- 
right and  self-supported. 

The  fore-arms  rest  lightly  on  the  desk  at  right  angles  to  one 
another.  The  right  is  supported  by  the  rolling  rest,  and  the 
hand  by  the  sliding  rest.  The  left  arm  has  the  fingers  on  the 
left  side  of  the  book,  to  steady  it  and  to  move  it  when  neces- 
sary. The  copy-book  is  placed  with  its  vertical  lines  in  the 
direction  of  the  right  fore-arm,  and  its  horizontal  lines  in  that 
of  the  left.  It  must  be  kept  far  enough  on  the  desk  to  allow 
the  rests  also  to  be  on.  This  position  of  the  book  at  right 
angles  to  the  right  fore-arm  is  invariable,  whatever  direction 
the  arm  may  be  in  on  the  desk. 

The  rolling  rest  is  the  muscle  in  front  of  the  elbow  ; the 
sliding  rest,  the  comers  of  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth 
fingers  bent  under. 

The  movements  of  the  fore-arm  are  three.  The  comital, 

which  accompanies  the  sliding  movement  of  the  hand,  and  is 
made  sidewise  on  the  rolling  rest.  The  muscular,  which 
causes  the  medial  movement  of  the  hand,  and  gives  heft  to  the 
pen-fingers.  It  is  a play  of  the  arm  forwards  and  backwards 
on  the  rolling  rest.  The  consequent  medial  movement  of  the 
hand  is  made  over  the  sliding  rest,  of  which  the  only  move- 
ment is  in  a horizontal  line.  The  lateral  is  the  lifting  and 
moving  the  whole  fore-arm  and  hand  to  the  right  : it  is  ren 
dered  necessary  by  the  limited  scope  of  the  comital. 

The  simplest  movement  for  beginners  is  to  form  the  letters 
by  the  motion  of  the  fingers,  moving  the  hand  and  arm  along 
by  the  united  sliding  and  comital  movements,  which  should  be 
nearly  continuous.  When  thoroughly  familiar  with  these,  after 
considerable  practice,  the  medial  and  muscular  movements 
may  be  added  to  give  freedom  and  boldness  of  style.  The 
lateral  will  not  be  needed  until  sentences  are  written. 

The  movements  of  the  pen  fingers  are  in  different  directions, 
by  extension  and  retraction  : thus  are  written  oblique  straight 
lines  ; ovals,  direct,  inverted,  and  alternate  ; and  horizontal 
lines.  The  shades  are  made  by  pressure.  As  to  these,  great 
care  is  needed.  They  must  be  made  in  ovals,  with  a gradual 
increase  and  diminution  of  pressure.  The  usual  fault  is  to 
make  them  too  abrupt,  or  with  the  greatest  thickness  too  long 
continued.  The  moment  the  thickest  point  is  reached,  the 
pressure  should  begin  to  diminish.  Special  directions  are 
given  in  the  analysis  of  the  letters,  where  needed. 


PENMANSHIP. 


*73 


• ORDS  are  represented  in  writing  by  a single 
letter,  or  by  a combination  of  letters.  Letters 
are  complex  ; they  can  be  resolved  into  forms 
common  to  several  of  them  : thus,  the  form 
repeated  in  u is  found  also  in  i and  w ; or, 
they  are  expressed  by  one  such  form  as  /,  found 
in  g and  y.  In  some  there  are  parts  not  found 
in  any  other. 

In  writing,  the  letters  are  placed  on  horizontal  lines, 
either  ruled  or  imaginary.  Some  of  the  letters  and  parts  of 
others  are  longer  than  the  rest.  The  letter  o,  which  is  the  pure 
oval,  is  taken  as  the  standard  of  size.  We  name  the  line  on 
which  the  writing  rests  the  Base  Line.  Suppose  a line  parallel  to 
this  to  be  drawn  so  as  to  touch  the  top  of  the  o.  This,  whether 
ruled  or  imaginary,  is  named  the  Head  Line.  The  distance 
between  the  base  and  head  lines  is  called  one  space,  and  gives 
the  height  of  the  first  four  principles,  wherever  they  enter  into 
the  formation  of  letters.  The  dot  of  the  r,  the  point  of  the 
s,  the  top  of  the  second  part  of  the  k,  are  one-third  of  a space 
higher. 

Suppose,  now,  six  lines  parallel  to  the  base  line  to  be  drawn, 
three  above  the  head  line,  and  three  below  the  base  line,  at 
intervals  equal  to  the  first  space.  We  shall  have  eight  par- 
allel lines  bounding  seven  equal  spaces  in  a vertical  direction. 
We  call  the  middle  space  the  first  ; the  next  above  and  below, 
the  second  ; the  next,  the  third  ; and  the  last,  the  fourth. 
One  of  these  spaces  is  taken  for  the  unit  of  measurement. 


Rule. — Loop  letters  are  four  spaces,  and  double  loops  seven  ; t and  d 
two  and  a half,  q three  and  a half,/  five,  two  above  and  two  below  the 
first  space.  All  the  rest  are  one  space,  except  r,  .r,  and  the  second  part 
of  k , which  are  one  and  a third. 

The  capitals  are  four  spaces. 

It  will  be  observed  that /,  long  j,  and  > extend  as  far  above  the  first 
space  as  they  do  below  ; and  that  the  top  of  p is  a little  higher  than  that 
of  t and  d,  and  the  bottom  of  q a little  lower  than  that  of  /. 

The  commencing  and  ending  lines  of  the  letters  are  always  to  begin 
and  terminate  at  the  base  and  head  lines  respectively. 


There  are  two  grammatical  divisions  of  letters,  distinguished 
by  their  forms  : the  small  letters,  which  form  the  main  body 
of  writing,  and  the  capitals,  which  are  used  on  special  occa- 
sions. We  shall  begin  with  the  analysis  of  the  small  letters, 
because  they  occur  oftenest  and  because  their  forms  are  sim- 
pler. We  shall  not  take  them  up  in  their  alphabetic  d order, 
but  in  that  which  gives  the  easiest  first,  and  shows  th  ;ir  simi- 
larity, arising  from  the  possession  of  common  pr  ir.ciples. 
This  is  the  method  adopted  in  our  copy-books,  in  jrder  to 
render  our  system  of  teaching  gradually  progressive. 


THE  CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

General  Rules. 

The  height  of  the  capitals  is  four  spaces,  the  same 
as  the  loop  letters. 

A.  This  letter  has  three  parts.  The  first  part  is  generally  written 
upwards,  the  upper  curve  very  slight.  The  second  part  is  very  slightly 
curved  to  one-third  from  the  top,  then  it  is  a straight  line,  of  which  the 
shade  gradually  increases.  The  third  part  is  the  cross.  It  starts  from 
the  right  foot,  coincides  for  a half  space,  crosses  to  the  left  and  forms  a 
loop,  the  center  of  which  is  one-third  the  height  of  the  letter,  and  on  the 
double  curve  line.  A line  from  the  top  through  the  center  of  the  letter 
would  be  on  the  main  slope  ; hence  it  will  be  seen  that  the  second  part, 
or  down-stroke,  has  a little  less  than  the  main  slope,  the  first  part  a little 
more.  Observe  that  the  width  of  the  letter  gradually  increases  from  the 
top  to  the  bate,  and  regulate  the  first  up-stroke  accordingly. 

TV.  This  letter  consists  of  three  parts.  The  first  two  are  the  same  as 
in  A,  except  in  slope  ; at  the  bottom  of  the  second  a very  narrow  turn 
is  made,  and  and  a curve  carried  up  from  it,  parallel  to  the  first  up- 
stroke, four-fifths  the  height  of  the  letter.  The  spaces  on  a horizontal 
line  across  the  middle  are  equal.  The  shade  begins  as  in  A,  and  is 
heaviest  just  before  the  turn.  A line  drawn  through  the  centre  of  the 
letter,  dividing  it  into  two  equal  lateral  halves,  would  be  on  the  main 
slope.  Observe  the  gradual  increase  and  diminution  of  width  in  the 
two  sections.  See  the  cautions  on  A . 

M.  This  letter  has  four  parts.  The  first  three  are  the  same  as  TV,  ex- 
cept that  the  third  stroke  is  carried  to  the  full  height.  The  fourth  part 
is  curved  from  the  top,  and  closes  with  the  direct  oval.  Observe  the 
shades  carefully.  A line  through  the  centre,  dividing  the  letter  into 
equal  lateral  halves,  would  be  on  the  main  slope.  The  widths  at  the 
top  and  the  two  at  the  base  are  equal.  On  a horizontal  line  through  the 
middle  there  are  three  equal  spaces. 

T has  two  parts.  The  strongest  curve  is  in  the  lower  section.  There 
is  no  shade  except  in  the  third  principle  and  dot. 

7ms  T crossed  in  the  middle  by  a small  double  curve  placed  horizon- 
tally, which  is  itself  crossed  by  a small  straight  line  on  the  main  slope. 

P.  This  letter  has  two  parts,  the  stem  and  the  cap.  .It  is  on  the  main 
slope.  The  cap  begins  with  the  inverted  oval,  two-thirds  the  height, 
on  the  main  slope,  crossing  the  stem  at  right  angles,  the  highest  point 
of  the  cap  being  in  the  middle  of  the  line  between  the  section  of  the 
oval  and  the  stem  ; it  is  continued  with  the  right  curve,  and  terminates 
on  the  stem  in  a dot  at  half  the  height  of  the  letter.  On  the  short  di- 
ameter of  the  first  oval  produced  to  the  stem,  there  are  four  equal 
spaces;  on  a parallel  line  from  the  left  curve  of  the  oval  crossing  the 
stem  to  the  other  curve,  two  equal  spaces.  A line  on  the  main  slope 
through  the  oval  would  pass  through  the  dot. 

B.  The  stem  and  cap  are  like  Py  only  that  the  right  side  is  carried 
down  one-third  instead  of  a half,  and  the  dot  is  omitted.  The  separa- 
tion between  the  upper  and  lower  sections  of  the  right  side  is  made  by 
a horizontal  loop.  The  lower  curve  ends  with  the  inverted  oval.  A 
straight  line  drawn  on  the  main  slope,  touching  the  right  side  of  the 
upper  curve,  would  pass  through  the  center  of  the  lower  oval  ; the 
lower  right  curve,  therefore,  projects  beyond  the  upper.  Across  the 
first  oval  to  stem  on  its  short  diameter  produced,  there  are  four  equal 
spaces  similarly  as  to  the  last  oval,  three.  On  a parallel  line  from  the 
right  side  of  the  first  oval  to  the  right  side  of  the  upper  lobe,  there  are 
two  equal  spaces. 

7?  is  like  B as  far  as  the  separating  loop,  which  is  here  made  at  right 
angles  to  the  main  slope.  After  that  the  descending  curve  is  turned 
back  to  finish  with  the  direct  oval.  Across  each  of  the  two  ovals  to  the 
stem  on  their  short  diameters  produced,  there  are  four  equal  spaces. 
On  a parallel  line  from  the  right  side  of  the  first  oval  to  the  right  side 
of  the  upper  lobe  there  are  two  equal  spaces.  A line  on  the  main  slope 
through  the  oval  would  pass  through  the  dot. 

X.  The  capital-stem  is  made  first,  writing  downwards.  Then  the  in- 
verted oval  and  direct  oval  joined  by  a straight  line  on  the  main  slope. 
The  two  parts  of  the  letter  coincide  through  half  the  height,  commenc- 
ing at  one-fourth  from  the  top.  Across  the  ovals  there  are  four  equal 
soaces.  The  remark  on  the  dot  applies  also. 


PENMANSHIP. 


'74 


S.  Begin  from  base  line  with  the  right  curve  on  the  slope  of  the  con- 
necting lines  to  half  the  height  of  the  letter,  then  form  a loop  on  the 
main  slope,  half  the  height,  complete  a double  curve,  and  end  with  a 
dot  on  the  commencing  line.  The  dot  is  half  a space  high,  and  on  the 
main  slope.  The  double  curve  is  the  essential  part  of  this  letter.  No- 
tice how  the  loop  is  formed  on  the  upper  part,  and  the  greater  intensity 
of  curve  is  on  the  lower  part.  Let  the  shade  begin  just  below  the  loop, 
and  be  nicely  graduated.  Give  much  attention  to  the  lower  turn  and  the 
dot.  An  oblique  line  through  the  loop  lengthwise  has  similar  curves 
formed  on  the  double  curve,  on  .he  upper  left  and  lower  right  side. 

Z.  This  letter  begins  like  5,  but  the  double  curve,  instead  of  making 
a turn  to  end  with  the  dot,  is  carried  to  the  left  to  form  a horizontal 
loop,  which  rests  on  the  base  line,  and  whose  thickness  is  half  a space ; 
it  descends  on  the  right  side  to  touch  the  base  line  at  precisely  the  same 
distance  from  the  crossing  as  on  the  left  ~ide,  and  ends  with  the  direct 
oval  incomplete.  The  lower  curve  of  the  stem  is  stronger  than  the 
upper.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  upper  curve  of  the  horizontal  loop, 
and  the  curve  to  the  right  which  touches  the  base  line,  together  form  a 
double  curve.  The  right  section  only  of  the  direct  oval  is  used.  The 
shade  begins  as  in  the  S,  below  the  loop.  The  bottom  of  this  letter, 
which  may  be  termed  the  Z-foot,  occurs  also  in  Z>,  Q,  and  one  form  of 
Z.  Take  care  that  the  direct  oval  is  made  on  the  main  slope. 

T.  Begin  with  the  left  curve  at  the  height  of  one  space  from  the  base 
line,  carry  it  round  to  the  right  to  form  a circular  loop,  and  continue  to 
curve  to  the  height  of  the  letter.  The  second  part  of  the  capital-stem 
and  dot  passing  through  the  center  of  the  circular  loop,  whose  center  is 
also  in  the  middle  of  the  stem.  Take  care  that  the  upper  part  of  the 
head  ia  not  made  too  broad.  Modify  the  curve  gently  to  accord  with 
the  upper  part  of  the  stem. 

y.  This  letter  begins  as  the  /,  but  the  circular  loop  is  not  so  high ; 
its  lower  curve  is  one  space  from  the  base  line,  and  the  double  curve  is 
carried  down  to  form  a loop,  the  same  length  as  j,  three  spaces  below 
the  line.  The  left  curve  of  the  loop  crosses  at  the  base  line.  A line 
through  the  length  of  the  loop  should  pass  through  the  upper  part  of 
the  letter.  Notice  the  slight  intensity  of  the  curve  in  both  parts  of  the 
stem.  The  heaviest  shade  is  in  the  middle  of  the  right  side  of  the  loop. 
The  loop  is  one  space  wide. 

H.  The  commencement  is  the  third  principle.  Next,  the  double  curve 
with  a loop,  the  hair-stroke  of  which  is  carried  across  and  upwards,  on 
the  same  slope,  to  form  another  loop  similar  to  the  first ; this  side  is 
finished  with  the  direct  oval.  The  first  section  is  a little  lower  than  the 
second,  which  is  the  full  height.  The  middle  of  the  hair-line  between 
the  two  stems  is  half  the  height  of  the  letter ; hence  each  loop  is  a little 
less  than  half  the  height.  An  oblique  line  through  the  center,  dividing 
the  central  space  equally,  would  be  on  the  main  slope.  The  width  be- 
tween the  down-strokes  at  the  middle  is  one  space.  The  second  loop  is 
longer  than  the  first. 

K.  The  first  part  is  T.  The  second  part  consists  of  the  left  curve 
turned  back  to  make  a small  separating  loop,  then  continued  symmet- 
rically with  the  upper  part,  and  closed  with  the  direct  oval.  The  sepa- 
rate curve  is  inclined  as  in  A,  and  is  one-third  the  he.ght  of  the  letter 
from  the  top.  The  slope  is  the  same  as  in  //. 

V.  Commencement.  Next,  down-stroke  straight,  shaded  heaviest 
near  the  turn,  which  is  narrow,  like  those  of  the  small  letters.  Then, 
up-stroke  parallel  to  previous  one,  branching  off  into  the  left  curve, 
and  terminated  at  the  same  height  as  the  top  of  the  introductory  part. 
An  oblique  line  through  the  centre,  dividing  the  letter  into  two  equal 
parts,  would  be  on  the  main  slope. 

IV.  Commencement.  Next,  double  curve  down,  ending  on  the  base 
line  ; then,  double  curve  up  with  more  slope.  The  second  down-stroke 
is  like  the  second  of  A,  very  slightly  curved  one-third,  and  then  straight. 
The  final  stroke  is  the  left  curve,  as  in  N.  The  spaces  on  a horizontal 
line  drawn  through  the  middle  of  the  letter  are  equal.  A line  from  the 
middle  point  at  the  top  through  the  center  of  the  letter  would  be  on  the 
main  slope. 

Z.  Commencement.  The  down-stroke  and  foot  like  Z,  except  that 
tne  lower  curve  of  the  stem  is  a little  less  intense.  It  has  the  main  slope. 

D.  This  letter  begins  with  the  double  curve,  commenced  at  the 
height  of  the  letter  ; its  foot  is  like  that  of  Z until  it  touches  the  base 
line  on  the  right  side,  whence  it  is  carried  up  as  the  right  side  of  an 
oval,  crosses  the  stem  near  its  top,  and  ends  with  the  direct  oval.  The 
highest  part  of  the  letter  is  well  in  front  of  the  stem. 


Q.  Begin  with  the  inverted  oval,  and  end  like  Z.  The  oval  is  on  the 
main  slope. 

C.  Begin  with  the  left  curve  from  the  base  line  to  half  the  height: 
next,  make  a loop  half  the  height ; end  with  the  direct  oval.  Take  care 
that  the  loop  does  not  pitch  over  too  much.  It  necessarily  has  more 
than  the  main  slope. 

E.  Begin  with  the  left  curve  a little  distance  from  the  base  line,  carrj 
it  two-thirds  high,  and  make  a loop  one-third  ; continue  the  curve  to 
form  a small  separating,  nearly  horizontal,  loop  to  the  right,  and  close 
with  the  direct  oval.  The  separating  loop  is  a little  inclined  down  tc 
the  right,  to  corresp'md  to  the  lower  oval. 

G.  Begin  with  tne  left  curve  : then,  a loop  two-thirds  the  height  ol 
the  letter  ; continue  the  down-stroke  as  the  bottom  of  an  oval,  whose 
width  is  twice  thaf  of  the  loop,  the  bottom  of  the  turn  being  one-fourth 
from  the  base  line.  End  with  a double  curve  and  dot : the  double  curve 
is  half  the  height  of  the  letter.  Both  parts  of  the  letter  are  on  the  main 
slope.  A line  through  the  length  of  the  loop  would  pass  through  the 
dot. 

Y.  This  letter  begins  with  the  inverted  oval,  continues  like  third 
principle  to  one-fourth  from  the  base  line,  but  the  lower  turn  much 
narrower  than  the  upper,  and  ends  with  the  double  curve  and  dot  ■, 
height,  two-thirds. 

U.  Begin  with  the  inverted  oval ; continue  as  K,  except  that  it  rests 
on  the  base  line.  The  second  part  is  a straight  line  ending  with  a di- 
rect oval.  The  top  of  the  second  part  lower  than  that  of  the  first.  Its 
width  is  two  spaces. 


0- 


CPF 


V T T T T T T T T i T T 


LASSIFICATION  relates  to  the  arrangement 
of  the  letters  in  groups,  according  to  their  pos- 
session of  common  forms.  Since  every  letter 
must  have  something  peculiar  to  distinguish  it 
from  others  which  have  a common  principle, 
classification  includes  a description  of  this  peculi- 
arity, which  is  termed  the  characteristic. 

CLASSES  OF  SMALL  LETTERS. 


The  most  natural  and  convenient  division  of  the  small  letters  seems  tc 
give  four  classes.  Some  letters  will  be  found  to  belong  to  two  of  them. 
The  reason  of  the  position  here  assigned  is  obvious. 

First  Class. — Those  letters  which  consist  chiefly  of  the  first,  second, 
and  third  principles, »,  a,  »,  m.  z/,  w,  sc. 

, Second  Class. — Those  formed  from  the  oval,  or  the  fourth  principle, 
0,  a , c,  e. 

These  two  classes  contain  all  the  short  letters  except  two. 

Third  Class.— Those  which  have  stems  formed  of  the  first  element,  p, 
q , t.  d.  These  are  called  the  Stem  Letters. 

Fourth  Class.— Those  which  have  the  fifth  and  sixth  principles,  X,  .4, 
/,  b,j,g,y,  z.A  long  r.  These  are  the  Loop  Letters. 

Besides  these,  there  are  two  letters  whose  forms  are  anomalous,  r,  s. 


CHARACTERISTICS. 

The  characteristics  of  the  letters  are  as  follows  : 

In  the  First  Class.  Of  »,  one  straight  line  with  turn  at  the  bottom  and 
the  dot  above  it of  »,  two  straight  lines  with  turns  at  the  bottom  ; — 
of  «,  two  straight  lines  with  turns  at  the  top  : — of  m.  three  straight  lines 
with  turns  at  the  top  ; — of  v.  its  two  nearly  parallel  sides  and  the  dot 


'2.  jo 


/ s s 


10 

5 


o 

•’l 

to 


5 

3 


library 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILL!W0>3 


PENMANSHIP. 


*75 


of  tv , it?  alternately  parallel  sides  and  the  dot ; of  x,  the  straight  line 
forming  the  cross. 

In  the  Second  Class.  Of  o,  the  oval ; — of  a , the  addition  of  the  first 
principle  ; — of  c,  the  dot ; — of  e,  the  loop. 

In  the  Third  Class.  Of  /,  the  third  principle  affixed; — of  q,  the  fourth 
principle  prefixed  ; — of  t , the  cross  ; — of  d,  the  fourth  principle  prefixed 
to  the  /-stem  without  the  cross. 

In  the  Fourth  Class.  Of  h,  the  third  principle  affixed; — of  k,  the  knot 
or  kink  ; — of  /,  the  turn  at  the  bottom  ; — of  6,  the  parallel  sides  of  the 
lower  part  and  the  dot ; — of  j,  the  dot ; — of  g,  the  fourth  principle  pre- 
fixed ; — of  y,  the  third  principle  prefixed  ; — of  2,  the  second  principle  and 
shoulder  ; in  the  other  form,  the  zig-zag  ; — of  /,  the  knot. 

In  the  anomalous  letters.  Of  r,  the  dot  and  shoulder  ; — of  s,  the  twist 
on  the  right  side. 

OF  CAPITALS. 


We  give  the  Capitals  in  the  order  of  their  introduction.  O , — A,N,M, 
W,  F,—P,  B , R,  X,—S,  L, — I,  J—H,  X,—V,  IV,— Z,  D,  Q,—C,  E,—G , 
V,  U. 

OCCURRENCE  OF  PRINCIPLES. 


The  capital-stem,  or  line  of  beauty,  ending  with  a dot,  occurs  in  four- 
teen letters,  A,N,M , T,  F,  P, B , R,  X , .S',  I,  X,  G,  V. 

The  capital-stem  is  written  : — 

Generally  upwards  and  light,  in  three  letters,  A,N,M. 

Downwards  and  light,  in  eleven  letters,  T,  F,  P,  B,  R,  X,  H,  X,  IV, 
Z , D. 

Downwards,  light  and  short,  in  two  letters,  G,  Y. 

Downwards  and  shaded  in  the  lower  curve,  in  three  letters,  I,  L , S. 
Downwards,  prolonged  into  a loop,  shaded  on  the  right  side,  in  one 
letter,  J. 

The  third  principle  of  small  letters  is  used  for  the  commencement  of 
seven  letters,  T,  G,  H,  X,  V , IV,  Z. 

The  direct  oval,  when  of  full  size,  forms  the  O. 

Four-fifths  of  the  vertical  height,  it  is  the  end  or  front  of  D. 

Half  the  height,  it  terminates  eight  letters,  M,  R,  X,  H,  X,  C,  E,  U. 
One-third  the  height,  it  ends  L , Z,  Q. 

The  inverted  oval,  two-thirds  the  height,  commences  seven  letters, 
P,  B,  R,  X,  Q,  U,  Y. 

Half  the  height  it  ends  one  letter,  B. 

A curve  and  circular  loop  are  used  for  the  head  of  /,  J. 

The  loop,  half  the  height  of  the  letter,  is  found  in  six  letters,  .S',  L,  J, 
H,  C,  G ; one-third  the  height,  in  E. 

The  knot,  kink,  or  small  separating  loop,  is  found  in  three  letters,  B, 
R,  X : turned  in  the  opposite  direction,  in  E. 

The  horizontal  loop,  or  /.-foot,  is  found  in  four  letters,  L,  D,  Q,  Z. 
The  first  element,  very  slightly  curved  to  one-third  from  the  top,  is 
found  in  A,N,  M,  IV;  straight  throughout,  and  closed  by  a turn,  in  V. 


Combination  of  Letters. 


OMBINATION  treats  of  the  arrangement  of 
letters  in  words  at  proper  distances.  This  is 
generally  spoken  of  as  Spacing.  It  is  effected 
by  the  connecting  lines  of  the  two  letters  run- 
ning into  one* another,  and  thus  forming  one  line, 
which  may  be  distinguished  as  the  Combining  Line. 

Good  taste  requires  that  the  letters  in  a word 
should  look  about  the  same  distance  apart ; in  other 
words,  that  the  space  on  the  line  which  the  word  occupies 


should  be  evenly  filled.  If  this  is  neglected,  the  writing  will 
look  “patchy,” — crowded  in  one  place,  scattered  in  another. 
We  propose,  therefore,  to  give  rules  for  these  distances,  and 
to  point  out  the  reasons  on  which  they  depend. 

Every  letter  ends  with  a straight  line,  having  a diagonal 
connecting  line  with  a turn,  as  «,  or  without  a turn,  as  j,  q; 
or  is  an  oval  with  a horizontal  connecting  line  ; or  is  open  on 
the  right  side,  as  c and  e.  Every  letter  begins  with  a straight 
line,  having  a diagonal  connecting  line  without  a turn,  as  u,  h, 
p,  or  with  a turn,  as  n , y ; or  is  an  oval,  as,  o,  a ; or  is  open 
on  the  left  side,  as  /,  in  which  the  up-stroke  is  merely  the  con- 
necting line.  The  combinations  of  these  different  classes  of 
letters  may  be  determined  by  the  following  rules  : 

Rule  i. — When  two  straight  lines,  or  a straight  line  and  an  oval,  are 
united  by  one  turn  and  a combining  line,  or  by  a combining  line  only, 
the  distance  between  them  is  one  space,  the  height  of  o;  as  it,  ni,  it, 
ik,  ip;  io,  ie;  gi,go,  qtt,  etc.  Between  is,  us,  etc.,  the  distance  is  really 
the  same,  because  the  width  of  r equals  that  of  0;  but  since  we  have  to 
measure  to  the  right  side,  it  is  a space  and  a half. 

Remark. — In  it,  ik,  if,  where  the  combining  line  joins  the  straight 
line  at  one-half, one-third,  and  the  top,  respectively,  the  distance  is  kept 
by  giving  less  slope  to  the  combining  line.  In  gi,  qu,  etc.,  the  same 
means  are  used. 

Rule  2.— When  two  straight  lines  are  united  by  two  turns  and  a 
combining  line,  the  distance  is  one  space  and  a half  ; as,  in,  ir,  nu , my, 
pn,  etc. 

Remark. — This  gives  room  enough  to  make  the  turns  properly,  and 
the  line  crossing  diagonally  prevents  the  distance  from  seeming  too 
wide. 

Rule  3.— When  two  ovals,  or  an  oval  and  a straight  line,  are  united 
by  a combining  line  only,  or  by  a combining  line  and  turn,  the  distance 
is  three-quarters  of  a space  ; as,  00,  oc,  od,  6a,  ve,  -wo ; oi,  ot,  oh,  op,  vi ; 
on,  vn,  etc.  The  last  part  of  6,  v,  w,  is  equivalent  to  the  oval.  In  os  the 
distance  is  really  the  same,  since  s is  the  width  of  0 ; but  as  we  measure 
to  the  right  side,  it  is  a little  more  than  one  space. 

Remark  —A  full  space  for  the  distance  mentioned  in  the  first  part  of 
this  rule  would  be  too  much,  because,  as  the  connecting  line  is  horizon- 
tal, there  is  nothing  to  disguise  it.  We  have,  therefore,  to  bring  the 
main  lines  nearer. 

Rule  4.— When  c or  e precedes  a letter  beginning  like  u,  or  an  oval, 
the  distance  is  one  space  and  a half ; as,  ci,  ei,  cl,  el,  cp ; co,  eo,  ce,  ee , 
etc. 

Remark. — The  distance  in  this  case  is  measured  from  the  left  side  of 
the  c and  e , and  is  crossed  by  the  combining  line  diagonally. 

General  Remark — The  combining  line  does  not  have  an  invariable 
slope,  but  is  determined  by  the  necessities  arising  from  the  rules  of 
combination. 

Rule  5 —Words  are  written  about  one  space  apart.  This,  however, 
depends  very  much  on  whether  we  wish  to  give  the  writing  a free  or  a 
condensed  appearance. 


LI 

r 

ZJ 

1 1 i 1 .. 


AN  EASY  LESSON  IN  PHONOGRAPHY. 


<T) 

E need  not  dwell  on  the  value  and  advantages  of 
l;  1 1 short-hand.  Every  boy  who  learns  it  has  a twofold 
I advantage  over  those  who  do  not,  whether  he  goes  to 
1 1 J)  college  or  at  once  enters  into  business-life.  The  col- 
legian.  can  take  down  a full  report  of  his  professor’s 

r'  ai  lecture,  while  his  fellow-students  have  only  rough  and 
often  unintelligible  notes. 

The  young  man  who  goes  to  learn  a business,  whether  me- 
chanical or  commercial,  takes  down  in  a moment  instructions 
given,  conversations,  examinations,  details  of  any  machine, 
method  of  working,  etc.  There  is  no  walk  in  life  in  which  it 
does  not  come  into  play. 

It  looks  difficult  to  many,  but  is  really  easy  to  acquire. 

The  following  is  the  phonographic  alphabet  : 

\ N M / / 

Poe  Be®  Xee  Deo  Chay  Jay  Kay  Gay 

v v ( ( ) ) * 

Ef  Vee  Ith  Dhee  Es  Zoo  Isa  Ish  Zliay 

f ^ ^ ^ s \ r s 

Lay  Ar  Ray  Em  En.  log  Way  Yay  IT  ay 
The  letters  for  which  the  above  signs  stand  ate'! 

B ft  T ' D Ch  J K<  d 

f‘T  li  n s a sh  ztt 

L R R M N Ng  W Y> 

Observe  the  double  consonants,  ch,  th,  thy  sh,  zh,  ng. 

Th  is  used  in  words  like  think , thought , youth  ; th  in  words 
like  thou , they , them.  One  is  a light  the  other  a heavy  sound. 
Sh,  in  words  like  hush , cash ; zh,  as  in  pleasure , measure. 
Curved  R is  used  in  words  ending  in  R ; straight  line  R when 
commencing  a word,  and  a vowel  follows  after.  The  circle 
S begins  or  ends  a word. 

The  printed  names,  Pee,  Bee,  etc.,  under  the  signs,  are  the 
sounds  of  the  letters,  for  convenience  in  talking  and  writing 
about  them.  The  naming  of  signs  is  called  the  nomenclature  ; 
and  it  is  very  necessary  to  attend  to  that,  as  well  as  to  the  let- 
ters for  which  the  signs  stand.  The  great  value  of  the  no- 


menclature in  describing  the  Phonography  will  appear  as  we 
proceed  with  the  lessons. 

Remember  each  one  of  these  signs  is  a part  either  of 
a circle,  or  a straight  line,  perpendicular,  horizontal,  or  diago- 
nal. Imitate  the  cut  as  near  as  you  can,  in  length  and  in 
depth  of  pressure  on  the  heavy  letters.  The  use  of  heavy  let- 
ters simplifies  the  alphabet,  making  a few  directions  answer 
double  purpose.  Continue  to  repeat  your  copying  or  reading 
of  the  signs,  sounds,  and  letters  (it  is  best  to  read  aloud  as  you 
write),  until  you  can  skip  about,  and  by  covering  up  the  signs, 
write  them  from  the  print  from  memory,  or  covering  the 
print,  read  the  signs.  All  the  heavy  signs,  perpendicular  or 
diagonal,  must  be  written  from  top  to  bottom  ; all  the  horizon' 
tal  lines,  heavy  and  light,  from  left  to  right, 

Learn  this  alphabet  thoroughly  before  you  go  on.  If  you 
leam  it  in  a week,  you  will  do  as  well  as  many  of  the  smartest 
reporters  did  when  they  began  to  learn  it.  So  get  around 
your  center-table  and  see  who  leam  it  first. 


Above  we  give  you  the  Phonographic  alphabet,  condensed — 
in  fact,  all  the  consonants  in  the  language  in  a “ nutshell.”  You 
will  find  it  handy  for  easy  reference.  (Patent  not  applied  for.) 
If  you  have  not  mastered  the  letters  as  presented,  by  all  means 
continue  your  study  and  practice  by  reading,  writing,  and 
sounding  them,  until  you  can  call  them  one  by  one,  not  only 
in  regular  order,  but  by  skipping,  and  immediately  on  sight. 

This  cut  represents  the  shape , but  not  the  relative  length. 


fr- 


AN  EASY  LESSON  IN  PHONOGRAPHY. 


All  the  letters,  light  and  heavy,  should  at  first  be  written  of 
the  same  length — that  is,  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  long. 
You  will  notice  the  letters  which  are  of  the  same  form  or  di- 
rection, but  which  differ  in  depth  and  name,  are  placed  op- 
posite each  other,  so  that  you  can  compare  the  single  and 
double  letters  more  easily.  It  can  also  be  studied  upside  down, 
or  sidewise,  or  two  students  may  study  it  at  the  same  time 
while  sitting  opposite  one  another.  The  cut  might  be  made  a 
little  more  complete  by  placing  the  circle  letter  r in  the  center. 
The  rest  is  composed  of  four  circles. 

Supposing,  now,  that  you  have  learned  the  single  letters,  we 
proceed  to  give  you  a few  examples  of  joining  letters : 


pp  pt  pch  pg  pb  pd  pj  pk 


tp  tt  tch  tg  tb  id  tj  tk 


cbp  clit  cbch  cbg  clib  cbd  chj  chk 


^<□^7 zUJZ— 

kp  ggt  geb  gg  gb  gd  gj  gk 

bp  bt  bch  bg  bb  bd  bj  bk 

In  like  manner  take  some  ruled  paper  and  pen  (which  is 
better  than  pencil),  and  write  the  following,  which  you  will  see 
is  a continuance  of  the  order  in  the  second  cut,  commencing 
with  p,  etc.,  joining  the  next  letter  on  the  right,  until  we  come 
around  to  the  letter  from  which  we  started.  Let  the  first 
perpendicular  letter  come  down  to  the  line,  and  the  rest  fol- 
low. If  horizontal,  let  the  second  letter  rest  on  the  line. 
Write  : 


dp, 

dt. 

dch, 

dg. 

db. 

dd, 

dj> 

dk, 

jp. 

jt, 

jeh, 

jg. 

jb. 

jd> 

jj> 

jk, 

kp, 

kt, 

kch, 

kg, 

kb. 

kd, 

kj. 

kk. 

pm, 

tm, 

chm, 

km, 

bm, 

dm, 

jm. 

pn, 

tn, 

chn. 

kn. 

bn, 

dn, 

jn> 

pth, 

tth, 

chth, 

kth, 

bth; 

dth, 

jth 

ps, 

ts, 

chs, 

ks, 

bs, 

ds; 

js.  ' 

etc. 

It  would  be  easier,  perhaps,  if  a hyphen  (-)  were  placed  be- 
tween the  single  and  the  double  letters,  but  if  you  arc  familiar 
with  the  alphabet  you  need  not  make  a mistake,  and  try  to 
write  three  letters  in  the  above  instead  of  two. 

Now,  let  us  skip  a little,  and  write  three  letters  together  : 


kmt, 

mnt, 

mlt, 

Itn, 

ntl, 

tin, 

tkk. 

mkt. 

nkt, 

kpl, 

ill. 

rnt, 

vnt, 

snp, 

shrp, 

lrn. 

hng, 

etc. 

The  proper  place  for  using  the  two  kinds  of  R,  sh,  and 
circle  S,  will  be  fully  explained  in  our  next.  A good  long 


drill  on  the  letters  will  do  you  immense  service  before  you  take 
up  the  vowels  to  make  words.  So  take  the  examples  above, 
and  practice,  practice,  until  you  can  read  the  letters  at  sight, 
and  write  them  from  dictation. 

If  you  have  had  any  difficulty  in  making  any  of  the  single 
or  joined  letters,  so  far,  let  us  know,  and  we  will  answer  as 
soon  after  as  possible. 

Ish  (sh)  is  generally  written  downward  ; Shay  (r/z)  upward  ; 
Ar  (r)  is  written  downward  ; Ray(r)  upward  ; Lay  (1)  upward, 
and  commences  a word  ; but  if  the  vowel  comes  before  it  in 
the  spelling,  El  (/)  is  written  instead,  and  downward.  The 
circle  S (iss)  may  either  commence,  occur  in  the  middle,  or  at 
the  end  of  a word.  It  also  stands  for  Z.  The  words  in  which 
it  happens  will  not  be  confounded,  as  there  is  but  little  differ- 
ence in  the  sound.  Ch  (ay)  is  always  written  downward,  and 
a little  more  straight  up  than  R (ay),  which  is  always  written 
upward  and  slanting  to  the  right.  If  you  try  it  you  will  no- 
tice how  natural  it  is  for  you  to  make  the  distinction.  G (ay) 
is  the  only  letter  that  does  not  come  under  the  rule  that  all  the 
heavy  letters  are  to  be  written  downward,  and  that,  of  course, 
like  all  other  horizontal  letters,  is  to  be  written  from  left  to  right. 
Make  your  heavy  signs  heavy  enough  to  show  the  difference 
between  the  light  and  heavy  ones,  and  let  them  toper  from  and 
to  a fine  point  gradually.  Do  not  take  off  your  pen  or  pencil 
between  the  letters  in  joining  them.  Double  straight  strokes 
should  be  made  the  full  length  of  two  single  ones,  as  tt,  kg, 
etc. 

In  reading  the  joined  signs,  commence  with  the  letter  on 
the  left  and  top,  thus  : t-ch,  not  rt.  H (ay)  is  always  written 
upward.  S-h  (not  sh)  is  made  with  the  hook  part  of  H 
changed  into  a circle, 

We  trust  you  may  understand  the  remarks  without  giving 
you  engraved  examples  in  all  cases.  II  (ay)  and  R (ay)  are 
both  written  in  the  same  direction. 

Now  we  give  you  a Vowel  Scale,  which  you  must  learn  be- 
fore you  begin  to  make  up  words.  The  straight  up  t sign  in 
this  table  has  no  value  as  a letter,  and  is  used  only  to  show  the 
place  of  putting  the  vowel,  first,  second  and  third  place. 

The  regular  vowels,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  are  not  sufficient  for  all 
the  sounds  of  the  language,  so  they  are  left  out  in  the  cold  for 
the  present,  and  the  following,  with  the  rest  that  will  appear 
in  our  two  next,  are  substituted  : 

LON’O  VOWELS. 

3 .'1 J 1- J__ 

e a ah  fiu  o oo 

as  in  eat,  ale,  art,  aught,  oat,  lood 


ate  acho  aim  eel  awl  ear  oar 


r® 

- x < 

lea  key  may  lay  law  raw  row 


pour  poor  eheep  shape  four  shave  school 


In  like  manner,  write,  and  read  aloud  as  you  write  : Ape, 


AN  EASY  LESSON  IN  PHONOGRAPHY. 


ope,  pa,  paw,  ate,  ought  or  aught,  oat,  taw,  to  or  toe,  too,  age, 
jay,  jaw,  Joe,  Jew,  ache,  oak,  key,  caw,  coo,  be  or  bee,  bay, 
bow  or  beau,  each,  chaw,  chew,  choose,  me,  ma,  maw,  mow, 
own,  oath,  ace,  ail  or  ale,  all,  lo,  lieu,  foe,  she,  Shae,  shawl, 
shoe,  eve,  we,  way,  woe,  woo,  ye,  yea,  you. 

This  cut  shows  the  vowels  that  occur  in  many  words  of  the 
language,  and  are  called  the  long  vowels.  Study  the  power 
of  each  vowel  sign,  by  reference  to  the  word  underneath  it,  un- 
til you  can  detect  the  long  vowels  in  any  other  word  you  may 
read.  The  exercise  will  improve  your  pronunciation  of  words. 

The  long  sound  of  e is  placed  in  the  beginning  of  every  let- 
ter, in  the  first  place,  either  before  or  after  the  letter  ; the  a 
sound  is  put  in  the  middle,  or  second  place,  before  or  after  the 
letter ; and  the  ah  sound  in  the  third  place,  before  or  after. 
So  with  the  au,  o,  oo.  Placed  before  the  letter  or  letters,  the 
vowel  is  read  first  ; placed  after,  it  is  read  after ; placed  above 
a horizontal  letter,  the  vowel  is  read  first ; placed  under  the 
letter,  it  is  read  after. 

If  you  commence  the  making  of  the  letters  from  the  top 
down,  you  begin  to  place  the  vowels  from  the  top  ; if  the  let- 
ter is  slanting  and  upward,  you  reckon  the  positions  from  the 
bottom,  or  where  you  commenced. 

The  stroke  vowel  signs  must  be  written  at  right  angles  to 
the  letter  to  which  it  belongs. 

The  double  vowel  letters  must  be  pronounced  together,  as 
au  (awe),  not  a-u,oo  (as  in  food),  not  double  oo. 

The  letters  must  be  made  first,  and  vowels  put  in  afterward. 

Take  all  the  consonants  you  can  beginning  with  p or  t,  one 
at  a time , and  write  the  first  place  vowel  e before  it,  until  you 
go  all  round  the  circle.  Then  take  the  same  consonants, 
one  by  one,  and  place  the  same  first  vowel  e after  it.  until  you 
complete  the  circle  again.  Then  take  the  second  vowel  sound 
a and  use  it  in  the  same  manner.  In  every  case  be  sure  to 
sound  the  letter  and  vowel  together,  whether  it  happens  to 
make  a woid  or  not.  This  will  give  you  plenty  of  exercise, 
interesting  and  instructive.  If  necessary,  get  some  one  to 
show  you  how  to  commence. 

Then  pick  out  all  the  words  you  can  in  this  reading  matter 
which  contain  one  or  more  long  vowel  sounds,  and  if  they 
have  no  sound  different  from  those  in  the  words  under  the 
above  scale,  write  them  on  paper,  first  the  English  word,  and 
under  it  the  Phonographic  consonant  outline,  with  the  vowel 
properly  placed. 

Don’t  be  alarmed  at  the  task.  The  first  principles  are 
always  the  hardest,  but  the  art  becomes  easier  as  you  learn  to 
understand  it. 

Taking  it  for  granted  that  you  have  learned  the  rules  for 
writing  the  long  vowels  according  to  the  scale,  in  proper  po- 
sition, first,  second,  or  third  place,  heavy  dot  or  heavy  dash, 
before  or  after  the  letters,  we  proceed  to  give  you  the  scale  of 


SHOUT  VOWKT.S. 


i c a o n oo 

ns  in  it  get  ?ot  hut  f ° ot 

or,  more  simply,  without  reference  to.  words,  bu{ 
sounds  : it,  et,  at,  ot  ut,  oot. 


~W') / 

pit  pot  pat  top  tap  rich  chap- 

\£..„  v~ ...  ^ err 

fellow  berry  merry  marry  lively  Sunday  Monday' 

Mary,  Johnnie,  Sammy, Thomas,  Billy,  Joseph,  Ella. 

You  will  see  the  short  vowels  follow  the  same  arrangements  of 
the  long  vowels  in  position,  are  somewhat  alike  in  make  and 
sound,  only  the  short  vowels  are  more  quickly  and  more  lightly 
spoken. 

Study  this  table  also  until  you  can  pick  out  the  words  in  the 
reading  matter  of  any  paragraph  or  column,  whether  the  words 
contain  long  or  short  vowels,  or  both , and  by  the  aid  of  your 
acquaintance  with  the  full  Alphabet,  and  vowels  of  both  kinds, 
write  them  all  in  correct  phonographic  (short-hand)  characters 
and  without  much  time  to  study  over  it. 

The  t sign  before  which  the  short  vowels  in  the  table  are 
placed,  has  no  value  as  a letter,  but  is  to  show  the  relative  po- 
sitions of  the  vowels  to  any  consonant,  whether  written  before 
or  after,  at  the  beginning,  in  the  middle,  or  end  of  a letter  or 
letters. 

Referring  to  the  table  when  necessary,  copy,  and  read  as 
you  write,  the  above  exercise  with  the  short  vowels. 

In  like  manner  write,  and  read  aloud  as  you  do  so,  the  fol 
lowing  words  : Pick,  peck,  pack,  peak,  peach,  poach,  putty, 
tick,  tack,  tuck,  took,  touch,  tip,  top,  tug,  chick,  check,  cup, 
kept,  cage,  catch,  cut,  cud,  bit,  bid,  biddy,  budge,  back,  book, 
jot,  jet,  map,  met,  Mat,  Mattie,  mud,  muddy,  mint,  meant, 
among,  nothing,  fish,  ship,  shape,  shop.  Some  of  these  words 
you  must  write  with  three  letters. 

Take  the  reading  matter  in  this  lesson,  or  any  other  print  on 
this  page,  pick  out  all  the  words  you  can  that  have  either  or 
both  sets  of  vowels,  and  write  them  out,  first  the  consonant 
outline,  then  fill  in  the  proper  vowels.  A great  many  words 
you  will  find  have  a kind  of  double  vowel  sound.  These  you 
can  skip  until  a more  convenient  season. 

Now  we  conclude  this  lesson  with  the  rule  for  placing  the 
vowels,  in  writing  words. 

First  position  vowels  (long  or  short)  are  written  after  the 
first  consonant. 

Second  position  vowels  (long)  are  written  after  the  first  con- 
sonant ; if  short , before  the  second  consonant. 

Third  position  vowels  (long  or  short)  are  written  before  the 
second  consonant. 

You  have  a first-rate  chance  for  practice  in  your  every-day 
schools,  public  and  private  : that  is,  you  can  use  the  big  black- 
board and  chalk  during  recess,  or  before  or  after  school  hours. 
Besides,  the  beautiful,  mysterious,  puzzling  signs  will  excite 
the  curiosity  and  admiration  of  your  fellow  schoolmates,  and 
perhaps  induce  your  teachers  to  inquire  into  the  subject,  and 
to  order  the  necessary  books,  and  introduce  short-hand  into 
their  schoolrooms  as  a regular  branch  of  study.  Practice  in 
this  way  all  the  time  you  can  spare,  on  the  alphabet,  then  the 
joined  letters,  then  the  joined  letters  with  the  long  vowels, 


AN  EASY  LESSON  IN  PHONOGRAPHY. 


179 


then  with  both  long  and  short  vowels,  then  make  up  new 
words  as  fast  as  you  can  until  you  can  write  what  you  have  been 
over  without  stopping  to  think  much  of  how  you  must  write. 

You  had  also  better  review  every  week  the  previous  week’s 
lesson  before  you  take  up  the  new  one.  Be  thorough — familiar 
— well  acquainted — with  your  short-hand  company  as  you  go 
along  together. 

Supposing  that  you  have  learned  all  the  past  lessons,  we  now 
give  you  the 

Diphthongs. 

.'I <i 

01  oa  u 

boy  bows  (to)  Sue 

(BB  in 

'll /...’a . 

"fie  pies  wise  size  rise  arise 


Bound  of  I 
My 


& X 

nigh  high  spice  spies  Silas 




boy  boys  voice  alloy  annoy  spoil 
,\a  . .^Oa  . _ /TTb. . ZL?L  — - 

A A 

bow  boughs  vow  mouse  allow  endow 


owl  row  arouse  ounce  cow 


A.  .ATfcv  ... \ 


,\ — ?<- 


pew  amuse  shoes  nows  accuse 


In  like  manner  write  the  following  words  (from  Graham’s 
list) : Vie,  vice,  vices,  mice,  tie,  ties,  entice,  entices,  die,  dye, 
dies,  sigh,  sighs,  ally,  rye,  arises,  nice,  spy,  spices,  sky,  sly, 
slice,  slices,  eyes  (i-zee),  ice  (i-es),  sight,  side,  sign.  Annoys, 
noises,  choices.  Bough,  dow,  allows,  rouse,  rouses,  arouses, 
ounces,  cows,  house,  houses,  south,  sour.  Abuse,  abuses, 
fuse,  mew,  amuses,  dew,  due  (same),  adieu,  adduce,  chews  and 
choose,  juices,  Jews,  hew,  suit  (Iss  [not  Es]  Tee),  stew.  It 
is  easier  to  memorize  the  sounds  of  the  diphthongs  by  the  sen- 
tence above  than  by  different  and  disconnected  words. 

These  signs  have  a place,  like  the  single  vowels,  either  first, 
second,  or  third,  whether  placed  before,  or  after,  at  the  be- 
ginning, in  the  middle,  or  at  the  end  of  a letter.  Copy,  and 
read  aloud  as  you  write,  the  above  examples  ; but  do  not 
simply  copy  them  without  you  know  how  and  why  the  signs 
mean  what  they  read.  Observe  closely  the  angles  of  the 
diphthong  signs,  whether  downward,  upward,  to  the  left,  at  the 
top,  or  bottom.  We  might  give  you,  in  this  lesson,  much 
more  to  study,  but  it  is  best  not  to  try  to  do  too  much  all  at 
once.  If  you  learn  these  perfectly,  you  can  exercise  yourself 
in  making  other  words  like  them  from  your  school-books. 


You  will  notice  a difference  is  made  between  the  S and  Z 
sign,  by  making  the  Z circle  a little  heavier  than  the  S circle. 
Two  short-hand  signs  may  be  written  entirely  alike  with  this 
exception,  and  have  different  meanings. 

The  double  Iss  adds  another  S to  a single  S,  and  is  called 
sis,  ses,  sus,  or  sez,  according  to  the  sound  of  the  word  you 
are  writing,  oftener  ses,  and  is  made  twice  the  size  of  the 
single  S circle,  as  in  rise  (Ray  Iss),  rises  (Ray  Sis),  vices  (Vee 
Ses),  entices  (En  Tee  Ses),  arises  (Ar  [not  Ray]  Ses),  spices 
(Is  Pee  Ses),  slices  (Iss  Lay  Ses),  voices  (Vee  Ses),  noises  (En 
Ses),  and  as  in  some  of  the  above  words. 

If  you  have  forgotten  what  we  have  called  the  nomenclature, 
or  describing  of  the  letters  (as  just  given  in  parenthesis),  refer 
to  the  first  of  the  alphabet.  By  using  this  naming , you  see, 
we  avoid  all  the  drawing  and  engraving  of  examples,  which  you 
can  understand  just  as  well  as  from  the  print. 

A -I <1  'Ll  1 

ive  wa  wah  wan  rvo  woo 

'I 4 J I >1  L. 

wi  we  wa  wo  wu  woo 

. \.._  A T .... 

web  wig  wavy  sweet  switch  swallow 

-_i=: .JL A 

win  wool  willow.  wore  wall^ 

_Z l 'J ,.,] _ 

wi  wol  wou’ 

.Examples;:  wino  quoit  wound 

From  the  above  tables  you  will  notice  that  the  sounds,  in 
their  order  and  power,  resemble  the  ordinary  long  or  short 
vowels,  and  also  the  diphthongs,  only  with  the  addition  of  W 
before  them.  Instead  of  e,  a,  ah,  au,  o,  00,  it  is  we,  wa,  wah, 
wau,  wo,  woo,  etc.  It  would  be  well  for  you  to  repeat  these 
sounds  of  the  long  and  short  vowels,  and  this  table  with  the 
IV,  constantly  in  succession,  until  you  have  the  sounds  familiar 
and  in  order,  just  like  your  common  alphabet.  Most  scholars 
have  some  trouble  in  learning  the  difference  between  the  third 
place  long  vowel  and  the  first  place  vowel  of  the  last  half  of 
the  vowel  scale  ; this  is,  in  forming  words,  they  have  some 
difficulty  in  distinguishing  the  sound  of  Ah  from  the  sound 
Au.  Be  careful  of  this. 

You  can  simplify  these  tables  by  dividing  them  into  three?  ; 
that  is,  separate  the  first  three  sounds  a little  wider  apart  from 
the  second  three,  and  so  relieving  the  eye,  you  can  memorize 
the  different  sounds  and  forms  by  sets  of  threes — twelve  sounds 
in  all.  The  first  six  are  heavy — the  first  three  open  on  one 
side,  and  the  next  three  open  on  the  opposite  side  ; the  last 
six  are  light,  and  open  in  contrary  ways,  to  be  easily  distin- 
guished. 

The  next  little  cut  represents  sounds  that  do  not  occur  very 
often,  especially  the  woi.  Wi  and  wou  are  more  frequent. 


AN  EASY  LESSON  IN  PHONOGRAPHY. 


t8o 


Now,  in  same  manner  as  recommended  in  previous  lesson, 
take  the  letter  p as  a starting  point,  write  all  the  above  vowels 
preceded  by  W,  before  each  letter  of  the  round  alphabet  cut, 
going  round  from  left  to  right,  both  with  the  long  and  short 
sounds  above.  This  will  give  you  plenty  of  exercise.  In 
many  cases  you  may  not  be  able  to  make  words  or  sense,  but 
persevere  in  the  sounds. 

In  like  manner,  write  the  following  words  several  times. 
Repetition  gives  you  confidence  and  speed. 

Weep,  warp,  wait,  wart,  wit,  wet,  wot,  watch,  wag,  weed, 
wade,  wooed,  wage,  week,  weak,  wake,  walk,  woke,  ween, 
wane,  wan,  weal,  wail,  wall,  waif,  woof,  weave,  wave,  wove, 
wash,  wish,  wing,  etc. 

The  following  suggestions  are  recommended  for  trial  by 
students  and  reporters.  Position  according  to  accented  syllable: 

Make  all  half-lengths  of  word-signs  express  it,  and  in  the 
same  position  as  the  full  lengths  ; as,  Blet  2 for  believe  it ; Diet 
2,  deliver  it. 

Write  words  ending  in  er  same  as  the  primitive,  with  the 
addition  of  downward  R ; as  pardoner,  Par-Den-Ar,  instead  of 
Per-Dee-Ner  ; Dinner,  Den-Ar,  instead  of  Dee-Ner  ; Tinner, 
Tenor , Ten-ar,  instead  of  Tee-Ner. 

Make  all  words  ending  with  R,  with  downward  R ; and  all 
words  with  a final  vowel  following  the  R,  with  upward  R • 
but  R before  J is  always  Ray.  This  is  an  established  rule,  yet 
often  departed  from  with  perplexing  frequency  ; but  it  is  sug- 
gested as  a standing  and  unexceptional  rule.  So  also  with  Ret 
and  Ard,  down  or  up,  as  followed  or  not  by  a vowel.  So  also 
with  Lay  and  El,  Let  and  Eld.  As  disposal,  Dees-Pees-El ; 
retail,  Ret-El  ; down-hearted,  Den-Art : retained,  Ret-End  ; 
ordained,  Ard-End,  and  numerous  others.  This  rule  thus 
provides  a distinction  between  words  ending  in  er,  ry,  el,  and 
ly , which,  in  many  cases,  according  to  the  standard  dictionary, 
are  written  alike. 

Retain  the  Pitman  Ler  sign  for  Ir,  instead  of  Lay-Ar,  which 
is  longer,  especially  in  compound  words,  as  Chandler,  Chent- 
Ler,  instead  of  Chay-End,  Lay-Ar. 

Write  all  words  ending  in  tionist  with  the  Steh  loop  inside 
the  shon  hook  ; as  abolitionist,  Bee-Layshonst  ; protectionist, 
Pret-Kayshonst  ; prohibitionist,  Per-Beeshonst : and  as  in  revo- 
lutionist, resurrectionist,  secessionist,  rationalist. 

In  advanced  writing,  ing  may  be  omitted  both  in  nouns  and 
participles,  increasing  the  opportunity  for  phrasing  ; as  in  see- 
ing, doing ; loving  us,  Lay-Vees  ; doing  his,  Dees  ; doing  it, 
Det. 

Write  half  the  “ I ” sign  in  all  phrases  and  compound  words  ; 
my  idea , ei/e-sight,  thine  eyes,  eyelid,  eyelet. 

If  in  writing  word-signs  or  phrases,  the  single  sign  or  second 
word  of  the  phrase  is  out  of  position,  throw  it  into  position  by 
striking  a line  either  above,  through,  or  below  such  sign,  for 
first,  second,  or  third  position,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Simplify  the  pronunciation  of  the  syllable  aid,  signifying 
like,  by  ly  substituting  ty ; as  petty,  betty,  tetty,  detty,  chetty, 
jetty,  ketty,  petty,  pretty,  etc.,  instead  of  pet-oid,  bed-oid,  etc. 

Write  Ther  joined,  and  of  understood,  instead  of  double 
length  Veether  ',  to  express  of  their ; except  when  of  is  em- 
phasized. 

Write  Retty  for  on,  before  p,  b,  t,  d,  ch,  j,  b,  v,  n,  ng,  s,  z, 


sh,  zh,  el,  th  th,  and  y ; Chetty  before  k,  g,  Lay,  Ar,  Ray,  w 
and  m. 

Write  Retty  for  /,  above  the  line,  before  p,  b,  t,  d,  ch,  j,  k, 
g,  s,  and  th  ; Chetty  before  Ar,  and  Ray  ; Petty  before  m,  and 
mp. 

He,  should,  and  the  on  the  line,  by  Retty  before  p,  b,  d,  t. 
ch,  j ; Chetty  before  k,  g,  m. 

How  same  as  the  preceding,  below  the  line. 

When  new  and  now  commence  a phrase,  write  them  below 
the  line  without  the  tick  ; as  nowadays,  En-Dees  ; knew-there- 
were,  Enther-weh. 

Write  the  sounds  of  ar  and  er  after  m without  the  Ray  ; as 
in  March,  merchant. 

Write  “society”  by  S through  the  preceding  word  in  all 
possible  cases  ; in  a few  other  instances,  join  the  S,  as  in 
“ good  society,”  “ modern  society,”  etc. 

“ I should  ” may  be  joined  to  the  rest  of  the  verb,  before 
Ray  or  Lay,  by  Retty-Chetty.  As,  I should  rather,  I should 
like. 

Emphasis  and  grammar  usually  suggest  and  should  deter- 
minate whether  you  write  “ therefore  ” with  a double-length 
and  an  Ef  hook,  or  with  a Ther  tick  with  a hook.  It  always 
comes  between  commas,  and  therefore  is  better  distinct. 
“ There,”  also,  whether  by  double-length  or  the  Ther  sign,  is 
best  determined  by  the  force  of  the  emphasis.  As,  “ do,  there- 
fore,” Dee- Jefty  instead  Deetherf  ; it  should  have,  Tee-Retty- 
Vee  ; it  should  have,  Tee-Chefty  ; there  is,  therefore,  Thers 
Befty  ; there  is,  therefore,  Ther-Zeetherf. 

An  <z«-tick  (not  antic)  and  to  tick  on  the  line,  and  the  rest 
near  and  below,  may  express  an  con-,  to  con  or  com-,  as,  and  con- 
form ; to  confer  ; and  combat.  This  when  the  article  is  not 
joined,  and  the  con  implied. 

A dot  on  the  line  may  be  used  for  a period,  if  the  ticks  are 
used  for  the  articles,  a,  a-nd,  and  the. 

Ing  thr  may  omit  the  disjointed  heavy  tick,  and  be  expressed 
by  a joined  ther  tick,  or  a double-length,  omitting  the  ing,  as, 
doing  there,  Deether  ; having  there,  Vee-Jetty.  See  Rule  6. 

Ing  between  other  words  may  be  omitted,  or  expressed  by 
writing  the  following  word  immediately  after,  disjoined. 

Write  else  always  downward,  and  less  upward,  for  distinc- 
tion, and  according  to  Rule  3,  as,  any-body  else,  nothing-less. 

If  desired,  short  forms  as  well  as  double-lengths  of  Lay  may 
determine  a vowel  before  it  or  not,  by  its  inclination  to  per- 
pendicularity, as  in  alone,  alien,  Len  nearly  vertical ; lone, 
lane,  learn,  Len,  usual,  incline. 

“ Never  have  ” may  be  written  with  Nef  I — i.  e.,  En  an  Vee 
hook. 

“ Being,”  if  written  alone,  should  be  Bee-Ing ; but  in 
phrases  simply  Bee — as  “ for  the  time  being,”  Ef-Tee-Bee. 

Write  half-lengths  to  express  ality,  idity,  bility,  ility,  inity 
— as  Frugality,  Fer-Gelt  ; principality,  Per-Pelt  ; timidity, 
Tee-Med  ; fluidity,  Fel-Det  ; stability,  Stee-Belt  ; possibility, 
Pees-Blet  ; facility,  Efs-Elt  ; futility,  Fet-Elt  ; vicinity,  Vees- 
Net.  But  after  N hook,  write  Bee,  or  omit  the  hook,  as  in 
trainable. 

Having  given  the  student  a good  start,  we  now  send  him 
on  his  way,  assuring  him  that  if  he  is  diligent  he  will  have  no 
reason  to  regret  having  taken  to  the  study  of  Phonography. 


LANGUAGES. 


The  number  of  languages  and  dialects,  ancient 
and  modern,  has  been  computed  by  Adelung  to  be 
3,064,  namely: — 


Belonging  to  Asia 987 

“ “ Europe 587 

“ “ Africa 276 

“ “ America 1,214 

Total 3,064 


It  would  take  more  space  than  our  limits  permit  to 
give  a tabular  view  of  all  languages  : the  following 
summary  contains  the  principal  families,  and  the 
classes  in  which  they  are  generally  placed  : — 

I.  Monosyllabic  Class. — Chinese,  Siamese,  Avan- 
ese,  Japanese. 

II.  Shemetic  or  Se?netic  Class. — Araemean  (Chal- 
dee Syriac),  Hebrew,  Phoenician,  Arabic. 

III.  Indo-European  or  Indo-Germanic  Class. — 
Sanscrit,  Celtic,  Teutonic  or  Gothic,  Pelasgic  or 
Greco-Latin,  Sclavonic,  Hungarian,  Tartarian-  or 
Turkish. 

IV.  The  Polynesian  Class,  consisting  of  the  dia- 
lects spoken  in  the  Indian  archipelago  and  islands 
of  the  South  Seas. 

V.  The  African  Class. — Remains  of  the  ancient 
Libyan  in  the  north  ; Soosoo  and  Foulah  (between 
the  rivers  Senegal  and  Gambia);  Ashantee;  Amaaric, 
spoken  in  parts  of  Abyssinia ; Hottentot,  in  the 
south  ; Caffre,  extending  from  the  south  along  the 
east  coast  as  far  as  Delagoa  Bay. 

VI.  Poly  synthetic  Class,  extending  from  north  to 
south  of  both  continents  of  America,  and  comprising 
Chilian,  Peruvian,  Brazilian,  Mexican,  Western  dia- 
lects of  North  America,  Boreal  dialects  of  North 
America,  etc. 

The  contrast  between  the  first  and  the  last  of 
these  classes  presents  an  apparent  anomaly.  The 
Chinese  languages  have  existed  among  a polished 


people  from  very  remote  antiquity,  and  yet  are  as 
rude  and  simple  as  if  they  had  been  just  devised  for 
the  use  of  a nation  but  recently  emerged  from  bar- 
barism ; whereas  the  languages  in  common  use 
among  the  wild  tribes  of  America  are  complex  and 
difficult  in  their  structure,  and  seem  as  if  they  had 
been  invented  by  a people  who  had  made  great  ad- 
vances in  civilization.  It  has  consequently  been 
surmised  that  America  was  at  one  time  the  residence 
of  a civilized  people,  of  whom  the  Indian  tribes  are 
the  degenerated  remains. 

SPECIMENS  OF  LANGUAGES. 

With  the  view  of  affording  the  unlearned  reader 
an  idea  of  the  appearance  of  some  of  the  principal 
languages,  dead  and  living,  we  append  the  passages 
from  the  New  Testament  composing  the  Lord’s 
Prayer,  in  Greek,  Latin,  Italian,  Spanish,  French, 
German,  Dutch,  and  English — for  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness the  Greek  is  printed  in  the  Roman  alphabet, 
the  aspirate  at  the  beginning  of  certain  words  being 
represented  by  the  letter  h.  The  reader  is  called  on 
to  observe  the  difference  between  the  Greek  and 
Latin  words,  and  how  evidently  the  Latin  is  the  pa- 
rent of  the  Italian,  Spanish,  and  French,  the  latter, 
however,  possessing  the  least  resemblance  in  orthog- 
raphy and  arrangement  to  its  original.  He  will  also 
have  an  opportunity  of  comparing  the  German  with 
its  kindred  tongue,  the  Dutch,  and  both  with  their 
relation  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  or  English. 

GREEK. 

Pater  hemon  ho  en  tois  ouranois,  hagiastheto  to  onoma  sou. 
Eltheto  he  Basileia  sou.  Genetheto  to  thelema  sou,  lios  en 
ourano,  kai  epi  tes  ges.  Ton  arton  hemon  ton  epiousion  dos 
hemin  semeron.  Kai  aphes  hemin  ta  opheilemata  hemon,  hos 
kai  hemeis  aphiemen  tois  opheiletais  hemon.  Kai  me  eisen- 
engkes  hemas  eis  peirasmon,  alia  rusai  hemas  apo  tou  ponerou; 


182 


LANGUAGES. 


hoti  sou  estin  he  Basileia,  kai  he  dunamis  kai  he  doxa,  eistous 
aionas.  Amen. 

LATIN. 

Pater  noster,  qui  es  in  coelis,  sanctificetur  nomen  tuum. 
Adveniat  regnum  tuum.  Fiat  voluntas  tua,  sicut  in  coelo,  et  in 
terra.  Panem  nostrum  quotidianum  da  nobis  hodie.  Et  re- 
mitte  nobis  debita  nostra,  sicut  et  nos  remittimus  debitoribus 
nostris.  Et  ne  nos  inducas  in  tentationem,  sed  libera  nos  a 
malo.  Tibi  enim  est  regnum,  et  potentia,  et  gloria,  in  sempi- 
temum.  Amen. 

ITALIAN. 

Padre  nostro,  che  sei  ne’  cieli,  sia  santificato  i’  tuo  nome. 
II  tuo  regno  venga.  La  tua  volonta  sia  fatta  in  terra  come  in 
cielo.  Dacci  oggi  il  nostro  pane  cotidiano.  E rimettici  i 
nostri  debiti,  come  noi  ancora  gli  rimettiamo  a’  nostri  debitori. 
E non  indurci  in  tentazione,  ma  liberaci  dal  maligno.  Perci- 
oche  tuo  e il  regno,  e la  potenza,  e la  gloria,  in  sempiterno. 
Amen. 

SPANISH.* 

Padre  nuestro,  que  estas  en  los  cielos,  sea  sanctificado  tu 
nombre.  Vega  tu  reyno  ; sea  hecha  tua  volontad  como  en  el 
cielo,  ansi  tambien  en  la  tierra.  Danos  oy  nuestro  pan  quoti- 
diano.  Y sueltanos  nuestras  deudas,  como  tambien  nosotros 
soltamos  a nuestros  deudores.  Y no  nos  metas  en  tentacion, 
mas  libranos  de  mal.  Porque  tuyo  es  el  reyno,  y la  potecia,  y 
la  gloria,  por  todos  los  siglos.  Amen. 

FRENCH. 

Notre  Pere  qui  es  aux  cieux,  ton  nom  soit  sanctifie.  Ton 
regne  vienne  ; ta  volonte  soit  faite  sur  la  terre,  comme  au  ciel. 
Donne-nous  aujourd’hui  notre  pain  quotidien.  Pardonne-nous 
nos  peches,  comme  aussi  nous  pardonnons  a ceux  qui  nous  ont 
offenses.  Et  ne  nous  abandonne  point  & la  tentation,  mais 
delivre  nous  du  malin.  Car  a toi  appartient  le  regne,  la  puis- 
sance, et  la  gloire,  & jamais.  Amen. 

GERMAN. 

Unser  Vater  in  dem  Himmel,  dien  Name  werde  geheiliget. 
Dein  Reich  komme.  Dien  Wille  geschehe  auf  Erden  wie  im 
Himmel.  Unser  tagliches  Brod  gieb  uns  heute.  Und  vergieb 
uns  unsere  Schulden,  wie  wir  unsern  Schuldigern  vergaben. 
Und  fiihre  uns  nicht  in  Versuchung,  sondern  erlese  uns  von 
dem  Uebel.  Denn  dein  ist  das  Reich,  und  die  Kraft,  und  die 
Herrlichkeit,  in  Ewigkeit.  Amen. 

DUTCH. 

Onze  Vader,  die  in  de  Ilemelen  zijt,  uw  naam  worde  geher- 
ligd.  Uw  Koningrijk  kome.  Uw  wil  gerchlede,  Gelijk  in 
den  hemel.  Zoo  ook  op  de  aarde.  Geef  ons  heden  ons  dage- 
lijksch  brood.  En  vergeef  ons  onze  schulden,  Gelijk  ook  wij 
vergeven  onzen  schuldenaren.  En  lied  ons  nict  in  verzoek- 
ing,  Maar  verlos  ons  van  den  booze.  Want  Uw  is  liet  kon- 
ingrijk, En  de  kracht,  en  de  heerlijkheid,  In  de  eeuwigheid. 
Amen. 

ENGLISH. 

Our  Father  who  art  in  heaven,  hallowed  be  thy  name. 
Thy  kingdom  come.  Thy  will  be  done  in  earth,  as  it  is  in 


heaven.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread.  And  forgive  us 
our  trespasses,  as  we  forgive  them  that  trespass  against  us. 
And  lead  us  not  into  temptation,  but  deliver  us  from  evil. 
For  thine  is  the  kingdom,  the  power,  and  the  glory,  for  ever 
and  ever.  Amen. 

Language,  in  the  largest  sense  of  the  term,  may  be  defined 
as  the  means  by  which  thought  is  expressed.  Thought,  as  is 
well  known,  may  be  expressed  by  means  of  mute  signs,  as 
frowns,  sighs,  kind  looks,  gestures  of  the  body,  or  by  inarticu- 
late sounds,  as  groans,  cries,  sobs,  laughter.  The  first  are 
usually  called  natural  language,  and  the  second  inarticulate  lan- 
guage ; and  these  means  of  expression  partly  belong  to  the 
lower  animals.  Finally,  there  is  articulate  language,  peculiar 
to  man  alone,  and  consisting  of  a multitude  of  sounds,  each  of 
which  represents  a distinct  idea.  To  this  last  mode  of  expres- 
sion, generally  known  by  the  simple  term  language,  our  atten- 
tion is  for  the  present  to  be  directed. 

ORIGINAL  FORMATION  OF 
LANGUAGE. 

It  is  sufficiently  clear  that  the  vocal  organs  of  man  are  con- 
stituted with  a view  to  his  expressing  himself  by  speech.  The 
larynx,  epiglottis,  pharynx,  tongue,  palate,  and  lips,  are  all 
of  them  framed  in  such  a manner  as  to  show  incontestably 
that  they  were  designed  for  producing  such  sounds  as  we  employ 
in  articulate  language. 

The  first  language  of  a child  is  that  of  inarticulate  sounds  ; 
it  cries  when  it  is  hungry,  screams  when  it  is  angry,  and 
moans  when  it  is  in  pain.  The  strong  resemblance  which 
subsists  between  the  words  in  different  languages  expressive  of 
the  first  social  ties,  is  worthy  of  observation.  Thus  the  word 
mother  is 


Em  and  am 

in  Hebrew  and  Arabic. 

Modor  in  Anglo-Saxon. 

Madr 

. .Persian 

Moder  . .Swedish. 

Malr 

. .Sanscrit. 

Moder  . . Danish. 

Meter 

. .Greek. 

Moeder  . . Dutch. 

Mate) 

. .Latin. 

Mutter  . . German. 

Madre 

. . Italian. 

Alater  . . Russian. 

Mere 

. .French. 

Mathair.  .Celtic. 

When  the  primitive  men , advancing  from  early  necessities 
and  simple  tangible  ideas,  found  it  necessary  to  have  words  to 
represent  the  abstractions  of  the  mind,  they  still  proceeded 
according  to  the  dictates  and  analogies  of  nature. 

In  all  languages,  every  term  expressive  of  mental  operations 
is  borrowed  from  the  material  world.  Some  of  the  terms  thus 
applied  are  signally  appropriate. 

In  the  present  stage  of  language  we  have  become  so  habitu- 
ated to  the  use  of  terms  applied  metaphorically,  that  we 
seldom  reflect  on  their  original  import.  There  are  many 
instances  in  which  the  metaphorical  word  remains,  when  its 
primary  signification  has  been  forgotten.  For  instance,  the 
word  capricious  does  not  suggest  the  idea  of  a goat,  although 
it  is  derived  from  the  Latin  caper,  a goat,  to  denote  the  char- 
acter of  a person  who  bounds  from  subject  to  subject,  without 
paying  due  attention  to  any  ; like  a goat,  which  bounds  from 
rock  to  rock,  without  settling  long  in  any  one  spot. 


THE  LETTER  WRITER. 


■ ■ ~'$y' 


Mmm 


ijfc  ji  & St  !■  fcKse 


VERY  position  in  life  demands  letter- 
writing.  A letter  is  the  great  link  be- 
ween  parents  and  children,  between 
lovers,  between  friends  ; while  in  busi- 
'^jfPness  relations  it  makes  fortunes,  or  mars 
them.  A good  letter  must,  firstly,  be  abso- 
lutely correct  in  every  mechanical  detail  ; 
then  style  comes  into  question  ; then  the  matter, 
which  must  be  intelligible  to  the  meanest  as  well  as 
the  highest  understanding.  The  great  art  of  letter- 
writing is  to  be  able  to  write  gracefully  and  with  ease, 
and  no  letter  should  wear  the  appearance  of  having 
been  laboriously  studied. 

The  first  point  to  be  observed  in  your  letter  is 
that  you  write  in  a clear,  legible  hand,  a hand  that 
anybody  and  everybody  can  read.  You  may  fill 
your  pages  with  the  most  exquisite  and  sparkling 
ideas,  but  if  they  cannot  be  read  except  to  the  tor- 
ture of  the  peruser,  your  diamond  thoughts  lose  all 
their  glitter,  and  people  to  whom  you  write,  instead 
of  being  anxious  to  receive  a letter  from  you,  will 
mentally  groan  at  the  very  idea  of  its  receipt,  know- 
ing the  toil  and  trouble  that  awaits  them  in  its  pe- 
rusal. 

Be  patient,  then,  and  plod  on  steadily  until  you 
write  a bold,  clear,  clean  hand,  and  never  let  a scrap 
of  your  writing  pass  from  you  that  is  not  carefully 
executed. 

Never  erase.  It  is  much  better,  though  wearying 
the  task,  to  commence  all  over  again.  An  erasure 
is  a sore  to  the  eye. 

Orthography  is  next  to  be  considered.  Bad  spell- 
ing is  disgraceful,  and  many  people  spell  badly  from 
simple  carelessness.  Read  carefully  the  works  of 
the  best  authors.  Write  extracts  from  these  works, 


and  you  will  intuitively  spell  correctly.  Your  sense 
will  become  offended  at  a misspelt  word.  Use 
the  simplest  language.  Always  have  a dictionary 
(pocket)  beside  you,  but  never  consult  it  unless  you 
are  in  doubt.  Once  consulted,  you  should  remem- 
ber the  word  ever  afterward.  Never  divide  your 
words  into  syllables  at  the  end  of  the  line  unless  you 
cannot  help  it.  If  you  have  space  for  the  first  syl- 
lable, let  your  hyphen  be  bold.  Thus  : 

It  is  sometimes  a great  con- 
solation to  me  that,  etc.,  etc. 

A word  of  one  syllable  must  not  be  divided.  Bring 
it  bodily  over  to  the  next  line. 

Compound  words  must  be  divided  into  the  simple 
words  composing  them.  Thus  : War-whoop,  not 
warw-hoop  ; bread-stuff,  not  breadst-uff. 

GRAMMAR. 

Place  your  verbs  correctly  at  all  hazards.  Never 
use  the  adverb  for  the  adjective,  or  the  adjective  for 
the  adverb.  Never  take  liberties  with  the  relative 
pronouns,  or  mingle  in  dire  confusion  tenses  and 
moods.  A careful  study  of  the  admirable  grammar 
in  this  cyclopedia  will  keep  the  letter  writer  in  the 
straight  path. 

PUNCTUATION. 

In  order  to  have  the  meaning  of  words  readily 
understood,  it  becomes  necessary  to  divide  those 
words  into  paragraphs,  sentences  and  clauses,  by 
means  of  punctuation.  As  an  instance  of  the  ab- 
sence of  punctuation  and  the  farcical  result,  just 
read  this  : 

Lost  on  Broadway  on  Thursday  evening  last  an 
umbrella  by  an  elderly  gentleman  with  a carved 
ivory  head. 


THE  LETTER  WRITER. 


184 


Take  the  following  rules  and  mark  them  well  : 

Put  a comma  wherever  you  would  make  a trifling 
pause,  were  you  speaking  ; as,  “ He  came,  he  saw, 
he  conquered.” 

A semicolon  makes  a longer  pause,  and  an  incom- 
plete sentence  ; as,  “ Julia  is  handsome  ; Agnes  is 
beautiful.”  The  semicolon  separates  the  sentence 
more  distinctly  than  the  comma. 

The  colon  marks  a sentence  which  is  complete  in 
itself,  but  is  followed  by  some  additional  remark  ; 
as,  “ Shun  vice  : it  will  lead  to  ruin.”  The  colon  is 
also  used  to  precede  a quotation,  and  point  it  off 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  ; as,  Shakespeare  says  : 
“ Assume  a virtue,  if  you  have  it  not.” 

A period  is  used  to  denote  that  a sentence  is  com- 
plete; as,  “A  bird  in  the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush.” 
The  dash  is  used  to  denote  a sudden  pause,  or 
abrupt  change  of  sense  ; as,  “ I have  loved  her 
madly,  wildly — but  why  speak  of  her  ? ” 

The  interrogation  point  is  used  only  after  a ques- 
tion ; as,  “ Why  did  you  say  so  ? ” 

The  interjection  point  is  used  only  to  denote  an 
exclamation  ; as,  “Alas  ! all  my  joys  have  flown  ! ” 
The  parenthesis  is  used  to  enclose  a portion  of  a 
sentence  which  if  left  out  would  not  destroy  the 
sense  ; as,  “ I value  this  flower  (a  faded  flower) 
very  highly.” 

The  apostrophe  is  used  to  mark  the  possessive 
case,  and  also  the  omission  of  a letter  or  letters  in  a 
word  ; as,  “ Frederick’s  hair  is  black,”  or,  “ Gen’l 
Grant  is  getting  old.” 

The  caret  is  used  to  mark  an  omitted  word,  which 
word  must  be  written  immediately  above  it  ; as, 
wet 

“ What  a day  ! ” 

The  hyphen  is  used  to  connect  compound  words, 
and  at  the  end  of  a line  shows  that  more  syllables 
are  carried  over  to  the  next  line. 

Quotation  marks  are  used  before  and  after  every 
quotation,  to  separate  and  define  it  ; as,  “ Many  are 
called,  but  few  are  chosen.” 

CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

The  capital  letters  only  set  apart  the  sentences 
and  paragraphs,  but  while  their  proper  use  adds 
greatly  to  the  beauty  of  an  epistle,  their  omission  or 
improper  use  will  make  the  pages  present  a perfectly 
j absurd  appearance. 


-*f 


Begin  every  paragraph  with  a capital  letter. 

Begin  every  sentence  following  a period  with  a 
capital  letter. 

Begin  all  proper  names  with  a capital  letter. 

Begin  all  titles,  as  President,  Vice-President,  Gen- 
eral, Doctor  or  Captain,  with  a capital  letter. 

Begin  all  names  of  places,  as  Chicago,  Long 
Branch,  Niagara,  with  a capital  letter. 

Begin  the  words,  North,  South,  East,  West,  and 
their  compounds  and  abbreviations,  as  North-east, 
S.  W.,  with  a capital  letter. 

Begin  the  names  of  the  Deity  and  Heaven,  or  the 
pronoun  used  for  the  former,  as,  in  His  mercy — - 
Thou,  Father,  with  a capital  letter. 

Begin  all  adjectives  formed  from  the  names  of 
places  or  points  of  the  compass,  as  English,  North- 
ern, with  a capital  letter. 

Begin  every  line  of  poetry  with  a capital  let- 
ter. 

Begin  all  quotations  with  a capital  letter. 

Begin  all  titles  of  books,  and  usually  each  impor- 
tant word  of  the  title,  as,  Bancroft’s  History  of  the 
United  States. 

Begin  the  name  of  any  historical  event,  as  the 
Civil  War,  with  a capital  letter. 

The  pronoun  I and  the  interjection  O must  inva- 
riably be  written  with  a capital  letter. 

Begin  all  the  names  of  the  months,  as  June,  April, 
with  a capital  letter. 

Begin  all  addresses,  as,  Dear  Sir — Dear  Madam, 
with  a capital  letter. 

Capital  letters  must  never  be  placed  in  the  middle 
of  a word  ; never,  except  in  accordance  with  the 
foregoing  rules,  in  the  middle  of  a sentence. 

STYLE. 

You  cannot  blindly  follow  any  rules  as  regards 
style,  as  your  style  will  ever  be  your  own.  Quote  as 
little  as  possible,  and  be  niggardly  with  your  adjec- 
tives. Avoid  long  sentences,  and  florid  language. 
Parenthesis  should  be  carefully  punctuated ; as, 
“John  (who  is,  as  you  are  aware,  a confirmed  toper) 
is  considerably  better.” 

Be  very  careful  not  to  repeat  the  same  word. 
Tautology  is  a crime  in  writing.  Read  this  and  see 
how  you  like  it : 

“ Willie  has  come.  Johnny  will  come  to-morrow. 
Will  you  come  and  spend  a day  with  us  ? Make 
Susie  come.  Summer  has  come  at  last.” 


THE  LETTER  WRITER. 


i8f 


This  is  tautology.  Do  not  underline  unless  in  very 
extreme  cases. 

“ You  know,  darling,  how  intensely  I love  you,”  is 
perhaps  excusable. 

Never  abbreviate  except  in  business.  Dates  should 
be  given  in  figures,  and  money,  in  parentheses,  thus 
($io,ooo).  Date  carefully. 

Begin  a letter  this  way  : 


or 


Richmond,  Va., 

June  ist,  1882. 

New  York,  Sept.  7th,  1882. 


Avoid  postscripts.  They  are  only  embarrassing. 
Take  your  envelope,  and  having  neatly  folded  your 
letter,  place  it  in  the  envelope,  close  the  envelope 
and  write  in  the  most  legible  manner : 


Iowa,  Io. ; Florida,  Fla.;  Oregon,  On.;  California, 
Cal.;  Minnesota,  Minn.;  District  of  Columbia,  D.  C. 


REPLIES. 

There  is  no  greater  mark  of  good-breeding  and 
politeness,  than  the  prompt  reply  to  a letter.  Never 
lose  a moment,  if  possible,  in  replying  to  one.  If 
the  reply  requires  delay,  write  to  acknowledge 
receipt  of  the  letter.  Never  reply  by  proxy  if  you 
are  able  to  write  yourself. 

Never  write  on  a half  sheet  of  paper. 

Avoid  pedantry. 

Never  write  a congratulatory  letter  upon  mourn- 
ing-paper, even  if  you  are  in  mourning. 

Never  try  to  patch  an  ill-formed  letter. 


Put 

Stamp 

here. 


Abbreviate  the  names  of  the  States  in  the  following 
fashion : 

Maine,  Me.;  New  Hampshire,  N.  H.;  Vermont, 
Vt.;  Massachusetts,  Mass.;  Rhode  Island,  R.  I.; 
Connecticut,  Conn.;  New  York,  N.  Y.;  New  Jersey, 
N.  J.;  Pennsylvania,  Penn,  or  Pa.;  Delaware,  Del.; 
Maryland,  Md.;  Virginia,  Va. ; North  Carolina,  N. 
C.;  South  Carolina,  S.  C. ; Georgia,  Ga.  or  Geo.; 
Alabama,  Ala.;  Mississippi,  Miss.;  Missouri,  Mo.; 
Louisiana,  La.,  Tennessee,  Tenn. ; Kentucky,  Ky.; 
Indiana,  Ind.;  Ohio,  O.;  Michigan,  Mich.;  Illinois, 
111.;  Wisconsin,  Wis. ; Arkansas,  Ark.;  Texas,  Tex.; 


If  you  add  your  own  address  to  a letter,  put  it 
under  your  signature,  thus  : 

Very  respectfully, 

Robert  R.  White, 

154  R St., 

New  Orleans,  La. 

Never  write  an  anonymous  letter.  Treat  it  with 
silent  contempt. 

Never  gossip.  Friendly  intelligence,  if  you  are 
certain  it  is  true,  may  be  communicated. 


i80 


THE  LETTER  WRITER. 


Date  every  letter  clearly  and  carefully.  It  is  of- 
ten of  the  utmost  importance  to  know  when  a letter 
was  written. 

Sit  erect  when  writing,  as,  if  you  write  constantly, 
a stoop  will  surely  injure  your  figure  and  your  health. 


If  you  want  to  be  stylish,  send  your  letter  of  in- 
troduction, with  your  card,  by  the  servant  at  the 
private  residence  of  the  person  to  whom  you  are  in- 
troduced. Send  a letter  with  your  card  if  you  pre- 
sent it  at  a merchant’s  office. 


We  give  examples  of  the  forms  of  letters  in  gen- 
eral use.  These  will  act  as  guides  to  the  inexpe- 
rienced. 

LETTERS  OF  INTRODUCTION. 

Never  seal  a letter  of  introduction.  Mention  the 
business  in  which  the  party  whom  you  are  introduc- 
ing is  or  was  engaged.  Write  the  name  of  the  party 
introduced  in  the  left-hand  corner  of  the  envelope 
containing  the  introduction.  Thus  : you  wish  to  in- 
troduce Mr.  Charles  Kendrick,  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  to 
Mr.  Henry  Blachford,  of  New  York.  Direct  your 
letter  as  above. 


INTRODUCING  ONE  LADY  TO  ANOTHER. 


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I'Zi/bftS  /Iso 

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4 


THE  LETTER  WRITER. 


187 


INTRODUCING  A YOUNG  LADY  SEEKING  EMPLOY- 
MENT. 


Poughkeepsie,  June  1,  1882. 

Dear  Mr.  Jones  : — 

The  young  lady  whom  this  letter  will  make  known  to  you  is  desirous 
of  obtaining  employment  in  your  city,  and  I use  our  old  acquaintance- 
ship as  the  bridge  to  your  good  offices  in  her  behalf.  She  has  received 
a very  liberal  education  and  would  prove  of  immense  value  to  a family 
whose  young  children  need  careful  and  judicious  teaching.  She  is  gen- 
tle, amiable,  and  willing.  I trust  you  may  be  able  to  serve  her. 

I am,  etc., 

Dear  Mr.  Jones, 

Your  sincere  friend, 

R.  A.  Appleton. 

Mr.  W.  F.  Jones. 

INTRODUCING  A GENTLEMAN  SEEKING  A POSI- 
TION IN  A COUNTING-HOUSE. 

Albany,  June  1,  1882. 

My  dear  Sir  : 

Recognizing  your  well-merited  and  extensive  influence  in  the  com- 
mercial circles  in  your  city,  I beg  to  introduce  to  you  W.  James  Farms, 
who  is  desirous  of  obtaining  a clerkship  in  a counting-house.  He  is  a 
gentleman  of  capacity  and  ability.  His  character  stands  A 1,  and  he  is  as 
industrious  as  he  is  energetic.  He  considers  New  York  a better  field  than 
this  place,  and  prefers  to  try  his  chances  there  to  remaining  here.  He 
can  refer  to  me.  Trusting  that  you  will  lend  him  a helping  hand,  I am, 

Yours,  very  truly, 

Jacob  Hill. 

Joseph  Lynch,  Esq. 

INTRODUCING  A SISTER  TO  A SCHOOLMATE. 

Wilkesbarre,  June  8,  1882. 

Dear  Rosie: 

This  letter  will  introduce  my  sister  Polly.  I do  not  think  that  I need 
say  another  word.  I love  you  both.  You  will  love  both  of  us.  I will 
write  a long  letter  very  soon. 

Yours,  as  ever, 

Mary. 

Miss  Rosie  Irwin. 

INTRODUCING  A YOUNG  MARRIED  LADY  TO  A 
FRIEND  IN  HER  NEW  HOME 

Stanford,  Conn.,  June  1,  1882. 

My  dear  Mamie  : 

Mrs.  Holcroft  will  present  this  note,  and  when  I tell  you  that  she  is  a 
bride,  and  is  about  to  settle  in  your  town,  I feel  that  I have  secured  her 
a pleasant  friendship,  and  that  she  will  find  in  you  an  old  ne-u  friend 
in  the  midst  of  strangers.  I know  that  you  will  pay  her  all  the  atten- 
tion that  lies  in  your  power  for  the  sake  of  auld  lang  syne. 

Your  loving  friend, 

Blossie. 

Mrs.  W.  T.  Marsden. 

INTRODUCING  A DAUGHTER  ABOUT  TO  MAKE  A 
VISIT. 

Cleveland,  O.,  June  1,  1882. 

My  dear  Mrs.  Becker  : 

My  daughter  Ellen  will  present  this  in  person,  as  her  introduction  to 
her  mother’s  old  friend,  whose  kind  invitation  to  spend  a few  weeks 
she  accepts,  con  amore.  That  she  will  have  a delightful  time  is  amongst 
the  few  certainties  in  this  very  uncertain  life.  You  may  find  her  a little 
shy  and  reserved,  but  under  your  care  she  win  soon  feel  herself  as 
much  at  home  as  in  Euclid  Avenue,  Cleveland.  With  warmest  re- 
gards to  your  husband,  and  lots  of  love  to  yourself,  I am, 

Your  sincere  friend, 

Catherine  E.  Lawson. 

Mrs.  Joseph  Becker. 


INTRODUCING  A GENTLEMAN  TO  A LADY  FRIEND, 

Warrenport,  Me.,  June  1,  1882. 

My  dear  Miss  Tentine  : 

My  friend  Mr.  Robert  George  Balfin  by  whom  this  letter  will  be 
presented,  is  about  to  settle  in  Dayton.  As  your  hospitality  is  proverb- 
ial, may  I hope  for  a little  slice  of  it  for  him  ? And  I look  forward  tc 
good  reports  from  both  of  you  as  to  the  ripening  of  a friendship  the 
seed  of  which  is  now  sown  by 

Your  very  sincere  friend, 

John  G.  Shear. 


LETTERS  ON  BUSINESS. 


Letters  on  business  should  be  brief,  to  the  point,  and  clearly 
and  cleanly  written.  No  flourishes  either  in  diction  or  pen- 
manship. There  is  no  time  for  such  ornamentation  in  business. 

ORDERING  A SUPPLY  OF  GOODS  FOR  A STORE  IN 
THE  COUNTRY. 


Spike,  Thompson  County,  Ky.,  I 
June  1,  1882.  ' 

Messrs.  Park  & Tilford,  New  York  : 

Gentlemen — I have  just  opened  a large  grocery  store  in  this  place, 
and  the  prospects  of  success  seem  assured.  I should  be  happy  to  deal 
with  your  firm.  can  refer  you  to  Robinson  & Charles,  of  270  Broad- 
way, New  York.  This  being  our  first  transaction,  I shall  be  prepared 
to  pay  the  express  co.  upon  delivery  of  goods,  if  you  will  forward  me 
your  ac.  with  the  usual  cash  discount  by  a previous  mail. 

Enclosed  please  find  order,  which  I should  wish  filled  as  promptly  as 
is  consistent  with  your  convenience. 

Very  respectfully, 

R.  M.  Macarthy. 


REPLY. 

Broadway,  New  York,  I 
3 June , 1882.  > 

Mr.  R.  M.  Macarthy: 

Dear  Sir — Your  favor  of  the  1st  to  hand.  We  shall  be  pleased  to 
open  an  account  with  you,  Messrs.  Robinson  & Charles  having  spoken 
very  highly  of  you. 

We  have  this  day  forwarded  to  your  address  the  goods  according  to 
your  invoice,  but  being  desirous  of  obtaining  your  approval  of  their 
quality  and  value,  will  await  your  examination  for  the  enclosed  bill, 
which  is  subject  to  5 percent,  discount  for  prompt  cash.  A post-office 
order  or  draft  on  one  of  our  city  banks  will  suit  our  convenience  equallj 
well  as  collection  by  Dodd’s  Express. 

Hoping  to  receive  further  orders,  we  are, 

Yours  respectfully, 

Park  & T ilforv. 


LETTER  OFFERING  THE  MS.  OF  A BOOK  TO  A 
PUBLISHER. 


Wilmington,  N.  C.,  April  2,  i88». 

Messrs.  Provost  & Co., 

Publishers,  Tremont  St.,  Boston,  Mass.: 

Gentlemen— I have  just  written  a society  novel  of  the  present  day. 
and  wish  to  have  it  put  upon  the  market  as  soon  as  practicable.  Please 
inform  me  if  you  are  willing  to  publish  it,  and  at  what  terms 
This  is  my  first  novel,  but  under  the  name  cf  “ Daisy  Dean  ” I have 
contributed  quite  a number  of  short  stories  to  Frank  Leslie’s  and  other 
popular  publications.  I may  mention  that  my  style  is  what  is  termed 
“breezy  that  is,  bright  and  crisp. 

Awaiting  an  early  reply,  I am,  gentlemen, 

Very  truly  yours, 

Mrs.  J.  F.  Murray. 

REPLY. 


292  Trenton  St.,  ( 
Boston,  Mass.,  April  1882.  ’ 


Mrs.  J.  F.  Murray  : 

Dear  Madam — Having  made  all  our  arrangements  for  oublicalions 


1 88 


THE  LETTER  WRITER. 


for  the  year,  we  are  compelled  to  decline  the  offer  of  your  MS.,  and 
trust  that  you  may  be  successful  elsewhere. 

We  are,  dear  madam, 

Your  obedient  servants, 

Provost  & Co., 

Per  W.  F. 


The  goods  must  be  sent  to  Warrington  by  rail,  and  to  Mr.  William 
Snipe,  240  State  Street,  who  will  pay  C.  O.  D. 

Direct  as  follows  : 

Mrs.  Wilson  Toft, 

Warrington  Station, 

Tewkesbury  Co.,  Mass. 


LETTER  PROPOSING  TO  SELL  GOODS  ON  COM- 
MISSION. 


Drakeville,  Young  Co.,  Md.,  I 
January  28,  1882.  > 

Messrs.  Short  & Stelt  : 

Gentlemen — I have  been  in  business  in  this  town  for  over  twelve 
years,  and  refer  to  the  National  Bank,  and  to  Mr.  James  E.  Towns- 
end, ex-Mayor  and  a prominent  citizen.  I see  a good  opening  for  in- 
creasing my  sales,  and  am  desirous  of  a supply  of  your  goods  to  sell  on 
commission.  If  required  I will  give  you  full  security  against  any  loss. 

Should  this  proposition  meet  your  views,  please  fill  the  accompanying 
order,  and  give  me  the  benefit  of  your  most  favorable  terms. 

Respectfully, 

John  Riley. 


REPLY. 


Baltimore,  Feby.  2,  ’82. 

Mr.  John  Riley- 

Dear  Sir — We  have  to-day  forwarded  by  Dodd’s  Express  the  goods 
ordered  per  your  letter  of  the  28th  ult. ; the  inquiries  about  you,  as 
suggested  by  you,  having  proved  most  satisfactory.  The  commission 
is  10  per  cent.  The  bill  of  sale  accompanies  each  package. 

Trusting  that  opening  will  lead  to  a long  connection  of  mutual  benefit, 
We  are  yours  respectfully. 

Short  & Stelt. 

REQUESTING  THE  SETTLEMENT  OF  AN 
ACCOUNT. 

Milwaukee,  Wis.,  July  30,  1882. 

Mr.  T.  W.  Ingram  : 

Dear  Sir — As  we  have  a large  payment  to  make  at  the  end  of  next 
week,  and  as  your  account  remains  unsettled,  we  must  beg  of  you  to 
send  us  a check  for  same  by  Tuesday  next.  We  are  reluctant  to  press 
you,  but  we  are  pressed  ourselves. 

Very  respectfully, 

Smith  & Brown. 

REQUESTING  PAYMENT  OF  RENT. 


FROM  A FARMER  IN  IRELAND,  PROPOSING  TO 
EMIGRATE. 

Ballinkill,  Co.  Mayo,  ) 

A ugust  1st,  1882.  > 

To 

Mr.  John  Murphy, 

Tippins  Cove, 

Burke  County,  Montana. 

Sir— Pat  Lynch,  of  Coolamore,  tells  me  that  you  could  give  me  all 
the  information  I want  about  that  part  of  the  county  you  are  now  in. 

I have  been  farming  about  60  acres  for  the  last  fifteen  years,  and  have 
saved  up  .£500. 

I want  to  know  what  sort  of  a county  you  are  in  ; climate,  soil, 
water,  and  all  that,  and  what  I could  get  for  my  /500 ; also,  if  any  in- 
ducements are  held  out  to  men  of  my  class.  I have  a wife  and  seven 
children — 4 boys  and  3 girls.  The  boys,  thanks  be  to  God,  are  all  able 
to  take  a hand  at  farm  work. 

Pat  Lynch  will  answer  for  me. 

Yours  obediently, 

Murty  Joyce. 


To 


REPLY. 


Tippins  Cove,  I 
Burke  Co.,  Montana.  > 


Mr.  Murphy  Joyce  : 

My  dear  Friend — If  Pat  Lynch,  my  old  friend,  advised  you  to  emigrate 
here  he  did  well.  I have  been  here  now  for  five  years,  and  no  induce- 
ment would  tempt  me  to  leave  it.  For  half  of  your  £$ o«  you  can  buy 
as  many  acres  as  you  wish  to  farm,  and  our  little  settlement  is  growing 
so  rapidly  that  in  a short  time  your  land  will  be  worth  double  what  you 
pay  for  it.  Come  to  me  straight,  and  stop  with  me,  all  of  you,  till  your 
log  hut  is  built. 

The  climate  here  is  healthy  and  invigorating ; the  soil  fine,  and  a lit- 
tle river  of  good  water  is  close  by,  while  the  woods  give  us  all  th4 
fuel  we  require.  You  can  come  to  within  fifty  miles  of  me  by  rail,  but 
I’ll  have  horses  and  wagons  at  the  station  to  take  you  and  your  family 
here.  Let  me  hear  full  details  of  your  starting,  and  give  my  warmest 
regards  to  Pat  Lynch.  I wish  he  was  coming  too  with  all  my  heart. 

Yours  faithfully, 

John  Murphy. 


E.  29TH  St.,  New  York,  I 
March  27,  1882.  > 

Mr.  Patrick  K.  Chiselhurst  : 

Dear  Sir — I must  call  your  attention  to  the  fact  that,  although  your 
agreement  for  the  house  rented  by  you  from  me  stipulates  monthly  pay- 
ments in  advance,  you  have  failed  to  pay  for  three  months  and  are  now 
in  arrears  $206. 

If  you  fail  to  pay  the  account  within  six  days  I shall  be  reluctantly 
compelled  to  place  the  matter  in  the  hands  of  my  lawyer  for  collection. 

Very  respectfully, 

Thomas  Vosburg. 

FROM  A LADY  IN  THE  COUNTRY  ORDERING 
GOODS. 

Maida  Vale,  Tewkesbury  Co.,  Mass.,  I 
Jan.  18,  1882.  ' 

Messrs.  Calice  & Twist, 

Washington  Street,  Boston  : 

Gentlemen — Please  send  me  by  Dodd’s  Express  the  following  goods : 
12  yards  of  green  gauze. 

24  yards  gingham. 

2 pair  of  six-button  gloves,  lavender  color,  size  6X,  Dent’s  make. 

6 pocket  handkerchiefs,  plain  white,  with  broad  hem-stitched  border. 

Also  please  send  pattern  of  black  satin  of  a good  quality,  price 
marked. 


TO  THE  FATHER  OF  A YOUNG  LADY,  ASKING 
HER  HAND  IN  MARRIAGE. 

Washington  Avenue,  Brooklyn,  I 
Mar.  12,  ’82.  1 

Sir — I venture  to  hope  that  you  will  call  all  your  friendly  feelings 
to  my  assistance,  in  considering  a proposal  I am  about  to  lay  before  you, 
in  which  my  happiness  is  completely  concerned. 

For  a long  time  past  your  daughter,  Effie,  has  held  a strong  hold  over 
my  affections,  and  I have  reason  to  believe  that  I am  not  indifferent  to 
her.  My  position  is  such  as  to  warrant  my  belief  that  I could  support 
her  in  the  style  of  comfort  which  she  so  well  deserves,  and  which  it  has 
been  your  constant  aim  to  provide  for  your  children.  As  regards  my 
character  and  disposition,  I trust  they  are  sufficiently  well  known  to  you 
to  give  you  confidence  in  the  prospect  of  your  child’s  happiness. 

I have  not,  however,  ventured  on  any  express  declaration  of  my  feel- 
ings, without  first  consulting  you  on  the  subject,  as  I feel  persuaded 
that  the  straightforward  course  is  always  ti;e  best,  and  that  a parent’s 
sanction  will  never  be  wanting  when  the  circumstances  of  the  case 
justify  its  being  accorded. 

Anxiously  awaiting  the  result  of  your  consideration  on  this  important 
and  interesting  subject, 

I remain,  sir. 

Your  most  faithful  and  obedient  servant, 

Edward  L.  Spring. 
To 

W.  Parsons,  Esq. 


THE  LETTER  WRITER. 


FAVORABLE. 

Meadow  Bank,  I 
March  13,  1882.  > 

My  dear  Edward  Spring  : 

I thank  you  very  much  for  the  manly  and  honorable  way  in  which 
you  have  addressed  me  in  reference  to  my  daughter’s  hand.  I have 
long  since  perceived  that  your  attentions  to  her  were  of  a marked  charac- 
ter, and  that  they  appeared  to  give  her  much  pleasure.  I know  no  reason 
whatever  to  oppose  your  wishes,  and,  if  I may  judge  from  the  manner 
in  which  she  received  the  communication  from  myself,  you  will  find  a 
by  no  means  unwilling  listener. 

Dine  with  us  to-morrow  at  six  o’clock,  if  you  are  not  engaged,  and 
you  will  then  have  an  opportunity  of  pleading  your  own  cause.  Mean- 
while, believe  me,  with  every  confidence  in  your  integrity  and  good 
feeling, 

Yours  most  sincerely, 

William  Parsons. 

To 

E.  L.  Spring,  Esq. 

UNFAVORABLE. 

Meadow  Bank,  I 
March  13, 1882.  1 

Dear  Sir  : 

It  is  always  painful  to  return  an  unfavorable  answer,  but  such  is  un- 
fortunately my  task  on  the  present  occasion. 

My  daughter  has  for  a long  time  been  engaged  to  a gentleman  whose 
character  and  position  give  her  no  cause  to  regret  the  engagement.  At 
the  same  time  she  duly  appreciates  the  compliment  implied  by  your  pref- 
erence, and  unites  with  me  in  the  sincere  wish  that,  as  an  esteemed 
friend,  you  may  meet  with  a companion  in  every  way  calculated  to  en- 
sure your  happiness. 

Believe  me,  dear  sir, 

Your  sincere  friend, 

William  Parsons. 

To 

E.  L.  Spring,  Esq. 

A GENTLEMAN,  AFTER  MEETING  A LADY  AT  A 

PARTY,  ASKING  PERMISSION  TO  PAY  HIS 
ADDRESSES. 

18  W.  36TH  St.,  N.  Y.,  ( 

July  27, 1882.  1 

Dear  Miss  Winslow  : 

I must  crave  your  pardon  for  the  somewhat  bold  address  I am  about 
to  make,  trusting  that  its  apparent  presumption  may  be  excused  by  the 
consideration  that  my  feelings  are  deeply  enlisted  in  its  success.  The 
marked  attentions  paid  you  at  Mrs.  Burke’s  party  could  not,  I flatter 
myself,  have  failed  to  attract  your  notice,  nor  have  been  wholly  disa- 
greeable to  yourself.  Cherishing  this  pleasing  belief,  I am  encouraged 
to  crave  the  privilege  of  being  permitted  to  improve  my  acquaintance 
with  a lady  for  whom  I entertain  so  high  an  esteem. 

The  company  in  which  we  met  will,  I trust,  be  considered  a sufficient 
guarantee  of  my  character  and  position  to  warrant  me  in  looking  for- 
ward to  an  early  renewal  of  the  happy  hours  spent  in  your  company. 
Your  kind  permission  once  granted,  I shall  lose  no  time  in  seeking,  for 
my  addresses,  the  sanction  of  your  parents  ; but  I do  not  feel  at  liberty 
to  take  such  a step  until  well  assured  that  it  will  be  agreeable  to  your 
wishes. 

May  I entreat  the  favor  of  an  early  reply?  which,  dear  MissWins- 
ow,  will  be  anxiously  awaited  by 

Your  devoted  admirer, 

William  Thropcake. 

TO  A WIDOW  FROM  A WIDOWER. 

120TH  St.,  New  York,  Nov.  19,  1882. 

My  dear  Madam — I am  emboldened  to  lay  open  to  you  the  present 
state  of  my  feelings,  being  so  convinced  of  your  good  sense  and  amia- 
ble disposition,  that  I feel  assured  you  will  deal  candidly  with  me  in 
your  reply. 

Like  yourself,  I have  been  deprived  of  the  partner  of  my  earlier  life, 
and,  as  I approach  the  middle  state  of  existence,  I feel  more  and  more 


the  want  of  some  kindred  spirit  to  share  with  me  whatever  years  are 
reserved  to  me  by  Providence.  My  fortune  is  such  as  to  enable  me  to 
support  a lady  in  the  manner  which  I feel  to  be  due  to  your  accomplish- 
ments and  position,  and  I sincerely  hope  that  you  will  think  carefully 
over  my  proposal ; and,  if  you  can  make  up  your  mind  to  share  my  for- 
tune and  affections,  I trust  that  no  efforts  will  be  wanting  on  my  part 
to  ensure  you  the  happiness  you  so  well  deserve. 

I need  scarcely  say  that  an  early  answer,  on  a matter  so  much  coa 
nected  with  my  future  happiness,  will  be  a great  favor  to, 

My  dear  madam, 

Your  devoted  friend  and  admirer, 

Arthur  Borstop. 

To  Mrs.  Wadlow. 

A GENTLEMAN  ASKING  HIS  BETROTHED  TO 
NAME  THE  DAY. 

2 Allen’s  Ford,  i 

St.  Louis,  July  8,  1882. ) 

My  Own  Darling  Wife  that  is  to  be  : — 

Let  me  implore  of  you  to  name  the  day  that  will  make  us  one— that 
day  which  is  to  bring  us  together  for  all  time.  You  blushed  last  night 
when  I urged  the  question,  and  put  me  off  with  some  pretty,  but  pitiful 
excuse.  For  once,  darling,  let  tne  dictate  and  say  Wednesday.  Won’t 
you,  my  precious  pet  ? 

Yours, 

Ted. 

A YOUNG  MAN  IN  COLORADO  TO  HIS  BETROTHED 
IN  NEW  YORK. 

Leadville,  Dec.  13,  18 — . 

Dearest  Elizabeth — You  have  doubtless  received  letters  from  me 
lately,  describing  my  situation  here,  and  stating  the  projects  that  I had 
under  consideration.  In  one  of  those  letters,  allusion  is  made  to  a spec- 
ulation in  land  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  place,  with  the  remark  that, 
if  it  were  successful,  I should  be  able  to  make  good  my  promise,  and 
claim  you  as  the  partner  of  my  joys  and  sorrows  for  life.  My  most  san- 
guine expectations  have  been  more  than  realized. 

Herewith  you  will  receive  a draft  on  the  National  Park  Bank,  in  New 
York,  for  $500,  of  which  I pray  you  to  make  use  in  providing  such  ar- 
ticles as  may  be  necessary  to  replenish  your  wardrobe,  in  anticipation 
of  our  speedy  marriage,  after  my  return  home.  Pray  present  your  dear 
mother  with  my  affectionate  regards,  and  say  that  I can  never  forget, 
now  that  I have  the  power,  that  it  is  my  duty  to  assist  and  cherish  her 
declining  years.  I also  send  some  few  trinkets,  made  of  Leadville  gold, 
which  you  will  please  present  on  my  behalf  to  your  sisters,  as  tokens  of 
my  brotherly  regard ; for  such  I now  consider  my  relations  toward 
them. 

With  my  kindest  respects  to  all,  and  trusting  that  I may  soon  be  per- 
mitted to  embrace  my  dearest,  I remain 

Her  devoted 

Mark  Tapley. 

COMPLAINTS  OF  A LADY’S  COOLNESS. 

Cedar  St.,  Philadelphia,  March  1. 

Dear  Susan — The  change  in  your  behavior  toward  me — from  the 
kindness  of  an  attached  friend  to  the  cool  indifference  of  a distant  ac- 
quaintance— indicates  but  too  plainly  that,  by  some  means,  I have  had 
the  misfortune  to  excite  your  displeasure  ; though  how  or  when  I can- 
not imagine.  Recently,  I have  several  times  attempted  to  seek  an  ex- 
planation, but,  in  every  instance,  my  courage  failed  me  at  the  critical 
moment,  and,  as  a last  resort,  intrusting  to  my  pen  the  duty  which  my 
lips  should  have  performed,  I now  write  to  you,  to  ask  wherein  I have 
offended.  Whatever  may  be  your  reply,  rest  assured  that  my  feelings 
toward  yourself  cannot  be  changed,  and  that  your  beloved  image  will 
ever  be  enshrined  in  the  breast  of 

Your  affectionate  friend, 

E.  L.  Dwyer. 


THE  LETTER  WRITER. 


i 


90 


EXPLAINING  AN  APPARENT  SLIGHT. 

Boston,  March  8,  1882. 

Dearest  Julia — How  could  you  consider  me  capable  of  inflicting  a 
slight  upon  yourself,  in  whom  are  centered  all  my  hopes  of  happiness  ? 
Nothing  more  than  ordinary  courtesy  was  intended  by  my  attentions  to 
Miss  Frith.  That  she  was  a comparative  stranger  to  the  Stanleys,  in- 
duced me  to  pay  her  those  attentions  which  have  occasioned  you  so 
much  annoyance,  but  which  otherwise  I would  not  have  considered  my- 
self justified  in  tendering. 

I regret  from  my  soul  that  anything  should  have  occurred  to  originate 
in  your  mind  a doubt  of  my  sincerity. 

Your  truly  affectionate, 

George  Rogers. 

To  Miss  Julia  Tilghman, 

No.  — N.  Fifteenth  St.,  Philadelphia. 

ON  RECEIVING  A FAVORABLE  REPLY  TO  A PRO- 
POSAL. 

Newton,  N.  Y.,  March  20,  1882. 

Darling — Words  cannot  express  my  rapture  on  finding  your 

note  on  my  table  last  night.  How  delightful  was  it  to  find  a letter — and 
tuck  a letter  ! — from  one  whom  I may  now  hope  to  hail  as  the  compan- 
ion of  my  whole  future  life  1 The  weight  taken  off  my  mind  by  the  can- 
did and  gentle  confession  of  one  whose  love  seemed  too  great  a happi- 
ness to  hope  for  is  beyond  description.  To-morrow  I shall  hasten  to 
the  presence  of  her  from  whom  I hope  I may  never  henceforth  be 
parted  ; but  f could  not  retire  to  rest  without  making  one  feeble  at- 
tempt to  express  my  ecstasy  at  finding  that  hopes  so  flattering  have  not 
been  in  vain. 

Believe  me,  darling, 

Your  devoted  and  happy 

Tom. 


COMPLAINING  OP  NOT  RECEIVING  A LETTER. 

Clifton,  January  7,  1882. 

Dear  Agnes — Four  days  have  passed  without  my  receiving  a letter 
from  you,  and  I am  in  painful  anxiety  lest  illness  should  be  the  cause. 
Pray  write  quickly,  or  I shall  really  feel  inclined  to  quarrel  with  you  as 
an  idle  girl ; nay,  I shall  absolutely  grow  jealous,  and  fancy  that  some 
more  favored  suitor  is  undermining  the  affections  of  my  dear  girl. 

But  I have  no  fears.  I too  well  know  that  your  innate  goodness  of 
heart  would  prevent  your  trifling  with  the  feelings  of  any  one  ; so,  hop- 
ing you  will  take  this  little  scolding  in  good  part,  and  relieve  the  offense 
by  a very  long  letter  as  speedily  as  your  dainty  fingers  can  write,  be- 
lieve me. 

Dear  Agnes, 

Your  affectionate 

Ed. 


ON  A BIRTHDAY. 


New  London,  June  1,  1882. 

My  dearest  Fannie — How  sad  it  is  that  I am  hindered  from  being 
with  you  on  this  dearest  of  all  days  of  the  year. 

Accept,  dearest,  the  enclosed  portrait.  I feel  that  its  original  is  too 
deeply  stamped  on  your  heart  to  require  any  effigy  to  remind  you  of 
him.  It  is,  however,  the  most  appropriate  present  I could  offer  to  the 
cause  of  my  happiness  on  this  brightest  of  all  days. 

God  grant  that  every  succeeding  year  may  see  you  increase  in  all  that 
is  charming  in  body  and  mind,  and  believe  me, 

My  dearest  Fannie, 

Your  own 

John. 


A COMPLAINT. 


July  10,  1882. 

Dear  Maudie  : 

It  is  with  pain  I write  to  you  in  aught  that  can  seem  like  a strain  of 
reproach,  but  I confess  that  your  conduct  last  night  both  surprised  and 
vexed  me.  You  received  Mr.  Watson’s  attentions  in  so  marked  a way 


that  I feel  it  due  to  yourself  to  comment  on  your  conduct.  Believe  me, 

I am  in  no  way  given  to  idle  jealousy  ; still  less  am  I selfish  or  unmanly 
enough  to  wish  to  deprive  any  girl  on  whom  I have  so  firmly  fixed  my 
affections  of  any  pleasure  to  be  obtained  in  good  society.  But  my 
peace  of  mind  would  be  lost  forever,  did  I believe  that  I had  lost  one 
atom  of  your  affection. 

Pray  write,  and  assure  me  that  you  still  preserve  your  undivided 
affection  for 

Your  devoted  but  grieved 

Fred. 

CONGRATULATING  A PRIEND  ON  HIS  MARRIAGE. 

Omaha,  A ugust  20, 18 — . 

Mv  dear  Tom  : 

As  you  have  entered  the  enviable  state  of  wedlock,  and  are  no  longer 
the  merry  bachelor  formerly  the  butt  of  my  crude  jests,  I must  address 
you  in  a tone  of  greater  gravity  than  has  been  my  custom.  My  dear 
friend,  I sincerely  congratulate  you  upon  this  desirable  change  ; for  in 
your  choice  of  a partner  you  have  given  evidence  of  the  possession  of 
a sound  judgment  and  much  good  taste.  If  my  beneficent  wishes  were 
the  only  requisite  to  insure  your  happiness  in  the  married  state,  you 
would  never  have  occasion  to  regret  the  step  you  have  recently  taken  ; 
for  there  is  no  one  whom  I more  ardently  desire  to  see  surrounded  with 
all  the  blessings  of  this  life. 

Have  the  kindness  to  present  my  respectful  compliments  to  Mrs. 
Armitage,  and  believe  me  ever  to  remain 

Your  sincere  well-wisher  and  friend, 

Edward  Keogh. 

CONGRATULATING  A GENTLEMAN  UPON  HIS 
MARRIAGE. 

Yankton,  June  1, 1882. 

Dear  Bill 

I have  just  received  the  welcome  message  that  informs  me  of  you: 
new  happiness.  I hasten  to  offer  you  my  most  sincere  congratulations 
and  hearty  good  wishes.  May  every  year  of  your  married  life  find  you 
happier  than  the  last,  and  may  Mrs.  Chiffins  find  you  as  loyal  a husband 
as  you  have  been  a friend. 

From  my  inmost  heart,  dear  Bill,  I say,  God  bless  you  and  your  bride 
with  His  choicest  blessings. 

Ever  your  friend, 

George  Meyers. 

William  Chiffins,  Esq. 

CONGRATULATING  A LADY  UPON  HER  MAE- 
P.IAGE. 

K St.,  Washington,  D.  C.,  August  3, 1882. 

Dear  Josie  : 

Your  cards  have  just  reached  me,  and  I write  at  once  to  try-  to  express 
my  heartfelt  pleasure  at  your  happy  prospects.  It  is  a great  pleasure 
to  your  loving  friends  to  be  able  to  feel  so  much  esteem  and  affection 
for  the  gentleman  to  whom  you  have  confided  your  life’s  happiness,  and 
to  hope,  as  I do,  that  every  year  will  unite  your  hearts  more  closely. 
That  heaven  may  bless  you  both,  dear  Josie,  is  the  earnest  prayer  of 
Your  loving 

Julia  Robinson. 

Mrs.  Clifford  Doyle. 

CONGRATULATING  A FRIEND  ON  THE  BIRTH  OF 
A SON. 

Batavia,  N.  Y.,  July  5,  1882. 

My  dear  Joe: 

What  luck  1 A son  bom  on  the  great  4th.  May  he  prove  as  good , as 
pure,  and  as  honest  a man  and  patriot  as  George  Washington.  What 
more  can  I say,  old  fellow,  except  to  add  that  I earnestly  trust  that 
Mrs.  Clithroe  and  George  W.  are  doing  well  ? 

Yours,  always  sincerely, 

A.  D.  Hervy 

Joseph  Clithroe,  Esq. 


THE  LETTER  WRITER. 


191 


CONGRATULATING  A FRIEND  ON  THE  BIRTH  OF 
A DAUGHTER. 

Pegasus,  Westchester  Co.,  N.  Y.,  I 
April  10,  ’82.  ) 

Dear  Millie  : 

I congratulate  you  most  heartily  on  your  new  acquaintance,  and  if 
“ missy  only  grows  up  like  “ mamma,”  the  boys  will  be  around  pretty 
v-mly.  I suppose  your  husband  is  two  feet  taller.  Take  great  care  of 
yourself  and  the  wee  little  lady.  I hope  very  soon  to  come  round  to 
congratulate  you  in  person. 

Your  very  sincere  friend, 

James  Todhunter. 

Mrs.  E.  F.  Everligh. 

SEEKING  A CLERKSHIP 

Troy,  May  4,  1882. 

Gentlemen— Perceiving  by  your  advertisement  in  the  N.  Y.  Herald 
that  you  are  in  want  of  a clerk,  I beg  to  inclose  testimonials,  and  ven- 
ture to  hope  that  from  my  previous  experience  in  the  line  of  business 
you  pursue  I should  be  of  some  use  in  your  establishment.  My  habits 
of  life  are  such  as  to  assure  regularity  in  the  discharge  of  my  duties, 
and  I can  only  assure  you  that,  should  you  honor  me  with  your  confi- 
dence, I shall  spare  no  pains  to  acquit  myself  to  your  satisfaction. 

I remain,  gentlemen. 

Your  obedient  servant, 

Harry  Sanderson. 

To  Messrs.  Griffiths  & Co. 

APPLICATION  FOR  SUBSCRIPTION  TO  A CHARITY. 

Midgeville,  Tenn.,  October  8,  1882. 

Sir  [or  Madam]  I take  the  liberty  of  inclosing  a prospectus  of  an 
institution  which  is  likely  to  have  a most  beneficial  effect  upon  the 
poor  in  our  neighborhood.  \Here  stale  particulars^  From  your  well- 
known  liberality,  I trust  you  will  excuse  this  appeal  from  a stranger  in 
furtherance  of  an  act  of  benevolence,  and  remain. 

Sir  [or  Madam],  • 

Your  most  obedient  servant, 

Julia  [or  John]  Smith. 

DECLINING. 

30  West  27TH  St.,  New  York,  I 
29th  October , 1882.  ' 

Mr.  Thomas  Jones  regrets  exceedingly  that  the  numerous  applications 
lor  kindred  purposes  near  home  render  it  impossible  for  him  to  com- 
ply with  the  request  contained  in  Mr.  [or  Mrs.]  's  letter  of  the 

18th  October. 

A FRIEND  IN  THE  COUNTRY  ASKING  A CITY 
FRIEND  ABOUT  BOARD. 

Erie,  Pa.,  August  14,  ’82. 

Dear  William— In  a few  days  I will  have  occasion  to  visit  New  York, 
and,  being  a comparative  stranger,  I wish  to  be  as  near  the  business 
center  as  possible,  though  located  in  a private  boarding-house,  as  I have 
a strong  aversion  to  hotel  life.  My  object  in  writing  is  to  ask  you  to 
recommend  me  to  some  private  boarding-house,  and  to  engage  rooms  in 
advance  of  my  arrival,  so  that  I may  proceed  thither  at  once  on  landing 
from  the  cars.  Leaving  the  selection  entirely  to  yourself,  and  hoping 
to  hear  from  you  soon,  I remain 

Yours  faithfully, 

Isaac  Jenkins. 

APPLICATION  FOR  A LOAN. 

State  St.,  Chicago,  July  27,  ’82. 

Dear  Sir — I am  temporarily  embarrassed  through  the  failure  of  my 
New  York  correspondent  to  remit.  The  sum  of  $2,000  would  relieve  my 
present  necessities,  but  I dislike  borrowing  money  of  professional  lend- 
ers, and  would  rather  solicit  the  aid  of  some  one  of  my  numerous 
friends.  My  first  thought  was  of  yourself;  and,  therefore,  my  object 
in  writing  is  to  ask  if  you  can  spare  me  the  required  sum  without  in  any 


way  interfering  with  your  business  arrangements  ? \ou  may  rely  upon 
having  it  returned  to  you  on  the  15th  prox.,  and  perhaps  before  that 
time.  Pray  reply  at  your  earliest  convenience,  and  oblige 
Your  obedient  servant, 

George  White. 

To  Philip  Duke,  Esq. 

REPLY  IN  THE  AFFIRMATIVE. 

Grove  St.,  Cincinnati,  July  30,  ’82. 

Dear  Sir — Your  letter  of  yesterday  was  duly  received,  and  it  grati- 
fies me  to  be  able  to  say  that  you  can  have  the  loan  asked  for.  In- 
closed you  will  find  a check  for  the  amount,  which  you  will  return  at 
the  date  named  and  oblige, 

Yours,  very  sincerely, 

P.  Duke. 

To  Geo.  White,  Esq. 

DECLINING  TO  LEND  MONEY. 

Boston,  April  8th,  1882. 

My  dear  Sir — I have  always  made  it  a principle  in  life  never  to  bor- 
row or  lend  money,  not  even  when  members  of  my  own  family  have 
been  concerned.  As  Shakespeare  says  : 

” Neither  a borrower  nor  a lender  be, 

For  loan  oft  loses  both  itself  and  friend.” 

1 therefore  trust  you  will  excuse  conduct  which  may  seem  harsh  and 
uncourteous  on  my  part,  but  which  I have  ever  found  to  be  the  safest, 
and,  in  the  long  run,  the  kindest  course  for  all  parties. 

I remain,  my  dear  sir, 

Yours  very  faithfully, 

Joseph  Johnson. 

To  Howard  Wells,  Esq. 

SOLICITING  RENEWAL  OF  A PROMISSORY  NOTE. 

Ark  St.,  Mobile,  May  7,  ’82 

Gentlemen — You  have  in  your  possession  my  note  for  $1,000,  paya- 
ble May  14,  which  I am  sorry  to  say  I cannot  meet  at  maturity,  owing  to 
a combination  of  circumstances  adverse  to  my  interests,  and  not  antici- 
pated. If  you  will  do  me  the  favor  to  renew  it  for  ninety  days,  with 
interest  added,  Ido  not  doubt  my  ability  to  redeem  it  when  due.  A 
compliance  with  this  request  will  confer  an  obligation  upon,  and 
oblige. 

Your  obedient  servant, 

Thomas  Moran. 

To  Messrs.  Sadlier  & Co., 

30  William  St.,  N.  Y. 

TO  A FIRM,  WITH  AN  INSTALLMENT. 

Dean  St.,  San  Francisco, Cal.,  1 
May  20,  1882.  ) 

Gentlemen— Inclosed  please  find  $500,  in  notes  of  San  Francisco 
banks,  which  I will  thank  you  to  place  to  my  credit,  as  the  first  install- 
ment upon  my  bill,  now  overdue  nearly  two  months.  The  balance  will 
be  remitted  during  the  second  week  in  June,  if  not  before  that  time.  I 
regret  the  inconvenience  caused  you  by  my  delay,  which  is  a result  of 
our  system  of  long  credits,  and  entirely  beyond  my  power  to  control. 

I remain,  gentlemen. 

Your  obliged  and  faithful  servant, 

William  Dempsey. 

Messrs.  Hatch,  Wight  & Co..  , 

333  Broadway,  New  York. 

OFFERING  A LOAN  OF  MONEY  FOR  BUSINESS 
PURPOSES. 

Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  Dec.  15,  ’82. 

Dear  Robert — Knowing  that  you  are  desirous  of  starting  in  business 
for  yourself,  I write  to  say  that  it  is  in  my  power  to  offer  you  a loan  of 
two  thousand  dollars  ($2,000)  without  interfering  in  any  way  with  my 


ig2 


THE  LETTER  WRITER. 


Own  business  or  expenditures.  I trust  that  vou  will  let  me  have  a 
triend’s  privilege,  and  accept  the  money  on  sucn  terms  as  will  best 
suit  you. 

With  best  wishes  for  your  success, 

I am  your  friend, 

Austin  Keep. 

Robert  Rowe,  Esq. 

Letters  of  condolence,  though  a necessity  between  friends, 
are  very  difficult  to  compose,  since  the  more  earnestly  and 
touchingly  they  are  written,  the  more  deeply  will  they  probe 
the  wounds  still  bleeding  under  the  stab  of  affliction.  The 
shorter  such  letters  are,  the  better.  Let  them  be  short  and  sin- 
cere, and  always  wind  up  with  a hope  that  Providence  will  as- 
suage the  grief  with  which  it  has  pleased  Him  in  His  far-see- 
ing wisdom  to  afflict  your  friend. 

ON  THE  DEATH  OF  A HUSBAND. 

Fordham,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  29,  1882. 

My  dear  Mrs.  Manning: 

Words  fail  to  convey  my  feelings  of  sorrow  on  receipt  of  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  death  of  my  old  and  esteemed  friend,  your  late  husband. 
My  own  grief  at  the  loss  of  a true  friend  teaches  me  how  crushing  must 
be  your  affliction.  May  the  Almighty  in  his  goodness  console  you  in 
this  dark  hour  of  your  tribulation. 

Believe  me  always  your  true  and  sincere  friend, 

Joseph  Butler. 

ON  THE  DEATH  OF  A WIFE. 

Providence,  R.  I.,  November  8,  1882. 

My  dear  George  : 

1 know  how  futile  it  is  to  address  words,  idle  words,  to  you  in  this 
moment  of  supreme  anguish,  with  which  it  has  pleased  God  to  visit 
you,  and  shall  not  say  more  than  that  the  loss  of  your  pure,  good,  and 
beautiful  wife  is  a source  of  deep  sorrow  to  the  numerous  friends  who 
had  the  privilege  of  knowing  her,  and  to  none  more  than 

Yours,  in  deep  sympathy  and  affection, 

Terrence  Barker. 

ON  THE  DEATH  OF  A SON. 

Norwalk,  Conn.,  June  3,  1882. 

My  dear  Julia  : 

If  God  has  plucked  the  bright  blossom  from  your  home  it  is  for  a pur- 
pose none  of  us  dare  divine.  He  alone  can  pour  balm  upon  your 
crushed  heart.  The  holy  joy  is  yours  of  knowing  that  angel  eyes  now 
watch  for  your  coming,  and  that  your  beautiful  boy  will  receive  you 
when  “life’s  dark  day  is  done.” 

If  the  tenderest  or  much-loving  sympathy  could  soothe  you,  dear 
Julia,  learn  that  you  have  it  from  your 

Friend, 

Laura. 

ON  THE  DEATH  OF  A MOTHER. 

Tewkesbury,  Mass.,  Nov.  8,  1882. 

My  dear  Charles: 

You  have  lost  your  mother.  There  is  a very  wail  in  the  words.  She 
may  never  be  replaced.  The  dear  good  lady  has  passed  away  to  a bet 
ter  land,  cheered  by  the  knowledge  of  your  love  and  affectionate  tender- 
ness, consoled  by  the  thought  that  her  teaching,  when  you  were  a little 
boy  at  her  knee,  has  not  been  in  vain,  and  that  she  leaves  behind  her  for 
a little  while  a son  who  treads  the  path  of  rectitude  and  of  honor.  Dear 
Charles,  ever  remember  that  your  darling  mother  watches  you  from  on 
high  and  as  she  was  devoted  to  you  in  life,  so  is  she  devoted  to  you  in 
death. 

God  sustain  you  under  this  heavy  affliction. 

Your  true  friend, 

John  Traver. 


REPLIES  TO  ADVERTISEMENTS. 

In  replying  to  advertisements  never  omit  to  mention  the 
name  of  the  paper  in  which  the  advertisement  appeared,  also 
its  date,  and  a brief  allusion  to  the  matter  in  the  advertisement. 

Be  as  concise  as  possible,  covering  the  ground  in  a few  well 
chosen  sentences. 

BOOKKEEPER. 

28  Washington  St.,  Boston,  Mass.,  t 
October  20, 1882.  > 

To  Messrs.  Winsole,  Bird  & Co. : 

Gentlemen— In  reply  to  your  advertisement  in  this  day’s  Tramcript 
for  a competent  bookkeeper,  I respectfully  beg  to  offer  myself  as  candi- 
date for  that  position.  I have  been  in  the  employment  of  Mr.  Thomas 
Lepy,  19  Tremont  Street,  in  this  city-  'he  large  dry-goods  store— in  the 
capacity  of  bookkeeper  for  the  last  three  years,  and  am  about  to  leave 
on  the  1st  proximo,  as  Mr.  Lepy  is  about  to  retire  from  business. 

Mr.  Lepy  has  authorized  me  to  refer  to  him  in  reference  to  character 
and  ability.  I can  also  refer  to  Messrs.  Bose  & Pickwick,  17  RemseD 
Street,  with  whom  I clerked  for  a year  and  a half. 

Hoping  to  be  fortunate  enough  to  suit  vour  requirements, 

I am,  gentlemen, 

Respectfully, 

Joseph  Sutcliff. 

GENERAL  EMPLOYMENT. 

Newburg,  1 
1 ith  Sept.,  ’82.  ' 

Sir — I hasten  to  reply  to  your  advertisement  in  the  N Y.  Sun  of  to  day. 
Iam  most  desirous  of  obtainmgemployment,  and  would  not  considef 
present  emolument  so  much  an  object  as  the  prospect  of  a permanent 
and  respectable  situation. 

I am  a young  man  (age  21),  and  single.  I have  received  a good  com 
mercial  education,  and  am  versed  in  bookkeeping  a..  J accounts  gen 
erallj^  In  other  respects  I am  willing  to  render  myself  generally  useful, 
and,  although  I have  not  hitherto  filled  a situation,  I doubt  not  but  that 
in  a short  time  I shall  be  able  to  fulfill  any  duties  assigned  to  me. 

In  the  event  of  your  doing  me  the  honor  to  select  me  for  the  proffered 
employment,  I could  furnish  you  with  satisfactory  testimonials  as  to 
character,  and  could,  if  necessary,  provide  guarantees  for  fidelity. 
Trusting  that  I may  have  the  honor  of  hearing  from  you  in  reply. 

I remain,  sir. 

Your  obedient  servant, 

Joseph  L'Estrange. 

To 

W.  Henry  Cullinan, 

27  Wand  St.,  N.  Y. 

FROM  A YOUNG  MAN  TO  A FRIEND  SOLICITING 
A SITUATION. 

Mohawk,  March  28,  1882. 

Dear  Edward  : 

When  you  left  Galveston,  you  were  kind  enough  to  promise  that  should 
it  be  in  your  power  to  forward  my  interest  in  any  manner  you  would 
feel  a pleasure  in  so  doing.  I am  now  in  want  of  a position,  my  former 
employer  having  sold  his  business,  and  his  successor  having,  as  he  in. 
forms  me,  a sufficient  number  of  hands  for  all  the  work  he  is  likely  to 
have.  If,  therefore,  you  should  hear  of  any  situation  or  employment 
which  you  consider  likely  to  suit  me,  either  in  my  own  business,  that  ol 
a clerk,  or  in  any  other  in  which  I can  make  myself  useful,  yourrecom 
mendation  would  greatly  oblige,  and  be  of  material  service  to, 

Dear  Edward, 

Yours  very  truly, 

John  James. 

ASKING  PERMISSION  TO  REFER  TO  A PERSON 

New  Haven,  Conn.  I 
July  7,  ’82.  ’ 

Dear  Sir  : 

As  I have  had  the  honor  of  being  known  to  you  for  some  years  dur 


THE  LETTER  WRITER. 


'93 


tag  which  period  I trust  my  conduct  has  impressed  you  favorably,  I 
lake  the  liberty  of  soliciting  at  your  hand  the  following  favor  : 

Messrs.  Sebthorp,  of  Beaver  Street,  New  York,  are  in  want  of  a cor- 
respondent at  London,  and  as  I am  about  tf.  proceed  there  on  some 
affairs  of  my  o'»n,  and  shall  probably  take  up  my  residence  in  that  cap- 
ital for  some  years,  I am  anxious  to  secure  a post  which  appears  to  me 
in  every  way  eligible,  and  accords  with  my  views  exactly. 

As  a matter  of  course,  Messrs.  Sebthorp  desire  testimonials  as  to  my 
capacity  and  integrity,  and  as  you  are  in  a position  to  speak  positively 
on  these  points,  I have  written  to  ask  you  whether  I may  so  far  trespass 
on  your  kindness  as  to  mention  your  name  by  way  of  reference. 

Should  you  kindly  grant  this  request,  I need  scarcely  assure  you  that 
my  endeavor  will  be  to  prove  both  to  Messrs.  Sebthorp  and  yourself  that 
you  have  not  been  mistaken  in  your  opinion  of  me,  while  1 shall  ever 
feel  grateful  for  this  further  instance  of  the  interest  evinced  by  you  in 
the  welfare  of 

Your  truly  obliged, 

Walter  Mott. 

To 

Mr.  George  Fouke, 

7th  St.,  Cincinnati,  O. 


A FEW  LINES  ACCOMPANYING  A GIFT. 

A WEDDING  GIFT. 

200  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York,  i 
18 th  April.  f 

Nelly  Suter  sends  her  best  love,  and  best  wishes,  to  Susie  Lorimer,  and 
a little  bracelet  as  a souvenir  of  an  event  that  Nelly  trusts  will  ever  prove 
as  happy  and  auspicious  as  she  wishes  it  to  be. 


CHRISTENING  GIFT. 

* Heath  House,  I 

June  18,  ’82.  ) 

God-papa  sends  little  Mamie  a coral ; to  enable  her  to  cut  her  teeth 
but  not  the  acquaintance  of 

Joseph  Chambers. 


FLOWERS 

15  Madison  Avenue,  ^ 

19  July.  I 

Roses  become  Miss  Irwin  so  much,  that  Mr.  Harnett  earnestly  hopes 
to  see  the  accompanying  bunch  in  Miss  Irwin’s  ccrsage  this  evening  at 
Wallack’s. 


CLERK. 


29  Grove  St.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  I 
November  16,  1882.  > 

Mr.  Isaac  Waters  : 

Sir— I see  by  this  day's  Chronicle  that  you  are  in  want  of  a competent 
Clerk,  and  I respectfully  beg  to  apply  for  the  position.  Owing  to  the 
financial  difficulties  of  my  late  employers,  Messrs.  Kendrick  & Warts, 
with  whom  I was  Clerk  for  eight  years,  I am  out  of  employment.  I can 
refer  to  either  of  these  gentlemen  for  a testimonial  as  to  my  industry, 
good  conduct  and  ability.  I may  add  that  I am  a teetotaler. 

Hoping  to  receive  a favorable  reply, 

I am, 

Respectfully, 

Rudolph  Mever. 


COOK. 

100  West  28th  St.,  New  York,  I 
March  18,  1882.  * 

Mrs.  William  Howard  : 

Respected  Madam— Having  seen  your  advertisement  for  a plain 
Cook  in  this  day’s  Herald , I respectfully  apply  for  the  place. 

I can  cook  plain  joints  and  do  all  manner  of  plain  cooking,  as  my  pres- 
ent employer.  Mrs.  James  Posnett,  is  willing  to  testify.  As  Mrs  Pos- 
nett  is  going  to  Europe  on  the  1st  of  April,  I will  be  out  of  place  on  that 
day.  A line  to  Mrs.  Posnett  will  satisfy  all  inquiries  in  regard  to  my 
character  and  capacity. 

Respectfully. 

Jane  Matthews. 


GOVERNESS. 

19  Bleecker  St..  Boston.  I 
July  27,  ’82.  > 

Mrs.  E.  F.  Slocum  : 

Madam— In  reply  to  your  advertisement  in  to-day’s  Courier  for  a 
Governess  to  teach  three  little  girls  French,  German  and  English,  I 
hasten  to  inform  you  that  I am  graduate  of  Vassar  Class  ’80  ; that  I have 
resided  one  year  in  Paris  and  five  months  in  Vienna,  sojourning  in  both 
capitals  for  the  purpose  of  completing  my  knowledge  of  French  and 
German. 

I have  been  Governess  in  the  family  of  Mr.  George  F.  Witmore,  but 
owing  to  the  death  of  my  dear  little  pupil,  their  only  daughter,  Ada,  I 
have  been  thrown  out  of  employment.  In  addition  to  my  College  and 
Academy  testimonials,  I beg  to  refer  to  Mrs.  Witmore.  Holly  Park, 
Brookline,  and  to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Brooks,  St  Matthew’s  Church. 

Hoping  to  be  favored  by  your  selection, 

I am,  madam, 

Yours  respectfully, 

Miriam  I.  Packard. 


MUSIC. 

13  Chestnut  St.,  Philadelphia,  I 
28 th  November , ’82.  > 

Mr.  John  St.  Ruth  presents  his  compliments  to  Miss  Delamore  and 
begs  to  send  her  a few  selections  from  the  operas,  her  singing  last 
night  at  Mr.  Hamlyn’s  having  reminded  him  of  the  most  celebrated 
prima  donnas. 


EUROPEAN  ETIQUETTE  IN  AD- 
DRESSING LETTERS. 

LETTERS  TO  THE  QUEEN  ; TO  THE  PRINCE  AND  PRINCESS  OF  WALES  ; TO 
RELATIVES  OF  THE  QUEEN;  TO  DUKES,  DUCHESSES,  MARQUISES  \ 
EARLS,  COUNTESSES,  ETC.,  ETC.  ; TO  JUDGES  ; MEMBERS  OF  THE  PRIVY 
COUNCIL,  CLERGYMEN,  ETC. 

Letters  for  her  Majesty  the  Queen  are  sent  under 
cover,  either  to  the  Prime  Minister,  or  to  whomso- 
ever has  charge  for  the  time  being  of  her  Majesty’s 
private  correspondence.  The  inclosure  is  directed 
“ To  her  Majesty  the  Queen.”  Official  communi- 
cations are  ordinarily  addressed,  “ To  the  Queen’s 
most  excellent  Majesty.”  Letters  to  the  Queen 
should  be  commenced,  “ Madam,”  or  “ Most  gra- 
cious Sovereign,”  or  “ May  it  please  your  Majesty,” 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  communication  ; and 
should  be  concluded,  “ I have  the  honor  to  remain, 
with  the  profoundest  respect,  madam,  your  Majesty’s 
most  faithful  and  dutiful  subject.” 

Letters  for  the  Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales 
should  be  sent  under  cover  to  Lieut. -Col.  Knollys, 
and  the  inclosure  directed  to  “ His  Royal  Highness 
the  Prince  of  Wales,”  or,  “ Her  Royal  Highness  the 
Princess  of  Wales.” 

The  sons  and  daughters,  brothers  and  sisters,  and 
uncles  and  aunts  of  the  Queen,  are  all  addressed 
as  “ Royal  Highness,”  but  her  Majesty’s  nephews 


i94 


THE  LETTER  WRITER. 


and  cousins  are  addressed  simply  as  “Your  High- 
ness.” 

Letters  to  members  of  the  Royal  Family  should 
begin,  “ Sir,”  or  “ Madam,”  and  end,  “ I have  the 
honor  to  remain,  sir  (or  madam),  your  Royal 
Highness’s  most  dutiful  and  most  obedient  servant.” 
A letter  to  a Duke  or  Duchess,  not  members  of  the 
Royal  Family,  should  be  addressed,  “To  His  Grace, 

the  Duke  of ; ” “ To  Her  Grace,  the  Duchess 

of .”  It  should  begin  with  “ My  Lord  Duke 

but  a duchess,  in  common  with  all  other  ladies, 
from  the  Queen  downwards,  is  addressed  as 
“ Madam.” 

In  writing  to  a marquis,  address  the  letter,  “ To 
the  Most  Hon.  the  Marquis  of and  to  a mar- 

chioness, “To  the  Most  Hon.  the  Marchioness  of 

.”  Begin,  “ My  Lord  Marquis.” 

In  writing  to  an  earl  or  countess,  address,  “To 

the  Right  Hon.  the  Earl  (or  Countess)  of  .” 

Begin  letters  to  earls,  viscounts,  or  barons,  with 
“ My  Lord."’  A letter  to  a viscount  or  viscountess 
should  be  addressed,  “To  the  Right  Hon.  the  Vis- 
count (or  Lady  Viscountess) .”  A letter  to  a 

baron  should  be  addressed,  “ To  the  Right  Hon.” 
The  younger  sons  of  earls,  and  all  the  sons  of  vis- 
counts and  barons,  are  addressed,  “ The  Hon. , 

Esquire  ; ” and  the  daughters,  and  sons’  wives,  “ The 

Hon.  Mrs.  , or  Miss  .”  Letters  should 

begin,  “ Sir,”  or  “ Madam.” 

In  addressing  embassadors,  begin,  “ My  Lord,” 
and  use  the  title  “Your  Excellency  ” throughout, 
wherever  the  pronoun  “ you  ” would  ordinarily  be 
used.  The  same  title  is  used  in  addressing  the  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  the  Governor  of  Western 
Australia.  The  Governor-General  of  Canada  and 
the  Governor  of  Dover  Castle  are  addressed  as 
“ Right  Honorable.” 

A letter  to  a baronet  is  addressed  to  “ Sir  William 

, Bart.  ; ” one  to  a knight,  “ Sir  William .” 

Begin  letters  to  baronets,  knights,  or  their  wives, 
“ Sir,”  or  “ Madam,”  except,  of  course,  in  cases 
where  acquaintanceship  exists,  when  formality  ceases, 

and  letters  are  begun,  “ Dear  Sir  William  ; ” 

“ Dear  Lady .” 

Though  the  word  “ Esquire”  means,  in  these  days, 
little  or  nothing,  yet  it  is  considered  more  polite, 
when  addressing  persons  of  position,  to  write  the 
word  in  full.  In  addressing  a French  gentleman, 
also,  it  is  impolite  to  use  the  initial  of  “ Monsieur  ” 


only.  The  word  must  be  written  in  full,  and  it  is 
very  frequently  written  twice,  thus  : 

“ A Monsieur. 

“ Monsieur .” 

Judges  are  addressed  as  “ Right  Honorable.”  In 
addressing  a consul,  write,  “To  A.  B.,  Esq.,  Consul 
to  Her  Britannic  Majesty,  at .” 

In  directing  a letter  to  any  member  of  the  Privy 
Council,  prefix  “ Right  Hon.”  to  the  name,  and  add 
after  it  the  title  of  the  office  held.  Observe  the 
same  rules  in  addressing  members  of  the  Royal 
Household.  Letters  or  addresses  to  the  House  of 
Peers  as  a body  are  addressed,  “To  the  Right  Hon. 
the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal  in  Parliament 
assembled  and  to  the  House  of  Commons,  “ To 
the  Honorable  the  Commons  of  the  United  Kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.” 

The  Speaker  of  the  House  is  addressed  as  “ The 

Right  Hon. , Esquire,  Speaker  of  the  House  of 

Commons.”  Individual  members,  who  have  no  title, 
are  addressed  by  their  Christian  and  surname,  fol- 
lowed by  “Esq.,  M.P.,”  except,  of  course,  in  those 
cases  where  they  have  a title. 

When  clergymen  have  titles,  these  should  be 
inserted  after  the  word  Rev.,  in  addressing  a let- 
ter. The  following  are  the  forms  for  addressing  our 
Church  dignitaries  : “To  His  Grace  the  Archbishop 

of .”  “ To  the  Right  Rev.  the  Bishop  of .” 

“ The  Rev.  John  Smith,  D.D.”  “ The  Very  Rev.  the 

Dean  of — “ The  Very  Rev.  John  Smith,  D.D., 

Dean  of .”  “The  Ven.  Archdeacon  

Rectors  and  curates  are  addressed  as  “ The  Rev. 
John  Smith  ; ” “The  Rev.  William  Jones.” 

Holders  of  the  higher  appointments  in  the  Army 
and  Navy  are  addressed  as  follows  : “ To  Lieut.- 

General  the  Duke  of , K.C.B.,  Commander-in- 

Chief  of  Her  Majesty’s  Forces,”  etc.  “ To  Field- 

Marshal  the  Viscount , K.G.,  Master-General 

of  the  Ordnance,”  etc.  “To  the  Right  Hon.  Lord 

, Commander  of  Her  Majesty’s  Forces,”  etc. 

“To  Colonel  the  Hon.  A. .”  “To  Sir 

, K.C.B.,  Admiral  and  Commander  of  the 

Channel  Fleet,”  etc.  “ To  Sir , Captain 

of  Her  Majesty’s  ship  Black  Prince.”  In  address- 
ing majors,  captains,  or  lieutenants,  add  the  names 
of  the  regiments  to  which  they  belong.  In  the  Navy, 
address,  “ Lieutenant  Brown,  R.N.,  on  board 
H.M.S.  Resistance”  “Mr.  Smith,  Midshipman  of 
H.  M.S.  Devastation.” 


NOTE  IN  REPLY. 


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SPEECHES. 


ttWWV? 


SPEECH  should  be  short  and  to  the 
point.  Remember  that  brevity  is  the  soul 
of — a speech.  A long  speech,  unless  the 
speaker  be  exceptionally  eloquent,  or  the 
occasion  exceptionally  mandatory,  is  one 
of  the  greatest  of  possible  inflictions.  Some 
men  love  to  hear  themselves  talk,  and,  quite 
oblivious  of  the  feelings  of  their  listeners,  continue 
to  drone  out  labored  sentences  and  weary  platitudes 
until  politely  coughed  or  buzzed  down.  These  men 
ought  to  be  indicted  as  nuisances. 

The  specimen  speeches  which  we  present  in  this 
Cyclopaedia,  are  merely  meant  to  act  as  guides.  They 
show  the  form  of  speech  most  popular,  and  give  the 
length  that  is  likely  to  be  received  with  approval. 
Of  course  there  are  occasions  when  a long  speech 
is  absolutely  necessary.  The  toasts  and  sentiments 
embrace  all  subjects,  and  are  suited  to  occasions 
of  a festive  character. 


A PUBLIC  OFFICER,  ON  RETIRING,  IS  PRESENTED 
WITH  A SOUVENIR. 

Sir — Your  friends— and  their  name  is  legion— cannot  permit  you  to 
retire  into  private  life  without  a direct  expression  of  their  esteem  and 
regard.  I am  desired  on  their  part  to  present  you  with  the  accompany- 
ing   as  a very  slight  token  indeed  of  their  appreciation  of  so 

admirable  an  officer,  so  good  a citizen,  and  so  perfect  a gentleman. 

REPLY. 

Sir — To  have  won  your  approval,  and  that  of  the  friends  you  so 
kindly  represent,  is  indeed  sweeter  to  me  than  anything  else  that  life, 
with  all  its  prizes,  could  offer.  I am  bold  enough  to  say  that  I have  en- 
deavored to  win  the  good-will  of  my  fellow-citizens  of  all  grades  and 
classes,  but  I am  modest  enough  to  assure  you  this  gracious,  superb,  and 
totally  unexpected  offering  so  completely  affects  me, as  to  leave  me  poor 
in  speech,  but  rich  in  thankfulness  and  gratitude.  My  children  and 
children’s  children  shall  treasure  this  souvenir,  as  the  prize  won  in  the 
big  fight  by  at  least  the  honest  efforts  of  their  sire. 

THE  LADIES. 

Where  is  the  man  who,  upon  one  occasion  or  another,  has 
not  been  called  upon  to  respond  to  the  toast  of  “ The  Ladies?” 


The  following  will  enable  the  bashful  youth  to  train  his  ideas 
in  regard  to  the  subject,  and  to  prepare  him  with  a reply  when 
the  mine  shall  have  been  sprung  upon  him.  A ready  response 
to  this  most  popular  of  all  toasts  is  as  necessary  as  it  is  grace- 
ful and  manly  ; so  let  there  be  no  hemming  or  hawing,  no  hes- 
itations, stutterings  or  stammerings,  but  start  to  your  feet  at 
once  and  dash  into  the  subject  as  though  you  were  enchanted 
at  the  privilege. 

Mr.  President  and  Gentlemen  : 

The  high,  the  glorious  privilege  has  been  accorded  me  of  replying  to 
the  toast  of  “ The  Ladies.”  You  could  not  have  selected  a better  man. 
Impossible  ! This  you  will  say  is  rather  cheeky  of  me  ; but  when  1 tel. 
you  that  there  breathes  not  a man  who  reveres,  loves,  and  adores  the 
sex  so  much  as  I do,  I ask  you  in  all  honesty  could  the  chance  of  reply- 
ing to  the  toast  have  fallen  upon  more  deserving  shoulders  ? The  ladies, 
God  bless  them  ! what  would  we  do  without  them — that  nearer,  clearer, 
dearer  heaven  of  stars  ! In  their  smiles  lie  our  sunshine,  in  their  tears 
our  anguish,  in  their  beauty  our  heartaches.  To  the  ladies  we  owe  all 
the  refining  influences  of  our  lives.  They  are  the  bright  flowers  by  the 
wayside,  the  quite  too  too  tenderly  utter  beings,  who  make,  mar,  and 
marry  us. 

Then  here,  gentlemen,  is  my  response  to  the  toast  of  The  Ladies. 
May  they  ever  shine  like  stars  in  our  firmament,  never  cease  to  capti- 
vate us,  and,  when  we  deserve  it,  of  rewarding  us.  The  ladies,  God 
bless  them ! 

ANOTHER  REPLY. 

The  toast  to  which  I have  the  honor  of  responding  is  one  that  awakes 
in  the  manly  heart  the  latent  chivalry  of  manhood.  The  toast  of  The 
Ladies  embraces  womanhood,  the  mother,  the  wife,  the  daughter,  the 
sister,  and  if  you  will,  gentlemen,  the  cousins  and  the  aunts.  Sir  Wal- 
ter Scott  has  beautifully  written  : 

“ O woman  ! in  our  hours  of  ease. 

Uncertain,  coy,  and  hard  to  please. 

And  variable  as  the  shade 

By  the  light  quivering  aspen  made  ; 

When  pain  and  anguish  rack  the  brow, 

A ministering  angel  thou  ! ” 

What  an  admirable  delineation  of  woman’s  character!  In  our  hours  ol 
ease,  on  the  stoop,  or  by  the  stove,  there  is  no  doubt  of  it,  gentlemen, 
that  she  is  uncertain,  extremely  coy,  and  infernally  hard  to  please — I 
mean  at  times — while  as  for  her  variability,  she  is  as  whirly-giggy  as 
a weather-cock  on  a windy  March  morning.  But  here  is  the  other  side 
of  the  shield,  the  silver  one.  Have  any  of  you  ever  been  ill  ? Have 
any  of  you  ever  been  smitten  to  the  earth  by  grief  or  misfortune  ? 1 
hope  not ; but  if  such  has  been  your  bitter  experience,  turn  back  on  your 
memories  for  the  tender  sympathy,  the  unfailing  devotion,  the  cease- 
less graciousness  of  woman.  Gentlemen,  this  is  a theme  upon  which, 
like  the  brook,  I could  “ run  on  for  ever  ; ” yet,  delightful  as  it  is,  time 


SPEECH.  201 


flies,  and  perhaps  the  time  that  I am  spending  in  reply  to  the  toast  of  The 
Ladies,  could  be  far  better  spent  in  their  company.  Gentlemen,  I return 
you  my  most  heartfelt  thanks  for  being  called  upon  by  you  to  reply  to 
such  an  important  and  gracious  toast. 

PRESENTATION  OF  A PIECE  OF  PLATE  TO  A PUB- 
LIC OFFICIAL. 

Sir — It  affords  me  intense  pleasure  to  represent  a committee,  who  in 
turn  represent  your  numerous  friends  and  admirers,  and  on  their  behalf 
to  present  you  with  this as  a very  slight  token  of  their  apprecia- 

tion of  the  admirable  and  praiseworthy  manner  in  which  you  have  dis- 
charged the  onerous  and  responsible  duties  appertaining  to  your  posi- 
tion. Your  high  character,  integrity,  and  zeal  have  not  only  won  the 
esteem  and  confidence  of  your  friends,  and  of  those  brought  into 
immediate  contact  with  you,  but  have  radiated  far  and  wide,  so  that  you 
have  reached  the  position — one  that  is  not  only  a credit  to  yourself  but  to 
the  country  at  large. 

That  you  may  long  continue  in  the  service  which  you  so  admirably 
adorn  is  the  wish  of  the  many  to  whom  your  virtues  are  as  household 
words.  With  this  souvenir  let  me,  on  the  part  of  those  whom  I repre- 
sent, wish  you  health,  happiness,  and  prosperity. 

REPLY. 

Mr. and  Gentlemen  : 

I need  hardly  say  with  what  gratitude  I accept  this  splendid  gift — a 
gift  which  is  dearer  to  me  than  all  the  “ gold  of  Ind,”  since  it  comes 
from  a set  of  friends  whose  endorsement  on  a bad  bill  no  amount  of 
treasure  could  purchase . 

Gentlemen,  my  aim  in  life  has  been  to  do  what  is  right,  to  labor  with 
earnestness,  to  win  on  the  merits.  My  efforts  have  been  crowned  with 
success,  and  in  this  superb  souvenir  I recognize  my  crown  of  victory. 

Gentlemen,  your  too  flattering  recognition  will  but  serve  as  a greater 
impetus  to  exertion,  and,  rest  assured  that  no  effort  on  my  part  shall 
be  wanting  to  repay  in  the  fullest  measure  of  my  capacity  the  compli- 
ment it  has  pleased  you  this  day  to  bestow  upon  me. 

PRESENTATION  TO  A TEACHER  BY  THE  YOUNG 
LADY  PUPILS. 

Dear  Teacher  : 

It  devolves  upon  me  to  offer  you,  in  the  name  of  the  young  ladies  of 
this  school,  a slight  token  of  our  esteem  and  regard.  To  myself  it  is  a 
source  of  immense  pleasure  to  be  made  their  mouthpiece  on  this  occa- 
sion, since  my  sincere  delight  may  make  some  amends  for  my  many 
shortcomings.  I am  not  now  addressing  you  as  our  teacher,  but  as 
our  friend,  our  dear,  trusted,  and  very  much  tried  friend  ; for  how  often 
have  we  not  tried  your  temper  and  your  forbearance ! Dear  Teacher, 
we  will  ever  keep  your  image  enshrined  in  our  hearts,  and  shall  look 
back  to  the  school,  not  as  an  abode  of  penance,  but  rather  of  pleasure, 
since  your  kindness  and  your  amiability  have  so  rendered  it — our 
studies  having  been  illuminated  by  your  patient  graciousness.  The 
little  gift  we  offer  you  is  of  no  intrinsic  value,  but  it  is  rich  in  love,  and 
gratitude, and  respect.  Please  accept  it,  and  with  it  our  united  hopes 
that  your  life  will  ever  be  as  happy  as  you  have  made  ours. 

REPLY. 

My  Dear  Pupils: 

I find  that  my  heart  is  so  anxious  to  speak  that  it  has  almost  paralyzed 
my  lips.  Yes,  it  is  indeed  my  heart  that  returns  thanks  to  yours,  for  I 
know  how  pure,  gentle,  generous,  strong,  and  true  your  hearts  are,  and 
my  heart  says  to  yours,  “ Oh,  how  deeply  grateful  I am  for  this  tender 
mark  of  your  affection  ! ” My  dear  pupils,  if  you  have  been  a little 
inclined  to — what  shall  I call  it  ? not  idleness— no,  no — well,  a word  from 
me  ever  brought  you  back  from  the  plucking  of  the  flowers  of  fancy, 
and  a rebuke  was  but  a reminder  that  you  should  tread  the  path  of  study 
for  yet  a little  while.  My  life  has  been  rendered  doubly  pleasant  in  the 
sunshine  of  your  youth,  and  that  I shall  hold  a place  in  your  esteem 
and  affection  is  indeed  a delightful  reward.  That  I thank  you  for  your 
gift  it  is  needless  to  say.  Ah  ! would  that  one  spark  of  eloquence  of  some 
of  the  masters  over  whom  we  have  studied  together  were  given  to  me 
now,  to  let  you  know  what  I feel  on  this  occasion,  which  shall  ever  be 
remembered  as  one  of  the  brightest  resting-places  in  my  journey 
through  life. 


A BACHELOR. 

Ladies  and  Gentlemen  : 

It  seems  rather  hard  that  I,  an  unfortunate  bachelor,  should  be  sin- 
gled out  to  reply  to  this  toast.  Surely  the  misfortune  of  being  unable 
to  meet  a fair  one  to  share  my  lot  ought  to  have  won  your  sympathy, 
and  to  have  left  me  unnoticed  save  by  what  the  poets  are  pleased  to 
term  the  “ passing  tribute  of  a sigh.” 

Ladies,  it  is  no  fault  of  mine  that  I am  unmated.  I detest,  abhor 
loathe  bachelorhood — would  that  I could  find  stronger  terms  of  detesta- 
tion—and  if  Fate,  Kismet,  Destiny,  call  it  what  you  will,  were  to  place 
some  charming  blushing  maiden,  such  as  I see  around  this  board  to- 
night, in  my  path,  I would  consider  myself  the  most  blessed  of  human 
mortals.  What  more  contemptible  being  than  the  old  bachelor  ! who  so 
lonely,  who  so  uncared  for,  who  so  infamously  selfish  ! Of  course 
ladies,  I allude  to  those  cravens  who  have  feared  to  risk  their  fate  on 
that  sweet  small  word  “ Yes.”  I must  myself  confess  to  a certain  cow- 
ardice, and,  with  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  exclaim,  “ Fain  would  I climb 
but  that  I fear  to  fall.”  Oh,  if  some  fair  lady  would  but  say,  “ If  thy 
heart  fail  thee  do  not  climb  at  all ! ” That  I live  in  hope,  white  blos- 
somed Hope,  I do  not  deny,  and  whatever  be  my  fate  now,  in  the 
presence  of  such  charming  and  beautiful  witnesses,  I denounce  bach- 
elorhood and  despise  the  bachelor. 

THE  HOST. 

Gentlemen  : 

Fill  your  glasses  till  the  beaded  bubbles  at  the  brim  topple  over.  This 
is  a toast  that  to  honor  is  a sacred  duty.  I give  you  the  health  of  our 
host — God  bless  him  ! 

REPLY. 

Gentlemen  : 

I thank  you  most  heartily  for  the  manner  in  which  you  have  drank 
the  toast  of  my  health.  I assure  you  from  my  heart  that  I never  feel  s<* 
happy  as  when  I see  myself  surrounded  by  my  friends,  and  to  beholi 
one’s  friends  enjoying  themselves  is  a sight  fit  for  the  gods. 

In  the  battle  of  life,  which  we  are  all  compelled  to  fight,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  halt  occasionally,  stop  by  the  wayside,  and  refresh.  This 
brief  snatching  of  pleasure  at  its  best,  makes  us  all  feel  that  there  is 
something  worth  living  for,  and  that  life  without  friends  would  indeed 
be  but  a dismal  blank.  I again  thank  you  for  your  gracious  good  fellow- 
ship, and  promise  you  that  no  effort  shall  be  wanting  on  my  part  to 
enable  you  to  propose  the  same  toast,  under  the  same  circumstances, 
again,  again,  and  yet  again. 

A DISTINGUISHED  GUEST. 

Gentlemen  : 

A duty,  and  a most  pleasant  one,  devolves  upon  me  of  proposing  the 
health  of  a very  distinguished  gentleman  who  has  honored  us  with  his 

presence  this  evening.  Mr. has  done  us  the  very  great  favor  of 

joining  our  circle,  and  we  feel  the  most  intense  pleasure  in  doing  honor 
to  a citizen  who  has  so  justly  elevated  himself  in  the  opinions  and  good 

wishes  of  his  fellow-countrymen.  Were  Mr. absent  I could  talk 

about  him  for  “ a long  hour  by  Shrewsbury  clock,”  but  as  he  is  present 
I will  endeavor  to  spare  his  blushes,  and  come  at  once  to  the  drinking 
of  his  health  in  a bumper.  Gentlemen,  long  life,  prosperity  and  happi- 
ness to  our  distinguished  guest,  Mr. . Three  times  three  and  a 

tiger!  Take  the  time  from  me  ! Hip,  etc. 

REPLY. 

Mr.  Chairman  and  Gentlemen  : 

Our  worthy  host  intimated  that  he  wished  to  spare  my  blushes.  Now 
it  is  so  long  since  I blushed,  that  I forget  the  sensation,  but  I declare 
that  I could  find  this  no  occasion  to  blush,  save  for  very  pleasure, 
since  to  be  thus  introduced  and  thus  toasted  is  indeed  an  occasion  so 
pleasurable  to  me,  that  it  shall  ever  remain  impressed  on  the  tablets  of 
both  my  memory  and  my  heart. 

It  is  indeed  a source  of  intense  gratification  to  me  to  find  that  my 
little  efforts,  so  far  as  they  have  gone,  are  appreciated,  and  by  gentle- 
men such  as  I see  around  this  board.  True  it  is  that  I have  done  but 
little  ; but,  gentlemen,  I assure  you  my  object  is  to  do  a great  deal,  and 
failing  in  that,  I have  but  done  my  share.  If,  however,  I am  to  do  my 
share  in  this  evening’s  bout,  7 am  extremely  grateful  to  our  respected 


202 


SPEECHES. 


chairman  for  giving-  me  an  opportunity  of  speaking  so  eat  ly  in  ine 
evening,  as  later  on — well,  least  said  soonest  mended. 

WEDDING-DAY  ANNIVERSARY. 


This  is  indeed  an  occasion  where  a speech  is  utterly  unnecessary,  for 
the  fact  of  our  being  here  speaks  so  eloquently,  that  the  words  even  of 
a Demosthenes  or  a Cicero  would  fall  flat,  stale,  and  unprofitable. 

Ladies  and  gentlemen,  just  cast  a glance  at  that  happy  man,  out  host, 
and  that  beautiful  lady,  our  hostess.  See  the  “ heavenly  assenting 
smile  ” that  speaks  of  the  tenderest  devotion,  of  a happiness  those  who 
wed  whom  they  love,  alone  can  know.  The  sunshine  of  unalloyed 
felicity  is  a nimbus  to  their  lives,  and  it  is  well  that,  as  the  clock  strikes 
another  year  upon  their  wedded  bliss,  we  should  be  here  to  congratu- 
late and  say  God  bless  them  both. 

That  their  journey  of  life  will  be  always  as  smooth  as  it  is  now,  and 
that  they  may  ever  be  protected  from  storm  and  strait,  is  the  sentiment  I 

would  couple  with  the  health  of  our  dear  friends,  Mr.  and  Mrs. , 

on  this  the  anniversary  of  their  wedding. 

REPLY. 

Mv  VERY  DEAR  FRIENDS  : 

As  a rule,  no  husband  is  perfectly  safe  in  replying  for  his  wife, 
since  that  much-to-be-respected  party  is  usually  so  capable  of  replying 
for  herself,  and  as  on  too  frequent  occasions,  her  sentiments  differ  a 
little  from  his.  On  this  occasion,  however,  I reply  for  my  dear  wife, 
knowing  that  every  word  I say  will  be  endorsed  by  her,  and  that  every 
beat  of  her  heart  is  in  accord  with  mine. 

This  is  indeed  a very  joyous  anniversary.  It  recalls  the  delicious 
rapture  of  the  moment  when  I first  could  call  my  cherished  partner  by 
that  sacred  and  endearing  term  of  wife.  It  recalls  the  moment  when 
she  placed  her  happiness  in  my  hands  ; and,  my  dear  friends,  I ask  of 
you  if  that  smile  which  puckers  round  her  mouth  now,  does  not  do  me 
infinite  justice  ? If  I have  not  been  disappointed  in  her,  l trust  in  God 
she  has  not  been  disappointed  in  me,  and  as  years  pass  around,  and. 
Darby  and  Joan  like,  we  descend  the  hill,  may  this  anniversary  ever 
prove  a resting-place  for  happy  retrospection. 

CRYSTAL  WEDDING. 

In  this  age  of  transparency,  when  glass  has  arrived  at  such  perfection, 
it  behooves  us  upon  this,  the  anniversary  of  the  crystal  wedding  of  our 
dear  friends,  to  “ hold  the  mirror  up  to  nature,”  and  let  them  view 
themselves  in  the  glass  we  now  place  before  them.  The  lady  smiles,  as 
well  she  may,  for  Time’s  glass  has  not  shaken  out  a single  sand,  and 
the  fifteen  years  that  have  passed  since  she  made  our  host  the  happiest 
of  men,  have  left  scarce  a trace  upon  her  pellucid  brow. 

The  crystals  which  we  present  our  dear  friends  upon  this  auspicious 
and  delightful  occasion  are  but  a type  of  the  transparency  and  bright- 
ness of  their  lives.  May  they  never  look  on  life  “ as  through  a glass, 
darkly.”  May  the  goblets  which  stand  upon  the  festive  board  ever 
brim  with  the  nectar  distilled  from  love  and  harmony,  and  may  these 
glass  pitchers,  and  bowls,  and  decanters  serve  as  crucibles  through 
which  their  silver  and  golden  anniversaries  may  yet  be  passed,  and  in 
this  joyous  and  sympathetic  company. 


REPLY. 


Dear  Friends  : 

True  it  is  that  we  have  been  married  fifteen  long  years,  yet  it  seems 

to  me  that is  just  as  young,  just  as  fresh,  just  as  lovely  as  when, 

on  this  day  fifteen  years  ago,  I took  her  for  better  or  for  worse.  Yet, 
dear  friends,  I like  this  celebration.  It  reminds  us  that  we  have  reached 
one  of  the  great  resting-places  on  the  line,  and  that,  whilst  we  look  back 
with  intense  pleasure  upon  our  journey,  we  also  anticipate  a great  deal 
more  farther  on  the  road.  It  is  indeed  a source  of  intense  gratification 
to  us  to  find  that,  after  fifteen  years,  so  many  friends  come  to  visit  us  as 
we  rest  by  the  wayside,  bringing  gifts  and  bidding  us  to  be  of  good 
cheer.  These  anniversaries  are  a sacred  institution,  and  as  you  were 
good  enough  to  express  a hope  that  these  beautiful  goblets  might 
prove  crucibles,  let  me  now  engage  each  and  every  one  of  you  not  only 
to  our  silver  and  gold,  but  to  our  diamond  weddings.  I now  drink 
your  healths,  thanking  you  for  my  fifteen-year  partner  from  the  bottom 
of  my  heart. 


SILVER  WEDDING. 

Ladies  and  Gentlemen  : 

On  a certain  day  just  twenty-five  years  ago,  a certain  lady  and  gentle- 
man entered  for  the  race  of  life,  and  they  have,  I am  delighted  to  de- 
clare, won  the  plate.  Behold  it ! [Points  to  gifts.]  They  have,  to 
continue  the  parlance  of  the  turf,  run  neck  and  neck,  and  come  in  to 
this  the  winning-post  in  the  easiest  of  possible  canters.  Ladies  and 
gentlemen,  let  us  drink  to  the  winners,  and  let  us  earnestly  hope  that 
they  may  be  matched  for  the  gold  plate,  and  that  we  may  be  present 
when  the  “ little  event”  comes  off. 

Ladies  and  gentlemen,  need  we  say  how  deeply  we  congratulate  our 
dear  friends  ? Is  not  this  occasion  a lesson  to  maids  and  bachelors  ? 
Never  were  there  words  more  applicable,  “ Go  and  do  likewise.”  I 
shall  conclude,  for  I see  that  you  are  all  eager  to  do  honor  to  my  toast,' 
by  quoting  Sheridan  : 

“ Ah,  sure  a pair  were  never  seen 
So  justly  formed  to  meet  by  nature.” 

Their  healths — God  bless  them  ! 

GOLDEN  WEDDING. 

This  is  indeed  a grand  occasion,  and  one  which,  while  it  brings  joy 
and  thankfulness  to  our  hearts,  bears  with  it  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  touching  lessons  in  the  book  of  life. 

Our  respected  and  venerable  friends  have  indeed  reached  the  golden 
age  of  maturity.  Hand  in  hand  have  they  ascended  the  hill,  hand  in 
hand  are  they  descending  into  the  valley,  a valley  lighted  with  the  un- 
dying and  unshifting  lamp  of  faithfulness,  love,  and  devotion.  What 
a privilege  for  us  to  be  here  to  witness  this  beautiful  sight,  to  see  the 
bride  and  bridegroom  of  to-day  in  soul,  in  heart,  the  bride  and  bride- 
groom of  this  day  half  a century  ago  ! 

Time  has  sown  fresh  flowers  in  their  dear  old  hearts  ; time  has  gar- 
landed their  brows  with  choicest  flowers  ; time  has  but  mellowed  their 
affections,  which,  like  good  wine,  has  but  improved  with  age. 

We  have  come  here  to  felicitate  them  upon  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of 
their  marriage,  to  wish  them  many  a long  year  yet  before  they  snap  the 
golden  link  that  bound  them  together  ; that  their  bark  may  sail  upon  a 
golden  sea,  and  that  their  sunset  may  be  golden,  is  our  united  senti- 
ment. 

CONGRATULATING  A CANDIDATE. 

Sir — It  is  not  in  mortals  to  command  success,  but,  what  is  better,  they 
should  endeavor  to  deserve  it.  You  have  been  successful  because  you 
have  deserved  it,  and  we  come  to  exchange  congratulations,  since  whilst 
we  rejoice  for  you,  you  undoubtedly  rejoice  with  us.  We  have  won  a 
proud  victory,  but  much  of  the  glory  is  due  to  our  standard-bearer. 
That  you  will  conscientiously  and  worthily  fill  the  office  which  has  been 
bestowed  upon  you  is  beyond  the  region  of  doubt. 

We  have  done  honor  to  ourselves  by  proposing  so  clear-headed  and 
able  a candidate,  and  you,  sir,  will  do  honor  to  us  by  pursuing  in  your 
new  position  that  pure  and  unsullied  line  of  conduct  which  has  this 
day  led  us  to  nominate  you  for  election. 

We  do  not  attempt  to  crow  over  the  defeated  candidate.  We  can 
afford  to  be  magnanimous,  and  since  we  are  now  so  worthily  repre- 
sented, we  feel  assured  that  the  enemy  will  regard  you  as  the  exponent 
of  their  opinions  as  much  as  we  shall.  Sir,  we  cordially  congratula'e 
you  on  a well  merited  success,  and  we  congratulate  you,  and  congratu- 
late the  good  cause. 

REPLY. 

Gentlemen  : 

Deeds,  not  words,  is  my  motto.  That  I thank  you,  and  the  energetic 
workers  in  the  good  cause  which  has  led  to  this  triumph,  a triumph 
in  which  I am  personally  interested,  need  scarcely  be  said.  I am  as  yet 
an  untried  man,  but  it  is  my  purpose  to  prove  to  you  that  your  votes  of 
to-day  have  not  been  thrown  away,  and  that  you  have  honored  an  in- 
dividual who  will  at  least  endeavor  to  prove  his  gratitude  by  head,  heart, 
and  unflagging  work.  The  good  cause  has  indeed  triumphed,  and  I 
pledge  myself  that  the  trust  you  have  this  day  reposed  in  me  shall  lose 
nothing  from  being  placed  in  my  hands.  I shall  endeavor  to  the  best 
of  my  poor  ability  to  walk  in  the  straight  path,  and  to  discharge  the 
duties  appertaining  to  my  office  without  fear  or  favor.  Once  more  1 
thank  you  for  the  high  honor  which  you  have  done  me. 


AMATORY. 

IMERICAN  belles  and  American  fashions. 

Laughing  lovers  to  merry  maids. 

Love  and  opportunity. 

Love’s  slavery. 

Love  without  licentiousness,  and  pleasure  without 
excess. 

_ Love,  liberty,  and  length  of  blissful  days. 

Love  without  fear,  and  life  without  care. 

C ‘),  s'  Love  for  one. 

Life,  love,  liberty,  and  true  friendship. 

Love  in  every  breast,  liberty  in  every  heart,  and  learning  In  every 
head. 

Love  at  liberty,  and  liberty  in  love. 

Love : may  it  never  make  a wise  man  play  the  fool. 

Artless  love,  and  disinterested  friendship. 

All  that  love  can  give,  and  sensibility  enjoy. 

A speedy  union  to  every  lad  and  lass. 

Beauty’s  best  companion — Modesty. 

Beauty,  innocence,  and  modest  merit. 

Beauty  without  affectation,  and  virtue  without  deceit. 

Community  of  goods,  unity  of  hearts,  nobility  of  sentiment,  and  truth 
of  feeling  to  the  lovers  of  the  fair  sex. 

Charms  to  strike  the  sight,  and  merit  to  win  the  heart. 

Constancy  in  love,  and  sincerity  in  friendship. 

Here’s  a health  to  the  maid  that  is  constant  and  kind. 

Who  to  charms  bright  as  Venus’  adds  Diana’s  mind. 

I’ll  toast  America’s  daughters — let  all  fill  their  glasses — 

Whose  beauty  and  virtue  the  whole  world’s  surpasses 
May  blessings  attend  them,  go  wherever  they  will. 

And  foul  fall  the  man  that  e’er  offers  them  ill. 

Love  without  deceit  and  matrimony  without  regret. 

Love’s  garlands:  may  they  ever  entwine  the  brows  of  every  true- 
hearted lover. 

Lovely  woman — man’s  best  and  dearest  gift  of  life. 

Love  to  one,  friendship  tc  a few,  and  good-will  to  all. 

Long  life,  pure  love,  and  boundless  liberty. 

May  love  and  reason  be  friends,  and  beauty  and  prudence  marry. 

May  the  lovers  of  the  fair  sex  never  want  the  means  to  defend  them. 

May  the  sparks  of  love  brighten  into  a flame. 

May  the  joys  of  the  fair  give  pleasure  to  the  heart. 

May  we  be  loved  by  those  whom  we  love. 

May  we  kiss  whom  we  please,  and  please  whom  we  kiss. 

May  the  bud  of  affection  be  ripened  by  the  sunshine  of  sincerity. 

May  a virtuous  offspring  succeed  to  mutual  and  honorable  love. 

May  the  presence  of  the  fair  curb  the  licentious. 

May  the  confidence  of  love  be  rewarded  with  constancy  in  its  object. 

May  the  honorable  lover  attain  the  object  of  his  wishes. 

May  the  lovers  of  the  fair  be  modest,  faithful, and  kind. 

May  the  wings  of  love  never  lose  a feather. 

May  the  blush  ot  conscious  innocence  ever  deck  the  faces  of  the 
American  fair. 

May  the  union  of  persons  always  be  founded  on  that  of  hearts. 

May  the  generous  heart  ever  meet  a chaste  mate. 

May  the  temper  of  our  wives  be  suited  to  those  of  their  husbands. 

May  true  passion  never  meet  with  a slight. 

^ 


May  every  woman  have  a protector,  but  not  a tyrant. 

The  Girl  we  Love— When  she  is  our  toast,  we  don’t  want  any  bui 
her. 

May  we  find  our  wives  to-night  where  Cain  found  his— in  the  land  ol 
Nod. 

Harmony  in  all  the  states  or  the  world — Especially  the  Married 
State. 

The  Graces  that  every  Man  desires — The  good  graces  of  woman. 

The  best  Union  Bonds  in  the  Market— Marriage  certificates. 

BACCHANALIAN. 

May  we  act  with  reason  when  the  bottle  circulates. 

May  good  fortune  resemble  the  bottle  and  bowl, 

And  stand  by  the  man  who  can’t  stand  by  himself. 

May  we  never  want  wine,  nor  a friend  to  partake  of  it. 

May  our  love  of  the  glass  never  make  us  forget  decency. 

May  the  juice  of  the  grape  enliven  each  soul. 

And  good-humor  preside  at  the  head  of  each  bowl. 

May  mirth  exalt  the  feast. 

May  we  always  get  mellow  with  good  wine. 

May  the  moments  of  mirth  be  regulated  by  the  dial  of  reason. 

Champagne  to  our  real  friends,  and  real  pain  to  our  sham  friends. 

Come,  every  man  now  give  his  toast — 

Fill  up  the  glass— I’ll  tell  you  mine  : 

Wine  is  the  mistress  1 love  most  i 
This  is  my  toast — now  give  me  thine. 

Cheerfulness  in  our  cups,  content  in  our  minds,  and  competency  in  ctt 
pockets. 

Come,  fill  the  glass  and  drain  the  bowl : 

May  Love  and  Bacchus  still  agree  ; 

And  every  American  warm  his  soul 
With  Cupid,  Wine,  and  Liberty. 

Good-humor : and  may  it  ever  smile  at  our  board. 

Full  bags,  a fresh  bottle,  and  a beauty. 

Good  wine  and  good  company  to  the  lovers  ol  reasonable  enjoyment. 

A friend  and  a bottle  to  give  him. 

A hearty  supper,  a good  bottle,  and  a soft  bed  to  every  man  who  fightf 
the  battles  of  his  country. 

A full  purse,  a fresh  bottle,  and  beautiful  face. 

A full  bottle  and  a friend  to  partake  of  it. 

A drop  of  good  stuff  and  a snug  social  party. 

To  spend  a dull  evening,  gay,  social,  and  hearty. 

A mirth-inspiring  bowl. 

A fuii  belly,  a heavy  purse,  and  a light  heart. 

A bottle  at  night  and  business  in  the  morning. 

Beauty,  wit,  and  wine. 

Clean  glasses  and  old  corks. 

Wine : may  it  be  our  spur  as  we  ride  over  the  bad  roads  of  life. 

While  we  enjoy  ourselves  over  the  bottle, may  we  neverdrive  prudenc* 
out  of  the  room. 

Wine— for  there’s  no  medicine  like  it. 

Wine— the  parent  of  friendship,  composer  of  strife. 

The  soother  of  sorrow,  the  blessing  of  life. 

Wine,  the  bond  that  cements  the  warm  heart  to  a friend. 

Wine.  Wit.  and  Wisdom — Wine  enough  to  sharpen  wit  ; wit  enough 

i 


204 


TOASTS  AND  SENTIMENTS. 


to  give  zest  to  wine  ; wisdom  enough  to  “ shut  down  ” at  the  right 
moment.  ' 

The  Latch  Key — May  it  never  open  the  door  to  reproach. 

May  we  never  lose  our  taste  for  any  of  the  sweets  of  life— especially 
'lasses. 

The  first  duty  of  Bachelors — To  ring  the  city  belles. 

Success  to  all  parties  that,  like  this  party,  are  founded  on  friendship, 
harmony,  and  hospitality. 

The  best  of  all  Revolvers— The  bottle  as  it  goes  round. 

COMIC. 

May  the  tax-gatherer  be  forgiven  in  another  world. 

To  the  early  bird  that  catches  the  worm. 

To  the  bird  in  the  hand  that  is  worth  two  in  the  bush. 

The  land  we  live  in  : may  he  who  doesn’t  like  it  leave  it. 

The  three  great  Generals  in  power— General  Peace,  General  Plenty, 
and  General  Satisfaction. 

May  the  parched  pea  never  jnmp  out  of  the  frying-pan  into  the  fire. 
The  three  R’s:  Reading, ’Riting,  and  ’Rithmetic. 

May  evil  communications  never  corrupt  good  manners. 

May  the  celebrated  pin  a day,  of  which  we  have  heard  so  much,  always 
make  the  groat  a year. 

May  the  groat  a year  never  be  unwisely  invested  In  a Joint-Stock 
Company. 

May  that  man  never  grow  fat 
Who  carries  two  faces  under  one  hat. 

Here’s  to  the  best  physicians— Dr.  Diet,  Dr.  Quiet,  and  Dr.  Merryman. 
Here’s  to  the  feast  that  has  plenty  of  meat  and  very  litile  table-cloth. 
Here’s  to  the  full  purse  that  never  lacks  friends. 

May  fools  make  feasts,  and  wise  men  eat  them. 

Here’s  to  the  man  who  never  lets  his  tongue  cut  his  own  throat. 

Here’s  to  the  man  who  never  quarrels  with  his  bread  and  butter. 

Here’s  to  the  man  who  never  looks  a gift  horse  ..1  the  mouth. 

Here’s  to  the  old  bird  that  is  not  to  be  caught  with  chaff. 

CONSERVATIVE. 

The  equilibrium  of  State,  may  it  always  be  preserved. 

Judicious  reforms  and  reformers. 

The  universal  advancement  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 

May  the  dispensers  of  justice  ever  be  impartial. 

May  the  worth  of  the  nation  be  ever  inestimable. 

May  taxation  be  lessened  annually. 

May  the  sword  of  justice  be  swayed  by  the  hand  of  mercy. 

May  the  seeds  of  dissension  never  find  growth  in  the  soil  of  America. 
May  the  love  of  country  be  imprinted  in  every  American’s  breast. 
Liberty,  not  license. 

Confusion  to  all  men  who  desert  their  party. 

Party  ties  before  all  other  ties. 

A lasting  cement  to  all  contending  powers. 

The  protectors  of  commerce  and  the  promoters  of  charity. 

A revision  of  the  code  of  criminal  laws. 

ENGLISH. 

England,  home,  and  beauty. 

English  oak  and  British  valor. 

England  forever : the  land  we  live  in. 

England.  Scotland,  and  Ireland:  may  their  union  remain  undisturbed 
by  plots  or  treachery  to  the  end  of  time. 

England,  the  queen  of  the  isles  and  the  queen  of  the  main. 

May  old  England's  sons,  the  Americans,  never  forget  their  mother. 

IRISH. 

A high  post  to  the  enemies  of  Ould  Ireland. 

Erin,  the  land  of  the  brave  and  the  bold. 

Ireland  : sympathy  for  her  wrongs,  and  a determination  to  redress  them. 
The  country  that  gave  St.  Patrick  birth,  the  birthplace  of  wit,  and  hos- 
pitality’s home— dear  Ould  Ireland. 

May  Ireland  be  ever  equally  distinguished  by  her  love  of  liberty  and 
true  patriotism. 

May  the  enemies  of  Ireland  never  meet  a friend. 

Justice  to  Ireland. 

Grattan  and  the  Volunteers  of  ’82. 


SCOTCH. 

A health  to  the  friends  of  Caledonia. 

Caledonia,  the  nursery  of  learning  and  the  birthplace  of  heroes. 

Scotland,  and  the  productions  of  its  soil. 

Scottish  heroes,  and  may  their  fame  live  forever. 

Scotland,  the  birthplace  of  valor,  the  country  of  worth. 

The  Queen  and  the  Scottish  Union. 

The  nobles  of  Caledonia  and  their  ladies. 

To  the  memory  of  Scottish  heroines. 

The  Rose,  Thistle,  and  Shamrock  : may  they  flourish  by  the  common 
graft  of  union. 

To  the  memory  of  Scotland’s  heroes. 

To  the  memory  of  those  who  have  gloriously  fallen  in  the  noble  strug- 
gle for  independence. 

LIBERAL. 

Annihilation  to  the  trade  of  corruption. 

Addition  to  our  trade,  multiplication  to  our  manufactures,  subtraction 
to  taxes,  and  reduction  to  places  and  pensions. 

All  the  honest  reformers  of  our  country. 

America : may  the  land  of  our  nativity  ever  be  the  abode  of  freedom, 
and  the  birthplace  of  heroes. 

America’s  annals  : may  they  never  suffer  a moral  or  political  blot. 

Confusion  to  those  who  barter  the  cause  of  their  country  for  sordid 
gain. 

Confusion  to  those  who,  wearing  the  mask  of  patriotism,  pull  it  off  and 
desert  the  cause  of  liberty  in  the  hour  of  trial. 

Confusion  to  those  despots  who  combine  against  the  liberties  of  man- 
Kind. 

Disappointment  to  all  those  who  form  expectations  of  places  and  pen- 
sions cn  the  ruin  of  their  country. 

Everlasting  life  to  the  man  who  gave  the  death-blow  to  the  slave-trade. 

Community,  unity,  navigation,  and  trade. 

Faith  in  every  kind  of  commerce. 

Freedom  to  the  oppressed,  and  slavery  to  the  oppressors. 

Freedom  to  all  who  dare  contend  for  it. 

Oblivion  to  all  party  rage. 

Humanity  to  all  created  beings,  especially  to  our  own  species,  whether 
black  or  white. 

No  party  except  mankind. 

May  the  meanest  American  scorn  the  highest  slave. 

May  every  succeeding  century  maintain  the  principles  of  the  glorious 
Revolution,  enjoy  the  blessings  of  them,  and  transmit  them  to  future 
ages  unimpaired  and  improved. 

May  the  whole  universe  be  incorporated  in  one  city,  and  every  inhabi- 
tant presented  with  the  freedom. 

May  freedom’s  fire  take  new  birth  at  the  grave  of  liberty. 

May  our  country  be,  as  it  has  ever  been,  a secure  asylum  to  the  unfor- 
tunate and  oppressed. 

High  wages,  and  sense  to  keep  them. 

May  the  freedom  of  election  be  preserved,  the  trial  by  jury  maintained, 
and  the  liberty  of  the  press  secured  to  the  latest  posterity. 

May  the  tree  of  liberty  flourish  round  the  globe,  and  every  human  be- 
ing partake  of  the  fruits. 

May  truth  and  liberty  prevail  throughout  the  world. 

May  all  partial  and  impolitic  taxes  be  abolished. 

May  the  sons  of  liberty  marry  the  daughters  of  virtue. 

May  Americans  never  suffer  invasion,  nor  invade  the  rights  of  others. 

May  the  miseries  of  war  be  banished  from  all  enlightened  nations. 

May  our  trade  and  manufactures  be  unrestrained  by  the  fetters  of 
monopoly. 

May  the  whole  world  become  more  enlightened  and  civilized. 

May  revolutions  never  cease  while  tyranny  exists. 

Our  constitution  as  settled  at  the  Revolution. 

The  majesty  of  the  people  of  America. 

The  memory  of  our  brave  ancestors  who  brought  about  the  Revolution, 
and  may  a similar  spirit  actuate  their  descendants. 

The  sacred  decree  of  heaven— Let  all  mankind  be  fiee. 

The  people— the  only  source  of  legitimate  power. 

The  subject  of  liberty  and  the  liberty  of  the  subject. 

The  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number. 


TOASTS  AND  SENTIMENTS. 


205 


NAVAL. 


May  the  nation  that  plots  against  another’s  liberty  or  prosperity  fall  a 
victim  to  its  own  intrigues. 

LITERARY. 

Toleration  and  liberty  of  the  press. 

The  Fourth  Estate. 

The  liberty  of  the  press,  and  success  to  its  defenders. 

The  Press  : the  great  bulwark  of  our  liberties,  and  may  it  ever  remain 
unshackled . 

The  glorious  literature  of  America. 

The  glorious  literature  of  Scotland. 

The  glorious  literature  of  Ireland. 

The  glorious  literature  of  England. 

LOYAL. 

A lasting  peace  or  an  honorable  war. 

A health  to  our  patriots. 

Agriculture  and  its  improvers. 

All  societies  associated  for  promoting  the  happiness  of  the  human  race. 
All  the  charitable  institutions  of  the  United  States. 

American  virtue  : may  it  always  find  a protector,  but  never  need  one. 
Holy  pastors,  honest  magistrates,  and  humane  rulers. 

Improvement  to  the  inventions  of  our  country. 

Improvement  to  our  arts,  and  invention  to  our  artists. 

May  the  sword  of  Justice  be  swayed  by  the  hand  of  Mercy. 

May  the  love  of  country  always  prevail. 

May  our  sons  be  honest  and  fair,  and  our  daughters  modest  and  fair. 
May  every  American’s  hand  be  ever  hostile  to  tyranny. 

May  our  jurors  ever  possess  sufficient  courage  to  uphold  their  verdict. 
May  every  American  manfully  withstand  corruption. 

Our  wives,  homes,  our  country. 

May  every  American  manfully  withstand  tyranny. 

May  the  glory  of  America  never  cease  to  shine. 

May  our  hearts  ever  be  possessed  with  the  love  of  country. 

May  the  brave  never  want  protection. 

May  we  ever  honestly  uphold  our  rights. 

May  we  never  cease  to  deserve  well  of  our  country. 

May  the  liberties  of  the  people  be  immortal. 

May  the  brow  of  the  brave  be  adorned  by  the  hand  of  beauty .- 
May  we  never  find  danger  lurking  on  the  borders  of  security. 

May  the  laurels  of  America  never  be  blighted. 

May  all  mankind  make  free  to  enjoy  the  blessings  of  liberty,  but  never 
take  the  liberty  to  subvert  the  principles  of  freedom. 

May  America’s  name  and  America’s  fame  stand  forever  pure,  great  and 
free. 

May  every  true  American  be  possessed  of  peace,  plenty,  and  content. 
May  every  American  act  the  patriot’s  part. 

May  victory  spin  the  robe  of  glory  for  the  brave,  and  fame  enroll  his 
deeds. 

May  the  laws  never  be  misconstrued. 

May  the  weight  of  our  taxes  never  bend  the  back  of  our  credit. 

MILITARY. 

To  the  memory  of  Washington  and  all  like  him. 

May  the  enemy's  flag  be  surmounted  by  the  American  standard. 

May  the  arms  borne  by  a soldier  never  be  used  in  a bad  cause. 

May  American  soldiers  fight  to  protect,  and  conquer  to  save. 

May  the  gifts  of  fortune  never  cause  us  to  steer  out  of  our  latitude. 
May  the  brow  of  the  brave  never  want  a wreath  of  laurel  to  adorn  it. 
May  the  brave  soldier  who  never  turned  his  back  to  the  enemy  never 
have  a friend  turn  his  back  to  him. 

May  bronze  and  medals  not  be  the  only  reward  of  the  brave. 

May  the  laurels  of  America  never  be  blighted 

May  all  weapons  of  war  be  used  for  warlike  purpose  only. 

May  a soldier  never  tall  a sacrifice  but  to  glory. 

To  the  memory  of  all  brave  soldiers  who  fall  in  defense  of  their  coun- 
try. 


May  our  iron-clads  do  as  much  as  our  brave  old  oaks. 

May  rudders  govern  and  ships  obey. 

May  no  true  son  of  Neptune  ever  flinch  from  his  gun. 

May  no  son  of  the  ocean  ever  be  devoured  by  his  mother. 

May  our  navy  never  know  defeat  but  by  name . 

May  our  officers  and  tars  be  valiant  and  brave. 

Success  to  the  fair  for  manning  the  navy. 

May  gales  of  prosperity  waft  us  to  the  port  of  happiness. 

May  the  pilot  of  reason  guide  us  to  the  harbor  of  rest. 

May  the  memory  of  the  noble  Farragut  inspire  every  seaman  to  do  hit 
duty. 

May  the  tar  who  loses  one  eye  in  defense  of  his  country  never  see  dis- 
tress with  the  other. 

The  heart  of  a sailor : may  it  be  like  heart  of  oak. 

Though  our  bold  tars  are  fortune’s  sport,  may  they  ever  be  fortune'r 
care. 

The  flag  of  America : may  it  ever  brave  the  battle  and  the  breeze. 

The  sea,  the  rough  sea,  the  open  sea  : may  our  lives  be  spent  upon  It. 
The  sea,  the  sleepless  guardian  of  the  world. 

Safe  arrivals  to  our  homeward  and  outward  bound  fleets. 

RELIGIOUS. 

The  friends  of  religion,  liberty,  and  science  in  every  part  of  the  globe. 
The  honest  reformers  of  our  laws  and  religion. 

The  friends  of  religious  toleration,  whether  they  are  within  or  without 
the  Establishment. 

SENTIMENTAL. 

May  we  ever  have  a sufficiency  for  ourselves,  and  a trifle  to  spare  for 
our  friends. 

May  we  always  look  forward  to  better  time,  but  never  be  discontented 
with  the  present. 

May  the  miseries  of  war  never  more  have  existence  in  the  world. 

May  the  wing  of  friendship  never  moult  a feather. 

May  our  artists  never  be  forced  into  artifice  to  gain  applause  and  for- 
tune. 

May  solid  honor  soon  take  place  of  seeming  religion. 

May  our  thoughts  never  mislead  our  judgment. 

May  filial  piety  ever  be  the  result  of  a religious  education. 

May  reai  merit  meet  reward,  and  pretension  its  punishment. 

May  prosperity  never  make  us  arrogant,  nor  adversity  mean. 

May  we  live  happy  and  die  in  peace  with  all  mankind. 

May  the  unsuspecting  man  never  be  deceived. 

May  noise  and  nonsense  be  ever  banished  from  social  company. 

May  the  faults  of  our  neighbors  be  dim  and  their  virtues  glaring. 

May  industry  always  be  the  favorite  of  Fortune. 

May  the  rich  be  charitable  and  the  poor  grateful. 

May  the  misfortunes  of  others  be  always  examined  at  the  chart  of  our 
own  conduct. 

May  we  never  be  so  base  as  to  envy  the  happiness  of  another. 

May  we  live  to  learn,  and  learn  to  live  well. 

May  we  be  more  ready  to  correct  our  own  faults  than  to  publish  the 
faults  of  others. 

May  we  never  hurt  our  neighbor’s  peace  by  the  desire  of  appearing 
witty. 

Modesty  in  our  discourses,  moderation  in  our  wishes,  and  mutuality  in 
our  affections. 

May  we  never  envy  those  who  are  happy,  but  strive  to  imitate  them. 
May  we  derive  amusement  from  business  and  improvement  from  pleas 
ure. 

May  our  faults  be  written  on  the  seashore,  and  every  good  action  prove 
a wave  to  wash  them  out. 

May  virtue  find  fortune  always  an  attendant. 

May  we  never  repine  at  our  condition,  nor  be  depressed  by  poverty. 
May  reality  strengthen  the  joys  of  imagination. 

May  we  never  make  a sword  of  our  tongue  to  wound  a good  man  s rep 
utation . 

May  our  distinguishing  mark  be  merit  rather  than  money. 

A total  abolition  of  the  slave-trade. 


TOASTS  AND  SENTIMENTS. 


206 


A heart  to  glow  for  others’  good. 

A heart  to  feel  and  a heart  to  give. 

A period  to  the  sorrows  of  an  ingenuous  mind. 

A health  to  our  sweethearts,  our  friends,  and  our  wives. 

May  fortune  smile  on  them  the  rest  of  their  lives. 

May  genius  and  merit  never  want  a friend. 

Adam’s  ale  : and  may  so  pure  an  element  always  be  at  hand. 

All  that  gives  us  pleasure. 

All  our  wants  and  wishes. 

All  our  absent  friends  on  land  and  sea. 

An  honest  guide  and  a good  pilot. 

As  we  bind  so  may  we  find. 

As  we  travel  through  life  may  we  live  well  on  the  road. 

May  truth  and  liberty  prevail  throughout  the  world. 

May  we  never  engage  in  a bad  cause,  and  never  fly  from  a good  one. 
May  the  fruits  of  America’s  soil  never  be  denied  to  her  children. 

SPORTING. 

May  the  lovers  of  the  chase  never  want  the  comforts  of  life. 

The  clear-sighted  sportsman  that  sees  his  game  with  one  eye. 

The  steady  sportsman  that  always  brings  down  his  game. 

The  beagle  that  runs  by  nose  and  not  by  sight. 

The  jolly  sportsman  that  never  beats  about  the  bush. 

The  joys  of  angling. 

May  the  pleasures  of  sportsmen  never  know  an  end. 

May  we  always  gain  fresh  vigor  from  the  joys  of  the  chase. 

May  the  sportsman’s  day  be  spent  in  pleasure. 

May  strength  the  sportsman’s  nerves  in  vigor  brace. 

May  cruelty  ne’er  stain  with  foul  disgrace. 

The  well-earned  pleasures  of  the  chase. 

May  the  love  of  the  chase  never  interrupt  our  attention  to  the  welfare 
of  our  country 

May  every  sport  prove  as  innocent  as  that  of  the  field. 

May  those  who  love  the  crack  of  the  whip  never  want  a brusn  topursue. 
May  the  heart  of  a sportsman  never  know  affliction  but  by  name. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

The  three  A’s  : 

Abundance,  abstinence,  and  annihilation. 

Abundance  to  the  poor. 

Abstinence  to  the  intemperate. 

Annihilation  to  the  wicked. 

The  three  B’s  : 

Bachelors,  banns,  and  buns. 

Bachelors  for  the  maidens. 

Banns  for  the  bachelors. 

Buns  after  the  consummation  of  the  banns 
The  three  C's : 

Cheerfulness,  content,  and  competency. 

Cheerfulness  in  our  cup. 

Content  in  our  minds. 

Competency  in  our  pockets. 

The  three  F’s : 

Firmness,  freedom,  and  fortitude. 

Firmness  in  the  senate. 

Freedom  on  the  land. 

Fortitude  on  the  waves. 

The  three  F’s : 

Friendship,  feeling,  and  fidelity. 

Friendship  without  interest. 

Feeling  to  our  enemies. 

Fidelity  to  our  friends. 

The  three  F’s  : Fair,  fat,  and  forty 

The  three  generals  in  peace. 

General  peace. 


General  plenty. 

General  satisfaction. 

The  three  generals  in  power : 

General  employment. 

General  industry. 

General  comfort. 

The  three  H’s  : 

Health,  honor,  and  happiness. 

Health  to  all  the  world. 

Honor  to  those  who  seek  . > a. 

Happiness  in  our  homes. 

The  three  L’s  : 

Love,  life,  and  liberty. 

Love  pure. 

Life  long. 

Liberty  boundless. 

The  three  M’s : 

Mirth,  music  and  moderation. 

Mirth  at  every  board. 

Music  in  all  instruments. 

Moderation  in  our  desires. 

The  three  golden  balls  of  civilization  : 

Industry,  commerce,  and  wealth. 

The  three  companions  of  beauty  : 

Modesty,  love,  and  constancy. 

The  three  blessings  of  this  life. 

Health,  wealth,  and  a good  conscience. 

The  four  comforts  of  this  life : 

Love,  liberty,  health,  and  a contented  mind. 

The  three  spirits  that  have  no  souls : 

Brandy,  rum,  and  gin. 

When  we  go  up  the  hill  of  prosperity  may  we  never  meet  a friend 
The  three  M’s : 

Modesty,  moderation,  and  mutuality 
Modesty  in  our  discourse. 

Moderation  in  our  wishes. 

Mutuality  in  our  affection. 

The  Musician's  Toast — May  a crotchet  in  the  head  never  bar  the  ut 
terance  of  good  notes. 

May  the  lovers  of  harmony  never  be  in  want  of  a note,  and  its  enemies 
die  in  a common  chord. 

The  Surgeon’s  Toast— The  man  that  bleeds  for  his  country. 

The  Waiter’s  Toast — The  clever  waiter  who  puts  the  cork  in  first  and 
the  liquor  afterwards. 

The  Glazier’s  Toast— The  praiseworthy  glazier  who  takes  fa/us  to 
see  his  way  through  life. 

The  Painter’s  Toast — When  we  work  in  the  wet  may  we  never  want 
for  dryers. 

The  Hatter’s  Toast— When  the  rogue  naps  it,  may  the  lesson  be  felt. 
The  Tailor’s  Toast— May  we  always  sheer  out  of  a law-suit,  and  by 
so  doing  cut  bad  company. 

The  Baker’s  Toast — May  we  never  be  done  so  much  as  to  make  us 
crusty. 

The  Lawyer’s  Toast— May  the  depth  of  our  potations  never  cause  us 
to  let  judgment  go  by  default. 

LATIN. 

Ad finem  esto  Jidelis.  Be  faithful  to  the  end. 

A mor  patriee.  The  love  of  our  country. 

Dilige  amicos.  Love  your  friends. 

Dum  vivimus  vivamus  Let  us  live  while  we  live. 

Esto  perpetua.  Be  thou  perpetual. 

Palmam  qui  meruit  ferat.  Let  him  who  has  won  bear  the  palm. 

Pro  arts  et  foe  is.  For  our  altars  and  firesides. 

Vox populi  vox  Dei.  The  voice  of  the  people  is  the  voice  of  God. 


fHERE  are,  properly  speaking,  only  two 
^ methods  of  book-keeping,  founded  on 
distinct  principles  — viz.,  Single  and 
Double  Entry.  Single  Entry  is  the  more 
simple,  and  is  generally  adopted  by  shop- 
keepers and  others  who  deal  in  a great  vari- 
ety of  articles,  where  the  sales  are  small  and  nu- 
merous ; and  to  such  it  is  peculiarly  applicable, 
as  they  have  seldom  time  to  record  them  particularly. 
There  is  merely  required  a memorial  of  occurrences, 
in  the  order  of  time,  with  a Ledger,  in  which  the  names 
of  all  parties  between  whom  transactions  take  place  are 
entered  ; debtor  and  creditor  accounts  of  each  party 
being  arranged  on  the  two  opposite  pages  which  are 
presented  at  an  opening,  the  first  on  the  right  hand, 
and  the  second  on  the  left.  By  this  method  the 
Ledger  is  defective,  since  it  contains  no  accounts  of 
cash,  bills,  or  goods  ; consequently  it  affords  to  the 
owner  no  knowledge  of  these  particulars,  but  only 
records  the  debts  due  to  and  by  him,  with,  at  most, 
the  accounts  of  stock,  family  expenses,  and  shop  fur- 
niture. The  Italian  method  of  Double  Entry  differs 
from  Single  Entry  chiefly  in  making  cash,  stock, 
goods,  etc.,  parties  as  well  as  persons,  and  in  mak- 
ing a debtor  and  creditor  account  in  every  transac- 
tion. Thus,  if  cloth  is  sold  to  A,  A is  made  debtor 
to  cloth,  and  cloth  creditor  to  A ; if  cash  is  received 
from  B,  cash  is  made  debtor  to  B,  and  B creditor  to 
cash  ; and  in  every  case  the  party,  whether  animate 
or  inanimate,  which  receives  is  debtor  to  that  which 
pays,  and  inversely.  A double  entry  is  therefore 
requisite  in  every  transaction,  and  a balance  may  at 
any  time  be  struck  between  things  as  well  as  persons  ; 
and  in  order  to  avoid  the  confusion  which  would 
arise  in  a direct  transfer  of  account  from  the  Waste- 
book  to  the  Ledger  before  the  proper  relation  of 
debtor  and  creditor  in  each  transaction  is  distinctly 


he- 


ascertained  and  recorded,  they  are  first  entered  in 
the  Journal  in  the  same  form  in  which  they  must  ap- 
pear in  the  Ledger.  But  in  order  to  form  a proper 
criterion  of  the  existing  methods  of  book-keeping,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  compare  them,  as  we  will  now 
do,  before  proceeding  further. 

As  the  Ledger,  when  kept  by  Single  Entry,  con- 
tains no  accounts  of  cash,  bills,  and  goods,  it  con- 
sequently affords  to  the  owner  no  knowledge  of  these 
particulars  ; but  these  must  be  collected  from  the 
subsidiary  books.  In  a simple  trade,  such  as  the  set 
by  single  entry  which  follows  this,  the  information 
wanted  may  be  obtained  by  the  present  arrangement 
of  the  Day-book,  Cash-book,  and  Stock-book  ; but 
in  an  extensive  and  diversified  concern  this  arrange- 
ment would  by  no  means  be  advisable,  as  the  objects 
in  question  could  not  be  easily  and  concisely  ob- 
tained. Posting  from  a number  of  books,  when  one 
only  is  necessary,  is  of  itself  an  insuperable  objec- 
tion, because  it  is  more  liable  to  errors  and  omissions  ; 
and  from  the  unsightly  appearance  these  books  would 
exhibit  by  the  multiplicity  of  figures,  the  eye  would 
soon  become  fatigued  and  bewildered.  It  is  both  a 
slovenly  and  tedious  method  to  enter  each  sum 
singly  into  the  Ledger,  and  unnecessarily  swells  the 
accounts  with  lines,  as  by  the  Italian  method,  which 
increase  the  labor  and  difficulty  of  balancing. 
Besides,  previous  to  taking  a general  balance,  the 
number  of  entries,  such  as  interest,  commission,  and 
postage,  arising  from  the  accounts  current,  must 
unavoidably  be  made  either  with  a journal  entry,  or 
each  entered  singly  by  a simple  transfer  from  one 
account  to  another,  which  is,  in  fact,  a double  entry, 
and  would  be  both  awkward  and  improper.  The 
Cash-book  might  be  constructed  with  columns  to 
show  the  monthly  amounts  of  the  cash  received  and 
paid  on  account  of  bills  receivable  and  bills  payable. 


208 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


etc.  ; yet  the  information  in  other  respects  would  not 
be  obtained,  for  the  amounts  of  the  sales,  of  con- 
signments and  shipments,  etc.,  monthly,  would  not 
be  shown  by  Single  entry. 

Although  the  Ledger,  by  the  Italian  method  of  book- 
keeping, contains  accounts  of  cash,  bills,  goods,  and 
other  property,  yet  the  arrangement  of  it  and  the  Jour- 
nal is  by  no  means  adequate  to  the  purposes  of  an 
extensive  and  complicated  concern.  By  making  all 
the  original  entries  in  one  book,  namely,  the  Waste- 
book,  a jumble  of  transactions  so  heterogeneous  is 
produced  as  cannot  fail  to  render  the  business  not 
only  more  complex  in  itself,  and  consequently  more 
difficult,  than  if  a separate  book  were  kept  for  each 
kind  ; but  when  dispatch  is  required,  as  in  selling, 
shipping  goods,  etc.,  the  greatest  inconvenience  is 
experienced,  as  only  one  person  can  be  employed  at 
once  in  making  the  entries.  But  the  principal  de- 
fects lie  in  journalizing  daily,  in  posting  each  sum 
singly  into  the  Ledger,  and  opening  separate  ac- 
counts for  each  kind  of  goods.  Hence  the  imprac- 
ticability of  following  this  method  without  the  books 
of  an  extensive  business  falling  behind,  the  patience 
of  the  book-keeper  exhausted,  or,  perhaps,  his  health 
destroyed.  Besides  swelling  the  Journal  and  par- 
ticularizing the  Ledger  to  an  unwieldy  size,  it  ren- 
ders the  balancing  of  the  latter  a laborious  and,  in 
most  cases,  a difficult  task. 

By  the  practice  at  present  followed  in  the  count- 
ing-house, the  Waste-book  is  not  recognized  by  that 
title.  It  is  represented,  however,  by  a number  of 
subsidiary  books,  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  busi- 
ness carried  on,  each  containing  such  transactions  as 
exclusively  apply  to  its  title.  Thus,  a Cash-book,  in 
which  is  entered  the  money  received  and  paid  ; a 
Bill-book,  in  which  are  recorded  the  bills  received 
and  accepted ; a Purchase-book,  or  Invoice-book 
Inward,  in  which  are  entered  or  posted  invoices  of 
all  goods  purchased  ; a book  of  shipments,  or 
Invoice-book  Outwarll,  in  which  are  entered  all 
goods  shipped  ; an  Account  Sales-book,  in  which  are 
entered  the  particulars  of  such  goods  as  are  sold  on 
commission,  with  the  charges  attending  them ; a 
Day-book,  in  which  are  entered  the  sales  of  goods 
on  the  merchant’s  own  account,  with  such  other 
transactions  as  do  not  apply  to  any  of  the  above 
books  ; an  Account  Current-book,  containing  dupli- 
cates of  the  accounts  as  they  stand  in  the  Ledger, 
with  the  particulars  of  each  article  drawn  out  in  a 


plain  circumstantial  manner,  being  exact  copies  of 
the  accounts  transmitted  or  delivered  to  the  persons 
whose  names  they  bear.  These  are  the  principal 
subsidiary  books  used  either  in  inland  or  foreign 
trade,  and  from  which  the  Journal  or  Ledger  are 
made.  The  division  of  the  Waste-book  into  a num 
ber  of  books  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  business, 
is  a valuable  modern  improvement,  both  for  sim- 
plicity and  dispatch.  By  bringing  each  kind  of 
transactions  together,  and  dividing  the  labor  among 
a number  of  hands,  the  utmost  simplicity,  accuracy, 
and  dispatch  are  obtained. 

The  arrangement  of  the  Journal,  by  combining 
together  each  class  of  accounts,  and  carrying  only 
the  amounts  of  these  once  a month  into  the  Ledger, 
not  only  simplifies  the  Journal,  but  greatly  abridges 
the  former  of  these  books,  because  no  more  than 
twelve  lines  yearly  will  be  required  in  general  at  the 
accounts,  though  transactions  be  ever  so  numerous. 

The  Ledger,  when  kept  by  this  method,  may  there- 
fore be  considered  a general  index  to  the  Journal,  as 
that  book  is  to  the  subsidiary  books.  By  this  means 
the  case  of  each  account  is  brought  into  a concise 
point  of  view,  and  is  easily  examined,  without 
fatiguing  the  eye  with  a multiplicity  of  figures, 
which  unavoidably  takes  place  when  each  sum  is 
posted  separately,  as  by  the  Italian  method.  It 
must  also  be  observed  that  instead  of  opening  dis- 
tinct accounts  for  each  kind  of  goods,  as  by  the 
Italian  method,  only  one  general  account  of  goods  is 
by  the  present  practice  opened  ; for  when  the  articles 
are  numerous,  one  account  of  goods  in  the  Ledger 
is  quite  sufficient,  and  will  be  found  to  answer  every 
useful  purpose.  In  an  extensive  business,  where 
.separate  accounts  for  each  kind  of  goods  have  been 
attempted,  it  was  found  difficult  to  keep  the  Journal 
and  Ledger  from  falling  behind.  The  Stock-book 
is  the  proper  place  for  every  particular  of  this  sort, 
which  may  be  kept  exclusively  by  one  of  the  junior 
clerks,  when  the  business  requires  it.  The  result  of 
the  general  account  in  the  Ledger  of  goods  will 
always  correspond  with  the  particular  profits  and 
losses  from  the  Stock-book. 

But  superior  as  the  present  practice  is  for  saving 
both  time  and  labor  in  posting,  it  will  be  found  still 
more  so  at  balancing  the  Ledger.  What  was 
formerly  a laborious,  and,  in  some  cases,  next  to  an 
impracticable  task,  where  that  book  was  posted  daily, 
namely,  to  bring  the  stock  and  balance  accounts  to 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


209 


agree  (chiefly  owing  to  the  numerous  entries  on  the 
property  and  nominal  accounts),  is  by  the  present 
method  completely  avoided,  and  that  which  was  be- 
fore the  labor  of  weeks,  can  now  be  accomplished  in 
as  many  hours  or  days. 

It  will  be  of  more  advantage  to  the  learner  to  pro- 
cure or  prepare  for  himself  several  sheets  of  ruled 
paper,  with  cash  columns,  and  enter  each  transaction 
in  the  order  of  time,  than  to  trace  the  entries  in  the 
Day-book  and  Cash-book  which  we  have  prepared. 
In  the  first  case  he  will  find  the  task,  as  he  proceeds, 
familiar  and  interesting,  while  his  knowledge  and 
self-reliance  will  be  increasing  ; whereas,  in  the  other 
case,  he  will  acquire  so  superficial  an  acquaintance 
with  the  accounts  that  it  will  soon  vanish  from  his 
memory.  The  Day-book  is  arranged  so  as  to  admit 
of  entries  being  made  both  of  sales  and  purchases, 
the  former  on  the  right  side,  and  the  latter  on  the 
left.  By  this  means  he  will  be  taught  what  debit 
and  credit  entries  are  before  he  is  called  upon  to  post 
the  Ledger,  and,  moreover,  avoid  the  risk  of  carry- 
ing error  and  confusion  forward  to  the  last  stage  of 
his  work.  It  has  been  observed  that  in  an  extensive 
business  it  is  preferable  to  enter  the  purchases  in  one 
book  and  the  sales  in  another  ; and  by  adding  these 
up  monthly  the  amounts  of  each  would  be  shown, 
which  would  enable  the  owner  to  extend  or  lessen 
the  purchases  as  circumstances  point  out.  The  Day- 
book as  now  given  will  also  serve  this  purpose,  only 
that  instead  of  having  separate  books  for  the  sales 
and  purchases,  they  are  here  arranged  in  one,  and 
disposed,  as  we  have  said,  in  the  form  of  debtor  and 
creditor.  It  therefore  follows  that  if  we  add  at  any 
time  to  the  credit  side  the  value  of  the  articles  re- 
maining on  hand,  the  difference  betwixt  the  sums 
total  on  the  two  sides  will  show  the  whole  gain  or 
loss  upon  the  goods,  and  by  entering  the  charges, 
etc.,  attending  the  business,  with  the  discount,  both 
against  and  in  favor  of  it,  to  the  proper  sides,  this 
book  will  exhibit  the  result  of  the  whole. 

The  following  general  rule  is  sufficient  to  direct 
the  learner  respecting  debtor  and  creditor.  The 
person  from  whom  you  buy  goods  on  trust,  or  re- 
ceive money,  is  Creditor ; and,  on  the  contrary,  the 
person  to  whom  you  sell  goods  on  credit,  or  pay 
money,  is  Debtor. 

For  instance,  if  you  buy  goods  on  credit  from 
John  Carter,  he,  being  the  deliverer,  is  creditor  for 
the  value,  and  when  you  pay  him  for  them,  he,  being 


the  person  who  receives,  is  debtor.  On  the  same 
principle,  if  you  sell  goods  on  credit  to  Philip  Meek, 
he,  being  the  receiver,  is  debtor  ; and  when  he  pays 
you  for  them,  he,  being  the  deliverer,  is  creditor.  The 
same  rule  is  observed  when  you  contract  or  discharge 
a debt  by  any  other  transaction.  Thus  the  person 
who  becomes  indebted  to  you  is  debtor,  and  the 
person  to  whom  you  become  indebted  is  creditor. 
In  the  same  manner,  the  person  whose  debt  you  pay 
is  made  debtor,  and  he  who  pays  a debt  to  you,  or 
for  you,  is  creditor. 

In  the  Day-book,  enter  on  the  debtor,  or  left-hand, 
page  all  the  purchases,  with  the  discounts  allowed 
by  you,  as  these  occur  ; also  all  the  petty  expenses, 
monthly.  Enter  on  the  creditor,  or  right-hand  page, 
all  the  sales,  with  the  discount  or  interest  allowed  to 
you  ; also  the  value  of  goods  on  hand  at  balancing. 

The  Cash-book. — This  book  is  very  useful,  whether 
the  Ledger  be  kept  by  Single  or  Double  Entry,  in 
order  to  show  at  all  times  the  money  you  receive 
and  pay,  and  how  much  at  any  time  should  remain 
in  hand.  On  the  debtor,  or  left-hand  page,  is  en- 
tered every  sum  you  receive  ; and  on  the  creditor,  or 
right-hand  page,  every  sum  you  pay.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  two  sides  is  called  the  balance, 
which  should  always  agree  with  the  money  re- 
maining in  hand.  This  book  is  generally  added  up 
and  the  amounts  set  down,  at  the  end  of  each 
month  ; and  the  balance  is  entered  on  the  credit 
side  to  make  the  two  sides  equal,  and  likewise  upon 
the  debtor  side  of  the  succeeding  month. 

The  Bill-book  is  divided  into  two  parts.  In  the 
first  are  entered  all  bills  which  you  receive,  and  are 
therefore  called  Bills  Receivable.  It  is  ruled  with  a 
number  of  columns  for  recording  the  several  clauses 
of  the  bill.  When  kept  correctly  the  blank  spaces 
in  the  last  column  towards  the  right  hand  will  always 
show  the  bills  which  remain  in  your  possession.  As 
soon  as  a bill  passes  out  of  your  hands,  by  being 
either  paid,  discounted,  or  endorsed  to  another  per- 
son, it  must  be  marked  off  in  the  above  column.  In 
the  second  part  are  entered  all  the  bills  which  you 
accept,  or  agree  to  pay,  and  are  therefore  called  Bills 
Payable.  As  soon  as  you  pay  a bill,  it  should  also 
be  marked  off  in  the  column  towards  the  right  hand  ; 
when,  of  course,  the  blank  spaces  will  just  present 
such  bills  of  yours  as  are  unpaid. 

A dealer  who  does  a cash  business  only  requires 
but  a single  book — the  Cash-book.  In  it  he  enters 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


210 


on  its  appropriate  side  all  his  transactions  : on  the 
one  side  all  he  pays  out,  and  what  for,  on  the  other 
all  he  receives  and  its  vouchers.  The  balance  be- 
tween the  two  sides  will  at  any  time  show  the  state 
of  his  affairs.  Suppose,  for  instance,  his  Cash-book 
shows  on  the  debtor  side  a total  transaction  of  $i,- 
450.73,  and  on  the  credit  side  $659.32,  the  differ- 
ence, $791.41,  is  the  sum  which  he  ought  to  have  on 
hand.  These  will  appear  on  the  Cash-book,  thus  : 


Dr.  Cr. 


1.450  73 

659  32 

Balance 

M5°  73 

M5°  73 

To  balance  brought  for- 
ward   791  41 

The  transactions  of  which  the  foregoing  forms  a 
total  may  be  like  the  following  : 


CASH. 

Dr.  Cr. 


1880. 
Ian.  1. 

Capital .... 

Jan.  1.  Pd.  Smith  & 

Co. 

2. 

Sales 

10  15 

for  10  bbls.  flour. 

52  5° 

3- 

....  8 94 

2.  Expenses  . . . 

20  15 

4- 

3-  “ 

10  00 

5- 

4- 

19  50 

6. 

19  72 

5.  “ 

4 25 

8. 

6.  44 

1 30 

11 

8.  Wages 

50  00 
24  00 

11. 

11 

9.  Expenses  . . . 

12. 

l8  41 

IO.  “ 

19  72 

13- 

7 16 

II.  “ 

60  40 

15. 

12.  44  . . 

72  16 

l6. 

13. 

40  01 

I7- 

15-  • . 

27  90 

19. 

11 

...  26  81 

16.  Wages  . . . 

qo  00 

20. 

4i  94 

17.  Expenses  . . 

27  00 

22. 

73  2° 

l8.  “ 

19  25 

23- 

20.  “ 

7 14 

24. 

....  47  23 

22.  Wages 

50  00 

$1,450  73 

23.  Expenses. . 

24.  44  \ . 

17  84 
86  20 

$659  3^ 

A single  operation  will  enable  you  to  ascertain  at 
any  time  the  state  of  your  affairs.  Thus  : 


Balance  of  cash  on  hand  791  41 

Cost  of  goods  in  stock  200  00 

991  41 


If  you  owe  anything  on  your  stock,  you  must  ar- 
rive at  the  result  differently.  Thus  : 


Balance  of  cash  on  hand 791  41 

Cost  of  goods  in  stock ...  400  00 

1,191  41 

Deduct  amounts  due  to  various  persons  for  stock . . 200  00 
Balance  as  before 991  41 


So  if  you  give  no  credit,  but  sell  only  for  cash 
over  your  counter,  you  need  only  the  one  book,  the 
Cash-book,  which  will  at  any  time  you  wish,  if  cor- 
rectly kept,  show  the  actual  state  of  your  business. 

But  as  very  few  tradesmen  or  dealers  confine 
themselves  to  a cash  business,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  have  other  books,  so  when  credit  is  given  a 
Ledger  is  demanded,  so  that  the  dealer  may  at  all 
times  know  not  only  what  cash  he  has  on  hand,  but 
what  money  is  owing  him. 

Suppose  you  are  a bookseller,  and  your  customers 
keep  running  accounts,  you  will  find  it  necessary  to 
have  at  least  three  books,  a Cash-book,  for  the  en- 
tries of  moneys  received  and  paid  out ; a Blotter, 
as  it  is  usually  called,  for  recording  the  daily  trans- 
actions ; and  a Ledger,  for  posting  the  accounts. 

A customer,  say  Mr.  Robert  Walpole,  comes  to 
you  and  asks  how  his  account  stands.  Looking  at 
the  index  in  the  front  of  your  ledger,  you  find  Mr. 
Walpole’s  account  on  page  96.  Turning  to  this 
page,  you  discover  the  following  statement : 


Dr. 


MR.  ROBERT  WALPOLE. 


1880. 

4 

8 

To  mdse 

66 

33 

Jan. 

IO 

25 

7 

17 

My  acceptance  at  3 months,  dated 

16 

April  10  

60 

OO 

IO 

24 

Cash  paid  your  order  in  favor  of 

Brown  & Co 

18 

14 

144 

52 

By  cash 

Your  acceptance  at  3 months,  due 
April  13 


Cr. 


80  00 
50  00 


130 


The  debtor  side,  or  what  he  owes  you,  is  $144,25. 
and  the  creditor  side,  or  what  you  owe  him,  is 
$130.00  ; the  difference,  $14.52,  being  in  your  favor, 


is  therefore  his  debit  to  you.  If  he  pays  you,  enter 
it  on  the  cash-book  and  on  the  credit  side  of  the  ac- 
count in  the  ledger,  thus  making  it  balance. 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


211 


NARRATIVE  OF  TRANSACTIONS. 

1878. 

Jan.  1.  Began  trade  with  $2,000. 


Bought  goods  as  follows  : 

Of  J.  W.  Bouton $150  20 

Of  Dodd,  Mead  & Co 241  00 

Of  A.  S.  Barnes  & Co 300  00 

Of  D.  Appleton  & Co 124  30 

Sold  24  Annuals  over  the  counter  for  ready 

money,  amounting  to 14  80 

Jan.  2.  Paid  J.  W.  Bouton,  Cash  ....  80  00 

Paid  Dodd,  Mead  & Co.  ditto 120  00 

Paid  A.  S.  Barnes  & Co.  ditto 150  00 

Paid  D.  Appleton  & Co.  ditto 61  00 

Accepted  the  following  bills  drawn  on  me  : 

J.  W.  Bouton,  at  2 months 40  00 

Dodd,  Mead  & Co.,  at  2 months go  00 

A.  S.  Barnes  & Co,  at  3 months 60  00 

D.  Appleton  & Co.,  1 month  40  00 


Bought  of  A.  D.  F.  Randolph,  goods,  value.  198  64 
Ian.  3.  Sold  Tenter  & Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  as  follows  : 

120  Dodd,  Mead  & Co.’s  Hand 

Books,  at  20c 24  00 

80  Novels 26  00 

40  Assorted  books 24  00 

74  00 

Terms,  half  Cash,  half  Bills  at  3 months. 

Received  from  Tenter  & Co.’s  house  in 


town,  cash 36  20 

Idem,  bill  at  three  months 36  20 

Sold  B.  Flock,  of  Pittsburgh,  42  assorted 

books 50  80 

Received  from  Flock’s  house  in  town,  cash.  20  00 

And  a bill  at  3 months  date 30  80 

Jan.  4.  Sold  Roberts  Bros.,  Boston,  36  Elements  of 

Commerce 74  32 

Received  from  Roberts  Bros.,  of  New  York, 
for  account  of  their  house  in  Boston,  their 

acceptance  at  two  months  for 74  32 

Paid  A.  D.  F.  Randolph  on  account  of  what 
I owe  him : 

Bill  paid  to  me  by  Flock 30  80 

Bill  paid  to  me  by  Roberts  Bros  74  32 

Together 105  12 


Bought  of  W.  H.  Vernon,  20  reams  of  paper.  170  00 


Sold  him  240  odd  volumes  all  at 82  30 

Sold  for  ready  money  over  the  counter,  6 
vols.  Hume  and  Smollett’s  History  of  En- 
gland   6 60 


HOW  THEY  ARE  TO  BE  ENTERED  IN  THE 
BOOKS. 

This  item  being  Cash  in  hand,  must  be  placed  on  the  debtor 
side  of  the  Cash  Book. 

To  be  entered  in  the  Day  Book  as  goods  bought  at  the  time 
of  receiving  the  invoices.  Each  name,  with  the  relative 
amount  of  invoice,  to  form  a separate  entry. 

To  the  Dr.  side  of  Cash  Book,  as  ready  money  received  for 
goods. 

To  be  entered  on  the  Cr.  side  of  Cash  Book,  each  name 
and  amount  forming  a separate  line. 


To  be  entered  in  the  Bills  Payable  Book,  on  separate 
lines,  according  to  the  printed  form  sold  for  that  purpose. 


As  before. 


To  be  charged  in  the  Day  Book,  explaining  every  particu- 
lar relating  to  the  conditions  of  sale,  and  how  forwarded. 


To  be  entered  in  CASH  Book  as  cash  received  for  account 
of  Tenter  & Co.,  Philadelphia. 

To  be  entered  in  the  Bills  Receivable  to  the  account  of 
Tenter  & Co.,  Philadelphia,  according  to  the  printed  forms. 
As  before. 

As  before. 

As  before. 

As  before. 


As  before. 

This  is  a very  peculiar  entry,  and  one  which  persons  ignorant  of 
book-keeping  will  find  comparatively  difficult  to  arrange.  As  it  is, 
however,  a transaction  which  occurs  continually,  due  attention  ought 
to  be  given  to  it. 

There  aie  two  ways  of  entering  it — one  by  the  Cash  Book,  the  other 
by  the  Day  Book.  If  by  the  former , the  amount  must  be  first  entered 
on  the  Dr.  side  as  received  for  the  bills,  and  then  the  Cr.  side  as  paid 
to  the  parties.  This,  however,  is  a mode  I do  not  like,  because,  in  the 
first  place,  it  is  not  a cash  transaction  at  all  ; and  secondly,  because  an 
entry  on  the  Dr.  side  of  the  Cash  Book  is  obliged  to  be  created  in  order 
to  balance  the  other  on  the  Cr.  side.  An  entry  by  the  Day  Book  is  far 
the  best,  as  nothing  more  is  necessary  than  to  charge  the  person  to 
whom  the  bills  are  paid,  with  the  amount  of  them,  in  the  same  way  as 
for  goods  sold.  The  latter  method  is  the  one  adopted  in  the  examples. 

Day  Book,  as  before. 

As  before. 


As  before. 


2 12 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


Jan.  6.  Paid  trade  charges  and  wages  this  day 4 22 

Paid  expenses  to  this  day 6 60 

Feb.  5.  Paid  cash  for  my  acceptance  to  D.  Apple- 

ton  & Co 40  00 

Mar.  5.  Idem  to  J.  W.  Bouton 40  00 

Idem  Dodd,  Mead  & Co 90  00 

Apr.  5.  Idem  A.  S.  Barnes  & Co 60  00 

6.  Received  the  amount  of  Tenter’s  acceptance, 

paid  me  on  the  3d  Jan 36  20 


7.  Flock’s  acceptance  returned  to  me  by  A.  D.F. 
Randolph,  to  whom  I had  paid  it,  it  not 


having  been  honored  by  the  acceptor 30  80 

8.  Paid  one  month’s  Rent 80  00 

Income  Tax 20  24 

City  Taxes  15  20 

Nov.  1.  Sold  the  following  goods  : 

Ramsden  & Co 20  00 

S.  Green 18  24 

G.  Barrows  80  00 

W.  Sinn 120  00 

V.  S.  Brown 74  20 

Dec.  1.  Received  the  following  acceptances,  at  three 

months  : 

Ramsden  & Co 20  00 

S.  Green 18  24 

G.  Barrows 80  00 

W.  Sinn 120  00 

V.  S.  Brown  74  20 

Dec.  20.  Bought  goods  as  follows  : 

From  Leggat  Bros 52  20 

From  Houghton,  Mifflin  & Co 200  00 

From  S.  R.  Wells 192  40 

From  James  R.  Osgood  &-Co 170  80 

Dec.  30.  Gave  my  acceptances  as  follows,  at  three 
months  : 

Leggat  Bros 52  20 

To  Houghton,  Mifflin  & Co.. 200  00 

To  S R.  Wells 192  40 

To  James  R.  Osgood  & Co 170  80 


Having  entered  all  these  various  items  in  their 
proper  books,  as  explained,  we  proceed  to  transfer 
them  under  their  respective  heads  in  the  Ledger, 
which  is  technically  called  Posting.  First,  taking 
the  Day  Book,  we  post  all  under  the  date  of  the  1 st 
of  January  ; then  follows  the  Cash  Book  in  the  same 
way,  and  finally  the  two  Bill  Books,  care  being  taken 
to  mark  the  proper  page  of  the  Ledger  in  the  col- 
umns left  for  that  purpose  in  the  other  books,  and 
vice  versa  to  note  in  the  Ledger,  in  like  manner,  the 
folio  of  the  book  from  which  the  entry  has  been  ex- 


To  be  entered  on  the  Cash  Book,  under  the  head  of  Trade 

Expenses. 

Idem. 

To  be  entered  in  the  CASH  Book  to  the  charge  of  Bills  Pay- 
able, specifying  the  number  of  the  Bill,  D.  Appleton  & Co. 
having  been  debited  with  the  amount  when  my  acceptance  was 
given. 

Idem. 

Idem. 

Idem. 

To  be  entered  in  the  Cash  Book  to  the  account  of  Bills  Re- 
ceivable, specifying  the  number.  Tenter  & Co.  having  been 
credited  for  the  Bill  when  I received  it  from  them. 

As  I was  obliged  to  take  up  this  Bill,  in  other  words  to  pay 
it,  for  account  of  Flock,  who  ought  to  have  paid  it,  I charge 
Flock  in  the  Cash  Book  with  the  amount  I pay  to  A.  D.  F. 
Randolph. 

In  the  Cash  Book,  in  the  same  way  I entered  trade  and 
other  expenses. 


To  be  entered  in  the  Day  Book,  as  before. 


To  be  entered  in  the  Bills  Receivable  Book,  as  before. 


To  be  entered  in  the  Day  Book,  as  before. 


To  be  entered  in  the  Bills  Payable  Book,  as  before. 


tracted.  Thus,  day  by  day,  all  the  entries  in  the 
Ledger  are  condensed  from  these  four  books. 

All  the  items  contained  in  the  Cash  Book,  Bills 
Receivable  and  Payable  Books,  and  Day  Book  hav- 
ing been  properly  posted  in  the  Ledger,  the  next 
operation  will  be  to  Balance  ! This  is  generally 
done  on  the  last  day  of  the  year,  at  which  time  the 
value  of  the  stock  on  hand  is  taken.  By  reference 
to  the  Ledger,  it  will  be  seen  how  those  accounts  are 
ruled  off  which  balance  of  themselves,  and  in  what 
way  the  balances  of  the  others  are  brought  down, 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


2I3 


some  being  amounts  we  owe,  and  others  due  to  us. 
The  balances  due  us  stand  upon  the  Debtor  side 
of  each  account,  and  those  we  owe  on  the  Creditor 
side. 

Having  done  this,  we  next  proceed  to  draw  up  the 
Balance  Sheet,  by  which  we  shall  ascertain  the 
amount  of  profit  made  or  loss  incurred  upon  the 
year’s  transactions,  after  having  paid  all  expenses 
and  trade  charges.  In  order  to  do  this  properly,  we 
must  collect  into  one  sum  all  we  owe , and  into  an- 


Dr. BALANCES. 

AMOUNTS  DUE  TO  ME,  OR  ASSETS. 


Folio  in 
the  Ledger. 

Accounts  extracted. 

Balances  as 
per  Ledger. 

7 

B.  Flock 

$30 

80 

Amount  of  book  debts  due  to  me 

$30 

80 

* Bills  Receivable  in  my  hands  not  yet  due. 

312 

44 

Balance  of  Cash  in  hand 

i»3x5 

80 

Estimated  value  of  stock  in  hand 

1,39° 

28 

$3,049 

24 

Balance  in  my  favor 

$2,090 

44 

Which  shows  that  after  paying  house  and 

trade  charges,  rent  and  taxes,  I nave  made 

a clear  net  profit  of  $90.44  on  my  capital  of 

$2,000. 

* Enumerate  each  item. 


Dr.  CASH 


1880. 

' 

Jan.  1.. 

* 

To  Capital 

$2,000 

* 

Cash  received  for  goods  (ready  money' 

J4 

80 

3. 

6 

Tenter  & Co.,  received  for  account  of 

their  house  in  Baltimore 

36 

OO 

7 

B.  Flock 

20 

20 

4- 

* 

Cash  received  for  goods  (ready  money). 

6 

60 

$2,067 

60 

Feb.  1 

To  Balance 

$1,654 

40 

$1,654 

40 

March  1. 

To  Balance 

$I,6l4 

40 

$J,6l4 

40 

April  1 . . . 

To  Balance 

$1,484 

40 

6. 

* 

Bill  receivable,  No.  101,  received  in 

cash,  this  day 

38 

24 

$1,522 

04 

May  1 . . 

To  Balance 

$1,315 

IS" 

Note. — The  amounts  marked  in  the  folio  margin  with  a star,  are  not 
by  single  entry,  posted  in  the  Ledger  ; the  Cash  Book  alone,  under  that 
system,  being  quite  sufficient  for  their  registery.  Only  accounts  with 
persons  are  kept : not  with  things  as  in  Double  Entry.  At  the  same 
time  they  may,  if  wished,  be  posted  under  their  respective  heads  as 
matters  of  reference,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  include  them  in  the 
Balance,  of  which  they  form  no  part. 


other  all  we  are  possessed  of,  and  the  difference  be- 
tween the  two  will  be  the  amount  we  are  worth.  The 
amounts  we  owe  are  to  be  found  in  the  Ledger  and 
the  Bills  Payable  Book.  The  amounts  due  to  us  in 
the  Ledger,  also,  and  the  Bills  Receivable  Book.  Be- 
sides these  we  must  reckon  as  assets,  Cash  in  hand, 
as  will  appear  by  balancing  Cash  Book,  and  stock  on 
hand,  which  must  be  taken  at  a proper  valuation. 

Below  will  be  found  a General  Balance  Sheet, 
drawn  up  according  to  these  instructions. 


31st  December,  1880.  Cr. 

AMOUNTS  I OWE,  OR  LIABILITIES. 


Folio  in 
the  Ledger. 

Accounts  extracted. 

1 

Balances  as 
per  Ledger. 

I 

J.  W.  Bouton 

$30 

20 

2 

Dodd,  Mead  & Co 

31 

OO 

3 

A.  S.  Barnes  & Co 

90 

OO 

4 

D.  Appleton  & Co 

A.  D.  F.  Randolph 

22 

60 

5 

82 

60 

6 

W.  H.  Vernon 

87 

Amount  of  book  debts  due  by  me 

$343 

40 

Bills  accepted  by  me  not  yet  due  * 

614 

$958 

40 

80 

Balance  carried  down 

2,090 

44 

$3,°49 

24 

* Enumerate  each  bill  separately. 


BOOK.  Cr. 


1880. 

Jan.  2.  ... 

1 

By  amount  paid  J.  W.  Bouton 

$80 

OO 

3 

6. 

* 

By  Trade  Charges, Expenses  and  Wages  to 

OO 

this  day 

II 

20 

$423 

20 

Balance  to  next  month 

$1,654 

40 

_$2  O77 

60 

Feb.  5. . . 

* 

By  Bill  Payable,  No.  104,  due  this  day 

$40 

OO 

Balance 

I 6l4 

40 

$1.654 

40 

March  5. 

* 

By  Bill  Payable,  No.  ioi,  due  this  day  .. . 

$40 

OO 

Do  do.  102,  do 

90 

OO 

130 

CO 

Balance 

$1,484 

40 

$i.6l4 

40 

* 

By  Bill  Payable,  No.  103,  due  this  day 

$60 

00 

7 

A.  D.  F.  Randolph  for  Flock’s  Accep- 

tance,  due  this  day  returned  unpaid 

30 

180 

8. 

One  month’s  rent  due  this  day 

80 

00 

15 

$206 

24 

Balance 

Il3I5 

80 

$1,522 

04 

! 


214 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


DAY  BOOK. 


Folio  in 
Ledger. 


January  i,  1880 

Bought  of  J.  W.  Bouton 

Goods  as  per  invoice ... 

Bought  of  Dodd,  Mead  & Co. 

Goods  as  per  invoice 

Bought  of  A.  S.  Barnes 

Goods  as  per  invoice 

Bought  of  D.  Appleton  & Co. 

Goods  as  per  invoice 

2d 

Bought  of  A.  D.  F.  Randolph 

Goods  as  per  invoice 

3d ■ 

Sold  Tenter  & Co. 

Half  Cash. 

Half  Three  Month’s  Bill 

120  Dodd,  Mead  & Co.’s  Hand  Books 

80  Novels 

40  Books,  (assorted) 

Forwarded  by  Union  Express. 

Sold  B.  Flock 

84  Assorted  Books 

^th 

Sold  Roberts  Bros. 

72  Elements  of  Commerce 

Forwarded  per  U.  S.  Express. 

Paid  A.  D.  F.  Randolph 

Flock’s  Acceptance,  due  April  7 

Roberts  Bros.’  Acceptance,  due  March  7 


1-15° 

$240 

$300 

$124 


$188 


$24 

26 

24 

$74 


$50 


$74 


$30 

74 

$107 


DAY  BOOK—  Continued. 


Folio  in 
Ledger. 


13 

14 


-January  4,  1880- 


Bought  of  W.  H.  Vernon 
200  Reams  of  Paper 


Sold  W.  H.  Vernon 

240  Odd  Volumes  all  for  . . . 

■November  ist- 


Sold  Ramsden  & Co. 
Books 


Sold  S.  Green 
Books 


Sold  G.  Barrows 
Books 


Sold  W.  Sinn 
Books 


Sold  V.  S.  Brown 
Books . . 


-Dec.  20th- 


Bought  of  Leggat  Bros. 
Goods  as  per  invoice. 


Bought  of  Houghton,  Mifflin  & Co. 
Goods  as  per  invoice 


Bought  of  S.  R.  Wells 
Goods  as  per  invoice. 


Bought  of  J.  R.  Osgood  & Co. 
Goods  as  per  invoice 


$170 


$82 


24 


$120 


$74 

S52 


$200 


$192 


$170 


N.  B. — The  folios  should  be  marked  in  red  ink. 


1880. 


BILLS  RECEIVABLE. 


Folio. 


6 

7 

8 


13 

14 


Number  of 
the  Bill. 

On  whose  account. 

Date. 

Time. 

When  due. 

101 

102 
IO3 

January 

3 months 

April  6 

2 

1879. 

104 

105 

106 
107 
I08 

December 

3 - 

March  4 

2 



\ 

W Sinn 

'z 

Amount. 


$36 

20 

32 

80 

74 

32 

$143 

32 

20 

00 

18 

24 

80 

00 

120 

00 

74 

20 

312 

44 

1880. 


BILLS  PAYABLE. 


Folio 

1 

Number  of 
Bill. 

By  whom  drawn. 

Date. 

Time. 

■When  due. 

Amount. 

January  2 

2 months 

March  5 

$4° 

90 

OO 

102 



2 

April  5 

OO 

40 

ZO4 

105 

106 

107 

108 

December  30 

1870. 
April  2 

$230 

$52 

OO 

20 

16 

17 

18 

200 

OO 

5 ft  WH1«  

2 

192 

40 

3 

2 

170 

80 

3615 

40 

Vk- -9 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


21 


Folio  i 
Dr. 


1880. 

Jan. 


Dec. 


THE  LEDGER. 

J.  W.  BOUTON. 


To  cash 

To  balance  carried  down 
To  bills  payable,  No.  ior. 


000 
00  ro 

00 

OO 

20 

150 

20 

t88o. 

Jan. 


Dec.  31 


By  goods . 


By  balance  brought  down. 


Cr. 


$150  20 


150  20 


150  20 


Folio  2. 
Dr. 


DODD,  MEAD  & CO. 


Cr. 


l88o. 

1880. 

| 

$241 

Dec. 

31 

To  balance' carried  down 

31 

OO 

241 

OO 

241 

OO 

Dec. 

31 

By  balance  brought  down 

31 

OO 

Folio  3. 

A.  S.  BARNES  & CO. 

Dr. 

- 

Cr. 

1880. 

I 

Jan. 

2 

• 

— 

2 

I 

Dec. 

3* 

To  cash 

To  bills  payable,  No.  103 
To  balance  carried  down 


$150 

60 

90 


300 


1880. 

Jan. 


Dec.  31 


By  goods  . 


By  balance  brought  down . 


$300 


90 


Folio  4.  D.  APPLETON  & CO. 

Dr.  Cr. 


l88o. 

$62 

40 

22 

124 

l88o. 

Jan. 

$124 

124 

22 

Dec. 

2 

31 

I 

To  bills  payable.  No.  104 

To  balance  carried  down 

OO 

60 

60 

Dec. 

3« 

By  balance  brought  down ... 

60 

60 

Folio  s-  A.  D.  F.  RANDOLPH. 

Dr.  Cr. 


l88o. 

Jan. 

4 

1 

To  two  bills  receivable,  paid  them 

$106 

OO 

Dec. 

31 

To  balance  carried  down 

82 

60 

188 

60 

1880. 

$l88 

60 

Dec.  31  By  balance  brought  down ... 

1S8 

60 

82 

60 

Folio  6. 
Dr. 


1880. 

Jan. 


TENTER  & Co.,  Philadelphia. 


To  goods  . 


$72 

40 

72 

40 

1880. 

Jan. 


1 . By  cash 

1 j By  bill  receivable,  No.  101. 


Cr. 


$36  ! 20 
36  j 20 


Folio  7. 
Dr. 


1880. 

Jan. 

April 


Dec. 


W.  SINN,  Partsbukg,  West  Va. 


To  goods 

To  your  acceptance  returned  unpaid 

To  balance  brought  down 


$5° 

3° 


81 


60 


30  80 


1880 

Jan. 


Dec. 


O. 


By  cash 

By  bill  receivable,  No.  102 
By  balance  carried  down. . 


$20 

30 

30 


1 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


216 


Folio  8. 
Dr. 


ROBERTS  BROS.,  Boston. 


Cr. 


1880. 1 1 II  I !!!  l88°- 1 1 1 

Jan.  4 1 To  goods $74  32  I Jan-  4 » By  bill  receivable.  No.  103 $74  32 


Folio  9. 
Dr. 


W.  H.  VERNON. 


Cr. 


1880. 

Jan. 

Dec. 

4 

$82 

87 

3° 

00 

1880. 

Jan. 

By  goods  

$169 

169 

3° 

169 

30 

Dec. 

31 

By  balance  brought  down 

87 

OO 

Folio  10. 
Dr. 


RAMSDEN  & CO. 


Cr. 


1880. 

Nov.  1 1 To  goods. 


$20 

|||  l88o. 
20  Dec. 

1 

1 

By  bill  receivable,  No.  104 

$20 

20 

Ill 

Folio  11. 
Dr. 


1880. 

Nov.  1 


S.  GREEN. 


$l8 

24 

By  bill  receivable,  No.  105 


Cr. 


$l8 

24 

Folio  12.  GEORGE  BARROWS. 

Dr.  Cr. 


l88o. 

|| 

l88o. 

1 

T 

$80 

Dec. 

$80 

rv> 

ll 

1 

Folio  13.  W.  SINN. 

Dr.  Cr. 


1880. 

Nov. 


1 To  goods 


| | l88o. 

$120  00  Dec. 

1 

1 

By  bill  receivable,  No.  107 

$120 

OO 

Folio  14.  V.  S.  BROWN. 

Dr.  Cr. 


1880. 

Nov. 


1 1 To  goods 


II  "" 

" | 

l88o. 

— 

— 

; $74 

20 

Dec. 

I 

I 

By  bill  receivable,  No.  108 

$74 

20 

Folio  15.  LEGGAT  BROS. 

Dr. 


1880. 

Dec. 


30 

I 

To  bill  payable,  No.  105 

$52 

1 1880. 

20  | Dec. 

3° 

1 

1 

1 

Folio  16.  HOUGHTON,  MIFFLIN  & CO. 

Dr. 


1880. 

II  1 

| 1880. 

Dec. 

3° 

i ||To  bill  payable,  No.  106 | 

$200 

00  | Dec. 

30 

1 

Cr. 


$200 


Folio  17.  S.  R.  WELLS. 

Dr.  Cr. 


1880.  I 

1 " I 

|||  1880. 

— 

1 

Dec.  30 

$192  1 40  | ' [ Dec. 

By  goods  

$192 

Folio  18.  JAMES  R.  OSGOOD  & CO. 

Dr.  Cr 


1880. 

30 

$17° 

80 

Dec. 

By  goods 

$170 

h - 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


217 


After  the  Ledger  has  been  duly  examined,  and  it  is  seen 
that  the  balances  are  struck  and  brought  down  correctly,  pro- 
ceed to  observe  if  those  balances  are  transferred  properly  to 
the  general  Balance  Sheet  at  page  213,  which  is  the  last 
operation  of  all. 

Beyond  this.  Book-keeping  by  Single  Entry  “can  no  further 
go."  It  is  only  a confined  system,  and  its  results  are  never 
demonstrated  or  proved.  Errors  of  omission,  of  addition,  and 
of  wrong  posting,  may,  and  in  large  establishments  do  fre- 
quently occur  without  any  means  of  detection,  except  the  tire- 
some and  frequently  fallacious  method  of  a re-examination  of 
the  entire  books  by  another  person.  But  by  Double  Entry, 
provided  the  system  be  a correct  one,  no  error  of  any  kind  can 
escape  without  detection,  because  everything  is  verified  by  an 
infallible  rule.  Nevertheless  the  diligent  study  of  the  method 
of  Single  Entry  is  absolutely  necessary  as  a preparatory  step 
towards  acquiring  a knowledge  of  the  other.  No  one  can 
keep  a set  of  books  by  Double  Entry  who  does  not  understand 
Single  Entry,  because  the  one  is  based  upon  the  other.  When 
the  learner  has  well  studied  what  has  already  been  laid  before 
him,  let  him  pass  on  to  the  following  pages,  where  he  will 
find  the  same  transactions  registered  by  Double  Entry. 

BOOK-KEEPING  BY  DOUBLE  ENTRY. 

This  method  differs  from  the  former  chiefly  in  making  cash, 
stock,  goods,  &c.,  parties,  as  well  as  persons,  and  in  making  a 
debtor  and  creditor  account  in  every  transaction.  Thus,  if 
cloth  is  sold  to  A,  A is  made  debtor  to  cloth,  and  cloth  creditor 
to  A ; if  cash  is  received  from  B,  cash  is  made  debtor  to  B, 
and  B creditor  to  cash  ; and  in  every  case  the  party,  whether 
animate  or  inanimate,  which  receives  is  debtor  to  that  which 
pays,  and  inversely.  In  Single  Entry  the  record  is  single,  and 
there  it  ends,  whereas  in  Double  Entry  every  transaction  has 
a debit  and  credit,  and  every  account  in  which  it  is  not  so 
represented  is  imperfect.  Two  parties  are  necessarily  engaged 
in  every  transaction,  and  therefore  each  of  them  requires  in 
his  Ledger  two  separate  accounts,  one  for  himself,  and  a sec- 
ond for  his  customer  or  furnisher,  as  the  case  may  be.  Now, 
by  the  use  of  what  are  called  nominal  accounts  representing 
the  proprietor  in  his  own  Ledger,  the  double  receptacle  is 
provided  which  every  transaction  requires.  The  nominal 
accounts  receive  the  counter  entries  of  all  the  personal  accounts, 
and  through  their  operation  the  merchant  is  enabled  to  ascer- 
tain whether  his  business  is  profitable  or  the  reverse.  These 
accounts  are  those  or  Stock,  Profit  and  Loss,  and  its  branches. 
Stock  is  a term  used  to  represent  the  proprietor,  and  it  con- 
tains on  the  credit  side  the  amount  of  the  money,  goods,  or 
other  property  brought  into  trade  ; and  on  the  debtor,  the 
owner’s  liabilities.  In  Profit  and  Loss,  the  credit  side  exhibits 
the  gain  of  the  business,  and  the  debit  the  loss.  In  Single 
Entry,  nominal  accounts  have  no  place.  There  is  a record 
only  of  the  side  of  the  accounts  belonging  to  the  person  deal- 
ing with  the  concern,  and  none  whatever  of  that  which  repre- 
sents the  ov/ner.  Such  a method  enables  us  to  balance  the 
accounts  of  each  party,  but  exhibits  no  register  by  which  the 
state  of  the  stock  in  trade,  and  the  balances  of  capital  and 
cash,  can  be  at  once  ascertained  without  a separate  and  inde- 
pendent investigation. 


We  have  seen,  that  by  Single  Entry  the  items  are  transferred 
from  the  Cash  Book,  Day  Book,  and  Bill  Books,  at  once,  into 
the  Ledger ; but  in  Double  Entry,  another  book,  called  the 
Journal,  is  necessarily  used,  in  which  the  items  from  all  the 
others  are  first  arranged  in  proper  form,  and  then  passed  into 
the  Ledger.  Thus,  posting  by  Single  Entry  is  done  from 
several  books ; whereas  by  Double  Entry  from  the  Journal 
alone. 

The  old  Italian  method  of  keeping  a Journal  is  fraught  with 
so  many  crudities,  useless  repetitions,  and  technical  jargon, 
that  it  has  been  long  abandoned  for  one  a thousand  fold  more 
simple  in  its  construction,  and  perfect  in  its  results.  Instead 
of  continually  entering  “ Sundries  Dr.  to  Cash,"  “ Interest  Dr. 
to  Sundries,”  “ Commission  Dr.  to  A.  B.  C.,’’  and  “ D.  E.  F. 
Dr.  to  Commission,"  with  a multitude  of  such  anomalies,  the 
Journal  is  divided  into  two  parts,  (the  right  and  left  hand  side 
of  the  book)  the  one  called  the  Debtor  side  and  the  other  the 
Creditor  side.  Under  the  Debtor  side  must  be  entered  unin- 
terruptedly everything  that  is  to  be  debited  ; and  under  the 
Creditor  side,  everything  that  is  to  be  credited  ; and  both 
sides  must  agree,  if  the  entering  has  been  done  correctly. 

In  addition  to  the  simplicity  of  this  arrangement,  there  are 
other  advantages  which  may  not  be  overlooked.  In  the  first 
place,  all  the  entries  on  one  side  of  the  Journal  are  posted  upon 
the  same  side  in  the  Ledger,  a convenience  which  every  book- 
keeper will  know  how  to  prize.  Next,  all  the  items  for  each 
account  in  a month  are  consolidated  in  one  entry  previous  to 
posting,  thus  greatly  reducing  that  labor,  and  offering  the 
phenomenon  of  a Ledger  wherein  no  account  for  one  year  can 
have  more  than  twelve  lines,  one  for  each  month  ; and,  finally, 
the  totals  of  each  month  in  the  Journal  added  together  must 
correspond  with  the  gross  amount  of  all  the  totals  in  the 
Ledger,  the  last  and  surest  demonstration  of  correctness  which 
figures  can  offer. 

Let  us  proceed,  to  Journalize  according  to  this  method  all 
the  entries  contained  in  the  preceding  Day  Book,  Cash  Book, 
Bills  Payable  Book  and  Bills  Receivable  Book,  (for  which 
see  pages  213,  214)  begging  the  learner  meanwhile,  to  recol- 
lect the  following  rules  : — 

1st.  When  Goods  are  sold,  the  buyers  must  be  debited  and 
Trade  Account  credited  with  the  amount. 

2d.  When  goods  are  bought  Trade  Account  must  be  debited 
and  the  sellers  credited  for  the  amount. 

3d.  When  Cash  is  paid,  the  parties  receiving  it  must  be 
debited  and  Cash  Account  credited,  and  when  it  is 
received  the  Account  must  be  debited  and  the  payers 
credited. 

4th.  When  Acceptances  are  given,  the  persons  on  whose 
account  they  are  drawn  must  be  debited,  and  Bills  Pay- 
able credited  ; and  when  they  are  received  Bills  Receiv- 
able must  be  debited  and  the  party  on  whose  account 
they  are  received  must  be  credited. 

5th.  When  Accepted  Bills  become  due  and  are  paid.  Bills 
Payable  must  be  debited  and  Cash  credited  ; and  when 
Bills  to  be  received  become  due  and  are  paid.  Cash  must 
be  debited  with  the  amount,  and  Bills  Receivable 
credited. 

Finally.  No  entry  can  be  made  in  the  Ledger  unless  it  be 
extracted  from  the  Journal,  consequently  everything  must 
go  into  the  Journal  first. 

These  rules  must  be  most  carefully  heeded  in  order  to  rapidly 
acquire  the  science  of  book-keeping. 


2li 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


Dr. 


JOURNAL.  January,  1880. 


Cr. 


Tenter  & Co. 

D.  Flock. 

Roberts  Bros. 

A.  D.  F.  Randolph. 


W.  H.  Vernon. 

J.  W.  Bouton. 

Dodd,  Mead  & Co. 

A.  S.  Barnes  & Co. 

D.  Appleton  & Co. 

Bills  Receivable. 
Cash. 

Trade  Acount. 


3.  Goods  sold  as  per  invoice. . . . 

3.  ditto  

4.  diito 

4.  Paid  them  Bill  Receiv- 
able, No.  102 30  80 

Idem  103 74  32 

4.  Goods,  as  per  invoice 

2.  Bill  Payable,  No.  101...40  00 
Cash  paid  them 80  00 

2.  Bill  Payable,  No.  102..  go  00 
Cash  paid  them 120  00 

2.  Bill  Payable,  No.  103..  60  00 
Cash  paid  them rso  00 

2.  Bill  Payable,  No.  104... 40  00 
Cash  paid  them 62  00 

31.  Amount  received  this  month 
as  per  Bill  Receivable  book 
31.  Amount  received  this  month 

as  per  Cash  Book 

Goods  bought  this  month  : 

1.  Of  J.  W.  Bouton T50  20 

1.  Dodd,  Mead  & Co.. 241  00 
1.  A.  S.  JBarnes  & Co.. 300  00 
1.  D.  Appleton  & Co. . 124  60 
4.  A.  D.  F.  Randolph.  186  60 

4.  W.  H.  Vernon 17000 

6.  Cash  paid  charges  as 

per  Lash  Book 10  28 


105 

82 


102 

142 

5,076 


,182 


68 


J.  W.  Bouton. 
Dodd,  Mead  & Co. 
A.  S Barnes  & Co. 
D.  Appleton  & Co. 
A.  D.  F.  Randolph. 
W.  H.  Vernon. 

Bills  Payable. 

Tenter  & Co. 


B.  Flock. 


Robert  Bros. 
Trade  Account. 


Cash. 

Bills  Rceivable. 


Goods  as  per  invoice 

ditto  

ditto  

ditto  

ditto  

4.  ditto  

31.  Amount  of  Bills  accepted  this 
month  as  per  Bill  Book 

3.  Bill  Receivable  No.  101.. 36  20 

Cash  received 36  20 

4.  Bill  Receivable  No.  102.  30  80 

3.  Cash  Received 20  00 


4.  BiH  Receivable  No.  102 

1.  Cap’al  invested  this  day  2,000 
Goods  sold  this  month  : 

3.  To  Tenter  & Co 74 

3- 

4- 


Flock 50  80 

Roberts  Bros 74  32 

W.  H.  Vernon 82  30 

Cash  received 14  80 

Ditto  6 60 


31.  Amount  paid  this  month  as 

per  Cash  Book 

4.  No.  102,  paid  A.  D.  F. 

Randolph  30  80 

No.  103,  ditto  74  32 


150  1 20 
241  1 00 
300  1 00 
1 24  60 

186  6& 
170 


230 


50  | 80 
74  3a 


2,302 

420 


28 


Bills  Payable. 


5.  Cash  paid,  No.  104. 


February, 
40 


1880. 

Cash. 


26.  Amount  paid  this  month  as 
per  Cash  Book 


Dr. 

Bills  Payable. 


5.  Cash  paid  No.  102. 
Ditto 


1880. 


Cr. 


90 

40 

00 

00 

Cash. 

31.  Amount  paid  this  month,  as 
per  Cash  Book 

13° 

00 

130 

00 

130 

00 

Bills  Payable. 

B.  Flock. 

Charges  on  Trade. 


Cash. 


5.  Cash  paid  No.  103 

7.  His  bill  returned  unpaid 

8.  Cash  for  rent 80  00 

Taxes  20  24 
Taxes  15  20 

30.  Amount  received  this  month 
per  Cash  Book 


60 

00 

Cash.  30.  Amount  paid  this  month,  as 

3° 

So 

per  Cash  fiook 

206 

44 

Bills  Receivable.  6.  Cash  received  No.  101 

36 

00 

ns 

44 

36 

20 

242 

44 

242 

44 

— 

— 

November, 


Ramsden  & Co. 

1.  Goods  sold  them 

20 

S.  Green. 

1.  Goods  sold  him 

18 

G.  Barrows. 

1.  Goods  sold  him 

80 

W.  Sinn. 

1.  Goods  sold  him 

120 

V.  S.  Brown. 

i.  Goods  sold  him 

74 

312 

1880. 

Trade  Account. 


Goods  sold  this  month  : — 

1.  To  Ramsden  & Co 20  00 

1.  S.  Green  18  24 

1.  G.  Barrows. 80  00 

1.  W.  Sinn 120  00 

1.  V.  S Brown 74  10 


312 


312 


Trade  Account.  20.  Goods  bought  this  month  : 

Of  Leggatt  Bros 52  20 

Houghton,  Mifflin  & 

Co 200  00 

S.  R.  Wells 192  40 

Jas.  R.  Osgood  & Co.  .170  80 

Leggat  Bros.  30.  Bill  Payable,  No.  105 

Houghton,  Mifflin  & Co.  30.  Idem  106 

S.  R.  Wells.  30.  Idem  107 

J.  R.  Osgood.  30.  Idem  108 

Bills  Receivable.  31.  Amount  received  this  month 

as  per  Bill  Book 


December, 


615 

52 

206 

192 

170 

7X4 


i,544  84 


04 


1880. 

Leggat  Bros.  20.  Goods  bought  by  him. 

Houghton,  Mifflin  & Co.  20.  Idem 

S.  R.  Wells. 

Jas.  R.  Osgood  & Co. 

Bills  Payaole. 


Ramsden  & Co. 
S.  Green. 

G.  Barrows. 

W.  Sinn. 

V.  S.  Brown. 


20.  Idem 

20.  Idem  

30.  Bills  .accepted  this  month  as 

per  bill  Book 

1.  Bill  Receivable,  No.  104... 

1.  Idem  No.  105.  . 

1.  Idem  No.  106. . . 

1.  Idem  No.  107  . 

1.  Idem  No.  108... 


S'* 

200 

192 

170 

615 

20 

19 

80 

120 

74 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


THE  LEDGER. 

Wherein  the  contents  of  the  preceding  Journal  are  posted. 


Dr.  TENTER 

1880. 

Jan.  3 To  Goods . 7400 

& Co . Cr. 

1880. 

Jan  31  By  Sundries . . 74  oc 

Dr.  B. 

Jan.  3 To  Goods 50  80 

April  7 To  Bill  returned 30  80 

8l  60 

To  Balance 30  00 

FLOCK  Cr 

Jan.  31  By  Sundries 5080 

By  Balance 30  80 

8l  60 

Dr.  ROBERTS 

Jan.  4 To  Goods 74  32 

BROS.  Cr. 

By  Bill  Receivable 74  32 

Dr.  A.  D.  F. 

Jan.  4 To  Sundries 106  00 

To  Balance 82  66 

188  60 

RANDOLPH. 

Jan.  2 By  Goods 188  60 

188  60 

By  Balance 82  60 

Dr. 

Jan.  4 To  Goods 

To  Balance  

W.  H. 

VERNON. 

Jan.  4.  By  Goods 

Cr. 

189  30 

By  Balance 

189  30 

Dr. 

Jan.  2 To  Sundries 

To  Balance 

J.  W. 

BOUTON. 

By  Sundries 

Cr. 

150  20 

150  20 

By  Balance 

Dr. 

Jan.  2 To  Sundries 

To  Balance 

DODD, 

MEAD  & Co. 

Jan.,  4 By  Sundries 

Cr. 

241  00 

210  00 

By  Balance  

Dr. 

Jan.  2 To  Sundries 

To  Balanee 

A.  S.  BAR 

NES  & Co. 

Jan.  1 By  Goods ■ 

Cr. 

300  00 

300  OO 

By  Balance 

Dr. 

Jan.  2 To  Sundries 

To  Balance 

D.  AP 

PLETON  & Co. 

Jan.  1 By  Goods 

Cr. 

124  60 

124  60 

By  Balance 

Dr. 

Jan.  31  To  Sundries 

BILLS 

RECEIVABLE. 

Jan.  31  By  Sundries 

April  30  Idem 

Cr. 

Balance 

142  20 

456  60 

456  60 

To  Balance 

Dr. 

Jan.  31  To  Sundries 

April  30  Idem 

CASH 

2,076  34 

ACCOUNT 

Jan.  31  By  Sundries 

Feb.  29  Idem 

March  31  Idem 

April  30  Idem 

Cr. 

Balance 

798  68 

2,112  54 

2,112  54 

To  Balance 

220 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


Dr.  TRADE 

Jan.  31  To  Sundries 1,184  34 

April  30  Idem 114  36 

Dec.  31  Idem 614  34 

Ii9I3  °4 

Balance 700  20 

ACCOUNT.  Cr. 

Jan.  31  By  Sundries 2,304  40 

Nov.  30  Idem 308  84 

2,613  24 

2,6l3  24 

By  Balance  700  20 

Dr.  BILLS  | 

Feb.  28  To  Sundries 4000 

March  31  Idem 130  00 

April  30  Idem 60  00 

230  00 

Balance 614  34 

PAYABLE.  Cr. 

Jan.  31  By  Sundries 330  00 

Eec.  31  Idem 614  34 

844  34 

„ „ , g44  34 

By  Balance 614  34 

Dr.  RAMSDEN 

Nov.  1 To  Goods 20  00 

& Co.  Cr. 

Dec.  1 By  Bill  Receivable 20  00 

Dr.  S. 

Nov.  1 To  Goods 18  24 

GREEN  Cr. 

Dec.  1 By  Bill  Receivable,  No.  105 18  24 

Dr.  G. 

Nov.  1 To  Goods 80  00 

BERGER  Cr. 

Dec.  1 By  Bill  Receivable,  No.  106 80  oo 

Dr.  W. 

Nov.  1 To  Goods 120  00 

SINN.  Cr. 

Dec.  1 By  Bill  Receivable,  No.  107 120  00 

Dr.  V.  S. 

Nov.  1 To  Goods 74  20 

BROWN.  Cr. 

Dec.  1 By  Bill  Receivable,  No.  108 74  20 

Dr.  LEGGAT 

Dec.  30  To  Bill  Payable,  No.  105. . . 52  20 

BROS.  Cr. 

Dec.  20  By  Goods 52  20 

Dr.  HOUGHTON, 

Dec.  30  To  Bill  Payable,  No.  106 200  00 

MIFFLIN  & Co.  Cr. 

Dec.  20  By  Goods .200  00 

Dr.  S.'R. 

Dec.  30  To  Bill  Payable,  No.  107 .192  40 

WELLS.  Cr. 

Dec.  20  By  Goods ...  . 192  40 

Dr.  JAS.  R.  OSGOOD 

Dec.  30  To  Bill  Payable,  No.  108 170  80 

& Co.  Cr. 

Dec.  20  By  Goods 170  80 

In  the  preceding  Ledger  we  have  posted  under  the  head  of 
Trade  Account  all  goods  bought  and  charges  incurred  (both 
in  business  and  family  matters)  to  the  Debit  ; and  to  the 
Credit,  the  amount  of  my  capital  and  goods  sold,  consequently 
the  balance  of  this  account  added  to  the  amount  of  stock  on 
hand  always  shows  the  profit  of  the  business.  For  instance  : 

Balance  of  the  account 700  16 

Value  of  stock  on  hand,  as  estimated  in  the 

Balance  Sheet  by  Single  Entry 1.390  28 

Total  balance  in  my  favor  as  shown  in  the 

Balance  Sheet  by  Single  entry 2,090  44 

But  in  partnership  accounts,  such  a plan  would  not  do,  be- 
cause domestic  expenses  cannot  be  charged  to  trade,  nor 
should  the  respective  capitals  be  included.  In  such  cases 
separate  accounts  must  be  opened  for  each  individual,  which 
must  be  credited  with  their  separate  capitals  and  debited  with 
their  relative  charges.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  a balance  is 
struck,  the  profit  or  loss  determined,  and  the  sum  total  di- 
vided into  proper  proportions,  and  tiansferred  from  the  gen- 
eral Trade  or  Profit  and  Loss  Account,  to  each  individual’s 
debit  or  credit,  as  the  case  may  be. 

N.  B. — A Profit  and  Loss  Account  is  merely  another  name 
fora  Trade  Account.  All  had  debts  must  be  charged  to  that  Ac- 
count which  shows  the  Profit  and  Loss  (whatever  the  name  may 
be),  and  the  bad  Accounts  themselves  closed  by  transfer. 

Let  us  now  see  if  the  Ledger  is  correct.  To  determine  this, 
first  extract  all  the  totals,  Dr.  Cr.  (before  the  balances  are 
struck)  which  must  not  only  agree  with  each  other,  but  corre- 
spond  as  well  with  the  sums  total  in  the  Journal.  Put  all  the 
amounts  at  debit  on  one  side,  and  the  amounts  at  credit  on 
the  other.  The  totals  must  agree  with  the  totals  in  the  Jour- 
nal. If  this  prove  to  be  the  fact,  it  is  thus  demonstrated  that 
everything  in  the  Journal  has  been  posted  in  the  Ledger. 

Having  thus  seen  that  the  totals  on  both  sides  of  the  Ledger 
not  only  agree  with  each  other,  but  correspond  as  well  with 
those  of  the  Journal,  which  is  proof  positive  that  the  books  are 
correct,  the  next  and  last  care  will  be  to  see  that  the  balances 
are  properly  struck  and  brought  down,  which  is  done  by  ex- 
tracting them,  and  observing  that  both  sides  are  alike. 

If  they  agree,  the  balancing  has  been  properly  done. 

This  is  the  final  operation  at  the  end  of  a year  ; and  the 
Journal  of  the  next  should  have  for  its  first  entries  Debtor  and 
Creditor,  an  exact  copy  of  the  Balance  Sheet,  registered  the 
same  as  all  other  items  and  included  in  the  monthly  total- 

ARITHMETIC. 


221 


HE  numerals  now  in  use,  with  the  mode  of 
causing  them  by  peculiar  situation  to  express  any 
number,  and  whereby  the  processes  of  arithmetic 
have  been  rendered  so  highly  convenient,  have 
heretofore  been  supposed  to  be  of  Indian  origin, 
transmitted  through  the  Persians  to  the  Arabs, 
and  by  them  introduced  into  Europe  in  the  tenth 
century,  when  the  Moors  invaded  and  became  masters 
of  Spain.  Such  in  reality  appears  to  have  been  in  a 
great  measure  the  true  history  of  the  transmission  of  these 
numerals  ; but  as  it  has  been  lately  found  that  the  ancient 
hieroglyphical  inscriptions  of  Egypt  contain  several  of  them, 
learned  men  are  now  agreed  that  they  originated  in  that  early 
seat  of  knowledge,  between  which  and  India  there  exist  more 
points  of  resemblance,  and  more  traces  of  intercourse,  than  is 
generally  supposed.  In  the  eleventh  century,  Gerbert,  a Ben- 
edictine monk  of  Fleury,  and  who  afterwards  ascended  the 
Papal  throne  under  the  designation  of  Sylvester  II.,  traveled 
into  Spain,  and  studied  for  several  years  the  sciences  there  cul- 
tivated by  the  Moors.  Among  other  acquisitions,  he  gained 
from  that  singular  people  a knowledge  of  what  are  now  called 
the  Arabic  numerals , and  of  the  mode  of  arithmetic  founded 
on  them,  which  he  forthwith  disclosed  to  the  Christian  world, 
by  whom  at  first  his  learning  caused  him  to  be  accused  of 
an  alliance  with  evil  spirits.  The  knowledge  of  this  new 
arithmetic  was  about  the  same  time  extended,  in  consequence 
of  the  intercourse  which  the  Crusaders  opened  between  Europe 
and  the  East.  For  a long  time,  however,  it  made  a very  slow 
and  obscure  progress.  The  characters  themselves  appear  to 
have  been  long  considered  in  Europe  as  dark  and  mysterious. 
Deriving  their  whole  efficacy  from  the  use  made  of  the  cipher, 
so  called  from  the  Arabic  word  tsaphara,  denoting  empty  'or 
void,  this  term  came  afterwards  to  express,  in  general,  any 
secret  mark.  Hence,  in  more  troublous  times  than  the  pres- 
ent, a mode  of  writing  was  practiced,  by  means  of  marks  pre- 


viously concerted,  and  called  ■writing  in  cipher.  The  Arabic 
characters  occur  in  some  arithmetical  tracts  composed  in  Eng- 
land during  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  particu- 
larly in  a work  by  John  of  Halifax,  or  De  Sacrobosco  ; but 
another  century  elapsed  before  they  were  generally  adopted. 
They  do  not  appear  to  have  settled  into  their  present  form  till 
about  the  time  of  the  invention  of  printing. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  calculate,  even  by  their  own  tran- 
scendent powers,  the  service  which  the  Arabic  numerals  have 
rendered  to  mankind. 


HE  Arabic  numerals  take  the  following  well- 
known  forms  : — i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  o. 
The  first  nine  of  these,  called  digits,  or  digital 
numbers,  represent  each  one  of  the  numbers  be- 
tween one  and  nine,  and  when  thus  employed 
to  represent  single  numbers,  they  are  considered 
as  units.  The  last  (o),  called  a nought,  nothing  or 
cipher,  is,  in  reality,  taken  by  itself,  expressive  of  an 
absence  of  number,  or  nothing  ; but,  in  connection 
with  other  numbers,  it  becomes  expressive  of  number  in  a 
very  remarkable  manner. 

The  valuable  peculiarity  of  the  Arabic  notation  is  the  en- 
largement and  variety  of  values  which  can  be  given  to  the  fig- 
ures by  associating  them.  The  number  ten  is  expressed  by  I 
and  o put  together — thus,  10  ; and  all  the  numbers  from  this 
up  to  a hundred  can  be  expressed  in  like  manner  by  the  asso- 


I 


222 


ARITHMETIC. 


ciation  of  two  figures — thus,  twenty,  20  ; thirty,  30 ; eighty- 
five,  85  ; ninety-nine,  99.  These  are  called  decimal  numbers, 
from  decern , Latin  for  ten.  The  numbers  between  a hundred 
and  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine  inclusive  are,  in  like  man- 
ner, expressed  by  three  figures—thus,  a hundred,  100  ; five 
hundred,  500;  eight  hundred  and  eighty-five,  885  ; nine  hun- 
dred and  ninety-nine,  999.  Four  figures  express  thousands  ; 
five,  tens  of  thousands  ; six,  hundreds  of  thousands  ; seven, 
millions  ; and  so  forth.  Each  figure,  in  short,  put  to  the  left 
hand  of  another,  or  of  several  others,  multiplies  that  one  or 
mere  numbers  by  ten.  Or  if  to  any  set  of  figures  a nought  (o) 
be  added  towards  the  right  hand,  that  addition  multiplies  the 
number  by  ten  ; thus  999,  with  o added,  becomes  9990,  nine 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  ninety.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that, 
in  notation,  the  rank  or  place  of  any  figure  in  a number  is 
what  determines  the  value  which  it  bears.  The  figure  third 
from  the  right  hand  is  always  one  of  the 
L 2 3 4.5  6 7)8  9°  hundreds;  that  which  stands  seventh  al- 
g g"c  g = ways  expresses  millions;  and  so  on.  And 

;S,oSfo"5"  " whenever  a new  figure  is  added  towards  the 
K n>  •-*» £?  o • ° 

D.&B  • S' 3- a. S'  right:,  each  of  the  former  set  obtains,  as  it 

W o — O O 71  • 

o^—g-  — c ' were,  a promotion,  or  is  made  to  express  ten 

B o = times  its  former  value. 

w “ ’ p Cl 

5 § S " A large  number  is  thus  expressed  in  the 

y>  ” £•  Arabic  numerals,  every  set  of  three  from 

the  right  to  the  left  hand  being  divided  by 
a comma  for  the  sake  of  distinctness. 

The  above  number  is  therefore  one  thousand  two  hundred 
and  thirty-four  millions,  five  hundred  and  sixty-seven  thous- 
ands, eight  hundred  and  ninety.  Higher  numbers  are  ex- 
pressed differently  in  France  and  England.  In  the  former 
country,  the  tenth  figure  expresses  billions,  from  which  there 
is  an  advance  to  tens  of  billions,  hundreds  of  billions,  tril- 
lions, etc.  In  our  country,  the  eleventh  figure  expresses  ten 
thousands  of  millions,  the  next  hundreds  of  thousands  of  mil- 
lions, the  next  billions,  etc.  The  two  plans  will  be  clearly 
apprehended  from  the  following  arrangement  : — 


ENGLISH  METHOD. 

Units. 

Tens. 

Hundreds. 

Thousands. 

Tens  of  thousands. 

Hundreds  of  thousands. 
Millions. 

Tens  of  millions. 

Hundreds  of  millions. 
Thousands  of  mi'hons. 

Ten  thousands  of  millions. 
Hundreds  of  thousands  of  mil 
lions. 

Billions. 

Tens  of  billions. 

Hundreds  of  billions,  etc. 


FRENCH  METHOD. 

Units. 

Tens. 

Hundreds. 

Thousands. 

Tens  of  thousands. 
Hundreds  of  thousands. 
Millions. 

Tens  of  millions. 
Hundreds  of  millions. 
Billions. 

Tens  of  billions. 

Hundreds  of  billions. 
Trillions. 

Tens  of  trillions. 
Hundreds  of  trillions,  e c. 


SIMPLE  OR  ABSTRACT  NUMBERS. 

There  are  four  elementary  departments  in  arithmetic — Ad- 
dition, Multiplication,  Subtraction,  and  Division. 


27 

5 

536 

352 

275 

1195 


v^^DDITION  is  the  adding  or  summing  up  of 
° several  numbers,  for  the  purpose  of  finding  out 

their  united  amount.  We  add  numbers  to- 
gether when  we  say,  1 and  1 make  2 ; 2 and  2 
make  4 ; and  so  on.  The  method  of  writing 
numbers  in  addition,  is  to  place  the  figures  under 
one  another  so  that  units  will  stand  under  units, 
tens  under  tens,  hundreds  under  hundreds,  etc.  Sup- 
pose we  wish  to  add  together  the  following  numbers — 
27,  5,  536,  352, and  275;  we  range  them  in  columns  one  under  the 
other,  as  in  the  margin,  and  draw  a line  under  the  whole.  Be- 
ginning at  the  lowest  figure  of  the  right-hand  column, 
we  say  5 and  2 are  7 — 7 and  6 are  13 — 13  and  5 are  18 
— 18  and  7 are  25  ; that  is,  2 tens  and  5 units.  We 
now  write  the  five  below  the  line  of  units,  and  carry  or 
add  the  2 tens,  or  20,  to  the  lowest  figure  of  the  next 
column.  In  carrying  this  20,  we  let  the  cipher  go,  it 
being  implied  by  the  position  or  rank  of  the  first  figure, 
and  take  only  the  2 ; we  therefore  proceed  thus — 2 and 
7 are  9 — 9 and  5 are  14 — 14  and  3 are  17 — 17  and  2 are  19. 
Writing  down  the  9,  we  proceed  with  the  third  column,  carry- 
ing 1,  thus — 1 and  2 are  3 — 3 and  3 are  6 — 6 and  5 are  II. 
No  more  figures  remaining  to  be  added,  both  these  figures  are 
now  put  down,  and  the  amount  or  sum  of  them  all  is  found  to 
be  1195.  P'ollowing  this  plan,  any  quantity  of  numbers  may 
be  summed  up.  Should  the  amount  of  any  column  be  in 
three  figures,  still  only  the  last  or  right-hand  figure  is  to  be 
put  down,  and  the  other  two  carried  to  the  next  column.  For 
example,  if  the  amount  of  a column  be  127,  put  down  the  7 
and  carry  the  other  two  figures,  which  are  12  ; if  it  be  234, 
put  down  the  4 and  carry  23. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity  in  literature,  addition  is  often  de- 
noted by  the  figure  of  a cross,  of  this  shape  + . Thus,  7 + 6 
means  7 added  to  6 ; and  in  order  to  express  the  sum  result- 
ing, the  sign  =,  which  means  equal  to , is  employed,  as  7 + 6 
= 13  ; that  is,  7 and  6 are  equal  to  13. 

The  Sign  of  Dollars  is  $.  It  is  read  dollars.  Thus,  $64 
dollars  is  read  64  dollars  ; $5  is  read  5 dollars.  When  dollars 
and  cents  are  written,  a period  or  point  ( . ) is  placed  before  the 
cents,  or  between  the  dollars  and  cents.  Thus,  $4.25  is  read 
4 dollars  and  25  cents.  Since  100  cents  make  $1.00,  cents 
always  occupy  two  places,  and  never  more  than  two. 

If  the  number  of  cents  is  less  than  10  and  expressed  by  a 
single  figure,  a cipher  must  occupy  the  first  place  at  the  right 
of  the  point.  Thus,  3 dollars  6 cents  are  written  $3.06  ; 1 
dollar  5 cents  are  written  $1.05.  When  cents  alone  are  writ- 
ten, and  their  number  is  less  than  100,  either  write  the  word 
cents  after  the  number,  or  place  the  dollar  sign  and  the  point 
before  the  number.  Thus,  75  cents  may  be  expressed,  $.75. 
In  arranging  for  addition,  dollars  should  be  written  under  dol- 


ARITHMETIC. 


223 


lars,  and  cents  under  cents,  in  such  order  that  the  points  stand 
in  a vertical  line. 

The  sign  $,  and  the  point  ( . ) should  never  be  omitted. 


ULTIPLICATION  is  a short  method  of  ad- 
dition under  certain  circumstances.  If  vve 
wish  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  twelve  times 
the  number  57,  instead  of  setting  down 
twelve  rows  of  57,  and  adding  them  together, 
we  adopt  a shorter  plan  by  which  we  come 
to  the  same  conclusion.  For  ascertaining  the 
amount  of  all  simple  numbers  as  far  as  12  times  12, 
young  persons  commit  to  memory  the  following 
Multiplication  Table,  a knowledge  of  which  is  of  great  value, 
and  saves  much  trouble  in  after-life  : — 


■ 1 

2 1 3 

4 

5 

6 

7 1 

8 | 

9 1 

10  1 

I I 

12 

2 1 

4 1 6 

8 

10 

12 

‘4  1 

1 6 | 

18  | 

20  | 

22 

24 

3 1 

6 | 9 

12 

15 

.8 

21  1 24  1 

27  | 

30  1 

33 

36 

4 1 

8 | 12 

l6 

20 

24  | 28  | 32  | 

36  1 

40  | 

44 

48 

5 1 

10  I 15 

20 

25 

3°  1 35  t 

40  | 

45  1 

50  | 

55 

60 

6| 

12  | l8 

24 

30 

36  1 42  1 

48 1 

54  1 

60  | 

b6 

72 

7 1 

14  | 21 

28 

35 

42 

49  1 56  1 

63 1 

70  | 

77 

84 

8 | 16  | 24 

32 

40 

48 

56 1 

64  | 

72  | 

80  | 

88 

96 

9 1 

18  | 27 

36 

45 

54  1 63  | 

72  | 

Si  1 

90  | 

99 

108 

IO  | 

20  | 30 

40 

50 

60 

70 1 

80  | 

90  | 

IOO  | 

I IO 

120 

11  1 

22 1 33 

44 

55 

66 

77 1 

88  | 

99  1 

I IO  | 

I 2 I 

132 

12  | 24  | 36 

48 

60 

72  1 84  1 

96  | 

I08  | 

120  | 

>32 

1 44 

This  table  is  so  well  known,  that  it  is  almost  superfluous  to 
explain  that,  when  any  number  in  the  top  row  is  multiplied 
by  any  number  in  the  left-hand  side  row,  the  amount  is  found 
in  the  compartment  or  square  beneath  the  one  and  opposite 
the  other.  Thus,  2 times  2 are  4 ; 5 times  6 are  30  ; 12  times 
12  are  144. 

The  multiplying  of  numbers  beyond  12  times  12  is  usually 
effected  by  a process  of  calculation  in  written  figures.  The 
rule  is  to  write  down  the  number  to  be  multiplied,  called  the 
multiplicand ; then  place  under  it,  on  the  right-hand  side,  the 
number  which  is  to  be  the  multiplier , and  draw  a line  under 
them.  For  example,  to  find  the  amount  of  9 times  27,  we  set 
down  the  figures  thus — 

27  (Multiplicand .) 

9 (Multiplier.) 

243  (Product?) 

Beginning  with  the  right-hand  figure,  we  say  9 times  7 are  63  ; 
and  gutting  down  3 we  carry  6,  and  say  9 limes  2 are  18,  and 
6,  which  was  carried,  makes  24  ; and  writing  down  these  fig- 
ures next  the  3,  the  product  is  found  to  be  243. 


When  the  multiplier  consists  of  two  or  more  figures, 
place  it  so  that  its  right-hand  figure  comes  ex- 
actly under  the  right-hand  figure  of  the  multiplicand  ; 
for  instance,  to  multiply  5463  by  34,  we  proceed  as 
here  shown.  Here  the  number  is  multiplied,  first  by 
the  4,  the  product  of  which  being  written  down,  we 
proceed  to  multiply  by  3,  and  the  amount  produced 
is  placed  below  the  other,  but  one  place  farther  to 
the  left.  A line  is  then  drawn,  and  the  two  products 
added  together,  bringing  out  the  result  of  185742.  We  may, 
in  this  manner,  multiply  by  three,  four,  five,  or  any  number 
of  figures,  always  placing  the  product  of  one 
figure  below  the  other,  but  shifting  a place  far- 
ther to  the  left  in  each  line.  An  example  is 
here  given  in  the  multiplying  of  76843  by 
4563- 

Multiplication  is  denoted  by  a cross  of  this 
shape  x : thus  3x8  = 24,  signifies,  that  by 
multiplying  8 by  3,  the  product  is  24.  A number 
which  is  produced  by  the  multiplication  of  two 
other  numbers,  as  30  by  5 and  6,  leaving  nothing 
over,  is  called  a composite  number.  The  5 and  6,  called  the 
factors  (that  is,  workers  or  agents),  are  said  to  be  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  30,  and  30  is  also  said  to  be  a multiple  of  either 
of  these  numbers.  The  equal  parts  into  which  a number  can 
be  reduced,  as  the  twos  in  thirty,  are  called  the  aliquot  parts. 
A number  which  cannot  be  produced  by  the  multiplication  of 
two  other  numbers,  is  called  a prime  number.  When  the  mul- 
tiplicand and  multiplier  are  the  same,  that  is,  when  a number 
is  multiplied  by  itself  once,  the  product  is  called  the  square  of 
that  number  : 144  is  the  square  of  12. 


5463 

34 

21852 

16389 

185742 


76843 

4563 

230,529 

4,610,58 

38,421,5 

3°7-372 

350,634,609 


UBTRACTION  is  the  deducting  of  a smaller 
number  from  a greater,  to  find  what  remains,  or 
the  difference  between  them. 

The  Sign  of  Subtraction  is  — . It  is  read 
minus , and  signifies  less. 

When  placed  between  two  numbers,  it  indi- 
that  the  one  after  it  is  to  be  subtracted  from 
the  one  before  it.  Thus,  12  — 7 is  read  12  minus  7, 
and  means  that  7 is  to  be  subtracted  from  12. 

A Parenthesis  ( ) is  used  to  include  within  it  such  numbers 
as  are  to  be  considered  together, 
same  signification. 


has  the 


A Vinculum 

Thus,  25  — (12  + 7),  or  25  — 12  + 7, 


signifies  that  from  25  the  sum  of  12  and  7 is  to  be  subtracted. 

Principles. — 1.  Only  like  numbers  and  units  of  the  same 
order  can  be  subtracted. 

2.  The  minuend  must  be  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  subtrahend 
and  remainder. 


ARITHMETIC. 


224 


We  subtract  when  we  say,  take  3 from  5,  and  2 remains. 
To  ascertain  what  remains,  after  taking  325  from  537, 
we  proceed  by  writing  the  one  under  the  other  as  here 
indicated,  and  then  subtracting.  Commencing  at  5,  325 

the  right-hand  figure  of  the  lower  and  smaller  number,  

we  say,  5 from  7,  and  2 remains  ; setting  down  the  2,  212 

we  say  next,  2 from  3,  and  I remains;  and  setting  down 
the  1,  we  say,  3 from  5,  and  2 remains  ; total  remainder, 
212. 

To  subtract  a number  of  a higher  value,  involving  the  car- 
rying of  figures  and  supplying  of  tens,  we  proceed  as  in  the 
margin.  Commencing  as  before,  we  find  that  5 cannot  be 
subtracted  from  2,  and  therefore  supply  or  lend  10  to 
the  2,  making  it  12  ; then  we  say,  5 from  12,  and  7 8432 

remains.  Setting  down  the  7,  we  take  I,  being  the  de-  6815 

cimal  figure  of  the  number  which  was  borrowed,  and  

give  it  to  the  1,  making  it  2,  and  taking  2 from  3,  we  I^>1^ 
find  that  1 remains.  Setting  down  the  1,  we  go  to  the 
8,  and  finding  it  cannot  be  taken  from  the  4 above  it,  we  lend 
10  to  the  4,  making  it  14,  and  then  we  say,  8 from  14,  and  6 
remains.  In  the  same  manner  as  before,  adding  the  first  fig- 
ure of  the  borrowed  number  (1)  to  the  6,  we  say,  7 from  S, 
and  1 remains  ; thus  the  total  remainder  is  found  to  be  1617. 
From  these  explanations,  which  apply  to  all  calculations  in 
subtraction,  it  will  be  observed,  that  when  the  upper  figure  is 
less  than  the  figure  directly  under  it,  10  is  to  be  added,  and 
for  this  one  is  carried  or  added  to  the  next  under  figure. 

A man  having  $15,  paid  $4  for  a hat,  and  $2  for  a vest. 
How  many  dollars  had  he  left  ? 

Analysis. — The  difference  between  $15,  and  the  sum  of  $4 
and  $2,  which  is  $9. 


I^IVISION  is  that  process  by  which  we  discover 
how  often  one  number  may  be  contained  in  an- 
other, or  by  which  we  divide  a given  number 
into  any  proposed  number  of  equal  parts.  By 
the  aid  of  the  Multiplication  Table,  we  can 
ascertain  without  writing  figures  how  many 
times  any  number  is  contained  in  another,  as  far 
as  144,  or  12  times  12  ; beyond  this  point  notation 
is  employed.  There  are  two  modes  of  work- 


ing questions  in  division,  one  long  and  the  other 
short.  Let  it  be  required  to  divide  69  by  3 : accord- 
ing to  the  long  method,  write  the  figures  69  as  an- 
nexed, with  a line  at  each  side,  and  the  divisor,  or 
3,  on  the  left.  The  question  is  wrought  out  by  ex- 
amining how  many  times  3 is  in  6,  and  finding  it  to 
be  2 times,  we  place  2 on  the  right  side  ; then  placing  6 be- 
low six,  we  draw  a line  and  bring  down  the  9,  and  proceed 


1)69(23 

6 

9 

9 


6)7958(1326 

6 

19 

18 

15 

12 


6)7958 

1326-2 


with  it  in  the  same  manner.  The  quotient  is  found  to  be  23. 
But  we  take  a more  difficult  question — the  divi- 
sion of  7958  by  6.  In  commencing  we  find 
that  there  is  only  one  6 in  7,  and  1 over;  we 
therefore  place  the  6 below  the  7,  and  subtract 
it,  in  order  to  bring  out  the  1.  The  1 being 
written,  we  bring  down  the  9 to  it,  and  this 
makes  19.  There  being  3 times  6 in  18,  we 
place  the  3 to  the  product  (which  in  division  is 
called  the  quotient,  literally,  How  many  times  ?) 
and  18  below  the  19,  leaving  1 over  as  before.  38 

To  this  1 we  bring  down  the  5,  and  trying  *6 

how  many  sixes  there  are  in  15,  it  appears  there  ~ 
are  only  2.  We  place  2 to  the  quotient,  and  12 
below  the  15.  This  leaves  3 over,  and  bringing 
down  8 to  the  3,  we  have  38,  in  which  there  are  6 sixes.  Six 
sixes  make  36  ; therefore,  placing  6 to  the  quotient,  and  36 
below  the  38,  we  find  that  there  are  2 over.  Here  the  account 
terminates,  it  being  found  that  there  are  1326  sixes  in  7958, 
with  a remainder  of  2 over.  In  this  question,  6 is  called  the 
divisor ; the  7958  is  the  dividend,  and  1326  is  the  quotient. 

Skillful  arithmeticians  never  adopt  this  long  method  of  di- 
vision ; they  pursue  a plan  of  working  out  part  of 
the  question  in  the  mind,  called  short  division. 

They  would,  for  example,  treat  the  above  question 
as  here  shown.  The  over  number  of  1 from  the 
7 is  carried  in  the  mind  to  the  9,  making  19  ; 
the  I from  19  is  in  the  same  manner  carried  to  the 
5 ; and  the  3 from  it  is  carried  to  the  8,  leaving  the  overplus 
of  2. 

In  Short  Division  the  quotient  only  is  written,  the  opera- 
tions being  performed  mentally.  It  is  generally  used  when 
the  divisor  does  not  exceed  12. 

Divide  $48.56  by  8 cents. 

Eight  cents  may  be  written  $.08. 

When  the  divisor  and  dividend  are 
like  numbers,  the  quotient  is  an  abstract 
number.  Hence,  8 cents  are  contained 

in  $48.56,  607  times. 

Division  is  denoted  by  the  following  character  -s-  ; thus, 
75  -f-  25,  signifies  that  75  is  to  be  divided  by  25. 

These  explanations  conclude  the  subject  of  simple  or  ab- 
stract numbers.  On  the  substructure  of  the  few  rules  in  Ad- 
dition, Multiplication,  Subtraction,  and  Division,  which  we 
have  given,  whether  in  reference  to  whole  numbers  or  frac- 
tions, every  kind  of  conventional  arithmetic  is  erected,  be- 
cause these  rules  are  founded  in  immutable  truths.  Mankind 
may  change  their  denominations  of  money,  weights,  and 
measures,  but  they  can  make  no  alteration  in  the  doctrine  of 
abstract  numbers.  That  2 and  2 are  equal  to  4,  is  a truth  yes 
terday,  to-day,  and  forever. 


OPERATION. 

$.o8)$48.56 


607  times. 


ARITHMETIC. 


225- 


wwwwwwwwt 

^-FRACTIONS.*!:- 


ITHERTO  we  have  spoken  only  of  whole 
numbers  which  in  arithmetic  are  called  integers. 
We  have  now  to  treat  of  fractions,  or  the 
parts  into  which  integers  may  be  broken.  The 
more  ordinary  fractions  of  any  single  article  or 
number  are  a half,  third,  quarter,  etc.  ; but  a num- 
ber admits  of  being  divided  into  any  quantity  of 
equal  parts.  All  such  fractions  are  called  vulgar 
fractions , from  their  being  common.  It  is  the  practice  to 
write  vulgar  fractions  with  two  or  more  small  figures,  one 
above  the  other,  with  a line  between,  as  follows : l (one- 
half),  i (one-third,)  | (one-fourth  or  quarter),  £ (one-eighth), 
i (four- fifths),  1®,  (nine-tenths),  and  so  on.  In  these  and  all 
other  instances,  the  upper  number  is  called  the  numerator , the 
lower  the  denominator. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  FRACTIONS. 

, Multiplying  the  numerator,  or) 

Dividing  the  denominator,  ) 

, Dividing  the  numerator,  or  ) 

Multiplying  the  denominator,  ) 

Multiplying  or  dividing  bothl 
numerator  and  denominator  }- 
by  the  same  number,  J 

These  three  principles  may  be  embraced  in  one 


Multiplies  the  fraction. 

Divides  the  fraction. 

Does  not  change  the 
value  of  the  fraction. 


GENERAL  LAW. 

A change  in  the  numerator  produces  a like  change  in  the 
value  of  the  fraction  ; but  a change  in  the  denominator  pro- 
duces an  opposite  change  in  the  value  of  the  fraction. 

It  may  happen  that  it  is  necessary  to  add  together  different 
fractions  to  make  up  whole  numbers.  In  working  all  such 
questions,  we  must,  in  the  first  place,  bring  all  the  fractions 
into  one  kind  ; if  we  have  to  add  £,  i and  g together,  we 
make  all  into  eighths,  and  see  how  many  eighths  we  have  got : 
thus  £ is  | ; then  4 is  $,  that  is  2 and  4,  which  make  6,  and  £ 
makes  a total  of  J.  The  same  plan  is  to  be  pursued  in  the 
subtraction  of  vulgar  fractions. 

It  is  necessary  sometimes  to  speak  of  the  tenths,  hun- 
dredths, or  thousandths  of  a number,  and  for  this  arithmetic 
has  provided  a system  of  decimal  fractions.  Where  great  ex- 
actness of  expression  is  required,  decimals  are  indispensable. 
It  has  been  already  shown  that,  in  writing  common  numbers, 
the  value  of  a figure  increases  by  ten  times  as  we  proceed  from 
right  to  left ; in  other  words,  we  ascend  by  tens.  Now,  there 
is  nothing  to  prevent  us  in  the  same  manner  descending  by 
tens  from  unity.  This  is  done  by  decimal  fractions.  We 
place  a dot  after  unity,  or  the  unit  figure,  which  dot  cuts  off 
the  whole  number  from  its  fractional  tenths  ; thus  120. 3 means 
120  and  3-tenths  of  a whole  ; if  we  write  120.31,  the  meaning 


is  120  and  31-hundredths  of  a whole,  that  is,  31  parts  in  100 
into  which  a whole  is  supposed  to  be  divided.  If  we  go  on 
adding  a figure  to  the  right,  we  make  the  fraction  into  thou- 
sandths ; as,  for  instance,  120.315,  which  signifies  120  and  315 
out  of  a thousand  parts. 

Tables  of  specific  gravities,  population,  mortality,  and 
many  matters  of  statistics,  are  greatly  made  up  of  decimal 
fractions,  and  therefore  it  is  proper  that  all  should  comprehend 
the  principle  on  which  they  are  designed.  In  many  cases,  it 
would  answer  the  purpose  to  write  the  fractions  as  vulgar 
fractions ; but  there  is  a great  advantage  in  reducing  all 
broken  parts  to  the  decimal  notation,  for  it  allows  of  adding 
up  columns  of  decimals  all  of  the  same  denomination.  Their 
great  excellence,  indeed,  consists  in  the  uniformity  which  they 
give  to  calculations,  and  the  easy  methods  which,  by  these 
means,  they  present  of  pursuing  fractional  numbers  to  any  de- 
gree of  minuteness. 

The  method  of  reducing  a vulgar  to  a decimal  fraction  is  a 
simple  question  in  division.  For  instance,  to  reduce  4 to  a 
decimal,  we  take  the  3,  and  putting  two  ciphers  after  it,  divide 

by  4,  thus — 4 ; therefore,  .75  is  the  decimal,  or,  what  is 

'75 

the  same  thing,  75-hundredth  parts  of  a whole  are  equal  to  the 
three-quarters  of  a whole. 


SERIES  of  numbers  is  a succession  of  numbers 
that  increase  or  decrease  according  to  some  law. 
Of  the  two  kinds  of  series  usually  treated  of  in 
arithmetic,  the  simpler  is  one  whose  terms  in- 
crease or  decrease  by  some  constant  number 
called  the  common  difference.  This  common 
difference  or  rate  of  increase  is  only  one,  when 
we  say,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8 ; it  is  two,  when  we  say  7,  9,  11, 
13  ; and  fozir,  when  we  say  6.  10,  14,  18,  and  so  on.  Every 
advancement  of  this  nature,  by  which  the  same  number  is 
added  at  every  step,  is  called  arithmetical  progression.  There 
is  a different  species  of  advancement,  by  which  the  last  num- 
ber is  always  multiplied  by  a given  number,  thus  causing  the 
series  to  mount  rapidly  up.  Suppose  4 is  the  multiplier,  and 
we  begin  at  2,  the  progression  will  be  as  follows  : 2,  8,  32, 
128,  512,  2048,  and  so  on.  It  is  here  observed,  that  multiply- 
ing the  2 by  4 we  have  8 ; multiplying  the  8 by  4,  we  have 
32  ; and  multiplying  the  32  by  4,  we  have  128,  etc.,  till  at  the 
fifth  remove  we  attain  2048.  This  kind  of  advancement  oi 
numbers  is  called  geonietrical progression.  The  very  great  dif- 
ference between  the  two  kinds  of  progression  is  exemplified  in 
the  following  two  lines,  the  number  3 being  added  in  the  one 
case  and  being  used  as  the  multiplier  in  the  other : 


226 


ARITHMETIC. 


5,  8,  ii,  14,  17 — Arithmetical  Progression. 

5.  15,  45.  J35*  4°5 — Geometrical  Progression. 

In  the  case  of  arithmetical  progression,  as  above  or  in  any 
other  manner  exemplified,  it  may  be  noticed  that  the  amount 
of  the  first  and  last  term  is  always  the  same  as  twice  the 
amount  of  the  middle  term  ; thus  5 and  17  being  22,  are  equal 
to  twice  11,  or  22.  The  cause  of  this  is,  that  as  the  numbers 
increase  or  decrease  in  equal  degrees,  the  last  number  is  just 
as  much  more  as  the  first  is  less  than  the  number  in  the 
middle  ; and  the  two  being  added,  the  amount  must  conse- 
quently be  double  the  central  number.  The  same  rule  holds 
good  with  respect  to  any  two  numbers  at  equal  distances  from 
the  number  in  the  middle.  If  the  series  be  an  even  number, 
and  do  not  possess  a middle  term,  then  the  two  terms  nearest 
the  middle  (called  the  mean  terms)  must  be  added  together: 
thus  in  the  natural  series  from  1 to  24,  12  and  13  are  the  two 
nearest  the  middle,  and  one  being  added  to  the  other  makes 
25,  the  sum  of  the  first  and  last  term. 

In  geometrical  progression,  each  term  is  a factor  of  all  the 
numbers  or  terms  that  follow,  and  a product  of  all  that  go  be- 
fore, so  that  there  is  an  harmonious  ratio  pervading  the  whole. 
Each  term  bears  an  exact  proportion  to  its  predecessor,  be- 
cause the  multiplier  is  the  same.  Supposing,  as  above,  the 
multiplier  to  be  3,  the  term  15  is  proportionally  greater  than 
5,  as  45  is  greater  than  15.  In  the  technical  language  of 
arithmetic,  as  15  is  to  5,  so  is  45  to  15.  To  save  words  such 
a proposition  is  written  down  with  dots,  thus — 15 .5  ::  45  : 15. 
The  two  dots  mean  is  to,  and  four  dots  mean  so  is.  The  same 
formula  is  applicable  to  any  series  of  proportional  terms, 
though  not  in  continued  proportion  to  each  other. 

In  order  to  discover  the  ratio  between  any  two  terms  we 
divide  the  largest  by  the  least,  and  the  quotient  is  the  ratio  : 
45  divided  by  15  gives  3 as  the  latio.  By  thus  ascertaining 
the  ratio  of  two  terms,  we  are  furnished  with  the  means  of 
arriving  at  the  ratio  of  other  terms.  We  cannot  do  better  than 
explain  the  method  of  working  out  this  principle  in  the  ratio 
of  numbers,  by  giving  the  following  passages  from  the  admi- 
rable Lessons  on  Arithmetic,  by  Mr.  T.  Smith  of  Liverpool. 
Taking  the  four  regularly  advancing  terms,  15,  45,  405,  and 
1215,  he  proceeds:  “Suppose  that  we  had  only  the  first 
three,  and  that  it  were  our  wish  to  find  the  fourth,  which  term 
bears  the  same  proportion  to  the  third  as  the  second  does  to 
the  first.  The  thing  we  have  first  to  do,  is  to  discover  the 
ratio  between  the  first  and  second  terms,  in  order  to  do  which, 
as  before  shown,  we  divide  the  larger  by  the  smaller,  and  this 
gives  us  the  ratio  3,  with  which,  by  multiplying  the  third  term, 
we  produce  the  fourth  ; or,  let  the  three  terms  be  these,  405, 
1215,  5,  and  let  it  be  our  wish  to  find  a fourth  which  shall 
bear  the  same  relation  to  the  15  as  1215  does  to  405.  We 
divide  and  multiply  as  before,  and  the  fourth  term  is  produced. 
And  in  this  manner,  having  two  numbers,  or  two  quantities  of 
any  kind,  bearing  a certain  proportion  towards  each  other,  and 
a third,  to  which  we  would  find  a number  or  quantity  that 
should  bear  a like  proportion,  in  this  manner  do  we  proceed, 
and  thus  easily  may  we  find  the  number  we  require.” 

Referring  to  the  discovered  ratio  of  45  to  15  to  be  3,  or  the 
fifteenth  part — “ Now  ” (continues  this  author),  “ what  would 


have  been  the  consequence  had  we  multiplied  the  third  term 
(405)  by  the  whole,  instead  of  by  a fifteenth  part  of  the  second  ? 
The  consequence  would  have  been,  that  we  should  have  had  a 
term  or  number  fifteen  times  larger  than  that  required.  But 
this  would  be  a matter  of  no  difficulty  ; for  it  would  be  set 
right  at  once  and  our  purpose  gained,  by  dividing  the  over- 
large product  by  15.  Let  us  write  this  process  down  : 405  x 
45  = 18225,  and  1S225  -r-  15  = 1215, — which  1215  bears  the 
same  proportion  to  405  asdoes  45  to  15.  And  this  is  the  rule, 
when  the  terms  are  properly  placed — multiplying  the  second 
and  third  terms  together,  and  dividing  the  product  by  the  first ; 
this  avoids  all  difficulties  arising  from  the  occurrence  of  frac- 
tions in  the  course  of  the  process,  and  gives  us,  in  all  cases, 
any  proportional  terms  we  may  require.” 


N the  principle  now  explained,  we  can,  in  any 
affairs  of  business,  ascertain  the  amount  of  an 
unknown  quantity,  by  knowing  the  amount  of 
other  three  quantities,  which,  with  the  unknown 
quantity,  bear  a proportional  relation.  The  word 
quantity  is  here  used,  but  any  sum  ofi  money  is  also 
meant. 

Let  it  be  remembered,  that  the  ratio  of  one  number 
to  another  is  the  number  of  times  that  the  former  contains  the 
latter  ; for  example,  the  ratio  of  6 to  3 is  2,  that  of  12  to  4 is 
3,  and  that  of  8 to  12  is  3.  When  two  numbers  have  the  same 
ratio  as  other  two,  they  constitute  a proportion.  Thus,  the  ratio 
of  S to  6 is  the  same  as  that  of  12  to  9,  and  the  equality  of 
these  two  ratios  is  represented  thus  : 

8 : 6 = 12  : 9,  or,  8 : 6 ::  12  : 9. 

The  following  is  the  rule  for  stating  and  working  questions : — 
Make  that  term  which  is  of  the  same  kind  as  the  answer  sought, 
the  second  or  middle  term.  Consider,  from  the  nature  of  the 
question,  whether  the  answer  should  be  more  or  less  than  this 
term  ; if  more,  make  the  smaller  oi  the  other  two  terms  the  first, 
and  the  greater  the  third;  if  the  answer  should  be  less  than 
the  middle  term,  make  the  greater  oi  the  two  terms  the  first, 
and  the  smaller  the  third ; then  multiply  the  second  and  third 
terms  together  and  divide  the  result  by  the  first  term.  The 
quotient  found  will  be  the  answer  to  the  question,  and  it  will 
be  found  to  bear  the  same  proportion  to  the  third  term  as  the 


second  does  to  the  first. 

Such  is  the  principle  of  working  Rule  of  Three  questions, 
whatever  be  their  apparent  complexity.  If  either  the  first  or 
third  term,  or  both,  include  fractional  parts,  they  must  be  re- 
duced to  the  denomination  of  the  fractions  before  working ; 
thus  if  one  be  reduced  to  shillings,  the  other  must  be  made 
shillings  also  ; if  to  pence,  both  must  be  pence,  and  so 


ARITHMETIC. 


227 


on.  If  the  middle  term  be  also  a compound  quantity,  it  may 
either  be  reduced  to  its  lowest  term,  before  multiplying  and 
dividing  by  the  other  terms,  or  you  may  multiply  and  divide 
by  Compound  Division  and  Multiplication. 


NTEREST  is  a sum  paid  for  the  use  of  money. 
The  Principal  is  the  sum  for  the  use  of  which 
Ml  interest  is  paid.  The  Rate  of  Interest  is  the 
per  cent.,  or  number  of  hundredths  of  the  prin- 
cipal,  paid  for  its  use  one  year.  The  Amount 
is  the  sum  of  the  principal  and  the  interest. 

Principle.  — The  interest  is  the  product  of  three 
factors , namely  : the  principal , rate  per  annum , and 
time. 

To  find  the  int.  on  $120.60  for  3 yr.  4 mo.  at  8$. 

Analysis. — Since  the 


OPERATION. 

$120.60:=  Principal. 

.08  = Rate  per  cent. 

$9.6480  = Int.  for  1 year. 

3^  = Time  in  years. 

$32.i6o  = Int.  for  3 yr.  4 mo. 


interest  of  any  sum  at  8 % 
for  1 yr.  is  .08  of  the 
principal,  the  interest  of 
$120.60  at  8$  for  1 yr.  is 
$9,648  ; and  the  interest 
for  3 yr.  4 mo.  is  3} 
times  $9,648,  or  $32.16. 


RULE. — I.  Multiply  the  principal  by  the  rate  per  cent.,  and 
the  produ.  t will  be  the  interest  for  1 year. 

II.  Multiply  the  interest  for  1 year  by  the  time  in  years  and 
the  fraction  of  a year,  and  the  product  will  be  the  required  in- 
terest. 

In  ordinary  business  transactions  involving  interest,  30  days 
are  considered  one  month,  and  12  months,  1 year. 

To  find  the  interest  of  $175  for  1 yr.  7 mo.  15  da.  at  7 %. 

Analysis. 
— First  multi- 
plying  the 
principal  by 
the  rate  %,  we 
have  $12.25, 
the  int.  for  1 
yr.  Then,  for 
6 mo.  take  | 
of  1 year’s  int., 
for  1 mo.  take 


OPERATION. 

$175  = Principal. 

.07  =Rate  per  cent. 

12.25  Int.  for  1 yr. 

6. 1 25  = Int.  for  6 mo. 
i.020  = Int.  for  1 mo. 
■5io  = Int.  for  15  da. 


$19,905  = Int.  for  1 yr.  7 mo.  15  da. 
$175  =Principal. 

$194,905  = Amt.  for  1 yr.  7 mo.  15  da. 


6 

int.,  and  for 
15  da.  take  £ 

of  1 month’s  int.  The  sum  of  the  several  results  is  the  int. 
for  the  whole  time. 

Adding  the  principal  to  the  interest  gives  the  amount. 


An  easy  and  uniform  method  of  computing  interest,  D. 
Fish’s  method,  is  to  place  the  principal,  the  rate,  and  the  time 
in  months,  on  the  right  of  a vertical  line,  and  12  on  the  left  ; 
or,  if  the  time  is  short  and  contains  days,  reduce  to  days,  and 
place  360  on  the  left.  After  canceling  equal  factors  on  both 
sides  of  the  line,  the  product  of  the  remaining  factors  on  the 
right,  divided  by  the  factor,  if  any,  on  the  left,  will  give  the 
required  interest. 

To  find  the  interest  of  $184.80  for  1 yr.  5 mo.  at  5#. 


OPERATION. 


(15.40 

$WJ0 

•°5 


n i7 


$13.09,  Arts. 


Analysis. — $184. Sox  .05  gives  the 
interest  for  1 yr  or  12  months,  which 
divided  by  12  gives  the  interest  for  1 
month  ; the  quotient  multiplied  by  17, 
the  number  of  months  in  1 yr.  5 mo., 
gives  $13.09,  the  interest  required. 


To  find  the  interest  of  $240  for  2 mo.  18  da.  at  7#. 


OPERATION. 


3300 

$240° 

.07 

3 

$10.92 

$3.64,  Ans. 

Analysis. — $240  x .07  gives  the  in- 
terest  for  1 year  or  360  days,  which 
divided  by  360  gives  the  interest  for  1 
day  ; the  quotient  multiplied  by  78, 
the  number  of  days  in  2 mo.  18  da., 
gives  $3.64,  the  required  interest. 


To  find  the  interest  of  $696  for  93  da.  at  \%  a month. 
Of  $325.20  at  a month  for  63  da. 


OPERATION.  OPERATION. 


$0  00  3 4 8 

$320.208 

.n 

.09 

*«$  00 

0a31 

^300 

63 

5 

$io7.88 

$5- io3? 

$21,576,  Ans. 


See  interest  tables  in  our  Lightning  Calculator. 

An  Aliquot  Part  or  Even  Part  of  a number  is  such  a 
part  as  will  exactly  divide  that  number.  Thus,  2,  2b,  3i,  and 
5,  are  aliquot  parts  of  10. 

An  aliquot  part  may  either  be  an  integer  or  a mixed  num- 
ber, while  a component  factor  must  be  an  integer. 


Aliquot  Parts 

5 cents  = Ail  of  $1 . 

10  cents  = At  of  $1. 

20  cents  =•  5 of  $1. 

25  cents  = { of  $1. 

50  cents  = ^ of  $1. 


of  One  Dollar. 

61  cents  = As  of  $1. 
8t  cents  = Aa  of  $i- 
12/  cents  = s of  $1. 
l6j  cents  = £ of  $1. 
33  j cents  = b of  $1 


ARITHMETICAL  AMUSEMENTS. 


TO  TELL  ANY  NUMBER  THOUGHT  OF. 


i ESI  RE  any  person  to  think  of  a number,  say  a 
certain  number  of  shillings  ; tell  him  to  borrow 
that  sum  of  some  one  in  the  company,  and  add 
the  number  borrowed  to  the  amount  thought 
of.  It  will  here  be  proper  to  name  the  person 
who  lends  him  the  shillings  and  to  beg  the  one  who 
makes  the  calculation  to  do  it  with  great  care,  as  he 
may  readily  fall  into  an  error,  especially  the  first  time. 
Then,  say  to  the  person — “I  do  not  lend  you,  but  give  you 
io,  add  them  to  the  former  sum.”  Continue  in  this  manner  • 
— “Give  the  half  to  the  poor,  and  retain  in  your  memory  the 
other  half.”  Then  add  : — “ Return  to  the  gentleman,  or  lady, 
what  you  borrowed,  and  remember  that  the  sum  lent  you  was 
exactly  equal  to  the  number  thought  of.”  Ask  the  person  if 
he  knows  exactly  what  remains.  He  will  answer  “ Yes.”  You 
must  then  say — “And  I know,  also,  the  number  that  remains  ; 
it  is  equal  to  what  I am  going  to  conceal  in  my  hand.”  Put 
into  one  of  your  hands  five  pieces  of  money,  and  desire  the 
person  to  tell  how  many  you  have  got.  lie  will  answer  five  ; 
upon  which  open  your  hand,  and  show  him  the  five  pieces. 
You  may  then  say — “ I well  knew  that  your  result  was  five  ; 
but  if  you  had  thought  of  a very  large  number,  for  example, 
two  or  three  millions,  the  result  would  have  been  much 
greater,  but  my  hand  would  not  have  held  a number  of  pieces 
equal  to  the  remainder.”  The  person  then  supposing  that  the 
result  of  the  calculation  must  be  different,  according  to  the 
difference  of  the  number  thought  of,  will  imagine  that  it  is 
necessary  to  know  the  last  number  in  order  to  guess  the  result : 
but  this  idea  is  false  ; for,  in  the  case  which  we  have  here  sup- 
posed, whatever  be  the  number  thought  of,  the  remainder 
must  always  be  five.  The  reason  of  this  is  as  follows  : — The 
sum,  the  half  of  which  is  given  to  the  poor,  is  nothing  else 
than  twice  the  number  thought  of,  plus  io ; and  when  the 
poor  have  received  their  part,  there  remains  only  the  number 
thought  of,  plus  5 ; but  the  number  thought  of  is  cut  off  when 
the  sum  borrowed  is  returned,  and,  consequently,  there  re- 
main only  5. 

It  may  be  hence  seen  that  the  result  may  be  easily  known, 
since  it  will  be  the  half  of  the  number  given  in  the  third  part 
of  the  operation ; for  example,  whatever  be  the  number 
thought  of,  the  remainder  will  be  36  or  25,  according  as  72  or 


50  have  been  given.  If  this  trick  be  performed  several  times 
successively,  the  number  given  in  the  third  part  of  the  operation 
must  be  always  different  ; for  if  the  result  were  several  times  the 
same,  the  deception  might  be  discovered.  When  the  first  five 
parts  of  the  calculation  for  obtaining  a result  are  finished,  it 
will  be  best  not  to  name  it  at  first,  but  to  continue  the  opera- 
tion, to  render  it  more  complex,  by  saying,  for  example  : — 
“ Double  the  remainder,  deduct  2,  add  3,  take  the  fourth 
part,”  etc.  ; and  the  different  steps  of  the  calculation  may  be 
kept  in  mind,  in  order  to  know  how  much  the  first  result  has 
been  increased  or  diminished.  This  irregular  process  never 
fails  to  confound  those  who  attempt  to  follow  it. 

A Second  Method. — Bid  the  person  take  1 from  the  number 
thought  of,  and  then  double  the  remainder  ; desire  him  to  take 
I from  the  double,  and  to  add  to  it  the  number  thought  of  ; in 
the  last  place,  ask  him  the  number  arising  from  this  addition, 
and,  if  you  add  3 to  it,  the  third  of  the  sum  will  be  the  num- 
ber thought  of.  The  application  of  this  rule  is  so  easy,  that  it 
is  needless  to  illustrate  it  by  an  example. 

A Third  Method. — Desire  the  person  to  add  1 to  the  triple 
of  the  number  thought  of,  and  to  multiply  the  sum  by  3 ; then 
bid  him  add  to  this  product  the  number  thought  of.  and  the 
result  will  be  a sum,  from  which,  if  3 be  subtracted,  the  re- 
mainder will  be  ten  times  the  number  required  ; and  if  the 
cipher  on  the  right  be  cut  off  from  the  remainder,  the  other 
figure  will  indicate  the  number  sought. 

Example  : — Let  the  number  thought  of  be  6,  the  triple  of 
which  is  iS  ; and  if  1 be  added,  it  makes  19  ; the  triple  of  this 
last  number  is  57,  and  if  6 be  added,  it  makes  63,  from  which, 
if  3 be  subtracted,  the  remainder  will  be  60 ; now,  if  the 
cipher  on  the  right  be  cut  off,  the  remaining  figure,  6,  will  be 
the  number  required. 

A Fourth  Method. — Bid  the  person  multiply  the  number 
thought  of  by  itself ; then  desire  him  to  add  1 to  the  number 
thought  of,  and  to  multiply  it  also  by  itself ; in  the  last  place, 
ask  him  to  tell  the  difference  of  these  two  products,  which  will 
certainly  be  an  odd  number,  and  the  least  half  of  it  will  be 
the  number  required.  Let  the  number  thought  of,  for  exam- 
ple, be  10,  which,  multiplied  by  itself,  give  100  ; in  the  next 
place,  10  increased  by  1 is  it,  which,  multiplied  by  itself, 
makes  121  ; and  the  difference  of  these  two  squares  is  21,  the 
least  half  of  which,  being  10,  is  the  number  thought  of.  This 
operation  might  be  varied  by  desiring  the  person  to  multiply 
the  second  number  by  itself,  after  it  has  been  diminished  by  1. 


ARITHMETICAL  AMUSEMENTS. 


229 


jfK- 

1 


In  this  case,  the  number  thought  of  will  be  equal  to  the 
greater  half  of  the  difference  of  the  two  squares.  Thus,  in  the 
preceding  example,  the  square  of  the  number  thought  of  is 
100,  and  that  of  the  same  number  less  1,  is  81  ; the  difference 
of  these  is  19  ; the  greater  half  of  which,  or  10,  is  the  number 
thought  of. 

TO  TELL  TWO  OR  MORE  NUMBERS 
THOUGHT  OF. 

If  one  or  more  of  the  numbers  thought  of  be  greater  than 
9,  we  must  distinguish  two  cases  ; that  in  which  the  number 
or  the  numbers  thought  of  is  odd,  and  that  in  which  it  is  even. 

In  the  first  case,  ask  the  sum  of  the  first  and  second,  of  the 
second  and  third,  the  third  and  fourth,  and  so  on  to  the  last, 
and  then  the  sum  of  the  first  and  the  last.  Having  written 
down  all  these  sums  in  order,  add  together  all  those,  the 
places  of  which  are  odd,  as  the  first,  the  third,  the  fifth,  etc. ; 
make  another  sum  of  all  those,  the  places  of  which  are  even, 
as  the  second,  the  fourth,  the  sixth,  etc.,  subtract  this  sum 
from  the  former,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  double  of  the 
first  number.  Let  us  suppose,  for  example,  that  the  five  fol- 
lowing numbers  are  thought  of,  3,  7,  13,  17,  20,  which,  when 
added  two  and  two  as  above,  give  10,  20,  30,  37,  23  : the  sum 
of  the  first,  third,  and  fifth,  is  63,  and  that  of  the  second  and 
fourth  is  57;  if  57  be  subtracted  from  63,  the  remainder,  6, 
will  be  the  double  of  the  first  number,  3,  Now,  if  3 be  taken 
from  10,  the  first  of  the  sums,  the  remainder,  7,  will  be  the 
second  number,  and  by  proceeding  in  this  manner  we  may 
find  all  the  rest. 

In  the  second  case,  that  is  to  say,  if  the  number  or  the 
numbers  thought  of  be  even,  you  must  ask  and  write  down, 
as  above,  the  sum  of  the  first  and  the  second,  that  of  the 
second  and  third,  and  so  on,  as  before  ; but,  instead  of  the 
sum  of  the  first  and  last,  you  must  take  that  of  the  second  and 
last ; then  add  together  those  which  stand  in  the  even  places, 
and  form  them  into  a new  sum  apart  ; add  also  those  in  the 
odd  places,  the  first  excepted,  and  subtract  this  sum  from  the 
former,  the  remainder  will  be  the  double  of  the  second  num- 
ber ; and  if  the  second  number,  thus  found,  be  subtracted 
from  the  sum  of  the  first  and  second,  you  will  have  the  first 
number ; if  it  be  taken  from  that  of  the  second  and  third,  it 
will  give  the  third  ; and  so  of  the  rest.  Let  the  numbers 
thought  of  be,  for  example,  3,  7,  13,  17  ; the  sums  formed  as 
above  are  10,  20,  30,  24,  the  sum  of  the  second  and  fourth  is 
44,  from  which,  if  30,  the  third,  be  subtracted,  the  remainder 
will  be  14,  the  double  of  7,  the  second  number.  The  first, 
therefore,  is  3,  the  third  13,  and  the  fourth  17. 

When  each  of  the  numbers  thought  of  does  not  exceed  9, 
they  may  be  easily  found  in  the  following  manner  : — 

Having  made  the  person  add  1 to  the  double  of  the  first 
number  thought  of,  desire  him  to  multiply  the  whole  by  5, 
and  to  add  to  the  product  the  second  number.  If  there  be  a 
third,  make  him  double  this  first  sum,  and  add  1 to  it ; after 
which,  desire  him  to  multiply  the  new  sum  by  5,  and  to  add  to 
it  the  third  number.  If  there  be  a fourth,  proceed  in  the 
same  manner,  desiring  him  to  double  the  preceding  sum,  to 
add  to  it  1.  to  multiply  by  5,  to  add  the  fourth  number,  and 
so  on. 


Then  ask  the  number  arising  from  the  addition  of  the  last 
number  thought  of,  and  if  there  were  two  numbers,  subtract 
5 from  it  ; if  there  were  three,  55  ; if  there  were  four,  555  ; 
and  so  on,  for  the  remainder  will  be  composed  of  figures,  of 
which  the  first  on  the  left  will  be  the  first  number  thought  of, 
the  next  the  second,  and  so  on. 

Suppose  the  number  thought  of  to  be  3,  4,  6 ; by  adding  1 
to  6,  the  double  of  the  first,  we  shall  have  7,  which,  being  mul- 
tiplied by  5,  will  give  35  ; if  4,  the  second  number  thought  of, 
be  then  added,  we  shall  have  39,  which,  doubled,  gives  78  ; 
and,  if  we  add  1,  and  multiply  79,  the  sum,  by  5,  the  result 
will  be  395.  In  the  last  place,  if  we  add  6,  the  number 
thought  of,  the  sum  will  be  401  ; and  if  55  be  deducted  from 
it,  we  shall  have,  for  remainder,  346,  the  figures  of  which,  3, 
4,  6,  indicate  in  order  the  three  numbers  thought  of. 

THE  MONEY  GAME. 

A person  having  in  one  hand  a piece  of  gold,  and  in  the 
other  a piece  of  silver,  you  may  tell  in  which  hand  he  has  the 
gold,  and  in  which  the  silver,  by  the  following  method  : — Some 
value,  represented  by  an  even  number,  such  as  8,  must  be  as- 
signed to  the  gold  ; and  a value  represented  by  an  odd  num- 
ber, such  as  3,  must  be  assigned  to  the  silver ; after  which, 
desire  the  person  to  multiply  the  number  in  the  right  hand,  by 
any  even  number  whatever,  such  as  2 ; and  that  in  the  left  hand 
by  an  odd  number,  as  3 ; then  bid  him  add  together  the  two 
products,  and  if  the  whole  sum  be  odd,  the  gold  will  be  in  the 
right  hand,  and  the  silver  in  the  left  : if  the  sum  be  even,  the 
contrary  will  be  the  case. 

To  conceal  the  artifice  better,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  ask 
whether  the  sum  of  the  two  products  can  be  halved  without  a 
remainder  ; for  in  that  case  the  total  will  be  even,  and  in  the 
contrary  case  odd. 

It  may  be  readily  seen,  that  the  pieces,  instead  of  being  in 
the  two  hands  of  the  same  person,  may  be  supposed  to  be  in 
the  hands  of  two  persons,  one  of  whom  has  the  even  number, 
or  piece  of  gold,  and  the  other  the  odd  number,  or  piece  of 
silver.  The  same  operations  may  then  be  performed  in  regard 
to  these  two  persons,  as  are  performed  in  regard  to  the  two 
hands  of  the  same  persons,  calling  the  one  privately  the  right, 
and  the  other  the  left. 

THE  GAME  OF  THE  RING. 

This  game  is  an  application  of  one  of  the  methods  employed 
to  tell  several  numbers  thought  of,  and  ought  to  be  performed 
in  a company  not  exceeding  nine,  in  order  that  it  may  be  less 
complex.  Desire  any  one  of  the  company  to  take  a ring,  and 
put  it  on  any  joint  of  whatever  finger  he  may  think  proper. 
The  question  then  is,  to  tell  what  person  has  the  ring,  and  on 
what  hand,  what  finger,  and  on  what  joint. 

For  this  purpose,  you  must  call  the  first  person  1,  the 
second  2,  the  third  3,  and  so  on.  You  must  also  denote  the  ten 
fingers  of  the  two  hands  by  the  following  numbers  of  the  natural 
progression,  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  etc.,  beginning  at  the  thumb  of  the 
right  hand,  and  ending  at  that  of  the  left,  that  this  order  of 
the  number  of  the  finger  may,  at  the  same  time,  indicate  the 
hand.  In  the  last  place,  the  joints  must  be  denoted  by  1,  2 
3,  beginning  at  the  points  of  the  fingers. 


7 


2 JO 


ARITHMETICAL  AMUSEMENTS. 


To  render  the  solution  of  this  problem  more  explicit,  let  us 
suppose  that  the  fourth  person  in  the  company  has  the  ring  on 
the  sixth  finger,  that  is  to  say,  on  the  little  finger  of  the  left 
hand,  and  on  the  second  joint  of  that  finger. 

Desire  some  one  to  double  the  number  expressing  the  per- 
son, which,  in  this  case,  will  give  8 ; bid  him  add  6 to  this 
double,  and  multiply  the  sum  by  5,  which  will  make  65  ; then 
tell  him  to  add  to  this  product  the  number  denoting  the  finger, 
that  is  to  say  6,  by  which  means  you  will  have  71  ; and,  in  the 
last  place,  desire  him  to  multiply  the  last  number  by  10,  and  to 
add  to  the  product  the  number  of  the  joint,  2 ; the  last  result 
will  be  712  ; if  from  this  number  you  deduct  250,  the  remain- 
der will  be  462  ; the  first  figure  of  which,  on  the  left,  will 
denote  the  person  ; the  next,  the  finger,  and,  consequently, 
the  hand  ; and  the  last,  the  joint. 

It  must  here  be  observed,  that  when  the  last  result  contains 
a cipher,  which  would  have  happened  in  the  present  example 
had  the  number  of  the  figure  been  10,  you  must  privately  sub- 
tract from  the  figure  preceding  the  cipher,  and  assign  the 
value  of  10  to  the  cipher  itself. 

THE  GAME  OF  THE  BAG. 

To  let  a person  select  several  numbers  out  of  a bag,  and  to 
tell  him  the  number  which  shall  exactly  divide  the  sum  of 
those  he  had  chosen  : — Provide  a small  bag,  divided  into  two 
parts,  into  one  of  which  put  several  tickets,  numbered  6,  9, 
15.  36.  63,  I2°>  2I3>  3°9>  etc.,  and  *n  the  other  part  put  as 
many  other  tickets,  marked  No.  3 only.  Draw  a handful  of 
tickets  from  the  first  part,  and  after  showing  them  to  the  com- 
pany, put  them  into  the  bag  again,  and  having  opened  it  a second 
time,  desire  any  one  to  take  out  as  many  tickets  as  he  thinks 
proper ; when  he  has  done  that,  you  open  privately  the  other 
part  of  the  bag,  and  tell  him  to  take  out  of  it  one  ticket  only. 
You  may  safely  pronounce  that  the  ticket  shall  contain  the 
number  by  which  the  amount  of  the  other  numbers  is  divisi- 
ble ; for,  as  each  of  these  numbers  can  be  multiplied  by  3, 
their  sum  total  must,  evidently,  be  divisible  by  that  number. 
An  ingenious  mind  may  easily  diversify  this  exercise,  by  mark- 
ing the  tickets  in  one  part  of  the  bag  with  any  numbers  that 
are  divisible  by  9 only,  the  properties  of  both  9 and  3 being 
the  same  ; and  it  should  never  be  exhibited  to  the  same  com- 
pany twice  without  being  varied. 

THE  CERTAIN  GAME. 

Two  persons  agree  to  take,  alternately,  numbers  less  than 
a given  number,  for  example,  II,  and  to  add  them  together 
till  one  of  them  has  reached  a certain  sum,  such  as  100.  By 
what  means  can  one  of  them  infallibly  attain  to  that  number 
before  the  other? 

The  whole  artifice  in  this  consists  in  immediately  making 
choice  of  the  numbers  1,  12,  23,  34,  and  so  on,  or  of  a series 
which  continually  increases  by  11,  up  to  100.  Let  us  suppose 
that  the  first  person,  who  knows  the  game,  makes  choice  of  1 ; 
it  is  evident  that  his  adversary,  as  he  must  count  less  than  II, 
can  at  most  reach  II,  by  adding  10  to  it.  The  first  will  then 
take  1,  which  will  make  12  ; and  whatever  number  the  second 
may  add,  the  first  will  certainly  win,  provided  he  continually 


add  the  number  which  forms  the  complement  of  that  of  his 
adversary  to  11  ; that  is  to  say,  if  the  latter  take  8,  he  must 
take  3 : if  9,  he  must  take  2 ; and  so  on.  By  following  this 
method  he  will  infallibly  attain  to  89 : and  it  will  then  be  im- 
possible for  the  second  to  prevent  him  from  getting  first  to 
100  ; for  whatever  number  the  second  takes  he  can  attain  only 
to  99;  after  which  the  first  may  say — “and  1 makes  100.’ 
If  the  second  take  1 after  89,  it  would  make  90,  and  his  ad- 
versary would  finish  by  saying — “ and  10  make  100.”  Between 
two  persons  who  are  equally  acquainted  with  the  game,  he 
who  begins  must  necessarily  win. 

If  your  opponent  have  no  knowledge  of  numbers,  you  may 
take  any  other  number  first,  under  10,  provided  you  subse- 
quently take  care  to  secure  one  of  the  last  terms,  56,  67,  78, 
etc.,  or  you  may  even  let  him  begin,  if  you  take  care  after- 
ward to  secure  one  of  these  numbers. 

This  exercise  may  be  performed  with  other  numbers  ; but, 
in  order  to  succeed,  you  must  divide  the  number  to  be  attained 
by  a number  which  is  a unit  greater  than  what  you  can  take 
each  time,  and  the  remainder  will  then  be  the  number  you  must 
first  take.  Suppose,  for  example,  the  number  to  be  attained 
be  52,  and  that  you  are  never  to  add  more  than  6 ; then,  di- 
viding 52  by  7,  the  remainder,  which  is  3,  will  be  the  number 
which  you  must  first  take  ; and  whenever  your  opponent  adds 
a number  you  must  add  as  much  to  it  as  will  make  it  equal 
to  7,  the  number  by  which  you  divided,  and  so  in  continua- 
tion. 

ODD  OR  EVEN. 

Every  odd  number  multiplied  by  an  odd  number  produces 
an  odd  number  ; every  odd  number  multiplied  by  an  even 
number  produces  an  even  number  ; and  every  even  number 
multiplied  by  an  even  number  also  produces  an  even  number. 
So,  again,  an  even  number  added  to  an  even  number,  and  an 
odd  number  added  to  an  odd  number,  produce  an  even  num- 
ber ; while  an  odd  and  even  number  added  together  produce 
an  odd  number. 

If  any  one  holds  an  odd  number  of  counters  in  one  hand, 
and  an  even  number  in  the  other,  it  is  not  difficult  t®  discover 
in  which  hand  the  odd  or  even  number  is.  Desire  the  party 
to  multiply  the  number  in  the  right  hand  by  an  even  number, 
and  that  in  the  left  hand  by  an  odd  number,  then  to  add  the 
two  sums  together,  and  tell  you  the  last  figure  of  the  product ; 
if  it  is  even,  the  odd  number  will  be  in  the  right  hand  ; and 
if  odd,  in  the  left  hand  ; thus,  supposing  there  are  5 counters 
in  the  right  hand,  and  4 in  the  left  hand,  multiply  5 by  2,  and 
4 by  3,  thus  : — 5 x 2 = 10,  4 x 3 = 12,  and  then  adding  10 
to  12,  you  have  10  + 12  = 22,  the  last  figure  of  which,  2,  is 
even,  and  the  odd  number  will  consequently  be  in  the  right 
hand. 

PROPERTIES  OF  CERTAIN  NUMBERS. 

Ok  Odd  Numbers. — All  the  odd  numbers  above  3,  that  can 
only  be  divided  by  I,  can  be  divided  by  6,  by  the  addition  or 
subtraction  of  a unit.  For  instance,  13  can  only  be  divided 
by  I ; but  after  deducting  I,  the  remainder  can  be  divided 
by  6 ; for  example,  5+1  = 6;  7 — 1=6;  17+1==  18; 
19  — 1 = 18  ; 25  — 1 = 24,  and  so  on. 


ARITHMETICAL  AMUSEMENTS. 


23J 


OF  Number.  Three. — Select  any  two  numbers  you  please, 
and  you  will  find  that  either  one  of  the  two,  or  their  amount 
when  added  together,  or  their  difference,  is  always  3,  or  a 
number  divisible  by  3.  Thus,  if  the  numbers  are  3 and  8,  the 
first  number  is  3 ; let  the  numbers  be  1 and  2,  their  sum  is  3 ; 
let  them  be  4 and  7,  the  difference  is  3.  Again,  15  and  22, 
the  first  number  is  divisible  by  3 ; 17  and  26,  their  difference 
is  divisible  by  3,  etc. 

Of  Number  Five. — If  you  multiply  5 by  itself,  and  the 
quotient  again  by  itself,  and  the  second  quotient  by  itself,  the 
last  figure  of  each  quotient  will  always  be  5.  Thus,  5x5  = 
25  ; 25  x 25  = 625  ; 125  x 125  = 15,625,  etc.  Again,  if  you 
proceed  in  the  same  manner  with  the  figure  6,  the  last  figure 
will  constantly  be  6. 

To  divide  any  number  by  5,  or  any  multiplicand  of  that 
number,  by  means  of  simple  addition  ; — To  divide  by  5,  dou- 
ble the  number  given,  and  mark  off  the  last  figure,  which  will 
represent  tenths.  Thus,  to  divide  261  by  5 : — 261  + 261  = 
522,  or  5 22-ioths.  Again,  to  divide  the  same  number  by  25, 
you  must  take  four  times  the  number  to  be  divided,  and  mark 
off  the  last  two  figures,  which  will  be  hundredths,  thus,  261  + 
261  + 261  + 261  = 1044,  or  10  44-iooths. 

Of  Number  Nine. — The  following  remarkable  properties 
of  the  number  9 are  not  generally  known  : — Thus,  9 x 1=9; 
9x2  = 18,  1 + 8 = 959x3  = 27,  2+7  = 9,  9x4  - 36, 
3 + 6=9:  9x5  = 45,  4+5=919x6  = 54,  5+4  = 9; 
gx  7 = 63,  6 + 3 = 9;  9x8  = 72,  7 + 2 = 9;  9x9  = 81, 
8 + 1=9. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  that — 1.  The  component  figures 
of  the  product  made  by  the  multiplication  of  every  digit  into 
the  number  9,  when  added  together,  make  NINE.  2.  The  or- 
der of  these  component  figures  is  reversed,  after  the  said  num- 
ber has  been  multiplied  by  5.  3.  The  component  figures  of 

the  amount  of  . the  multipliers  (viz.  45),  when  added  together, 
make  NINE.  4.  The  amount  of  the  several  products,  or  mul- 
tiples of  9 (viz.  405),  when  divided  by  9,  gives,  for  a quotient, 
•45  ; that  is,  4 + 5 = nine. 

It  is  also  observable,  that  the  number  of  changes  that  may 
be  rung  on  nine  bells  is  362,880;  which  figures,  added  to- 
gether, make  27  ; that  is,  2 + 7 = nine. 

And  the  quotient  of  362,880,  divided  by  9,  will  be  40,320  ; 
that  is,  4 + 04-3+2  + 0 = nine. 

To  add  a figure  to  any  given  number , which  shall  render  it 
divisible  by  Nine  : — Add  the  figures  together  in  your  mind, 
which  compose  the  number  named  ; and  the  figure  which  must 
be  added  to  the  sum  produced,  in  order  to  render  it  divisible 
by  9,  is  the  one  required.  Thus,  suppose  the  given  number 
to  be  7521  : — 

Add  those  together,  and  15  will  be  produced;  now  15  re- 
quires 3 to  render  it  divisible  by  9 ; and  that  number  3,  being 
added  to  7521,  causes  the  same  divisibility  : — 

7521 

3 


9)7524(836 

This  exercise  may  be  diversified  by  your  specifying,  before 
I the  sum  is  named,  the  particular  place  where  the  figure  shall 


be  inserted,  to  make  the  number  divisible  by  9 ; for  it  is  ex^ 
actly  the  same  thing  whether  the  figure  be  put  at  the  head  of 
the  number,  or  between  any  two  of  its  digits. 

To  multiply  by  Nine  by  Simple  Subtraction. — Supposing  you 
wish  to  multiply  67583  by  9,  add  a cipher  to  the  end  of  the 
sum,  then  place  the  sum  to  be  divided  underneath  the  amount, 
and  subtract  it  from  the  same  ; the  quotient  will  be  the  pro- 
duct of  67583  multiplied  by  9 ; thus  : — 

675830 

67583 


608247 

Number  Nine  and  Eighteen. — If  any  two  of  the  following 
sums,  36,  63,  81,  117,  126,  162,  207,  216,  252,  261,  306,  315, 
360,  432,  are  added  together,  the  figures  in  the  quotient,  when 
cast  up,  will  make  either  9 or  18.  For  instance,  216  + 252  = 
468,  and  4 + 6 + 8 = 18  ; or,  63  + 81  = 144,  and  1 + 4 + 
4 = 9. 

THE  UNITED  DIGITS. 

The  figures  I to  9 may  be  placed  in  such  order  that  the 
whole  added  together  make  exactly  100.  Thus — 

15 

36 

47 

98 

2 

100 

The  secret  is  to  arrange  the  figures  1,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  in  such 
a manner  that,  added  together,  they  make  98,  when  by  add- 
ing 2 you  get  the  whole  nine  digits  into  the  calculation. 

TO  DISCOVER  A SQUARE  NUMBER. 

A square  number  is  a number  produced  by  the  multiplica, 
tion  of  any  number  into  itself  ; thus,  4 multiplied  by  4 is 
equal  to  16,  and  16  is  consequently  a square  number,  4 being 
the  square  root  from  which  it  springs.  The  extraction  of  the 
square  root  of  any  number  takes  some  time  ; and  after  all 
your  labor  you  may  perhaps  find  that  the  number  is  not  a 
square  number.  To  save  this  trouble,  it  is  worth  knowing 
that  every  square  number  ends  either  with  a 1,  4,  5,  6,  or  9,  01 
with  two  ciphers,  preceded  by  one  of  these  numbers. 

Another  property  of  a square  number  is,  that  if  it  be  divided 
by  4,  the  remainder,  if  any,  will  be  1 — thus,  the  square  of  5 is 
25,  and  25  divided  by  4 leaves  a remainder  of  1 ; and  again 
16,  being  a square  number,  can  be  divided  by  4 without  leav- 
ing a remainder. 

A MAGIC  SQUARE. 

The  following  arrangement  of  figures,  from  1 to  36,  in 
the  form  of  a square,  will  amount  to  the  same  sum  if  the 
numbers  are  cast  up  perpendicularly,  horizontally,  or  from 


ARITHMETICAL  AMUSEMENTS. 


332 


comer  to  corner,  the  result  in  every  direction  being 

ill  : — 


29 

12 

28 

9 

7 

26 

32 

31 

3 

4 

36 

5 

23 

18 

15 

l6 

19 

20 

14 

24 

21 

22 

13 

17 

2 

I 

34 

33 

6 

35 

II 

25 

IO 

27 

30 

8 

TO  WEIGH  FROM  ONE  TO  FORTY  POUNDS 
WITH  FOUR  WEIGHTS. 

To  weigh  any  weight  from  1 to  40  pounds  by  the  use  of 
four  weights  only,  the  weights  must  be  respectively  1,  3,  9, 
and  27  pounds  each.  Thus,  2 pounds  may  be  weighed  by 
placing  3 pounds  in  one  scale  and  1 in  the  other  ; 5 pounds, 
by  placing  1 and  3 in  one  scale  and  9 pounds  in  the  opposite, 
and  so  on. 


THE  CANCELLED  FIGURE  GUESSED. 

To  tell  the  figure  a person  has  struck  out  of  the  sum  of  two 
given  numbers  : — Arbitrarily  command  those  numbers  only 
that  are  divisible  by  9 ; such,  for  instance,  as  36,  63,  81,  117, 
126,  162,  261,  360,  315,  and  432. 

Then  let  a person  choose  any  two  of  these  numbers ; and, 
after  adding  them  together  in  his  mind,  strike  out  from  the 
sum  any  one  of  the  figures  he  pleases. 

After  he  has  so  done,  desire  him  to  tell  you  the  sum  of  the 
remaining  figures  ; and  it  follows,  that  the  number  which  you 
are  obliged  to  add  to  this  amount,  in  order  to  make  it  9 or  18, 
is  the  one  he  struck  out.  Thus — 

Suppose  he  chooses  the  numbers  162  and  261,  making  alto- 
gether 423,  and  that  he  strikes  out  the  centre  figure,  the  two 
other  figures  will,  added  together,  make  7,  which,  to  make  9. 
requires  2,  the  number  struck  out. 


THE  DICE  GUESSED  UNSEEN. 


A pair  of  dice  being  thrown,  to  find  the  number  of  points 
on  each  die  without  seeing  them  : — Tell  the  person  who  cast 
the  dice  to  double  the  number  of  points  upon  one  of  them, 
and  add  5 to  it  ; then  to  multiply  the  sum  produced  by  5,  and 
to  add  to  the  product  the  number  of  points  upon  the  other 
die.  This  being  done,  desire  him  to  tell  you  the  amount,  and, 
having  thrown  out  25,  the  remainder  will  be  a number  con- 
sisting of  two  figures,  the  first  of  which,  to  the  left,  is  the 
number  of  points  on  the  first  die,  and  the  second  figure,  to 
the  right,  the  number  on  the  other.  Thus — 

Suppose  the  number  of  points  on  the  first  die  which  comes 
up  to  be  2,  and  that  of  the  other  3 ; then,  if  to  4,  the  dou- 
ble of  the  points  of  the  first,  there  be  added  5,  and  the  sum 


produced,  9,  be  multiplied  by  5,  the  product  will  be  45  ; to 
which,  if  3,  the  number  of  points  on  the  other  die,  be  added, 
48  will  be  produced,  from  which,  if  25  be  subtracted,  23  will 
remain  ; the  first  figure  of  which  is  2,  the  number  of  points 
on  the  first  die,  and  the  second  figure  3,  the  number  on  the 
other. 

THE  SOVEREIGN  AND  THE  SAGE. 

A sovereign  being  desirous  to  confer  a liberal  reward  on 
one  of  his  courtiers,  who  had  performed  srme  very  important 
service,  desired  him  to  ask  whatever  he  thought  proper,  assur- 
ing him  it  should  be  granted.  The  courtier,  who  was  well 
acquainted  with  the  science  of  numbers,  only  requested  that 
the  monarch  would  give  him  a quantity  of  wheat  equal  to  that 
which  would  arise  from  one  grain  doubled  sixty-three  times 
successively.  The  value  of  the  reward  was  iritmense  ; for  it  will 
be  found  that  the  sixty-fourth  term  of  the  double  progression 
divided  by  1,  2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  etc.,  is  9,223,372,036,854,775,808. 
But  the  sum  of  all  the  terms  of  a double  progression,  begin- 
ning with  I,  may  be  obtained  by  doubling  the  last  term,  and 
subtracting  from  it  I.  The  number  of  the  grains  of  wheat, 
therefore,  in  the  present  case,  will  be  18,446,744,073,709,551,- 
615.  Now,  if  a pint  contain  9216  grains  of  wheat,  a gallon 
will  contain  73,728  ; and,  as  eight  gallons  make  one  bushel, 
if  we  divide  the  above  result  by  eight  times  73,728  we  shall 
have  31,274,997,411,295  for  the  number  of  the  bushels  of 
wheat  equal  to  the  above  number  of  grains,  a quantity  greater 
than  what  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth  could  produce  in 
several  years,  and  which,  in  value,"  would  exceed  all  the 
riches,  perhaps,  on  the  globe. 

0 

THE  HORSE-DEALER’S  BARGAIN. 

A gentleman  taking  a fancy  to  a horse,  which  a horse- 
dealer  wished  to  dispose  of  at  as  high  a price  as  he  could,  the 
latter,  to  induce  the  gentleman  to  become  a purchaser,  offered 
to  let  him  have  the  horse  for  the  value  of  the  twenty-fourth 
nail  in  his  shoes,  reckoning  one  cent  for  the  first  nail,  two 
for  the  second,  four  for  the  third,  and  so  on  to  the  twenty- 
fourth.  The  gentleman,  thinking  he  should  have  a good  bar- 
gain, accepted  the  offer ; how  mistaken  he  was  the  result  will 
show. 

By  calculating  as  before,  the  twenty-fourth  term  of  the  pro- 
gression, 1,  2,  4,  8,  etc.,  will  be  found  to  be  8,388,608,  equal 
to  the  number  of  cents  the  purchaser  gave  for  the  horse  ; the 
price,  therefore,  amounted  to  $83,886.08. 

THE  DINNER  PARTY. 

A club  of  seven  persons  agreed  to  dine  together  every  day 
successively,  so  long  as  they  could  sit  down  to  table  differ- 
ently arranged.  How  many  dinners  would  be  necessary  for 
that  purpose?  It  may  be  easily  found,  by  the  rules  of  simple 
progression,  that  the  club  must  dine  together  5,040  times  be- 
fore they  would  exhaust  all  the  arrangements  possible,  which 
would  require  above  thirteen  years. 

THE  BASKET  AND  STONES. 

If  a hundred  stenes  be  placed  in  a straight  line,  at  the  dis. 
tance  of  a yard  from  each  other,  the  first  being  at  the  same  dis- 


ARITHMETICAL  AMUSEMENTS. 


23j 


tance  from  a basket,  how  many  yards  must  the  person  walk  who 
engages  to  pick  them  up,  one  by  one,  and  put  them  into  the 
basket  ? It  is  evident  that,  to  pick  up  the  first  stone  and  put 
it  into  a basket,  the  person  must  walk  two  yards  ; for  the  sec- 
ond, he  must  walk  four  ; for  the  third,  six ; and  so  on,  in- 
creasing by  two  to  the  hundredth. 

The  number  of  yards,  therefore,  which  the  person  must 
walk  will  be  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  progression,  2,  4,  6,  etc., 
the  last  term  of  which  is  200  (22).  But  the  sum  of  the  pro- 
gression is  equal  to  202,  the  sum  of  the  two  extremes,  multi- 
plied by  50,  or  half  the  number  of  terms  ; that  is  to  say, 
10,100  yards,  which  makes  more  than  5^  miles. 

THE  CAN  OF  ALE. 

How  to  divide  8 gallons  of  ale  contained  in  an  8-gallon  can 
into  two  equal  parts,  having  only  two  empty  bottles  to  effect 
it  with,  one  containing  5 gallons  and  the  other  3.  First,  fill 
the  5-gallon  bottle,  and  you  will  have  3 remaining  in  the  8-gal- 
lon can  ; fill  the  3-gallon  bottle  from  the  5-gallon,  which  will 
then  contain  only  2 gallons  ; pour  the  3 gallons  in  the  3-gallon 
bottle  into  that  which  holds  8 gallons,  which  will  then  contain 
6 gallons  ; then  pour  the  2 gallons  out  of  the  5-gallon  bottle 
into  the  3-gallon  bottle,  and  filling  the  5-gallon  bottle  from 
the  8-gallon  can,  which  at  present  contains  6 gallons,  you  will 
have  I gallon  in  the  can,  5 in  the  largest  bottle,  and  2 in  the 
smallest  ; by  filling  up  the  3-gallon  can  from  the  5-gallon, 
you  leave  4 gallons,  or  one-half  the  8 gallons,  in  the  largest 
bottle  ; and,  lastly,  pouring  the  contents  of  the  3-gallon  bottle 
into  the  8-gallon  can,  which  contains  I gallon,  you  have  the 
second  half,  or  4 gallons. 

COUNTING  A BILLION. 

What  is  a billion  ? The  reply  is  very  simple — a million 
times  a million.  This  is  quickly  written,  and  more  quickly 
still  pronounced.  But  no  man  is  able  to  count  it.  You  can 
count  160  or  170  a minute  ; but  let  us  even  suppose  that  you 
go  as  far  as  200  in  a minute,  then  an  hour  will  produce  12,000  ; 
a day,  2S8,ooo  ; and  a year,  or  365  days  (for  every  four  years 
you  may  rest  from  counting,  during  leap  year),  105,120,000. 
Let  us  suppose,  now,  that  Adam,  at  the  beginning  of  his  ex- 
istence, had  begun  to  count,  had  continued  to  do  so,  and  was 
counting  still,  he  would  not,  even  now,  according  to  the 
usually  supposed  age  of  our  globe,  have  counted  nearly 
enough.  For,  to  count  a billion,  he  would  require  9512  years, 


34  days,  5 hours,  and  20  minutes,  according  to  the  above 
rule. 

THE  NUMBER  SEVENTY-THREE. 

If  number  73  be  multiplied  by  any  of  the  progressive  num- 
bers arising  from  the  multiplication  of  3 with  any  of  the  units, 
the  result  will  be  as  follows  : — 

73  x 3 = 219 
73  x 6 = 438 
73  x 9=  657 
73  x 12  = 876 
73  x 15  = 1095 
73  x 18  = 1314 
73  x 21  = 1533 
73  x 24  = 1752 
73  x 27  = 1971 

On  inspecting  these  amounts  it  will  be  seen  that  the  last 
figures  run  thus — 9,  8,  7,  6,  5,  4,  3,  2,  1.  Again,  if  we  refer 
to  the  sums  produced  by  the  multiplication  of  73  by  3,  6,  9 
12,  and  15,  it  will  be  found  that  by  reading  the  two  figures  to 
the  left  of  each  amount  backwards,  it  will  give  I,  2,  3,  4,  5, 
6,  7,  8,  9,  o. 

CURIOUS  CALCULATION. 

If  a pin  were  dropped  into  the  hold  of  the  Great  Eastern 
steamship,  and  on  that  day  week  a second  pin,  and  on  that 
day  week  four  pins,  and  so  on,  doubling  the  number  of  pins 
each  week  for  a year,  there  would,  by  the  end  of  the  52  weeks, 
be  deposited  no  fewer  than  4,503,599,627,370,495  pins.  Al- 
lowing 200  to  the  ounce,  the  weight  of  the  whole  would  be 
628,292,35810ns;  and  to  carry  them  all  would  require  27,924 
ships  as  large  as  the  Great  Eastern,  which  is  calculated  to  hold 
22,500  tons. 

ARITHMETICAL  PROGRESSION. 

If  you  could  buy  a hundred  ships,  giving  a farthing  for  the 
first,  a halfpenny  for  the  second,  a penny  for  the  third,  two- 
pence for  the  fourth,  and  so  on  to  the  last,  doubling  the  sum 
each  time,  the  whole  amount  paid  would  be  £557,750,707,- 
°53, 344, 041, 463, 074, 442  18s.  7Jd. — a sum  which  in  words 
runs  thus:  557  quadrillions,  750,707  trillions,  53,344  billions, 
41,643  millions,  74  thousand,  442  pounds,  eighteen  shillings 
and  sevenpence  three  farthings.  This  amount  in  sovereigns 
would  weigh  3,557,083,590,327,499,123,418  tons. 


THE  LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR. 


23  4 


+1  \ i HI  .1  i i I I I ! I ;!  I i 1 I H i Hi  III  I H+l  l+M 

DDDDDDDDna  on  n rniMTOomrn  Dnnnannnnnn  nfirimwnm  iiaTiiiiTfflmai 


HE  following  tables  show  at  a glance  the 
price  of  any  number  of  articles  at  any 
given  rate  : The  first  column  of  figures 
shows  the  number  of  articles,  and  the 
second,  the  total  ; e.  g.,  87  articles  at  ^ 
cent  each,  amount  to  2 if  cents  ; 46  articles 
at  56^  cents  each,  give  for  a total  $25,875-.  If 
the  price  be  one  not  given  in  the  tables,  the  sum  is 
easily  ascertained  by  adding  together  two  or  more 
of  those  which  are  given,  thus  : 23  articles  at  19^ 
cents,  23  at  10  cents  would  be  2.30,  at  5 cents 
1. 15,  at  2 cents  46  cents,  at  -5  n|  cents,  and  at  f 
5f  ; adding  these  totals,  2.30  + 1.15  + 46  + 46 
+ XIi  + 5f  = $4-544>  the  amount  sought  for. 


These  tables,  too,  will  operate  in  other  directions, 
and  show  the  number  of  articles,  when  the  total 
amount  and  the  price  per  capita  are  given ; also  when 
the  number  of  articles  and  the  total  amount  are  given, 
the  price  per  capita  is  easily  ascertained. 

When  fractions  of  a cent  are  involved,  it  is  often 
confusing  to  an  inexpert  accountant  to  readily  com- 
pute the  amount.  A reference  to  these  tables  will 
quickly  give  the  required  result,  thereby  saving  that 
which  is  so  important  to  the  business  man — time. 

The  convenience  of  these  tables  cannot  be  over- 
rated. Not  only  do  they  save  time,  but  are  also 
conducive  to  perfect  accuracy,  a result  which  is  not 
always  certainly  obtained  in  a hurried  calculation. 


At  4 Cent. 


No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

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No. 

1 Dols.  Cts. 

! No. 

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52 

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1000 

2.50 

THE  LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR. 


2.35 


At 

£ Cent. 

At 

2 Cents. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

j No. 

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No. 

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No. 

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No. 

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I 

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32 

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At 

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No. 

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No. 

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No. 

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No. 

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No. 

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I 

. I 

32 

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63 

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31 

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31 

1-55 

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3.10 

225 

ir  25 

236 


THE  LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR. 


At 

10  Cents. 

At  25  Cents. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No.  | 

Dols.  Cts. 

I 

. 10 

32 

3.20 

63 

6 30 

I 

-25 

32 

8. 

63 

15-75 

2 

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33 

3-30 

64 

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3.80 

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THE  LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR. 


237 


At  43*  Cents,  or  of  a 

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At  56$  Cents, 

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4.814 

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18.37$ 

73 

31  93$ 

II 

6.18$ 

42 

23.62$ 

73 

41.06$ 

12 

5-25 

43 

18-81$ 

74 

32-37$ 

12 

6.75 

43 

24. 184 

74 

41.62$ 

13 

5.68.5 

44 

19  25 

75 

32.81$ 

13 

7-3i$ 

44 

24-75 

75 

42.18* 

14 

6.12! 

45 

19.68$ 

76 

33-25 

14 

7.87$ 

45 

25.31$ 

76 

42.75, 

15 

6.564 

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20. 12$ 

78 

34-12$ 

15 

8-43$ 

46 

25.87$ 

78 

43-87$ 

l6 

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20  56$ 

80 

35- 

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80 

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17 

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82 

35-87$ 

17 

9.56$ 

48 

27-  , 

82 

46.12$ 

18 

7-874 

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84 

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86 

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48.37$ 

20 

8.75 

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22.314 

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40.25 

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23.62$ 

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41.12$ 

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12.93* 

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30.37$ 

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24 

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24 

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11.814 

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125 

54.68$ 

27 

15.18$ 

58 

32.62$ 

125 

70  31$ 

28 

12.25 

59 

25.81$ 

150 

65.62$ 

28 

15-75 

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33- 184 

150 

84-37$ 

29 

12.684 

60 

26.25 

175 

76.56$ 

29 

16  31J 

60 

33  75 

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98.43* 

30 

13-124 

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26.68$ 

200 

87.50 

30 

16.S7I 

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34-31$ 

200 

112.50 

31 

13654 

1 62 

27.12$ 

225 

98.43$ 

31 

17-43$ 

62 

34.87$ 

225 

126.56$ 

At  50  Cents. 

At  87$  Cents 

, or  $ of  a 

Dollar. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

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No. 

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No. 

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No. 

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l6. 

63 

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63 

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66 

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36 

31.50 

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58.62$ 

6 

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68 

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6 

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32-37$ 

68 

59-50 

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38 

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8 

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131.25 

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153-12$ 

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15- 

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200 

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175- 

31 

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62 

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225 

112.50 

31 

27.12$ 

62 

54-25 

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196.87$ 

I 238 


THE  LIGHTNING  CALCULATOR. 


At  $1.25  Cents. 


No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

I 

1.25 

36 

45- 

7i 

88.75 

2 

2.50 

37 

46.25 

72 

90. 

3 

3-75 

38 

47-50 

73 

91  • 25 

4 

5- 

39 

48-75 

74 

92.50 

5 

6.25 

40 

50- 

75 

93-75 

6 

7.50 

41 

51-25 

76 

95- 

7 

8.75 

42 

52.50 

77 

96.25 

8 

IO. 

43 

53-75 

73 

97  50 

9 

11.25 

44 

55- 

79 

98.75 

IO 

12.50 

45 

56-25 

80 

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I I 

13-75 

46 

57-50 

81 

101.25 

12 

15- 

47 

53-75 

82 

102.50 

13 

16.25 

43 

60. 

83 

103-75 

14 

17-50 

49 

61.25 

34 

105. 

15 

18.75 

50 

62.50 

85 

106.25 

l6 

20. 

51 

63-75 

86 

107.50 

17 

21.25 

52 

65- 

87 

108.75 

18 

22.50 

53 

66.25 

88 

no. 

19 

23.75 

54 

67.50 

89 

III. 25 

20 

25- 

55 

68.75 

90 

112.50 

21 

26.25 

56 

70. 

9i 

H3-75 

22 

27-50 

57 

71-25 

92 

1 15  - 

23 

28.75 

58 

72.50 

93 

116.25 

24 

30- 

59 

73-75 

94 

117.50 

25 

31-25 

60 

75- 

95 

118.75 

26 

32-50 

6l 

7625 

96 

120. 

27 

33-75 

62 

77-50 

97 

121.25 

28 

35- 

63 

78.75 

9S 

122. 50 

29 

36-25 

64 

80. 

99 

123-75 

30 

37-50 

65 

81 . 25 

IOO 

125- 

31 

38.75 

66 

82.50 

125 

156.25 

32 

40. 

67 

83-75 

150 

1S7.50 

33 

41-25 

68 

85- 

175 

218.75 

34 

42.50 

69 

86.25 

200 

250. 

35 

43-75 

70 

87.50 

225 

281.25 

At  $1.50  Cents. 


No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts 

I 

1.50 

36 

54- 

7i 

106. 50 

2 

3- 

37 

55-50 

72 

108. 

3 

4.50 

33 

57- 

73 

109.50 

4 

6. 

39 

58.50 

74 

III  . 

5 

7-50 

40 

60. 

75 

112.50 

6 

9- 

4i 

61.50 

76 

114. 

7 

10.50 

42 

63- 

77 

115-50 

8 

12. 

43 

64.50 

73 

117. 

9 

13-50 

44 

66. 

79 

118.50 

IO 

15- 

45 

67.50 

80 

120. 

II 

16.50 

46 

69. 

81 

121.50 

12 

18. 

47 

7050 

82 

123. 

13 

19.50 

48 

72- 

83 

124.50 

14 

21  . 

49 

73-50 

84 

126. 

15 

22.50 

50 

75- 

85 

127.50 

l6 

24- 

51 

76.50 

86 

I29. 

17 

25-50 

52 

78. 

87 

130- 50 

18 

27- 

53 

79-50 

88 

132. 

19 

28.50 

54 

81. 

89 

133-50 

20 

30. 

55 

82.50 

90 

135- 

21 

31-50 

56 

84. 

9i 

136.50 

22 

33- 

57 

85.50 

92 

13S. 

23 

34-50 

58 

87- 

93 

139-5° 

24 

36. 

59 

88.50 

94 

141. 

25 

37-50 

60 

90. 

95 

142.50 

26 

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91.50 

96 

144. 

27 

40.50 

62 

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97 

145-50 

28 

42. 

63 

94.50 

98 

147. 

29 

43-50 

64 

96. 

99 

148.50 

30 

45- 

65 

97.50 

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150. 

31 

46.50 

66 

99. 

125 

187.50 

32 

48. 

67 

100.50 

150 

225  . 

33 

49-50 

68 

102. 

175 

262.50 

34 

51. 

69 

103.50 

220 

300. 

35 

52-50 

70 

105. 

25O 

337-50 

At  $1.75  Cents. 


No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

No. 

Dols.  Cts. 

I 

i-75 

18 

31-50 

35 

61.25 

52 

91. 

69 

120.75 

86 

150.50 

2 

3-50 

19 

33-25 

36 

63- 

53 

92-75 

70 

122.50 

87 

152.25 

3 

5.25 

20 

35- 

37 

64-75 

54 

94-50 

7i 

124.25 

88 

154- 

4 

7- 

21 

36.75 

38 

66. 50 

55 

96.25 

72 

126. 

89 

155  75 

5 

3-75 

22 

38.50 

39 

68.25 

56 

98. 

73 

127-75 

90 

157.50 

6 

10.50 

23 

40.25 

40 

70. 

57 

99-75 

74 

129.50 

91 

159-25 

7 

12.25 

24 

42. 

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71-75 

58 

IOI . 50 

75 

131-25 

92 

ibi. 

8 

14. 

25 

43-75 

42 

73-50 

59 

103.25 

76 

133- 

93 

162.75 

9 

15-75 

26 

45-50 

43 

75-25 

60 

105. 

77 

134-75 

94 

164.50 

IO 

17.50 

27 

47.25 

44 

77- 

6l 

106.75 

78 

136.50 

96 

168. 

II 

19.25 

28 

49. 

45 

78.75 

62 

108.50 

79 

138.25 

9s 

171.50 

12 

21  . 

29 

50.75 

46 

80.50 

63 

110.25 

80 

140. 

IOO 

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13 

22.75 

3° 

5250 

47 

82.25 

64 

1 12  . 

81 

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125 

218.75 

14 

24.50 

31 

54-25 

48 

84. 

66 

113-75 

82 

143-50 

150 

262.50 

15 

26.25 

32 

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85.75 

65 

115-50 

83 

145-25 

175 

306.25 

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28. 

33 

57-75 

50 

87.50 

67 

117-25 

84 

147 

200 

350. 

17 

29.75 

34 

59-50 

51 

89.25 

68 

119. 

85 

148.75 

225 

393-75 

RATE  OF  WAGES. 


f\cite  of  Wltges,  ftoui  $l 


to  $2^1  1 'ef  Week. 


Days. 

50  Cts. 

62I  Cts. 

75  Cts. 

874  Cts. 

Days. 

50  Cts. 

62  J Cts. 

75  Cts. 

87!  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

i 

. 2 

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5 

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2. 

2.50 

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26 

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2.71 

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3-79 

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Days. 

$1 

$i.i2f 

$1.25 

$1.37! 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

i 

• 4 

• 44 

5 c 

• 54 

j. 

2 

. 81 

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4 

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2 

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24 

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4 

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1.03 

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2.08I 

2.29 

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2.52 

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2.25 

2.50 

2-75 

18 

3- 

3-371 

3-75 

4-I2f 

24 

4- 

4-50 

5- 

5-50 

26 

4-331 

4-871 

5-42 

5-96 

Days. 

$1.50 

$1.62! 

$i-75 

$1.87! 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

1 

4 

- 61 

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• 7f 

. 74 

X 

2 

.12I 

• 13! 

.14I 

•151 

3 

4 

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1 

•25 

•27 

•29 

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ii 

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ii 

14 

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•434 

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•50 

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31 

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1.09I 

1.17I 

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1 .08I 

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1.25 

41 

1.06I 

1 ■ 15 

1.234 

1-324 

41 

1 . 12! 

1.214 

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1.40I 

44 

1. 184 

I .281 

1-381 

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1.25 

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1-454 

I-561 

5 1 

i - 3 1 4 

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1.64 

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1.60I 

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54 

1-434 

1-554 

1.674 

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1.50 

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1-87! 

7 

1-75 

1.89I 

2.04 

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8 

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2-331 

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3-121 

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5-25 

5-621 

24 

6. 

6.50 

7- 

7-50 

26 

6. 50 

7.04 

7-58-1 

8.12I 

20,0 


RATE  OF  WAGES. 


Days. 

$2 

$2  50 

$3 

$3.50 

Days. 

$6 

$7 

$8 

$9 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

i 

. 81 

.104 

.125 

• 14? 

1 

4 

•25 

•29 

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• 374 

£ 

■ i6jr 

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4 

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.874 

I . 

1 . 124 

I 

•33l- 

• 41* 

• 50 

• 5S1 

I 

I . 

1.164 

i-33l 

1.50 

il 

.414 

.52 

.62! 

• 72| 

ii 

1.25 

1.451 

1.665 

1.874 

15 

■50 

.624 

•75 

.87! 

H 

1-50 

1 75 

2. 

2.25 

1 1 

■584 

•73 

.874 

I .02 

if 

i-75 

2.04 

2-331 

2.624 

2 

,66  k 

•831 

I . 

1. 16.4 

2 

2. 

2-331 

2.664 

3- 

2i 

•75 

•934 

1.124 

1 31  lr 

2I 

2-25 

2.624 

3- 

3-37! 

2-4 

•834 

1.04 

1-25 

1 -454 

24 

2.5O 

2-9i4 

3-331 

3-75 

2| 

•9ij 

1 -i4j 

i-37i 

1.60I 

2-75 

3-20I 

3.664 

4.12! 

3 

I . 

1 25 

1.50 

i-75 

3 

3- 

3-50 

4- 

4-50 

3l 

1.084 

1 35  4 

1.624 

1.894 

3i 

3-25 

3-79 

4 334 

4-874 

3? 

1. 164 

1.46 

1 75 

2.04 

34 

3-50 

4.08I 

4-664 

5-25 

3? 

1 25 

1 • 56I 

1.874 

2. 18} 

3! 

3-75 

4-374 

5- 

5.624 

4 

1-334 

1.667 

2. 

2-331 

4 

4- 

4-664 

5-331 

6. 

4l 

1.4U 

i-77 

2.12J 

2-471 

4i 

4.25 

4-951 

5-664 

6-37! 

4i 

1.50 

1-874 

2.25 

2.624 

4.50 

5-25 

6. 

6-75 

4l 

1-584 

1 - 97} 

2.374 

2-77 

4i 

4-75 

5 54 

6-331 

7-124 

5 

1.664 

2.084 

2.50 

2 91? 

5 

5- 

5 83! 

6 664 

7-50 

5'i 

1-834 

2.29 

2.75 

3.20! 

54 

5-50 

6.414 

7-331 

8.25 

6 

2. 

2.50 

3- 

3-50 

6 

6. 

7- 

8. 

9- 

7 

2-334 

2.914 

3-50 

4-o81 

7 

7- 

8.i64 

9-331 
10  664 

10  50 

8 

2.66.4 

3-331 

4- 

4.665 

8 

8. 

9-331 

12 

9 

3- 

3-75 

4.50 

5-25 

9 

9- 

10.50 

12. 

13-50 

IO 

3-334 

4.16} 

5- 

5-831 

IO 

IO. 

n.664 

13-33! 

15- 

II 

3-664 

4-581  < 

5.50 

6.41! 

II 

II. 

12.83! 

14.664 

16.50 

12 

4- 

5- 

6. 

7- 

12 

12. 

14- 

l6. 

18. 

18 

6. 

7-50 

9- 

10.50 

18 

18. 

21. 

24. 

27- 

24 

8. 

IO. 

12. 

14. 

24 

24. 

28. 

32- 

36. 

26 

8.664 

10.831 

13- 

15.164 

26 

26. 

30.33I 

34-664 

39- 

Days. 

$4 

$4-50 

$5 

$5-50 

Days. 

$10 

$n 

$12 

$13 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

4 

. 165 

. 184 

.20j 

• 23 

1 

•4if 

.46 

•50 

• 54 

4 

• 334 

•375 

•4i4 

•451 

4 

•834 

•9i| 

I. 

i.o84 

•50 

• 564 

.624 

.681 

t 

1-25 

1-374 

1.50 

1.62! 

I 

.664 

•75 

.834 

.914 

I 

1.665 

1.834 

2. 

2.16J 

14 

.834 

•934 

1.04 

1.144 

ii 

2.084 

2.29 

2.50 

2.71 

ti 

I . 

1.125 

1.25 

i-374 

i4 

2.50 

2-75 

3- 

3-25 

ll 

i.i6J 

i.3i4 

1 -45? 

1 .6o4 

14 

2.91I 

3.21 

3-50 

3-79 

2 

1-334 

1.50 

1.66.4 

1-83! 

2 

3-334 

3 66| 

4- 

4-334 

2| 

1.50 

1.684 

1 874 

2.06I 

2! 

3-75 

4. 124 

4-50 

4-87! 

25 

1.664 

1.874 

2.084 

2.29 

24 

4.16! 

4-584 

5- 

5 - 4I§ 

24 

1.834 

2.064 

2.29 

2.52 

2I 

4-584 

5.04 

5-50 

5-96 

3 

2. 

2.25 

2.50 

2-75 

3 

5- 

5-50 

6. 

6.50 

34 

2.164 

2 434 

2.704 

2.98 

3* 

5-4il 

5.96 

6.50 

7.04 

34 

2-334 

2.624 

2.914 

3-2ol 

34 

5-834 

6.415 

7- 

7-584 

34 

2.50 

2.8l4 

3 124 
3 334 

3-431 

3l 

6.25 

6.874 

7.50 

8.124 

4 

2.662 

3- 

3 664 

4 

6.66} 

7-334 

8. 

8.665 

44 

2.834 

3- 184 

3-544 

3-894 

4l 

7- 084 

7-79 

8.50 

9-21 

44 

3- 

3-37* 

3-75 

4.124 

44 

7.50 

8 25 

9- 

9-75 

44 

3.164 

3-564 

3 954 

4-354 

4l 

7-9il 

8.71 

9.50 

10.29 

5 

3-334 

3-75 

4.  164 

4-581 

. 5 

8-33! 

9.165 

IO. 

10.834 

54 

3.662 

4.124 

4-584 

5 -°4 

54 

9-i61 

10.084 

II. 

11.914 

6 

4- 

4-50 

5- 

5-50 

6 

10. 

11 . 

12. 

13- 

7 

4.66.4 

5-25 

5-83l 

6.414 

7 

11.66! 

12.83I 

14. 

15-164 

8 

5-331 

6. 

6.664 

7-331 

8 

13-33! 

14.664 

l6. 

17-331 

9 

6. 

6-75 

7-50 

8.25 

9 

15- 

16.50 

18. 

19-50 

IO 

6.664 

7-50 

8-331 

9. 164 

IO 

16.66’ 

i8.334 

20. 

21.664 

II 

7-334 

8.25 

9.164 

10.08I 

11 

1833! 

20. 164 

22. 

23.834 

12 

8. 

9- 

IO. 

II. 

12 

20. 

22. 

24. 

26. 

18 

12. 

13  50 

15- 

16.50 

18 

30. 

33- 

36. 

39- 

24 

l6. 

18. 

20. 

22. 

24 

40. 

44. 

48. 

52- 

26 

17-334 

19.50 

21.664 

23-83! 

26 

43-334 

47-664 

1 52. 

56.334 

RATE  OF  WAGES. 


Days. 

$14 

$15 

$16 

$17 

Days. 

$18 

$19 

$20 

$21 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

Dols.  Cts. 

4 

• 584 

.624 

• 664 

■7i 

JL 

4 

•75 

■79 

•834 

•874 

* 

1.16J 

1.25 

i-33j 

1.414 

4 

1.50 

1.584 

1.664 

i-75 

f 

, i-75 

1.874 

2. 

2 . I2j 

A 

4 

2.25 

2-374 

2.50 

2.624 

I 

2 -334 

2.50 

2.664 

2.834 

I 

3- 

3-i64 

3-334 

3-50 

ii 

2.911 

3.124 

3-334 

3 54 

1* 

3-75 

3 96 

4.164 

4-374 

H 

3 ■ 5° 

3-75 

4- 

4-25 

ii 

4.50 

4-75 

5- 

525 

i? 

4.084 

4-374 

4.663 

4.96 

1} 

5-25 

5-54 

5-834 

6. 124 

2 

A.66J 

5-  , 

5-33-4 

5-664 

2 

6. 

6-334 

6.664 

7- 

zi 

5-25 

5.624 

6. 

6-374 

24 

6-75 

7-124 

7.50 

7-874 

2i 

5-834 

6.25 

6.664 

7 084 

24 

7-50 

7-91! 

8-334 

8.75 

2} 

6.41S 

6.874 

7-334 

7-79 

24 

8.25 

8.71 

9.164 

9.624 

3, 

7- 

7.50 

8. 

8.50 

3 

9- 

9-50 

10. 

10.50 

3k 

7.584 

8.124 

8.664 

9.21 

34 

9-75 

10.29 

10.834 

ii-374 

3i 

8.16} 

8-75 

9-334 

9.914 

34 

10.50 

11.085 

11.664 

12.25 

3§ 

8-75 

9-374 

IO. 

10.624 

3} 

ri  .25 

11.874 

12.50 

13.124 

4, 

9-334 

IO. 

10.664 

h-334 

4 

12. 

I2.66J 

13-334 

14- 

4k 

9.94 

10.624 

ii-334 

12.04 

44 

12.75 

13.46 

14.164 

14.874 

4f 

10.50 

11.25 

12. 

12.75 

44 

13  50 

14.25 

15- 

15-75 

11.084 

11.874 

12.664 

13.46 

44 

14.25 

15.04 

15-834 

16.624 

5 

11.664 

12.50 

13-334 

14  164 

5 

15- 

15-834 

16  664 

17-50 

5* 

12.834 

13-75 

14.664 

15-584 

54 

16.50 

17.413 

18.334 

19-25 

6 

14. 

15- 

l6. 

17- 

6 

18. 

19. 

20. 

21. 

7 

16.334 

17-50 

18.664 

19-834 

7 

21 . 

22.16* 

23-334 

24.50 

8 

18.664 

20. 

21.334 

22.664 

8 

24. 

25.334 

26.664 

28. 

9 

21 . 

22.50 

24. 

25.50 

9 

27- 

28.50 

30. 

31-50 

IO 

23334 

25- 

26.664 

28.334 

IO 

30. 

31.66.4 

33-334 

35- 

II 

25.664 

27.50 

29.334 

31.164 

II 

33- 

34-834 

36.664 

38. 

12 

28. 

30. 

32. 

34- 

12 

36. 

38. 

40. 

42.00 

18 

42. 

45- 

48. 

5i- 

18 

54- 

57- 

60. 

63- 

24 

56. 

60. 

64. 

68. 

24 

72. 

76. 

80. 

84 

26 

60.664 

65. 

69-334 

73-664 

26 

78. 

82.334 

86.664 

91. 

RATE  OF  BOARD  BY  THE  WEEK. 


Time. 

Rate. 

Rate. 

Rate. 

Rate. 

Rate. 

Time. 

Rate. 

Rate. 

Rate. 

Rate. 

Rate. 

W.  D. 

$2.00 

$2.25 

$2.50 

$3.00 

$3.50 

W.  D. 

$4.00 

$4.50 

$5.00 

$5-50 

$6.00 

I 

.29 

•32 

•36 

•43 

•50 

I 

•57 

.64 

• 71 

•79 

.86 

2 

•57 

.64 

■7i 

.86 

I. 

2 

1. 14 

1.29 

i-43 

i-57 

1.71 

3 

.86 

.96 

1.07 

I . 29 

1.50 

3 

1. 71 

i-93 

2.14 

2.36 

2-57 

4 

1. 14 

1.26 

i-43 

1. 71 

2. 

4 

2.29 

2-57 

2.86 

3.14 

3-43 

5 

1-43 

1 .61 

1.79 

2 14 

2.5O 

5 

2.86 

3.21 

3 57 

3-93 

4.29 

6 

1. 71 

1.93 

2. 14 

2-57 

3- 

6 

3-48 

3-S6 

4.29 

4-71 

5-14 

1. 1 

2.29 

2-57 

2.86 

3-43 

4- 

I . I 

4-57 

5-14 

5-7i 

6.29 

6.86 

1.2 

2-57 

2 . 89 

3.21 

3.86 

4-50 

I . 2 

5.14 

5-79 

6-43 

7.07 

7-7i 

i-3 

2.86 

3-21 

3-57 

4.29 

5- 

i-3 

5-7i 

6.43 

7.14 

7.86 

8-57 

1.4 

3-14 

3-54 

3-93 

4-7J 

5-50 

i-4 

6.29 

7.07 

7.86 

8.64 

9-43 

1-5 

3-43 

3-86 

4.29 

5-14 

6. 

i-5 

6.86 

7-7i 

8-57 

9-43 

I0.2Q 

1.6 

3-7i 

4.18 

4 64 

5-57 

6.50 

1.6 

7-43 

8.36 

9.29 

IO.  21 

II  . 14 

2. 

4- 

4-50 

5- 

6. 

7- 

2. 

S. 

9- 

IO. 

II  . 

12. 

2.1 

4.29 

4.82 

5-36 

6-43 

7-50 

2. 1 

8-57 

9.64 

10.71 

n.79 

12.86 

2.2 

4-57 

5 -14 

5-71 

6.86 

8. 

2.2 

9.14 

10.29 

11.43 

12.57 

1371 

2.3 

4 . 86 

5-46 

6.07 

7.29 

8.50 

2-3 

9 7i 

10.93 

12. 14 

13.36 

14-57 

2.4 

5-14 

5-79 

6-43 

7-7i 

9- 

2.4 

IO.  29 

11.67 

12.86 

14.14 

15-43 

2.5 

5-43 

6. 11 

6.79 

8.14 

9-50 

2.5 

10.86 

12.21 

13-57 

1493 

16.29 

2.6 

5-7i 

6.43 

7-14 

8-57 

IO. 

2.6 

11.43 

12.86 

14.29 

15.71 

17.14 

3- 

6. 

6-75 

7-50 

9- 

10.50 

3- 

12. 

13-50 

15- 

16.50 

18. 

3-1 

6.29 

7.07 

7.86 

9-43 

II. 

3-1 

12.57 

14.14 

I5-7I 

17  29 

18  86 

3.2 

6-57 

7-39 

8 . 21 

9. 86 

11.50 

3-2 

13-14 

14-79 

16.43 

18.07 

19.71 

3-3 

6.86 

7-7i 

8-57 

10.29 

12. 

3-3 

13-71 

15-43 

17.14 

18.86 

20.57 

3-4 

7-14 

8.04 

8-93 

10.71 

12.50 

3-4 

14-29 

16.07 

17.  S6 

19.64 

21.43 

3-5 

7-43 

8 36 

9.29 

II  . 14 

13- 

3-5 

14.86 

16.71 

18.57 

20.43 

22.29 

3-6 

7-7i 

8.68 

9.64 

11.57 

13-50 

3-6 

15-43 

I7-36 

19.29 

21 . 21 

23.14 

4- 

8. 

9- 

10. 

12. 

14. 

4- 

l6. 

18. 

20. 

22. 

24. 

4' — J? 


ALGEBRA. 


■ E have  seen  that  logarithmic  tables  may  be  used 
as  a substitute  for  many  lengthened  operations 
in  arithmetic.  It  is  evident  that  the  value  of 
all  methods  of  computation  lies  in  their  brev- 
ity. Algebra  must  be  considered  as  one  of  the 
most  important  departments  of  mathematical 
science,  on  account  of  the  extreme  rapidity  and  cer- 
tainty with  which  it  enables  us  to  determine  the  most 
involved  and  intricate  questions.  The  term  algebra  is  of 
Arabic  origin,  and  has  a reference  to  the  resolution  and  compo- 
sition of  quantities.  In  the  manner  in  which  it  is  applied,  it 
embodies  a method  of  performing  calculations  by  means  of 
various  signs  and  abbreviations,  which  are  used  instead  of  words 
and  phrases,  so  that  it  may  be  called  the  system  of  symbols. 
Although  it  is  a science  of  calculation,  yet  its  operations  must 
not  be  confounded  with  those  of  arithmetic.  All  calculations 
in  arithmetic  refer  to  some  particular  individual  question, 
whereas  those  of  algebra  refer  to  a whole  class  of  questions. 
One  great  advantage  in  algebra  is,  that  all  the  steps  of  any 
particular  course  of  reasoning  are,  by  means  of  symbols,  placed 
at  once  before  the  eye,  so  that  the  mind,  being  unimpeded  in 
its  operations,  proceeds  uninterruptedly  from  one  step  of 
reasoning  to  another,  until  the  solution  of  the  question  is  at- 
tained. 

Symbols  are  used  to  represent  not  only  the  known,  but  also 
the  unknown  quantities.  The  present  custom  is  to  represent 
all  known  quantities  by  the  first  letters  of  the  alphabet,  as  a, 
b,  c , etc.,  and  the  unknown  quantities  by  the  last  letters, 
x.  y.  2. 

The  symbols  used  in  arithmetic  to  denote  addition,  subtrac- 
tion, etc.,  belong  properly  to  algebra.  Thus  the  sign  + phis 
denotes  that  one  quantity  is  to  be  added  to  another,  and  is 
called  the  positive  or  additive  sign  ; all  numbers  to  which  it  is 
prefixed  are  called  positive.  The  sign  — minus  denotes  that 


<&er- 


one  quantity  is  to  be  subtracted  from  another  ; it  is  called  the 
negative  or  subtractive  sign,  and  all  quantities  to  which  it  is 
prefixed  are  called  negative.  If  neither  -f-  nor  — be  prefixed 
to  a quantity,  then  the  sign  + plus  is  understood. 

The  general  sign  to  denote  that  one  number  is  to  be  multi- 
plied by  another  is  x ; but  it  often  occurs  that  one  letter  has 
to  be  multiplied  by  another,  and  this  is  represented  by  placing 
those  letters  one  after  another,  generally  according  to  the  or- 
der in  which  they  stand  in  the  alphabet  ; thus  a multiplied  by 
b is  expressed  by  ab.  The  multiplication  of  quantities  con- 
sisting of  more  than  one  term,  as,  for  instance,  a + b by  c + d, 
may  be  represented  by  any  one  of  the  following  methods : 
a + bxc+d,  or  a+b'e+d,  or  (a  + b)  (c+d).  The  bar  drawn 
over  a+b  and  c + d,  which  in  the  first  two  examples  marks 
them  as  distinct  quantities,  is  called  a vinculum,  but  brackets 
or  parentheses  for  the  same  purpose,  as  in  the  last  example, 
are  now  in  more  frequent  use. 

When  a letter  is  multiplied  by  any  given  number,  it  is  usual 
to  prefix  that  number  to  the  letter.  Thus,  twice  a,  three 
times  b,  four  times  c , six  times  x , etc.,  are  expressed  thus: 
2a,  3 b,  4 c,  6x  ; and  the  numbers  2,  3,  4,  6,  thus  prefixed,  are 
called  the  coefficients  of  the  letters  before  which  they  stand. 

The  sign  -f-  between  two  numbers  shows,  as  in  arithmetic, 
that  the  former  of  those  numbers  is  to  be  divided  by  the  latter; 
thus,  as-b  means  that  a is  to  be  divided  by  b.  It  is,  however, 
more  usual  to  place  the  number  to  be  divided  above  that  by 
which  it  is  to  be  divided,  with  a small  line  between,  in  the 
form  of  a fraction  ; thus  ^ denotes  that  a is  divided  by  b. 

In  arithmetic  the  powers  of  quantities  are  denoted  by  a 
small  figure,  called  the  exponent  or  index  of  the  power.  Thus 
a x a,  or  the  square  of  a,  is  expressed  by  ds;  bxbxb,  or  the 
cube  of  b,  is  expressed  by  b ’,  etc.  The  cube  of  a+b  is  ex- 
pressed thus:  (a  + b)'3. 

The  roots  of  quantities  are  represented  by  the  sign  with 


ALGEBRA. 


243 


the  proper  index  affixed  ; thus  3/ a,  or,  more  simply,  fa,  ex- 
presses the  square  root  of  a ; of a the  cube  root  of  a ; of a + b 
represents  the  4th  or  biquadratic  root  of  a + b.  Fractional  in- 
dices are  also  frequently  used  to  denote  the  roots  of  quanti- 
ties, thus : — 

a £ is  the  square  root  of  a. 

ai  is  the  cube  root  of  a. 

a\  is  the  4th  root  of  a,  etc. 

Again,  aj  is  the  cube  root  of  a2,  or  of  the  square  of  a. 

a|  is  the  square  root  of  a3,  or  of  the  cube  of  a. 

al  is  the  5th  root  of  a2. 

When  two  or  more  letters  or  quantities  are  connected  to- 
gether by  signs,  the  combination  is  called  an  algebraic  expres- 
sion, and  each  letter  or  quantity  is  called  a term. 

Quantities  of  one  term  are  called  simple  quantities  ; as  a , 2a, 
3 b,  etc. 

A quantity  of  two  terms,  as  b + c,  is  called  a binomial. 

When  the  binomial  expresses  the  difference  between  two 
quantities,  it  is  called  a residual , as  a—b. 

A quantity  consisting  of  3,  4,  or  many  terms,  are  called  re- 
spectively trinomials,  quadrinomials,  multinomials. 

The  sign  = placed  between  two  quantities  shows,  as  in 
arithmetic,  the  equality  of  those  quantities. 

When  quantities  are  connected  by  this  sign,  the  expression 
is  called  an  equation:  thus,  2 + 4 = 6,  is  an  equation,  as  also 
a+-b—c— f. 

The  symbol  > or  < is  called  that  of  inequality,  it  being 
placed  between  two  quantities,  of  which  one  is  greater  than 
the  other  ; the  open  part  of  the  symbol  is  always  turned  towards 
the  greater  quantity  : thus,  a > b denotes  a to  be  greater  than 
b ; and  c < d denotes  d to  be  greater  than  c.  The  sign  of  dif- 
ference ~,  is  only  used  when  it  is  uncertain  which  of  two 
quantities  is  the  greater  ; thus  e ~ f denotes  the  difference 
between  e and  f when  it  is  uncertain  which  is  the  greater. 

The  word  therefore,  or  consequently,  often  occurring  in  alge- 
braical reasoning,  the  symbol  .'.  has  been  chosen  to  represent 
it : thus,  the  sentence  “ Therefore  a + b is  equal  to  c + d," 
is  thus  expressed  in  algebra,  . \ a + b=c  + d. 

Like  quantities  are  such  as  consist  of  the  same  letter  or  let- 
ters, or  power  of  letters  : thus,  6 a and  2 a are  like  quantities, 
and  also  4 abc  and  9 abc.  Unlike  quantities  are  such  as  con- 
sist of  different  letters:  as,  4 a,  5 b,  6 ax2,  qcd,  which  are  all 
unlike  quantities. 


The  operation  of  addition  in  arithmetic  consists,  as  has  been 
shown,  simply  in  joining  or  adding  several  quantities  together : 
thus,  4 + 8 + 7 + 6=  25.  This  same  process  is  always  used 
in  algebra,  whenever  like  quantities  with  like  signs  are  required 
to  be  added  : thus,  2a+3a+6a—  na;  and  — 7 b — 4 b 


— 6 b — — 17  b.  But  as  it  often  happens  that  like  quantities 
which  are  to  be  added  together  have  unlike  signs,  addition 
has  in  algebra  a far  more  extended  signification  than  in  arith- 
metic. Thus,  to  add  7 a + 4 a to  8 a — 3 a,  it  is  evident  that, 
after  7a+4a+8a  have  been  added  according  to  the  usual 
method,  3 a must  be  subtracted.  Hence  the  general  rule  for 
the  addition  of  like  quantities  with  unlike  signs  is  to  add  first 
the  coefficients  of  the  positive  terms,  and  then  to  add  those  of 
the  negative  terms  ; the  less  sum  must  be  subtracted  from  the 
greater,  and  to  this  difference  the  sign  of  the  greater  must  be 
annexed,  with  the  common  letter  or  letters.  Thus,  let  it  be 
required  to  add  7a  — 3a  + 4a  + 3a  — ba— 2a  and  9 a ; 
25  a will  be  found  the  sum  of  the  positive  terms,  and  11  a 
that  of  the  negative  ; n a,  being  the  less  number,  must  there- 
fore be  subtracted  from  25  a,  the  greater,  leaving  a remainder 
of  14  a,  which  is  the  required  amount. 

Unlike  quantities  can  only  be  added  by  collecting  them  in 
one  line,  and  prefixing  the  proper  sign  of  each  ; thus,  the  sum 
o{qa  + 2b  + 4c— 2d  can  only  be  rendered  334-2^  + 4; 

— 2d;  this  will  be  evident  by  refletting  that  different  letters 
in  the  same  algebraical  expression  always  represent  different 
quantities,  which  cannot  of  course  be  added  into  one  sum  un- 
less their  precise  value  be  known.  Thus,  the  addition  of  a 
and  b cannot  be  represented  by  2 a or  2 b,  because  that  would 
imply  that  a is  equal  to  b,  whieh  it  is  not  necessarily  ; neither 
could  it  be  represented  by  ab,  because  ab  denotes  the  multi- 
plication of  the  two  quantities ; the  only  method  then  of  ex- 
pressing these  sums  is  thus,  a + b.  When  like  and  unlike 
quantities  are  mixed  together,  as  in  the  following  example, 
the  like  quantities  must  first  be  collected  together  according 
to  the  method  above  described,  and  all  unlike  quantities  must 
be  annexed  in  order  : — 

9 a + 5 xy  — 8 ay 

— 8 xy  — 10  x + 2 xy 

3+  — 7 ay  — 5-r 

5 ax  — b ax  + 11  y 

— xy  — 4 a + g ax 

2 ay  + 12  x — 2 a 

— 10  y — 3 xy  + 1 3 ay 

3 a — 8 ax—  5 xy  + y 


When  two  like  quantities,  having  like  signs,  are  to  be  sub- 
tracted the  one  from  the  other,  the  process  is  precisely  the 
same  as  that  already  described  in  arithmetic  : thus,  3 a sub- 
tracted from  7 a,  leaves  as  a remainder  4 a.  From  83  + 53 
take  6 a + 2 a,  and  the  remainder  will  be  2 a + 3 a.  or  5 a. 

But  supposing  it  were  required  to  subtract  6 a — 4 a from 
9 a,  it  is  evident  that  some  other  process  must  be  adopted  ; 
because,  if  6 a be  subtracted  from  9 a,  the  proposed  operation 
will  not  be  performed  ; for  it  is  not  6 a,  but  6 a — 4 a,  that  is, 
2 a,  which  is  required  to  be  subtracted  from  9 a ; 6 a sub- 
tracted from  g a leaves  3 a,  which  is  4 a less  than  would  result 


I 


*44 


ALGEBRA. 


from  subtracting  2 a from  9 a ; but  if  to  3 a we  add  the  other 
term,  namely,  4 a,  the  sum  will  be  the  remainder  sought,  be- 
cause 3a  + 4«  = 7a;  and  if  2 a be  subtracted  from  9 a, 
which  is  just  the  same  question  in  another  form,  for  6 a — 4 a 
is  = 2 a,  the  remainder  is  just  7 a as  before.  So,  if  a — b is 
to  be  subtracted  from  c,  the  remainder  would  be  c — a + b,  and 
for  the  same  reason.  It  may  therefore  be  given  as  a general 
rule,  that  all  the  signs  of  a quantity  which  is  required  to  be  sub- 
tracted from  another  must  be  changed  : thus,  when  4 x — 3 y 
is  subtracted  from  7 a + 5 b,  the  remainder  is  written  thus, 
7 a + — 4 x + 3y. 

When  like  quantities  are  to  be  subtracted  from  each  other, 
it  is  usual  to  place  them  in  two  rows,  the  one  above  the  other ; 
the  signs  of  the  quantities  to  be  subtracted  must,  for  the  rea- 
son above  adduced,  be  conceived  to  be  changed  ; and  the  sev- 
eral quantities  must  be  added,  as  shown  in  the  following  ex- 
ample : — 

F rom  5 ax  + 7 xy  — 2 y 

T ake  3 y 4-  3 ax  — 6 xy 

Remainder,  2 a^  + 13  xy  — 5 y 


The  multiplication  of  two  quantities  is  performed  by  multi- 
plying, as  in  arithmetic,  the  coefficients  of  the  quantities,  and 
then  prefixing  the  proper  sign  and  annexing  letters  : thus,  the 
product  of  3 a,  multiplied  by  5 b,  is  15  ab,  and  7 a x 4 ab  — 
28  c?b. 

When  the  signs  of  both  quantities  are  alike,  the  sign  + is 
to  be  prefixed  ; but  when  unlike,  the  sign  — must  be  prefixed, 
which  may  be  thus  shown  at  one  view  : — 

1.  4-  multiplied  by  + produces  + 

2.  — multiplied  by  — produces  + 

3.  + multiplied  by  — produces  — 

4.  — multiplied  by  + produces  — 

Hence  the  technical  rule  generally  given  is,  that  “like  num- 
bers produce  plus  +,  and  unlike  produce  minus  — This, 
however,  is  not  perfectly  true  when  more  than  two  quantities 
are  to  be  successively  multiplied  ; because  although  the  prod- 
uct of  an  even  number  of  negative  quantities  is  positive,  yet 
the  product  of  an  odd  number  of  negative  quantities  is  always 
negative  ; thus, 

— ax  — b x — d = — abd 
and  ax  — by.  — d x — e — abde. 

When  the  same  letter  occurs  in  both  quantities,  the  indices 
must  be  added  ; thus,  a2  x aJ  = aaaaa  = a5.  In  the  multi- 
plication of  compound  quantities,  it  is  usual  to  commence 
from  the  left-hand  figure  ; the  multiplication,  for  instance,  of 
8 ab  4 ac  + x by  2 a,  is  thus  performed  : — 

8 ab  — 4 ac  + x 

2 a 

16  a‘b  — 8 a'V  +2  ax 


To  multiply  two  compound  quantities,  each  term  of  the  one 
must,  as  in  arithmetic,  be  multiplied  by  each  term  of  the 
other  ; these  particular  or  partial  products  must  be  added  ac- 
cording to  the  rules  of  addition,  and  their  sum  will  give  the 
whole  product,  as  shown  in  the  following  instance  • — 

Multiply  3 a +83 
By  a — b 

3 a'  + 8 ab 

— 3 ab  — 8 P 
Product,  3 a2  + 5 ab  — 8 b 2 


The  operations  of  division  being  in  algebra,  as  in  arithme- 
tic, merely  the  converse  of  those  of  multiplication,  the  same 
rules  respecting  signs  apply  in  both.  Thus,  6 ah'1,  divided  by 
2 b,  is  equal  to  3 ab, 

8 ex1 

And  — 8 ex'2  4-  4 x,  or — — 2 cx. 

4 x 

In  division,  all  letters  common  to  both  quantities  must  be 
omitted  in  the  quotient ; and  when  the  same  letters  occur  in 
both  with  different  indices,  the  index  of  the  letter  in  the  divi- 
sor must  be  subtracted  from  that  in  the  dividend  ; thus, 

abx  4-  ab,  or  = x : and 
ab 

, . ,6  a6  , 

6 a°  4-  2 a3  or =3  a2 

2 a3’  J 


When  the  exponent  of  any  letter  in  the  divisor  exceeds  that 
of  the  same  letter  in  the  dividend,  the  latter  exponent  must 
be  subtracted  from  the  former,  and  the  quotient  will  be  in  the 
form  of  a fraction  ; thus, 


— 12  air2  4-  8 axh 


T22  air2  _ 3 a2 

8 ax*  2 x 3 


When  the  number  to  be  divided  is  a compound  quantity, 
and  the  divisor  a simple  one,  then  each  term  of  the  dividend 
must  be  divided  separately,  and  the  result  will  be  the  answer; 
thus, 

6 a + 24  ab  + 8 a2  + 1 2 ac 

■ = 3+  !2  5 + 4a  + 6f 


When  the  divisor  and  dividend  are  both  compound  quantities, 
the  rule  is  the  same  as  that  of  long  division  in  arithmetic. 
When  there  is  a remainder,  it  must  be  made  the  numerator  of 
a fraction,  under  which  the  divisor  must  be  put  as  the  denom- 
inator; this  fraction  must  then  be  placed  in  the  quotient,  as 
in  arithmetic.  The  compound  quantities  must,  however,  be 
previously  arranged  in  a particular  way,  namely,  according  to 
the  descending  powers  of  some  letter,  as  of  b in  the  following 
example  ; and  this  letter  is  called  the  leading  quantity.  The 
following  is  an  example  of  the  division  of  compound  quan- 
tities : — 


ALGEBRA. 


245 


- x)  P — 3 b‘x  + 3 bx3  ■ 
b3  — b'x 
* — 2 b '!x  + 3 bx1 
— 2 b 2x  + 2 bx 2 


■ x3  {b3  — 2 bx  + x3 


bx 2 
Ar2- 


iiiiiiiiiiiiniiikilli|illli|ilHii 

o -rv -rJ'T-  /-■  ->  -so  -r-  ^7-  ->  - -- 


Fractions. 


The  rules  regulating  the  management  of  fractions  in  algebra 
are  similar  to  those  in  arithmetic. 

A mixed  quantity  is  reduced  to  a fraction  by  multiplying 
the  whole  or  integral  part  by  the  denominator  of  the  fraction, 
and  annexing  the  numerator  with  its  proper  sign  to  the  prod- 
uct ; the  former  denominator,  if  placed  under  this  sum,  will 
give  the  required  fraction.  Thus,  the  mixed  quantity  2 x 

+ — — may  be  thus  reduced  to  a fraction  : 2 x x 6 e = 12  ex, 
be 

and  as  5 ab  must  be  added  to  form  the  numerator,  and  the 
former  denominator  be  retained,  the  required  fraction  is  the 
12  ex  + 5 ab 


following : 


6 e 


An  operation  exactly  the  reverse  of 


this  would  of  course  be  requisite,  were  it  proposed  to  reduce  a 

, , • 12  ex  + 5 ab 

fraction  to  a mixed  quantity.  1 hus,  the  fraction 

may  be  reduced  to  a mixed  number  by  dividing  the  numerator 
by  the  denominator ; the  numerator  of  the  fractional  part 
must  be  formed  by  that  term  which  is  not  divisible  without  a 
remainder ; the  following  is  therefore  the  required  mixed 

quantity : 2 a + . A fraction  is  reduced  to  its  lowest 

terms,  in  algebra  as  in  arithmetic,  by  dividing  the  numerator 
and  denominator  by  any  quantity  capable  of  dividing  them 
both  without  leaving  a remainder.  Thus,  in  the  fraction 
10  a 3 a-  20  ab  4-  5 a2 


35  a 


-,  it  is  evident  that  the  coefficient  of  every 


term  can  be  divided  by  5,  and  as  the  letter  a enters  into  every 
term,  5 a may  be  called  the  greatest  common  measure  of  this 
fraction,  because  it  can  divide  both  the  numerator  and  the  de- 
nominator. The  numerator,  (10  a3  + 20  ab  + 5 a")  -r-  5 a — 
2 a1  + 4 b + a ; and  the  denominator,  35  a2  -4-  5 a = 7 a ; 

2 a1  4-  4 b -t-  a 


hence  the  fraction,  in  its  lowest  terms,  is 


7 a 


Sometimes  the  greatest  common  measure  of  two  quantities  is 
not  so  obvjous  as  in  the  example  just  adduced,  in  which  case 
recourse  must  be  had  to  the  following  operation  : — The  quan- 
tity, the  exponent  of  whose  leading  letter  in  the  first  term  is 
not  less  than  that  in  the  other,  must  first  be  divided  by  the 
other  ; the  divisor  must  then  be  divided  by  the  remainder ; 
each  successive  remainder  is  made  the  divisor  of  the  last  divi- 


sor, until  nothing  remains,  when  the  divisor  last  used  will  be  the 
greatest  common  measure.  Quantities  which  have  no  common 
measure  or  divisor  except  1,  are  called  incommensurable  ; thus, 
7.  5.  3>  and  II[>  are  incommensurable  quantities,  and  are  also 
said  to  be  prime  to  each  other.  When  fractions  are  required 
either  to  be  added  or  to  be  subtracted,  they  must  necessarily 
be  first  reduced  to  a common  denominator,  which  is  effected 
by  multiplying  each  numerator  by  every  denominator  but  its 
own,  to  produce  new  numerators,  and  all  the  denominators 
together  for  the  common  denominator.  The  new  numerators 
can  then  be  either  added  or  subtracted  according  as  the  case 
may  require,  and  the  new  denominator  must  be  left  unchanged. 
Multiplication  of  fractions  is  performed  by  multiplying  all  the 
numerators  together  for  a new  numerator,  and  their  denomi- 
nators together  for  a new  denominator  ; it  is  then  usual  to  re- 
duce the  resulting  fraction  to  its  lowest  terms.  Division  of 
fractions  is  effected  by  multiplying  the  dividend  by  the  reci- 
procal of  the  divisor.  The  reciprocal  of  any  quantity  is  unity, 
or  1,  divided  by  that  quantity,  or  simply  that  quantity  inverted  : 

thus,  the  reciprocal  of  rz  or  is  — , and  the  reciprocal  of 


T 


the  divi- 


which  is 


. b , , , , . 8«’  4 a 

is  — ; therefore,  to  divide  a fraction,  as , by  — , 

a 4 5 

8 a2  . . 4 a 

dend,  — — , must  be  multiplied  by  the  reciprocal  of  — — , 

— ; therefore,  - — x — ■*—  = ; this  last  fraction,  divi- 

4 a 4 4 a 10  a 

ded  by  its  greatest  common  measure,  8 a,  is  the  fraction  re- 
quired, namely,  — . 


Jf malntiatf  mid  (£i  olufioi{. 


The  raising  of  a quantity  to  any  required  power  is  called 
involution,  and  is  performed  by  multiplying  the  quantity  into 
itself  as  often  as  it  is  indicated  by  the  given  power.  When 
the  quantity  has  no  index,  it  is  only  necessary  to  place  the 
given  power  above  it,  in  order  merely  to  indicate  the  power : 
thus,  the  4th  power  of  a is  a\  and  the  cube  or  3d  power  of 
a + b is  (a  + b)'. 

When  the  quantity  has  an  index,  that  index  must  be  multi, 
plied  by  the  given  power  ; thus,  the  fourth  power  of  a2  is  aa. 
because  2x4  = 8.  If  the  quantity  required  to  be  raised  be 
a fraction,  both  the  numerator  and  the  denominator  must  be 

<z2  . a4 

multiplied  by  the  given  power  : thus,  the  square  of  — 3 is 

When  the  sign  of  the  quantity  is  + , then  all  the  powers  to 
which  it  can  be  raised  must  be  + ; if  — , then  all  the  even 
powers  will  be  +,  and  all  the  odd  powers  — . Thus  % x x 
= x3  ; — ax  — a =+  a3  ; —ax  —ax  — a = — a3. 

A compound  quantity,  that  is,  one  consisting  of  more  than 


246 


ALGEBRA. 


one  term,  is  raised  to  any  given  power  by  multiplying  it  into 
itself  the  number  of  times  denoted  by  the  power.  This  is 
done  according  to  the  method  already  described  in  multiplica- 
tion. Thus,  the  square  of  z + 4 y,  is  thus  found  : — 

Multiply  x + 4 y 
By  x + 4 y 
x1  + 4 xy 

4 xy  + 16  y* 

Square  = xl  4-  8 xy  + 16  y‘ 

The  operations  of  evolution  are  the  reverse  of  those  of  invo- 
..4ion,  being  designed  to  discover  the  square  root,  cube  root, 
etc.,  of  any  given  quantity.  The  roots  of  numerical  coeffi- 
cients are  found  as  in  arithmetic  : thus,  the  square  root  of  49 
a\  is  7 a,  because  7 x 7 = 49.  The  index  of  the  given  quan- 
tity must  be  divided  by  2 for  the  square  root,  by  3 for  the  cube 
root,  by  4 for  the  4th  root,  etc.  : thus,  the  cube  root  of  a 8 is  a*. 

The  square  root  of  compound  quantities  may  be  extracted 
by  a method  very  similar  to  that  described  in  arithmetic,  and 
of  which  an  example  was  there  given.  The  cube  root  may 
likewise  be  extracted  by  a similar  process. 


8?  §&  %*WMk  % 


*if  Irrational  Quantities,  or  Suit.  ||« 


. 

mg  m* 


Some  numbers  have  no  exact  root  ; for  instance,  no  num- 
ber multiplied  into  itself  can  produce  5.  The  roots  of  sucli 
quantities  are  expressed  by  fractional  indices,  or  by  the  sign  , 
which  is  called  the  radical  sign,  from  the  Latin  radix , a root : 
thus,  the  square  root  of  5,  and  the  cube  root  of  (a  + b)~,  may 
be  expressed  either  by  F5,  T/  (a  + bf,  or  by  5I,  (a  + b)\. 

The  approximate  value  of  such  quantities  can  be  ascertained 
to  any  required  degree  of  exactness  by  the  common  rules  for 
extracting  roots  : thus,  the  square  root  of  2 is  1 and  an  indefi- 
nite number  of  decimals : but  as  the  exact  value  can  never  be 
determined,  the  name  of  irrational  is  given  to  such  quantities, 
to  distinguish  them  from  all  numbers  whatever,  whether  whole 
or  fractional,  of  which  the  value  can  be  found,  and  which  are 
therefore  termed  rational.  Irrational  numbers  are  generally 
called  surds , from  the  Latin  surdus,  deaf  or  senseless. 


When  two  quantities  are  equal  to  each  other,  the  algebra- 
ical expression  denoting  their  equality  is  called  an  equation. 
Thus,  x — 2 = 4 + 3 is  an  equation,  denoting  that  if  2 be 


deducted  from  some  unknown  quantity  represented  by  x,  the 
remainder  will  be  equal  to  4 + 3,  that  is,  to  7 ; therefore,  the 
value  of  x in  this  equation  is  evidently  7 + 2,  or  9. 

The  doctrine  of  equations  constitutes  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  algebra,  it  being  one  of  the  principal  objects  of 
mathematics  to  reduce  all  questions  to  the  form  of  equations, 
and  then  to  ascertain  the  value  of  the  unknown  quantities  by 
means  of  their  relations  to  other  quantities  of  which  the  value 
is  known. 

Many  problems,  which  are  now  quickly  and  readily  deter- 
mined by  being  reduced  to  equations,  used  formerly  to  be 
solved  by  tedious  and  intricate  arithmetical  rules  ; and  they 
may  still  be  found  in  old  treatises  on  arithmetic,  arranged 
under  the  titles  of  Double  and  Single  Position,  False  Position, 
Allegation,  etc.  Equations  receive  different  names,  accord- 
ing to  the  highest  power  of  the  unknown  quantities  contained 
in  them.  An  equation  is  said  to  be  simple , or  of  the  frsl  de- 
gree, when  it  contains  only  the  first  power  of  the  unknown 
quantity  : thus,  x x b — 35  — 2 is  a simple  equation,  the 

unknown  quantity  being  represented  by  X,  as  it  generally  is  in 
other  equations,  and  the  known  quantities  by  the  other  letters 
and  figures,  x*  + 4 = 3 a,  is  a quadratic  equation,  because 
x,  the  unknown  quantity,  is  raised  to  the  second  power. 

a:3  = a + 3 b is  a cubic  equation,  the  unknown  quantity  be 
ing  raised  to  the  third  power. 

X*  — a — 25  c is  a biquadratic  equation,  because  x is  raised 
to  the  4th  power.  If  equations  contain  unknown  quantities 
raised  to  the  51!),  6th,  or  higher  powers,' they  are  denominated 
accordingly. 

The  quantities  of  which  an  equation  is  composed,  are  called 
its  terms  ; and  the  parts  that  stand  on  the  right  and  left  of  the 
sign  =,  are  called  the  members  or  sides  of  the  equation. 

When  it  is  desired  to  determine  any  question  that  may  arise 
respecting  the  value  of  some  unknown  quantity  by  means  of 
an  equation,  two  distinct  steps  or  operations  are  requisite  ; the 
first  step  consists  in  translating  the  question  from  the  collo- 
quial language  of  common  life  into  the  peculiar  analytical 
language  of  the  science.  The  second  step  consists  in  finding, 
by  given  rules,  the  answer  to  the  question,  or  in  other  words, 
the  solution  of  the  equation.  Expertness  and  facility  in  per- 
forming the  former  operation  cannot  be  produced  by  any  set 
of  rules ; in  this,  as  in  many  other  processes,  practice  is  the 
best  teacher.  Every  new,question  requires  a new  process  of 
reasoning ; the  conditions  of  the  question  must  be  well  con- 
sidered, and  all  the  operations,  whether  of  addition,  subtrac- 
tion, etc.,  which  are  required  to  be  performed  on  the  quanti- 
ties which  it  contains,  are  to  be  represented  by  the  algebraic 
signs  of  +,  — , etc.  : the  whole  problem  must  be  written  down 
as  if  these  operations  had  been  already  performed,  and  as  if 
the  unknown  quantities  were  discovered,  which  can  be  done 
very  briefly  by  substituting  the  first  letters  of  the  alphabet  for 
the  known  quantities,  and  the  last  letters  for  the  unknown, 
prefixing  to  each  the  signs  of  addition,  multiplication,  etc., 
which  may  be  denoted  in  the  question. 

The  second  operation  in  determining  a question  may  be  said 
to  consist  in  contrivances  to  get  x,  or  the  unknown  quantity, 
to  stand  alone  on  one  side  of  the  equation,  without  destroying 
the  equality  or  balance  between  the  two  sides  ; because,  in 


fr- 


ALGEBRA. 


247 


such  an  equation,  for  instance,  as  the  following,  x = 4 + 2, 
the  value  of  x is  at  once  seen  ; if  6 were  to  be  put  in  the  place 
of  x,  the  question  would  be  said  to  be  fulfilled,  because  then 
it  would  stand  thus,  6 = 6;  therefore,  6 is  the  root  or  solution 
of  the  equation  x = 4 +■  2.  In  some  questions,  the  unknown 
quantity  is  so  much  involved  with  known  quantities,  that  it 
is  often  a difficult,  although  always  a highly  interesting,  pro- 
cess to  separate  it  from  them.  Many  nt'e : for  effecting  this 
are  given  in  most  algebraical  treatises,  but  they  may  all  be 
comprised  in  one  general  observation,  namely,  that  any  oper- 
ation, whether  of  addition,  subtraction,  etc.,  may  be  performed 
on  one  side  of  an  equation,  provided  only  that  the  very  same 
operation  be  performed  on  the  other  side,  so  as  not  to  destroy 
their  equality.  Thus,  in  the  equation  X + 5 = 12,  it  is  evi- 
dent that,  if  5 could  be  removed  from  the  left  to  the  right  side 
of  the  equation,  x would  stand  alone,  and  its  value  at  once  be 
ascertained  ; it  having  been  already  stated  that  any  operation 
may  be  performed  on  one  side  of  the  equation,  provided  only 
the  same  operation  be  performed  on  the  other,  it  follows  that 
5 may  be  subtracted  from  the  left  side,  if  subtracted  likewise 
from  the  right ; therefore,  •*■  + 5 — 5 = 12  — 5;  but  5—5  be- 
ing equal  to  o,  the  equation  would  more  properly  be  expressed 
thus,  x — 12  — 5 ; that  is  to  say,  the  value  of  x is  7.  Again, 
in  the  equation  x — 10  = 27,  add  ten  to  each  side  of  the 
equation  ; then,  x — 10  +-  10  = 27  + 10  ; but  — 10  + 10  = o ; 
therefore,  x — 27  + 10.  When  the  same  quantity  is  thus  sub- 
tracted from  both  sides  of  an  equation,  or  added  to  both 
sides,  the  operation  is  technically,  though  perhaps  incorrectly, 
termed,  “ transposing  quantities  from  one  side  of  an  equation 
to  the  other.” 

The  reason  why  the  same  operation  performed  upon  both 
sides  of  an  equation  does  not  alter  their  equality,  is  simply 
because  “if  equal  quantities  be  added  to,  or  subtracted  from, 
equal  quantities,  the  value  of  the  quantities  will  still  be 
equal.”  To  illustrate  this,  supposing  a wine-merchant  has  2 
casks  of  wine,  each  cask  containing  36  gallons,  it  is  evident 
that,  if  he  draws  off  the  same  number  of  gallons  from  each 
cask,  the  quantity  of  gallons  remaining  in  each  cask  will  still 
be  equal  ; so,  if  he  were  to  replace  the  same  number  of  gal- 
lons of  wine  in  each  cask,  the  number  of  gallons  contained  in 
each  would  still  be  equal  to  each  other.  For  the  same  reason, 
if  the  two  sides  of  an  equation  were  either  multiplied  or  divi- 
ded by  the  same  number,  their  equality  to  each  other  would 
still  remain  ; in  the  equation  3 x — 27,  the  value  of  x may  be 
discovered  by  dividing  both  sides  of  the  equation  by  its  coeffi- 

'lX  27  *XX  27 

cient,  3 ; thus  — = — ; but  — = x,  and—  = q ; x — a. 
3 3 3 3 

In  the  same  way,  if  the  unknown  quantity  in  an  equation  is 
required  to  be  divided  by  some  known  quantity,  each  side  of 
the  equation  may  be  multiplied  by  the  divisor  : thus,  in  the 
x 

equation  — = 32,  if  each  member  be  multiplied  by  4,  the  re- 
sult will  be  x = 32  x 4 = 128.  This  is  technically  called 
clearing  an  equation  of  fractions. 

ON  SIMPLE  EQUATIONS  CONTAINING  TWO 
OR  MORE  UNKNOWN  QUANTITIES. 

It  may  be  given  as  a general  rule,  that  when  a question 


arises  as  to  the  value  of  two  or  more  unknown  quantities,  each 
of  these  quantities  must  be  represented  by  one  of  the  last  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet,  and  as  many  separate  equations  must  be 
deduced  from  the  question  as  there  are  unknown  quantities. 
A group  of  equations  of  this  kind  is  called  a system  of  simul- 
taneous equations. 

If  it  be  required  to  solve  a system  of  two  simple  equations, 
containing  two  unknown  quantities,  the  most  natural  method 
seems  to  be  to  determine  first  the  value  of  one  of  the  unknown 
quantities  by  means  of  both  the  equations.  Then  as  “ things 
which  are  equal  to  the  same  thing  are  equal  to  each  other,” 
it  follows  that  the  two  sets  of  numbers  or  letters  in  the  two 
equations,  which  have  been  ascertained  to  be  equal  to  the 
value  of  x,  will  also  be  equal  to  each  other,  and  may  be  re- 
duced to  an  equation,  which  will  contain  only  one  unknown 
quantity.  This  process  is  technically  called  elimination.  Let 
it,  for  instance,  be  required  to  find  the  length  of  two  planks 
of  wood  : the  length  of  both  planks  together  is  20  feet,  and 
one  plank  is  8 feet  longer  than  the  other  plank.  This  is  evi- 
dently a question  involving  two  unknown  quantities,  namely, 
the  length  of  each  of  the  two  planks  of  wood.  To  translate 
this  question  into  algebraical  language,  call  the  longer  plank 
x,  and  the  shorter  plank/,  then  the  facts  above  mentioned 
may  be  thus  stated  : x + y = 20,  and  x — y — 8.  The  value 
of  x may  be  ascertained  by  means  of  both  the  equations,  in 
the  following  manner  : — 

The  first  equation  gives  x = 20  — / 

And  the  second,  x = 8 + / 

The  two  values  of  x,  thus  ascertained,  must  form  a new  equa- 
tion, thus  : — 

20  — / = 8 + / 

20  = 8 + 2/ 

So  that  it  is  evident  from  this  last  equation  that  2 y is  equal 
to  12,  because  20  — 8 = 12;  therefore  y = 6,  and  20  — 6 = 
14.  The  length  of  both  the  planks  is  thus  ascertained,  the 
longer  being  14  feet  in  length,  and  the  shorter  6 feet. 

This  problem  is  not  only  given  as  an  example  of  elimina- 
tion, but  also  as  an  illustration  of  the  general  theorem,  that 
“ the  greater  of  two  numbers  is  equal  to  half  their  sum,  plus 
half  their  difference  ; and  that  the  less  number  is  equal  to  half 
the  sum,  minus  half  the  difference.”  Thus  the  above  ques- 
tion might  have  been  solved  in  the  following  manner  : — 

20  8 , 20  8 

— + - = 14,  and =6 

22  22 

The  following  is  the  method  of  demonstrating  this  curious 
theorem  algebraically  : — Let  a and  b be  any  two  numbers  of 
which  a is  the  greater,  and  let  their  sum  be  represented  by  .s; 
and  their  difference  by  d ; 

Then,  a + b = s 
and  a — b = d 

2 a — s + d 
s d 


a = — H — 
2 2 


and 

Also,  2 b — s — d 
and 


b=s—  i 

2 2 


Js 


ALGEBRA. 


A quadratic  equation  literally  means  a squared  equation , the 
term  being  derived  from  the  Latin  quadratus,  squared ; a 
quadratic  equation,  therefore,  is  merely  an  equation  in  which 
the  unknown  quantity  is  squared  or  raised  to  the  second  pow- 
er. Quadratic  equations  are  often  called  equations  of  two 
dimensions,  or  of  the  second  degree,  because  all  equations  are 
classed  according  to  the  index  of  the  highest  power  of  the 
unknown  quantities  contained  in  them. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  quadratic  equations,  namely,  pure 
and  adfected.  Pure  quadratic  equations  are  those  in  which 
the  first  power  of  the  unknown  quantity  does  not  appear : 
there  is  not  the  least  difficulty  in  solving  such  equations,  be- 
cause all  that  is  requisite  is  to  obtain  the  value  of  the  square 
according  to  the  rules  for  solving  simple  equations,  and  then, 
hy  extracting  the  square  root  of  both  sides  of  the  equation,  to 


ascertain  the  value  of  the  unknown  quantity.  For  instance, 
let  it  be  required  to  find  the  value  of  x in  the  equation  jt5  + 4 
:=  29.  By  deducting  4 from  each  side  of  the  equation,  the 
value  of  xl  is  at  once  seen  to  be  as  follows  : x‘  — 29  — 4 = 25 ; 
the  square  root  of  both  sides  of  this  equation  will  evidently 
give  the  value  of  x,  thus, . 4/  25  = 5.  Adfected  ox  affected 

quadratic  equations  are  such  as  contain  not  only  the  square, 
but  also  the  first  power  of  the  unknown  quantities. 

There  are  two  methods  of  solving  quadratic  equations  ; we 
are  indebted  to  the  Hindoos  for  one  of  these  methods,  of 
which  a full  account  is  given  in  a very  curious  Hindoo  work 
entitled  Bija  Ganita.  The  other  method  was  discovered  by 
the  early  Italian  algebraists.  The  principle  upon  which  both 
methods  are  founded  is  the  following  : It  is  evident  that  in 

an  adfected  equation,  as  for  instance,  ax r2  + b x — d,  the  first 
member,  ax1  + bx,  is  not  a complete  square  ; it  is,  however, 
necessary  for  the  solution  of  the  equation  that  the  first  side 
should  be  so  modified  as  to  be  made  a complete  square,  and 
that,  by  corresponding  additions,  multiplications,  etc.,  the 
equality  of  the  second  side  should  not  be  lost  ; then,  by  ex- 
tracting the  square  root  of  each  side,  the  equation  will  be  re- 
duced to  one  of  the  first  degree,  which  may  be  solved  by  thf 
common  process. 


A* 

GYMNASTICS.  249  » 


Gymnastics  is  a sys- 
tem of  exercises  which 
develop  and  invigorate 
the  body,  particularly  the 
muscular  system.  If 
properly  directed,  gym- 
nastics will  enlarge  and 
strengthen  the  various  mus- 
cles of  the  trunk,  neck,  arms, 
and  legs,  and  will  expand  the 
chest  so  as  to  facilitate  the 
play  of  the  lungs,  will  render 
the  joints  supple,  and  will 
impart  to  the  person  grace, 
ease,  and  steadiness  of  car- 
riage, combined  with  strength,  elasticity,  and  quick- 
ness of  movement ; but  an  injudicious  mode  of  exer- 
cise will  frequently  confirm  and  aggravate  those 
physical  imperfections  for  which  a remedy  is  sought, 
by  developing  the  muscular  system  unequally. 


WALKING,  RUNNING,  JUMPING,  AND  LEAP- 
ING. 

In  Walking,  the  arms  should  move  freely  by  the  side,  the 
head  be  kept  up,  the  stomach  in,  the  shoulders  back,  the  feet 
parallel  with  the  ground,  and  the  body  resting  neither  on  the 
toe  nor  heel,  but  on  the  ball  of  the  foot.  On  starting,  the 
pupil  should  raise  one  foot,  keep  the  knee  and  instep  straight, 
the  toe  bent  downward.  When  this  foot  reaches  the  ground, 
the  same  should  be  repeated  with  the  other.  This  should  be 
practised  until  the  pupil  walks  firmly  and  gracefully. 

In  Running,  the  legs  should  not  be  raised  too  high  ; the 
arms  should  be  nearly  still,  so  that  no  unnecessary  opposition 
be  given  to  the  air  by  useless  motions.  In  swift  running  the 


swing  of  the  arms  should  be  from  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow, 
the  fore-arm  being  kept  nearly  horizontal  with  the  chest. 
Running  in  a circle  is  excellent  exercise,  but  the  direction 
should  be  changed  occasionally,  so  that  both  sides  of  the 
ground  may  be  equally  worked  : as  if  the  ground  be  not  kept 
level,  the  runners  will  find  it  difficult  to  maintain  their 
equilibrium. 

Jumping. — The  first  rule  is,  to  fall  on  the  toes,  and  never 
on  the  heels.  Bend  the  knees,  that  the  calves  of  the  legs  may 
touch  the  thighs.  Swing  the  arms  forward  when  taking  a 
spring  ; break  the  fall  with  the  hands  if  necessary  ; hold  the 
breath,  keep  the  body  forward,  come  to  the  ground  with  both 
feet  together,  and,  in  taking  the  run,  let  your  steps  be  short, 
and  increase  in  quickness  as  you  approach  the  leap. 

Leaping. — The  Long  Leap. — Make  a trench,  which  widens 
gradually  from  one  end  to  the  other,  so  that  the  breadth  of 
the  leap  may  be  increased  daily.  Keep  the  feet  close  together, 
and  take  your  spring  from  the  toes  of  one  foot,  which  should 
be  quickly  drawn  up  to  the  other,  and  they  should  descend  at 
the  same  instant  ; throw  the  arms  and  body  forward,  especi- 
ally in  descending.  Take  a run  of  about  twenty  paces. 

The  Deep  Leap. — This  is  performed  from  the  top  of  a wall, 
or  a flight  of  steps,  increasing  the  depth  according  to  the  pro- 
gress of  the  pupil.  The  body  should  be  bent  forward,  the  feet 
close  together,  and  the  hands  ready  to  touch  the  ground  at 
the  same  time  with,  or  rather  before  the  feet. 

The  High  Leap. — This  leap  can  best  be  taken  over  a light 
fence  that  will  give  way  in  the  event  of  its  being  touched  by 
the  feet.  It  may  be  taken  either  standing  or  with  a run  : for 
the  former,  the  legs  should  be  kept  together,  and  the  feet  and 
knees  raised  in  a straight  direction  ; for  the  latter,  we  recom- 
mend a short  run,  and  a light  tripping  step,  gradually  quick- 
ened as  the  object  to  be  leaped  over  is  approached.  \ ou 
should  be  particularly  careful  not  to  alight  on  your  heels,  but 
rather  on  the  toes  and  balls  of  the  feet. 

Let  a set  of  apparatus  be  erected  after  the  pattern  we  are 
about  to  give,  and  use  be  made  of  it  as  we  shall  recommend, 
and  we  will  guarantee  that  there  shall  be  fewer  accidents  in  a 


GYMNASTICS. 


*50 


whole  year  than  may  be  looked  for  in  any  ordinary  high  field- 
day  at  football  ; nay,  more  than  this — that  it  shall  prove  not 
only  a less  perilous  pastime  than  any  of  the  regular  outdoor 
sports,  but  actually  a preservative  against  accidents  from  other 
causes. 


Our  apparatus  will  consist  of  the  following  : horizontal  bar, 
hanging  bar,  parallel  bars,  vaulting-horse,  ladder,  hanging 
ropes,  and  the  usual  ct  ceteras.  Of  these  latter,  however,  we 
shall  not  take  notice  here  ; our  attention  will  be  entirely 
directed  to  the  more  advanced  exercises. 

The  Horizontal  Bar  should  be  set  up  as  follows  : If 

intended  as  a permanency,  two  strong  posts  must  be  let  into 
the  ground  or  into  iron  sockets,  standing  seven  feet  apart  and 
about  eight  feet  in  height  ; these  are  to  support  the  bar,  which 
must  be  made  to  shift  up  and  down  in  grooves  cut  in  the  posts, 
so  as  to  be  easily  adapted  to  the  height  of  the  performer. 
This  bar  should  be  of  straight-grained  ash,  seven  feet  between 
the  uprights,  an  inch  and  three-quarters  in  diameter,  perfectly 
round,  with  a steel  core  an  inch  thick  running  through  the 
centre.  This  last  is  a very  important  point. 

If  there  be  no  steel  core,  then  the  bar  must  be  reduced  at 
least  one  foot  in  length  and  increased  to  two  inches  diameter  ; 
both  of  which,  especially  the  latter,  as  making  it  clumsy  to 
thp  grasp  of  an  ordinary  hand,  will  detract  much  from  its  prac- 
tical value. 

The  bar  must  be  so  fastened  to  the  uprights  that  there  shall 
be  no  unsteadiness  or  vibration.  A wabbly  bar  is  a terrible 
nuisance,  and  is  apt  to  throw  one  out  of  all  calculation  just  at 
the  critical  point  of  a feat. 

If  for  private  use,  or  it  be  thought  desirable  to  make  it  port- 
able, the  method  of  construction  figured  in  our  cut  (Fig.  i) 
will  be  found  very  convenient  and  serviceable,  and,  what  is 
more,  thoroughly  trustworthy. 

The  Hanging  Bar  must  be  very  carefully  constructed.  The 
ropes  should  be  attached  securely  to  a good,  firm,  unyielding 
support,  about  fifteen  or  eighteen  feet  from  the  ground — this 
will  be  quite  sufficient  height — and  the  bar,  which  should  be 
about  twenty-six  inches  long  by  one-and-a-quarter  in  diameter, 
with  a steel  core  as  before,  must  be  firmly  attached  to  the 


ropes,  so  as  to  afford  a safe  hold.  Above  all  things,  it  must 
not  revolve  in  the  g}  asp.  The  height  from  the  ground  must  be 
regulated  by  the  stature  of  the  performer. 

The  Parallel  Bars  are  very  seldom  constructed  with  any- 
thing like  correctness  of  shape  or  proportions.  A couple  of 
clumsy  rails — one  might  almost  say  beams— laid  across  two 
pairs  of  posts  at  any  height  from  the  ground  and  at  any  dis- 
tance apart,  are  set  up,  dubbed  “parallel  bars,”  and  are  sup- 
posed to  be  ail  that  could  be  desired.  But,  as  might  be  sup- 
posed if  people  only  took  the  trouble  to  think,  parallel  bars, 
to  be  of  any  real  service,  require  as  nice  an  adaptation  to  their 
purposes  as  any  other  mechanical  contrivance. 

The  bars  or  rails,  being  intended  for  the  grasp  of  the  hands, 
must  be  of  such  size  and  shape  as  will  afford  the  best  grasp, 
and  their  height  and  distance  apart  must  be  adapted  to  the 
stature  of  those  for  whose  use  they  are  intended. 

The  size  of  the  bars  is  especially  important : if  they  be  too 
large  for  a fair  grasp,  not  only  is  the  hand  likely  to  slip  and  a 
heavy  fall  to  result,  but  there  is  great  danger  to  the  wrist  and 
thumb  of  serious  sprains  or  dislocation.  Moreover,  when  a 
fair  grasp  is  impossible,  many  of  the  exercises — most  of  them, 
indeed — are  also  ipso  facto  impossible,  and  thus  many  begin- 
ners are  disgusted  at  the  outset  : they  are  told  to  begin  with 
such  and  such  exercises,  as  simple  preliminaries  to  others  more 
advanced  ; they  find  after  repeated  trials  that  they  cannot  even 
make  a commencement,  and  naturally  soon  give  up  the  whole 
thing  in  despair. 

For  ordinary  purposes,  that  is,  for  people  not  of  exceptional 
stature,  the  most  useful  dimensions  are  these  : height  from  the 
ground,  four  feet  eight  inches  ; distance  apart,  eighteen 
inches,  or  nineteen  at  most  ; for  boys,  seventeen  or  even  six- 
teen will  be  sufficient.  The  length  should  not  be  less  than 
seven  feet,  and  the  bars  should  be  round,  and  of  a diameter  of 
twc-and-an-eighth  inches. 

Oval  bars  are  sometimes  used,  but  we  prefer  *he  round  ones. 


as  they  feel  more  natural,  most  of  the  other  apparatus  being  of 
similar  form. 

For  the  uprights  no  dimensions  need  be  given  : all  that  is 


GYMNASTICS. 


251 


needful  is  that  they  should  be  sufficiently  strong.  They 
should  be  fitted  into  a stout  wooden  frame,  firmly  morticed 
together.  When  in  use,  this  frame  must  be  fastened  to  the 
floors  by  screws.  If  required  for  a playground,  or  any  place 
where  it  is  necessary  to  have  them  fixed,  they  may  readily  be 
secured  by  wooden  stakes  or  wedges  driven  into  the  ground. 

A more  convenient  way  is  to  sink  the  posts  permanently 
into  the  ground  ; but  then  they  are  liable  to  decay  from  the 
damp,  and  thus  to  become  unsafe. 

The  Vaulting-Horse  is  of  all  gymnastic  apparatus  that 
which  has  been  hitherto  most  neglected. 

There  are  various  lengths  for  these  horses,  but  the  one  you 
will  find  to  be  the  most  generally  useful  is  six  feet  long  and 
about  sixteen  inches  across  the  back.  It  is  covered  with  cow- 
hide all  over  and  evenly  padded,  and  is  generally  made  with 
one  end  a little  raised,  with  a slight  bend  corresponding  to 
the  neck  of  the  animal  which  is  its  prototype  ; and  this  gives 
some  form  to  it,  and  is  useful  as  a mark  where  to  place  the 
hands. 

There  are  two  pommels  placed  about  the  centre,  eighteen 
inches  apart,  and  movable,  so  that  the  horse  may  be  used  with- 
out them  if  required  ; and  in  this  case  flush  pommels,  level 
with  the  back  of  the  horse,  are  inserted  into  the  grooves. 

The  legs  must  be  made  to  slide  up  and  down  after  the  man- 
ner of  a telescope,  so  that  the  horse  may  be  used  at  heights 
varying  from  about  three  feet  six  inches  to  six  feet. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  have  a solid  deal  board,  about  three 
feet  square,  rising  in  thickness  from  a feather-edge  to  three 
inches,  for  taking  what  is  technically  termed  a “beat”  off 


which  is  very  useful  in  exercises  which  require  to  be  performed 
lengthways  on  the  horse.  Of  course  it  is  not  used  as  aspring- 
board,  but  only  to  give  a firm  foundation  for  the  feet  in  jump- 
ing, and  particularly  to  mark  the  place  of  starting  when  in- 
creasing or  diminishing  the  distance  from  the  horse. 

The  ladders,  hanging  ropes,  and  so  on,  we  need  not  de- 
scribe. There  are.  however,  two  more  requisites  to  which  we 
should  wish  to  direct  attention.  One  is  the  Hand-Rings  : 
two  ropes,  as  if  for  a hanging  bar,  but  terminating  instead 
each  in  an  iron  ring  covered  with  leather,  and  large  enough 


for  the  hand  to  grasp  comfortably.  These  rings  are  made  of 
various  shapes  ; but  that  which  we  recommend  as  the  most 
practically  useful  is  the  stirrup. 

One  other  requisite,  indispensable  for  safety  in  first  essays 
at  many  of  the  feats  we  shall  describe,  is  the  Lungers,  so 
called.  This  is  a strong  broad  leather  belt  to  buckle  round 
the  waist,  with  an  iron  ring  or  eye  at  each  side.  To  these 
eyes  are  strongly  attached  ropes,  one  on  each  side,  of  sufficient 
strength  to  support  the  weight  of  the  wearer.  The  figure 
will  indicate  the  method  of  using  it.”  (Fig.  4.) 


Fig.  4. 


This  is  an  invaluable  safeguard  for  novices,  and  enables 
many  to  learn  quickly — simply  by  the  fearlessness  it  engen- 
ders— many  a difficult  feat  which  they  would  otherwise  never 
dream  of  attempting. 

We  cannot  help  thinking  that  a similar  appliance,  only  a 
little  more  above  the  centre  of  gravity,  would  prove  of  im- 
mense service  in  learning  difficult  figures  in  skating.  Ladies, 
too,  might  profit  by  it  in  their  first  efforts,  as  all  fear  of  un- 
seemly falls  would  be  quite  dispelled. 

So  much  for  the  construction  of  an  apparatus  ; now  for  the 
use  to  be  made  of  it.  We  will  begin  with 

THE  HORIZONTAL  BAR. 

But  before  we  begin  it  must  first  be  put  into  good  condition. 
Most  likely  there  will  be  a little  grease  on  it  from  previous 
practice,  which  it  is  highly  important  should  be  removed  be- 
fore commencing.  This  is  done  in  the  following  manner : 
Take  a wet  cloth  ( without  soap  or  soda,  as  any  kind  of  alkali 
will  raise  the  grain  of  the  wood  and  make  it  rough  ),  and  rub 
the  bar  with  it ; then  get  a few  feet  of  rope — I find  thick 
sash-line  the  best — give  it  one  turn  round  the  bar,  and  taking 
hold  of  each  end,  rub  it  up  and  down,  gradually  moving  it 
from  one  end  to  the  other.  The  friction  will  dry  the  wood, 
remove  the  grease  or  dirt,  and  put  on  a good  surface. 

The  bar  being  now  in  good  condition,  wash  your  hands  per- 
fectly clean,  and  you  are  ready  to  commence.  You  will  find 
that  there  is  no  resin  required,  which  every  gymnast  is  com- 
pelled to  use  if  the  bar  is  not  kept  in  good  order.  The  use 
of  resin  is  bad  for  various  reasons  : it  will  dirty  your  hands, 
and  if  you  have  not  practiced  much  it  will  cause  blisters  sooner 
than  otherwise.  I have  sometimes  seen  the  skin  of  hard  hands 
torn,  and  wounds  ensue,  preventing  further  practice  for  some 


252 


GYMNASTICS. 


time.  But  if  you  are  obliged  to  use  resin,  do  it  judiciously  : 
powder  a little,  and  rub  only  the  tips  of  the  fingers  in  it  ; 
avoid,  above  all  things,  getting  it  into  the  palm  of  the  hands, 
as  it  will  make  them  stick  to  the  bar,  and  it  is  also  very  likely 
to  cause  jerks  in  swinging,  and  the  grip  will  not  be  so  certain 
as  when  the  hands  move  smoothly  round.  These  details  may 
appear  rather  tedious,  but  you  will  find  them  useful,  as  they 
apply  to  all  apparatus  where  the  wood  is  handled. 

Now,  there  is  another  thing  you  must  bear  in  mind,  and  that 
is,  the  way  in  which  you  must  take  hold  of  the  bar. 

Some  say  that  you  should  take  hold  of  it  as  you  would  a 
handle,  with  the  thumb  underneath  ; but  we  think  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  proper  way  is  the  same  as  that  in  which  a monkey 
holds  the  branch  of  a tree — the  thumb  on  the  same  side  as  the 
fingers.  If  the  thumb  be  underneath,  in  all  ordinary  swing, 
ing  exercises  it  has  a tendency  to  draw  the  fingers  off;  although 
in  some  few  slow  movements  it  may  be  under,  yet,  as  a rule, 
it  is  better  above. 

Now,  keeping  what  has  been  said  in  mind,  let  us  try  some 
actual  exercises. 

Jump  up  at  the  bar,  and  hang  with  the  hands,  the  body, 
arms,  and  legs  perfectly  straight,  and  the  feet  close  together. 

Hardly  anything  looks  woise  than  to  see  the  legs  swinging 
about  in  all  directions  when  you  are  performing  an  exercise  ; 
be  careful,  therefore,  to  keep  them  quite  quiet  ; ever)'  un- 
necessary movement,  you  must  recollect,  is  so  much  wasted 
force,  and  so  much,  therefore,  taken  from  your  chance  of  per- 
forming the  feat. 

To  perform  all  feats  quietly  and  easily  shows  the  finished 
gymnast  ; and  so  far  from  violent  exertions  being  the  test  of 
difficulty,  the  reverse  is  generally  the  case,  and  the  easiest- 
looking  feats  are  very  often  the  hardest,  and  vice  versa,  and, 
besides,  these  irregular  movements  only  tend  to  tire  you. 

Now,  having  hold  of  the  bar  with  both  hands,  draw  your- 
self up  until  the  chin  is  above  the  bar  ; then  lower  the  body 
until  the  arms  are  quite  straight  again. 

Practice  this  exercise  as  often  as  you  can  without  tiring,  or 
until  you  can  perform  it  six  or  eight  times  in  succession,  which 
you  will  not  do  until  you  have  practiced  for  some  little  time. 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  6. 


Beginners  must  now  try  a few  gentle  exercises,  such  as 
hanging  by  each  hand  alternately,  the  other  close  to  the  side. 

Then  begin  to  walk  along  the  bar  by  the  hands,  taking  alter- 
nate steps  with  them,  making  the  steps  as  equal  as  possible, 
and  keeping,  as  we  said  before,  the  legs  hanging  quietly  down. 


Go  in  this  manner  from  one  end  to  the  other,  then  reverse 
the  hands,  and  back  again. 

Now  draw  yourself  up,  with  your  chin  above  the  bar,  as  in 
Fig.  5,  and  repeat  the  walk  in  this  position. 

Next  try  a few  good  swings  backward  and  forward  at  arms' 
length  : you  will  find  that  you  will  swing  farther  each  time, 
until  you  can  swing  your  body  almost  into  a horizontal  posi- 
tion. 

All  these  little  exercises  should  be  repeated  as  often  as  pos 
sible  ; they  help  to  strengthen  the  muscles,  and  accustom  the 
hands  to  the  feel  of  the  bar. 

To  Get  on  the  Bar. — Draw  yourself  up  as  in  the  last 
figure  (Fig.  5),  then  suddenly  drop  the  whole  of  the  right  side, 
raising  at  the  same  time  the  left  leg  and  throwing  it  over  the 
bar,  as  in  Fig.  6.  Now  establish  a good  swing  with  the  right 
leg,  and  you  will  bring  your  body  well  over  the  bar,  when  a 
sudden  exertion  of  muscle  will  bring  you  sitting  in  the  atti- 
tude of  Fig.  7.  This  is  by  no  means  an  easy  thing  to  do  at 
first ; but  persevere,  and,  after  a few  failures,  you  will  sud- 
denly find  you  have  succeeded  : once  accomplished,  it  will 
come  easy  enough. 

At  first  you  will  find  it  hard  matter  enough  to  get  your  legs 
up  to  the  bar  at  all.  Beginners  mostly  try  to  lift  the  toes 
without  bending  the  knees,  and,  of  course,  find  it  beyond 
their  powers.  Bring  your  knees  up  to  your  chin,  doubling 
your  feet  well  into  your  body,  and  you  will  find  it  come  easy 
enough. 


There  is  another  method  of  getting  on  to  the  bar,  by  bring, 
ing  the  leg  up  through  the  hands,  and  with  one  good  swing 
bringing  yourself  roundly  up. 

You  may  try  either  of  these  methods,  but  nothing  but  con- 
tinued practice  will  enable  you  to  master  either  of  them  ; but 
when  you  do,  and  can  get  on  to  the  bar  in  a respectable  man- 
ner, you  may  consider  you  are  making  some  progress.  We 
now  proceed  to 

The  Leg-Swing. — Being  in  your  original  position,  as  in 
Fig.  7,  throw  your  right  leg  as  far  behind  you  as  possible,  at 
the  same  time  slipping  the  other  leg  backward,  and  catching 
by  the  bend  of  the  knee,  as  in  Fig.  8.  Then  throw  the  head 
back  with  a good  swing  (keeping  the  arms  straight),  and  you 
will  thus  make  one  turn  backward  round  the  bar. 

You  will  find  at  first  you  are  apt  to  make  a half-turn  too 
much ; but  after  a little  practice  you  will  be  able  to  regulate 
the  first  swing  so  as  to  go  round  once,  and  come  up  into  your 
first  position  with  a good  balance. 


GYMNASTICS. 


253 


Next  try  two  or  three  turns  without  stopping  ; but  always 
endeavor  to  finish  above  the  bar,  as  at  starting.  It  is  bad  to 
stop  as  in  Fig  g,  as  you  are  disabled  for  the  next  exercise. 


For  the  forward  swing,  reverse  the  hands,  keeping  the 
whole  weight  of  the  body  on  the  arms,  throw  the  head  well  (o 
the  front,  and  with  one  plunge  forwaid— keeping  tight  hold 
with  the  hands,  and  the  body  elect,  as  in  Fig.  10 — you  will 
make  one  forward  revolution  round  the  bar. 

After  some  practice,  you  will  be  able  to  go  round  several 
times  without  stopping. 

This  exercise  is  actually  easier  than  the  former,  but  it  re- 
quires more  confidence,  for  the  want  of  which  you  arc  apt  to 
keep  too  close  to  the  bar,  and  thus  you  do  not  get  sufficient 
swing  to  bring  you  up  again. 

Practice  both  these  exercises  with  right  and  left  legs  alter- 
nately. 

Sitting  on  the  Bar. — Having  accomplished  the  backward 
leg-swing,  we  will  now  proceed  to  something  a little  more 
difficult. 

You  will  now  get  on  to  the  bar  as  in  Fig.  7,  with  leg  over ; 
now  try  to  balance  yourself  in  this  position  without  holding 
by  your  hands  ; having  succeeded,  take  hold  of  the  bar  witii 
both  hands  behind  you,  and  pass  the  hanging  leg  over  the  bar 
into  a sitting  position,  as  in  Fig.  11. 

Now  practice  a few  different  balances  while  sitting  ; that  is, 
with  the  bar  under  different  parts  of  the  thigh. 


Try  to  sit  almost  straight,  and  again  with  the  bar  just  within 
the  angle  of  the  knee.  This  must  be  done  without  touching 
the  bar  with  the  hands. 


We  now  come  to 

The  Sit-Swing. — This  is  so  called  from  its  being  a swing 
performed  while  sitting  on  the  bar,  and  we  will  commence 
with  the  backward  swing. 

The  “ sit-swing”  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  leg-swing,  but, 
of  course,  more  difficult,  as  in  the  latter  the  weight  of  the 
body  is  mostly  on  the  leg  ; but  in  the  present  exercise  the 
whole  weight  is  thrown  upon  the  arms,  therefore  requiring 
more  strength. 

While  sitting  on  the  bar,  as  in  the  last  figure,  but  holding 
with  the  hands,  straighten  the  arms,  and  let  them  support  a 
great  part  of  the  weight  of  the  body  ; now  throw  yourself 
backwards  with  a good  swing,  still  keeping  a firm  hold  of  the 
bar  with  both  hands. 

Now,  the  object  of  this  movement  is  to  go  quite  round  the 
bar  in  the  swing,  and  thus  make  one  complete  revolution, 
which  is  called  the  “sit-swing  backward  but  of  course  no 
one  can  expect  to  accomplish  this  feat  at  once. 

The  fiist  few  times  you  attempt  it,  you  will  most  likely  find 
yourself  hanging  with  the  weight  of  l he  body  beneath  the  bar, 
and  with  the  momentum  of  the  swing  gone. 

In  this  case,  all  you  can  do  is  to  let  your  legs  pass  through 
your  arms,  and  thus  drop  on  to  the  ground  ; but  you  must  re- 
peat the  movement  until  you  are  able  to  swing  quite  round- 


The  way  to  practice  this  is,  to  swing  about  three-quarters 
round,  and  then  to  come  back  into  the  sitting  postuie  again. 
This  will  give  you  confidence,  and  after  a time  you  will  feel 
yourself  able  to  go  all  the  way  round,  and  to  come  up  into 
your  original  position. 

For  some  time  you  will  find  that  you  will  come  up  in  rather 
an  awkward  manner,  without  having  swing  enough  to  balance 
yourself,  and  theiefore  you  will  fall  forward  again  ; in  which 
case  you  must  be  prepared  to  let  go  with  the  hands,  and  to 
throw  yourself  off  the  bar  on  to  your  feet  ; or,  what  is  much 
better,  to  have  some  one  standing  in  front,  in  readiness  to 
catch  you  as  you  come  off. 

But  you  may  take  comfort,  for  when  you  can  get  thus  far 
the  feat  is  nearly  achieved,  and  after  a few  more  trials  you 
will  be  rewarded  by  feeling  yourself  able  to  accomplish  the 
“ sit-swing.” 

In  the  forward  sit-swing,  the  first  start  is  the  principal  thing, 
as  the  impetus  gained  will  be  sufficient  to  bring  you  up  again. 
In  order  to  get  a good  start,  you  must,  raise  the  body  as  far 


254 


GYMNASTICS. 


away  from  the  bar  as  possible,  supporting  the  whole  weight 
on  the  arms,  as  in  Fig.  13  ; now  throw  the  chest  out  and  the 
head  back,  with  the  legs  rather  straight,  then  with  a good 
plunge  forward,  keeping  the  arms  straight  as  in  Fig.  15,  you 
will  go  quite  round  ; that  is  to  say,  you  will  in  time,  for  you 
must  not  think  of  succeeding  at  first  in  any  of  these  feats,  but 
perseverance  will  soon  enable  you  to  accomplish  them. 

You  will  find  in  practicing  this  exercise,  that  some  of  your 
strength  will  be  expended  in  getting  on  to  the  bar  again  after 
each  failure.  I will  now  show  you  a very  good  way  of  getting 
into  the  sitting  position  again,  while  hanging,  as  in  Fig  9. 
Straighten  the  body  as  in  Fig.  15,  and  draw  your  center  of 
gravity  a little  above  the  bar,  then,  bending  the  body  again 
slightly,  you  will  roll  quite  over  so  as  to  come  into  a sitting 
position  again.  This  movement  is  called  the  “ Plymouth.” 

Hanging  by  the  Legs. — Cet  on  to  the  bar  in  a sitting 
position,  and  then  throw  yourself  off  backward,  as  for  a sit- 
swing ; but,  instead  of  going  round,  drop  the  body  and  bend 
your  knees,  and  thus  let  them  catch  on  the  bar,  getting  a firm 
grip  with  them,  at  the  same  time  letting  go  your  hands  as  in 
Fig.  17. 

A young  beginner  should  practice  this  on  a low  bar,  so  that, 
when  he  hangs  by  the  legs,  his  hands  will  touch  the  ground  ; 
and  thus,  when  he  is  getting  tired  and  cannot  raise  himself,  he 
may  let  his  legs  drop,  and  come  on  to  his  hands  on  the  floor 


safely.  He  may  then  get  on  to  the  bar  again,  hanging  by  the 
knees  as  before,  and  practice  swinging  backward  and  forward 
■ is  high  as  he  can.  At  first  the  friction  will  make  the  legs  a 
little  sore,  but  the  muscles  will  soon  harden  with  practice. 

There  are  a few  other  leg  exercises  which  may  be  practiced 
with  advantage,  and  which  will  afford  variety,  and  also  help 
to  bring  all  the  muscles  into  play. 

One  of  these  is  shown  in  Fig.  iS,  where  you  hang  on  the 
bar  with  one  leg,  stretching  the  other  straight  out  with  the  toe 
against  the  under  side  of  the  bar,  and  the  exercise  is  to  bend 
the  body  up  and  down.  This  should  be  done  with  right  and 
left  legs  alternately. 

A performance  which  is  also  very  showy  (although  we  should 
not  advise  any  one  to  attempt  it  without  very  good  nerve  and 
also  strength  in  the  legs),  is  the  standing  balance  on  the 
bar. 


This  may  be  practiced  on  a bar  as  low  as  you  like,  so  that 
you  can  easily  jump  off  ; but  of  course  it  looks  better  on  a bar 
of  ordinary  height. 

While  sitting  on  the  bar,  lift  one  foot  and  gradually  bring 
it  on  to  the  bar,  as  in  Fig.  19,  and  then  raise  yourself  up 
standing,  as  in  Fig.  20,  a feat  which,  of  course  requires  great 


strength  in  the  legs,  and  a good  command  of  balancing  power. 
Now  endeavor  to  walk  forward  and  backward  by  shifting  the 
feet  ; and  if  you  lose  your  balance,  jump  off  the  bar  altogether, 
without  trying  to  recover  it,  and  get  up  again. 

Hanging  by  the  Toes. — This  will  make  a good  finish 
after  the  standing  balance  on  the  bar.  To  do  it  artistically, 
stand  first  on  one  foot,  then  on  the  other, 
turn  round,  let  yourself  down,  and  drop 
quietly  and  smoothly  beneath  the  bar,  hook 
your  toes  on  to  it,  and  hang  down  quite 
straight  with  your  arms  folded  across  your 
chest.  (See  Fig.  21.) 

This,  if  done  without  stopping,  has  a good 
effect  ; but  of  course  you  must  not  expect  to 
accomplish  anything  in  this  style  for  some 
time,  and  therefore  must  be  content  simply 
to  hang  by  your  hands,  and  then  bring  your 
legs  up,  and  h»ok  your  toes  over  the  bar,  tak- 
ing care,  the  moment  you  let  go  with  your 
hands,  to  straighten  the  body  and  stretch  out 
your  arms,  so  as  to  save  your  head  if  you 
should  chance  to  slip. 

Vaulting  over  the  Bar  is  a very  useful  exercise,  and  quite 
as  well  performed  on  the  horizontal  bar  as  on  the  vaulting- 
horse,  if  your  choice  of  ayjparatus  should  be  limited. 

Try  it  first  on  a bar  about  three  feet  six  inches  from  the 
ground,  and  gradually  raise  it ; but  take  care  not  to  overtask 
your  powers  by  having  it  too  high  for  you,  as  very  often,  when 
young  gymnasts  find  that  they  are  getting  on  respectably, 
they  are  very  apt  to  be  too  ambitious,  and  to  attempt  heights 
far  beyond  their  powers.  About  four  feet  six  inches  is  a fair 
height  for  a person  about  five  feet  four  or  five,  to  begin  with. 
Learn  to  clear  this  clean  and  in  correct  style,  before  you  at. 
tempt  anything  higher. 

As  vaulting  is  by  no  means  a difficult  feat,  to  look  well  it 


GYMNASTICS. 


25i 


should  be  done  in  good  style.  To  make  a clean  vault,  the 
body  should  be  kept  as  straight  and  as  far  away  from  the  bar 

as  possible  (see  Fig.  22), 
and  should  be  practiced 
right  and  left  alike. 

No  careful  gymnast 
need  ever  be  afraid  of  in- 
jury if  he  uses  his  brain 
as  well  as  his  body,  and 
you  will  find  that,  if  a 
mishap  occurs,  it  is  gen- 
erally to  some  one  who 
attempts  exercises  with- 
out taking  into  consid- 
eration in  what  different  positions  he  may  come  off  the 
apparatus  ; but  all  these  exercises  may  be  gone  through  safely 
if  sufficient  precautions  are  taken  at  first.  Mr.  Spencer  says 
on  this  head  : 

“ I am  sure  I can  speak  for  myself,  having  often  in  former 
times  made  myself  quite  a laughingstock  at  the  gymnasium 
from  the  careful  way  in  which  I have  tried  new  exercises 
which  had  any  risk  attending  them.  But  * let  those  laugh 
who  win.’ 

“ I first  put  on  the  ‘ lungers  ’ (which  you  will  find  repre- 
sented and  described  on  page  251),  with  a comrade  on  each 
side  to  hold  the  ropes,  and  something  soft  underneath  (such  as 
a mattress,  tan  bark,  or  any  other  suitable  material),  and  hav- 
ing some  one  in  front  to  prevent  my  pitching  forward  when  I 
came  down. 

“ This  is  as  you  might  have  seen  me  when  trying  my  first 
‘ fall-back,’  or  other  difficult  exercises  ; and  what  was  the  re- 
sult ? Why,  I tried  many  times,  and  fell  many  times,  and 
should  have  hurt  myself  many  times  had  I not  been  caught. 

“ But  I knew  I was  perfectly  safe,  from  the  precautions 
taken  (I  did  not  mind  the  look),  and  this  gave  me  confidence, 
and  left  me  at  liberty  to  give  my  whole  attention  to  the  feat  I 
was  attempting  ; and  since  then  I have  done  that,  and  many 
other  more  difficult  feats,  numerous  times,  without  the  slightest 
injury." 

HANGING  BAR. 

The  exercises  on  this  will  be  much  the  same  as  those  on  the 
fixed  bar.  We  shall  not,  therefore,  with  the  limited  space  at 
our  disposal,  do  more  than  recommend  it  as  an  agreeable 
change  from  the  fixed  bar.  Its  use  as  a flying  trapeze  is  too 
dangerous  for  ordinary  boys  to  attempt,  and  we  shall  there- 
fore not  introduce  it  here. 

THE  PARALLEL  BARS. 


You  may  commence  with  the  parallel  bars,  as  in  the  hori- 
zontal bar,  with  the  simple  movements  which  any  one  would 
naturally  perform  upon  them  ; such  as  standing  between  them, 
and  with  a spring  placing  a hand  upon  each,  and  thus  support- 
ing the  weight  of  the  body. 

When  you  have  become  somewhat  used  to  them  in  this  way, 
commence  swinging  backwards  and  forwards,  with  the  legs 
straight  down,  trying  to  go  higher  each  time. 

Of  course,  if  you  have  practiced  on  the  horizontal  bar,  the 
preliminary  exercises  will  be  mastered  at  once  ; but  as  it  is 


possible  that  some  may  commence  on  the  parallels,  I give  this 
short  description  of  these  simple  movements. 

The  first  exercise  after  you  are  on  the  bars  should  be 
The  Walk. — This  is  very  simple,  being  performed  by 
jumping  up  and  placing  one  hand  on  each  bar,  with  the  body 
hanging  suspended  between  them  as  before. 

Now  walk  along  the  bar  by  taking  steps  with  the  arms, 
making  them  as  evenly  and  regularly  as  you  can,  keeping  the 
head  well  up,  and  the  body  perfectly  straight. 

Walk  in  this  way  from  one  end  to  the  other,  and  when  you 
can  do  this  easily,  walk  back  in  the  same  way,  without  turning 
round.  Then  let  the  body  sink  down  as  in  Fig.  23,  and 
hop  from  one  end  to  the  other  backward  and  forward.  This 
you  will  find  capital  practice  for  the  muscles  of  the  arms, 
although  rather  tiring  at  first. 


When  this  hopping  movement  is  done  with  a good  swing, 
so  as  to  go  forward  or  backward  some  considerable  distance, 
it  has  a very  good  effect,  and  is  called  “ The  Grasshopper.” 

Vaulting  Movements  are  performed  by  getting  up  be- 
tween the  bars  as  for  the  walk,  placing  yourself  near  the 
centre  of  the  bars. 

Now  swing  backwards  and  forwards  until  you  are  able  to 
throw  both  legs  over  one  side  of  the  bars  in  front  of  you,  as 
in  Fig.  24. 

Now  with  another  swing  bring  them  back  again,  and  throw 
them  over  behind  you  on  the  same  side  as  before.  (Fig.  25.) 


There  are  several  of  these  movements  which  may  be  prac 
ticed  with  great  advantage  to  the  muscles.  Another  is  showr 
in  Fig.  26. 

This  is  one  of  many  which  may  be  gone  through  while  in 


GYMNASTICS. 


250 


this  position  on  the  bars,  the  dotted  line  showing  the  serpentine 
course  of  the  movement. 

All  these  exercises  should  be  performed  with  the  body  as 
straight  as  possible,  and  when  done  neatly,  with  the  legs  close 
together,  have  a very  pretty  effect,  and  are  very  good  practice. 

There  are  several  similar  movements,  such  as  those  repre- 
sented in  Figs.  27  and  28,  which  are  done  by  first  swinging 
backwards  and  forwards,  and  then  throwing  the  legs  over  the 
outside  of  the  bars  in  front,  one  on  each  side  , then  bending 
back  a little,  and  bringing  the  legs  over  back  again  between 
the  bars,  and  then,  without  stopping,  throwing  them  over 
again  behind  you,  one  on  each  side  as  before.  This  you  should 
practice  until  you  can  repeat  it  several  times  without  stopping. 


The  next  exercises  are  good  practice.  Stand  between  the 
bars,  and  place  the  hands  on  the  under  side  of  them,  even 
with  the  shoulders,  then  gradually  raise  the  legs  until  they 
turn  over  and  bring  the  body  into  an  inverted  position,  as  in 
Fig.  29  ; then  continue  the  movement  right  over,  until  you 
are  hanging  as  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  30. 


You  should  practice  this  until  you  can  do  it  several  times 
without  touching  the  ground  with  the  feet,  and  you  will  find 

it  very  good  prac- 
tice for  the  front 
and  back  horizon- 
t a 1 movements, 
previously  shown 
on  the  horizontal 
bar. 

The  Pumping 
Movement  is 
one  of  the  finest 
exercises  for  developing  the  muscles  of  the  chest.  You  must 


first  practice  the  swing  until  you  can  bring  yourself  up 
horizontally,  as  show  in  Fig.  31  ; then,  by  bending  the  arms, 
drop  the  body  into  Fig.  32,  and  then  swing  round,  your  feet 
describing  a semicircle,  and  come  up  again  into  Fig.  33,  fin- 
ishing the  movement  by  swinging  backwards  again  in  the 
same  manner  into  Fig  31,  as  on  commencing  the  movement. 

The  Vaulting  Horse. — There  are  no  simple  preliminary 

exercises  on  the  horse 
but  what  may  be  just  as 
well  performed  on  the 
parallels  ; and,  indeed, 
such  is  the  similarity  in 
some  of  them,  that  we 
have  invariably  noticed 
that  any  gymnast  who 
is  good  on  the  one  is  not  likely  to  be  a novice  on  the  other. 

For  this  reason  we  shall  endeavor  to  make  as  much  variety 
as  possible,  and  shall  therefore  not  describe  exercises  which 
may  be  as  well  gone  through  upon  the  parallels,  but  only  give 
those  which  have  a distinctive  character. 

Commence  by  jumping  on  to  the  horse,  with  the  hands  one 


on  each  of  the  pommels,  and  supporting  the  whole  weight  of 
the  body  ; the  legs  hanging  straight  down  as  in  Fig.  3. 

Now  bring  one  leg  over  the  body  of  the  horse  in  between 
the  pommels,  as  in  Fig.  34  ; then  bring  it  back  again  without 


Fig.  35. 


Fig.  36. 


touching  the  horse  with  the  foot,  and  pass  the  other  leg 
through  in  the  same  manner. 

Now  try  and  change  the  legs  simultaneously  ; that  is,  while 


GYMNASTICS. 


257 


Fig.  37. 


the  one  is  being  brought  back,  pass  the  other  through  forward  ; 
the  body,  of  course,  still  supported  by  the  arms. 

The  Leg-Spring  is  the  next  exercise,  and  is  performed  in 
the  following  manner : 

Get  on  to  the  horse  as  in  Fig.  3,  and  then  bring  both  legs 
up  on  to  the  back  in  a kneeling  position,  as  in  Fig.  35  ; then, 
while  the  body  is  thus  gathered,  give  a good  spring  up,  throw- 
ing up  the  arms  as  in  Fig.  36,  and  you  will  come  over  to  the 
other  side  on  to  your  feet  on  the  ground. 

If  you  are  nervous  in  attempting  this  at  first,  get  the  assist- 
ance of  some  one  to  hold  your  hand,  and  you  will  accomplish 
it  without  much  difficulty. 

The  next  exercise  must  be  practiced  at  first  with  the  horse 
as  low  as  possible,  and  the  jumping-board  placed  about  a foot 
from  the  horse. 

Jumping  Through  the  Hands. — Take  a short  run,  and 
jump  on  to  the  board  with  both  feet  down  at  once,  flat-footed. 

Place  your  hands  one  on  each  pommel, 
spring  up,  and  pass  the  legs  through  the 
hands,  as  in  Fig.  37,  shooting  them  out  in 
front  of  you  over  the  horse,  so  as  to  come 
neatly  down  on  the  other  side.  Of  course 
you  must  measure  your  distance,  so  that 
you  may  rise  high  enough  while  passing 
over  for  the  back  to  clear  the  top  of  the 
horse. 

Another  form  of  this  exercise  is  to  jump 
over  the  horse  with  the  legs  outside  the  hands,  and  is  per- 
formed in  a similar  manner  to  the  last,  but  is  rather  more 
difficult,  as  you  will  need  a much  greater  spring  to  raise  your- 
self sufficiently  high  to  pass  clear  over ; and  you  must  also 
take  care  to  let  go  with  the  hands  at 
the  proper  moment,  when  in  the  po- 
sition shown  in  Fig.  38. 

If  you  retain  your  hold  of  the  pom- 
mels too  long,  you  will  lose  command 
of  yourself,  and  they  will  have  a ten- 
dency to  pull  you  back  and  cause  you 
to  pitch  head  first  on  to  the  ground  ; 
but  when  you  commence  to  practice  this  movement,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  have  some  one  standing  in  front,  to  catch  you  in 
case  your  feet  do  not  quite  clear  the  top  of  the  horse,  more 
especially  if  it  should  be  at  all  too  high  for  you. 

Saddle  Vaulting. — Get  on  to  the  horse  as  in  Fig.  39,  sit- 
ting across  as  in  a saddle,  but  behind  the  pommels ; then, 
bearing  the  whole  weight  upon  the 
arms,  throw  your  legs  right  up,  and 
giving  yourself  a kind  of  twist,  de- 
scribe a semicircle  with  them,  and 
bring  yourself  round  with  the  face 
the  other  way  ; your  hands  being 
one  upon  each  pommel,  your  course 
will  naturally  be  towards  the  one 
which  holds  the  aftermost. 

The  Long  Fly  is  a very  fine 
exercise  for  the  whole  of  the  body, 
and  more  especially  the  lower  ex- 
Fig.  3g.  tremities. 


You  commence  practice  for  this  movement  by  placing  the 
jumping-board  about  three  feet  from  the  largest  end  of  the 
horse,  then  with  a run,  pitch  with  your  hands  on  to  the  end, 
as  in  Fig.  40. 

Now  move  the  board  a little  farther  off,  and  repeat  the 
movement ; and  thus  continue  the  exercise,  increasing  the 
distance  each  time,  until  you  can  pitch  on  to  the  end  from 
about  five  or  six  feet. 

Now  vary  this  movement  by  jumping  from  different  dis- 
tances, and  pitching  on  the  hands  first,  and  then  bringing  up 
the  feet  on  to  the  back  of  the  horse,  as  in  Fig.  41. 


And  when  you  are  in  this  position,  pitch  with  the  hands  on 
to  the  extreme  end  of  the  horse,  and  go  over  as  at  “ leapfrog." 

Having  now  sufficiently  practiced  these  preliminaries,  place 
the  board  about  a foot  from  the  end  of  the  horse  (having  first 
had  the  high  pommels  taken  out,  and  the  flush  ones  substi- 
tuted). 

Now  take  a run  and  jump,  pitching  with  your  hands  on  the 
first  pommel,  landing  yourself  astride,  as  near  the  middle  of 
the  horse  as  possible  ; repeat  this  exercise,  gradually  increas- 
ing the  jump,  until  at  last  you  clear  the  w’hole  length,  as  in 
Fig.  42,  coming  down  safely  on  the  ground  in  front  of  the 
horse. 


When  you  can  get  near  the  neck  and  are  likely  to  come 
right  over  in  a few  more  trials,  have  some  one  standing  in 
front  to  catch  you  in  case  you  do  not  quite  clear  the  end,  and 
come  instead  into  a sitting  position  on  the  neck  of  the  horse, 
as  in  this  case  the  sudden  stop  is  likely  to  throw  you  over  head 
forwards  in  a rather  ignominious  manner  ; but  if  you  practice 
assiduously,  when  you  feel  that  you  can  do  it,  and  make  up 
your  mind  for  it,  you  are  almost  certain  to  clear  it. 

It  will,  of  course,  take  some  time  to  master  this  thoroughly  ; 
but  it  is  a fine  dashing  feat,  well  worth  the  trouble  of  acquir- 
ing. Only  don’t  think  you  are  doing  it  if  you  are  satisfied  to 
pitch  short  and  paddle  along  on  your  hands  for  the  rest  of  the 
distance  ; you  ought  to  pitch  clear  over  at  one  movement.  If 


GYMNASTICS. 


2^8 


horses  of  various  lengths  are  available,  they  will  prove  of  im- 
mense service  in  practicing  this  exercise. 

Hanging  Rings. — These  are  very  useful  for  developing 
the  muscles  of  the  arms  and  shoulders.  We  have,  therefore, 
found  room  for  a few  exercises  upon  them  as  a guide  to  the 
young  gymnast,  who  will  find  little  difficulty  in  supplement- 
ing our  instructions  with  exercises  of  his  own. 


Commence  by  drawing  yourself  up,  as  in  Fig.  43,  holding 
one  ring  at  arm’s  length,  and  the  other  close  to  the  body. 

Draw  in  the  outstretched  arm  and  straighten  the  other,  and 
repeat  this  as  often  as  you  like,  as  it  is  very  good  preliminary 
exercise  for  the  trapeze. 

Now,  from  this  position  gradually  spread  the  arms  wide 
apart,  suspending  the  body  between  them,  as  in  Fig.  44,  and 
then  let  the  body  gradually  sink  down  until  you  hang  straight 
down  by  the  arms  again. 

There  are  many  other  strength  movements  on  the  hand- 
rings,  but  you  will  soon  find  them  out  for  yourself  ; we  will, 
therefore,  pass  on  to  the  swinging  exercises. 

Commence  swinging  simply  backward  and  forward,  increas- 
ing your  momentum  by  drawing  yourself  up  by  contracting  the 
arms  as  you  ascend,  and  when  at  the  highest,  lowering  your 
body  with  a drop,  and  by  this  means  you  will  swing  higher 
each  time,  until  you  arc  able  to  bring  your  arms  and  legs 
straight  and  nearly  into  a horizontal  position,  as  in  Fig.  45. 


Fic.  45. 

Also  swing  in  different  positions  in  order  to  get  command 
of  yourself  while  swinging. 

Practice  by  drawing  the  legs  over  the  head  when  at  the  end 
of  the  swing,  as  in  Fig.  46,  passing  back  in  this  position  to 
the  other  end,  and  then  bringing  the  legs  smartly  over,  and 


shooting  them  straight  out  (in  order  to  preserve  the  momen. 
turn),  and  coming  back  all  straight  again  to  the  starting  point. 


Repeat  this  several  times,  and  you  will  find  it  very  good 
work  for  the  muscles. 


Also  swing  with  the  hands  close  to  the  groin,  and  the  arms 
nearly  straight  by  the  side,  and  supporting  the  body,  as  in  Fig. 
47  ; keeping  yourself  from  pitching  your  head  and  shoulders 
too  much  forward,  at  the  end  of  the  swing,  by  bending  the  arms 


and  projecting  the  legs,  as  in  Fig.  48,  which  represents  the 
bent  position  which  you  assume  when  beginning  to  descend. 


Another  variety  of  this  swing  is  shown  in  Fig.  4g,  where  the 
body  is  kept  horizontal  throughout. 


GYMNASTICS. 


CLIMBING  LADDERS,  ROPES,  POLES, 
etc.,  etc. 

Climbing  the  rope  is  a very  useful  exercise,  which  should 
be  practiced  by  every  one,  as  it  may  often  be  the  means  of 
saving  life  in  case  of  fire  or  shipwreck,  etc. 


Fig.  50.  Fig.  51. 


We  mean  climbing  by  the  use  of  both  legs  and  arms.  Fig. 
50  shows  the  way  of  taking  hold  of  the  rope,  and  Fig.  51  the 
position  when  climbing. 

At  a gymnastic  festival  lately,  some  of  the  competitors 
ascended  on  a rope  in  this  wav  to  the  height  of  upwards  of 
one  hundred  feet. 


Fig.  52.  Fig.  53. 

Another  method  is  by  holding  on  and  raising  yourself  by 
using  the  hands  only,  but  this  is  more  difficult. 

Another  exercise  is  by  climbing  the  knotted  rope,  and  also 
one  with  short  cross-bars  fixed  at  frequent  intervals. 

Climbing  the  pole,  either  fixed  or  hanging,  as  in  Fig.  52, 
only  varies  from  the  same  exercise  on  the  rope  by  its  being 
rather  more  difficult  to  grasp,  from  being  thicker  and  also 
rigid. 




Climbing  ladders,  fixed  both  in  vertical  and  horizontal 
positions,  and  at  various  angles,  furnishes  a good  variety  of 
exercise  for  the  arms,  and  is  very  easy  to  commence  with. 
Fig.  53  shows  an  exercise  on  the  horizontal  ladder,  in  which 
you  hold  by  the  outside,  and  progress  by  moving  the  hands 
forward  alternately.  Fig.  54  represents  another  movement 


Fig  54.  Fig.  55. 

in  which  you  walk  along  under  the  ladder,  increasing  the 
length  of  the  step  by  holding  the  rounds  at  some  distance 
apart,  the  intervening  ones  being  passed.  Fig.  55  shows  one 
of  the  movements  upon  the  perpendicular  ladder,  in  which  the 
object  is  to  keep  the  arms  and  legs  as  straight 
as  possible  while  the  steps  are  taken.  Fig. 

56  is  the  oblique  ladder,  which  may  be  prac- 
ticed by  moving  both  up  and  down  by  the 
hands. 

The  “giant’s  stride  '’  is  a very  good  ex- 
ercise for  beginners,  and  consists  of  a very 
strong  and  firmly  fixed  upright,  about  fifteen 
feet  in  height,  having  an  iron  cap  at  the  top 
which  will  revolve  easily,  and  around  which 
ropes  are  fixed,  each  having  a short  cross- 
bar at  the  bottom,  so  that  several  may  ex- 
ercise at  once,  each  one  holding  a bar  and 
running  round,  increasing  the  speed  until 
the  body  takes  the  same  angle  as  the  rope. 

Various  evolutions  may  be  gone  through  in 
this  manner,  which  will  be  found  very  Fig.  56. 
amusing. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  there  are  some  simple  rules 
to  be  observed  in  practicing. 

One  is,  never  over-tire  yourself  by  practice,  as  that  will  do 
more  harm  than  good.  And  be  careful  not  to  get  into  a heat 
without  having  a wrapper  handy  to  put  on  when  you  leave  off  ; 
and  do  not  practice  after  a full  meal. 

Dress  must  also  be  suitable,  as  it  is  highly  important  to  have 
all  the  limbs  free  and  unfettered  ; and  therefore  light  and  loose 
garments  and  gymnastic  shoes  should  be  worn.  A belt 
may  be  used  by  those  who  require  it,  but  it  is  not  indispens- 
able. 

;JF 


c 


GYMNASTICS. 


r 


-'f 


260 


G(Y]viK$$¥i®  wi¥fioU¥  gT^CiSc  SPPSfJAWg. 


THE  THREE  CHAIRS. 

Even  should  the  young  gymnast  be  without  any  apparatus, 
he  can  train  his  body  in  various  ways,  so  that  when  he  obtains 
apparatus,  its  work  will  be  half  done. 

For  example,  he  may  practice  the  “ Three  Chairs  ” exercise, 
which  will  strengthen  the  loins  immensely  ; that  being  just  the 
portion  of  the  body  that  is  least  exercised  in  the  artificial  life 
of  the  present  day. 

The  young  gymnast  should  take  three  chairs,  and  set  them 


in  a row,  the  two  endmost  chairs  facing  each  other,  and  the 
central  one  set  sideways  They  should  be  just  so  far  apart 
that  the  back  of  the  head  and  the  heels  rest  on  the  two  end- 
most  chairs,  and  that  the  central  chair  supports  the  middle  of 
the  body. 

Now  curve  the  body  a little  upwards,  so  as  to  take  its  weight 
off  the  center  chair  ; take  the  chair  with  the  right  hand, 
draw  it  from  under  you,  pass  it  over  you  to  the  other  side,  and 
with  the  left  hand  replace  it  under  your  body.  This  should 
be  done  several  times,  so  as  to  pass  the  chair  from  side  to  side. 

The  easiest  way  of  learning  this  really  useful  exercise  is  to 
begin  by  putting  the  head  and  nape  of  the  neck  on  one  chair 
and  allowing  the  feet  to  reach  nearly  to  the  middle  of  the 
other.  This  will  greatly  take  off  from  the  difficulty  ; and  as 
you  feel  yourself  getting  stronger,  move  the  chairs  gradually 
apart,  so  that  at  last  you  lie  exactly  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. 

KICKING  THE  CORK. 


This  is  a capital  exercise,  and  has  the  advantage  of  being  ex- 


ceedingly amusing. 


Draw  two  lines  on  the 
ground  (like  a J.  reversed), 
one  at  right  angles  to  the 
other.  Place  your  right  foot 
with  the  heel  just  touching 
the  cross-line  of  the  J_>  an(I 
the  foot  pointing  along  the 
upright  line.  Next,  put  your 
left  foot  in  front  of  the  right, 
with  the  heel  just  touching 
its  toe,  and  then  place  the 
right  foot  in  advance  of  left 
in  a similar  manner.  You  will 


thus  make  three  short  steps, 
each  the  exact  length  of  your  foot. 

Exactly  in  front  of  the  advanced  foot,  stand  a common 
wine  cork  upright. 


Now,  go  back  to  the  cross-line,  place  your  left  heel 
against  it  as  before,  and  with  the  right  foot  try  to  kick  down 
the  cork,  as  shown  in  the  illustration, without  losing  the  balance 
of  the  body  or  allowing  the  left  foot  to  touch  the  ground.  At 
first  it  will  be  found  utterly  impossible  to  do  so,  the  toe  not 
reaching  to  within  an  inch  of  it  ; but  a little  practice  wil 
enable  the  young  gymnast  to  perform  the  feat  without  very 
much  difficulty.  The  best  plan  is  to  reach  forward  until  you 
judge  that  your  foot  is  close  to  the  cork,  and  then,  with  a 
slight  sideways  kick,  strike  at  the  cork,  and  bring  yourself 
again  to  the  upright  position. 

This  exercise  is  exceedingly  valuable  for  strengthening  the 
legs  and  giving  pliability  to  the  whole  body. 

THE  STOOPING  STRETCH. 

This  exercise  does  for  the  arms  what  the  preceding  does 
for  the  legs. 

Take  the  same  lines  as  before,  and  stand  with  both  toes  on 
the  cross-line.  Now  throw  yourself  forward  on  your  hands, 
and  with  the  right  hand  make  a chalk-mark  on  the  floor  as 
far  as  you  can  stretch, 
upright  position  by 
means  of  the  left  arm, 
taking  care  not  to  move 
the  toes  from  the  cross- 
line.  Each  competitor 
at  this  exercise  tries  to 
chalk  his  mark  as  far  as 
possible. 

When  this  exercise  is  first  attempted,  it  seems  utterly  im- 
possible to  reach  to  any  distance,  the  spring  of  the  left  arm 
being  found  insufficient  to  bring  the  body  upright  again.  After 
a time,  however,  when  the  muscles  of  the  arms  become 
strengthened,  the  player  finds  that  he  can  rapidly  extend  the 
length  of  stretch,  until  at  last  he  can  throw  himself  nearly  flat 
on  the  ground,  and  yet  spring  up  again. 

In  order  to  strengthen  both  arms  equally,  they  should  be 
used  alternately. 

One  secret  in  performing  this  exercise  is  to  chalk  the  mark 
and  spring  back  as  quickly  as  possible,  as  every  second  of  time 
takes  away  the  strength  of  the  supporting  arm. 

STILTS. 

There  are  various  forms  of  stilts  and  modes  of  using  them. 
Some,  such  as  those  which  are  employed  by  professionals,  are 
strapped  to  the  ankles  and  have  no  handles.  These  should 
not  be  tried  until  the  young  gymnast  is  skilled  with  the  handle- 
stilts,  as  a fall  is  really  dangerous. 

Others  have  long  handles,  and  the  feet  are  received  into 
leathern  loops  nailed  on  the  stilt  : but  by  far  the  best  are  those 
which,  like  the  stilts  represented  in  the  illustration,  are  fur- 
nished merely  with  two  wooden  projections  on  which  the  feet 
can  rest. 

The  easiest  way  of  getting  on  the  stilts  is  to  stand  with  the 
back  against  the  wall,  and  take  the  handles  of  the  stilts  under 


Having  done  this,  spring  up  to  the 


GYMNASTICS. 


the  arms,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  Then  place  the  right 
foot  on  the  step  of  one  stilt,  raise  yourself,  with  your  back  still 
leaning  against  the  wall,  and  then  place  the 
left  foot  on  the  step  of  the  other  stilt. 

Now  try  to  walk,  raising  each  stilt  alter- 
nately with  the  hands,  and  lifting  the  foot  with 
it.  A very  short  time  will  get  you  into  the 
way  of  doing  this,  and  in  a few  days  you  ought 
to  be  able  to  walk  with  freedom. 

Having  obtained  some  degree  of  proficiency, 
you  should  race  with  other  stilt-walkers,  ascend 
and  descend  steps,  planks,  or  stairs,  pirouette 
on  one  stilt,  holding  the  other  above  your 
head,  and  then  replace  the  feet  without  com- 
ing to  the  ground,  and  perform  similar  feats. 
Accomplished  stilt-walkers  can  even  ascend 
and  descend  ladders  laid  at  a considerable 
slope. 

The  height  of  the  feet  from  the  ground  rather 
diminishes  than  adds  to  the  difficulty  of  walk- 
ing on  stilts.  If  the  stilt-walker  should  feel  himself  losing 
his  balance,  he  should  at  once  jump  to  the  ground,  and  not 
run  the  risk  of  damaging  himself  by  trying  to  recover  his 
balance.  After  some  little  skill  has  been  attained,  the  young 
athlete  ought  to  be  able  to  get  on  his  stilts  without  needing  the 


support  of  the  wall,  a short  run  and  a spring  being  quite 
enough  for  the  purpose. 

THE  WALL-SPRING. 

A very  good  preliminary  exercise  is  that  which  is  called  the 
“ Wall-spring.” 

The  young  gymnast  stands  at  some  little  distance  from  a 
wall,  places  his  right  hand  behind  his  back,  and  throws  himself 
against  the  wall,  supporting  himself  by  the  left  hand.  He 
then  springs  back  to  the  upright  position  without  moving  his 


toes  from  the  spot  on  which  they  had  been  placed.  This,  like 
all  similar  exercises,  should  be  done  with  both  arms  alternately, 
and  the  gymnast  should  learn  to  throw  the  strength  of  all  his 
body,  as  well  as  of  the  arms,  into  the  spring. 


di 


RIDING. 


I 


— 

cf 

2 f>  2 


Your  head  and  your  heart  keep  boldly  up? 

Your  hands  and  your  heels  keep  down  : 

Your  legs  keep  close  to  your  horse's  side  ; 

And  your  elbows  keep  close  to  your  own. 

Chefnev's  Secret  of  Riding. 


Mg 


ra? 


S.LL  boys,  and  most  men,  ate  ambitious  of  the 
triumphs  of  hoisemanship  ; and,  with  many,  a 
knowledge  of  hoises  and  dogs  stands  in  the  place 
of  a polite  education.  The  child  escaped  fiom 
leading-strings,  bestrides  his  fathei's  walking- 
stick,  and,  with  a pack-tlnead  rein,  toddles  over 
the  carpet  on  his  mimic  steed,  with  as  much  glee  as 
a fox-hunter  gallops  after  the  hounds.  From  riding 
a cane,  the  same  spnit  and  feeling  makes  a gate 
with  string  stumps  an  acceptable  means  for  a few  first  lessons 
in  equitation,  and  lendeis  a locking-horse  a perfect  idol.  The 
trim  saddle  of  the  painted  steed,  the  teat  reins  (made  fast  by 
tin  tacks),  the  horse  hair  mane  and  tail  supported  by  a wooden 
crupper — all  these  aie  sources  of  as  gieat  a triumph  as  Alex- 
ander felt  when  he  subdued  Bucephalus  ; a deed  that  history 
seems  proud  to  tell  of,  and  which  painters  love  to  depict,  as 
our  artist  has.  From  the  rocking-horse  the  young  rider  takes 
another  step  upwards  in  the  scale  of  equitation,  by  mounting 
i real  live  donkey,  who  kicks  and  shies,  and  stands  stock-still, 
and  tubs  against  a post  or  backs  into  a pond,  and  by  these 
various  tricks  gives  another  morsel  of  experience  to  the  youth- 
ful horseman.  The  day  of  gladness  comes  to  him  at  last, 
when  the  gland  creatuie,  which  has  long  been  his  admiration, 
stands  before  him  ready  to  be  mounted. 

Mounting. — When  about  to  mount,  stand  before  the  left 
shoulder  of  the  horse,  hold  the  whip  in  the  left  hand  with  the 
lash  downwards,  leave  the  curb-rein  loose  on  the  neck,  and 
take  the  snaffle-rcins  at  their  center,  between  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  of  the  right  hand,  with  which  draw  them  up  evenly 
between  the  foie  and  thiid  fingers  of  the  left  hand  (the  middle 
or  longest  finger  dividing  them),  until  they  are  sufficiently 
tightened  for  you  to  feel  the  bearing  of  the  horse’s  mouth. 
Throw  the  loose  ends  over  the  middle  joint  of  the  forefinger, 
so  as  to  drop  down  on  the  off-side  of  the  horse’s  neck.  Then 
take  the  center  of  the  curb-reins  between  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger of  the  right  hand,  as  already  described,  and  allowing 
them  to  hang  more  slackened  than  the  snaffle-reins,  separate 


them  with  the  little  finger  of  the  left  hand,  passing  the  loose 
ends  up  the  palm,  and  casting  them  to  the  off-side  over  the 
ends  of  the  snaffle  reins.  Take  with  the  right  hand  a lock  of 
the  mane,  and  wind  it  once  or  twice  lound  the  left  thumb, 
closing  the  hand  so  as  firmly  to  grasp  the  reins  and  mane. 
The  left  hand  may  now  be  rested  on  the  neck  of  the  horse 
near  to  the  withers,  and  within  about  six  or  eight  inches  of 
the  pommel  of  the  saddle.  With  the  right  hand,  hold  the 
stirrup  until  the  left  foot  is  placed  i-n  it ; the  right  hand  should 


now  be  put  on  the  cantle,  the  body  raised  until  the  feet  are 
side  by  side,  and  both  knees  press  the  saddle  ; move  the  right 
hand  fiom  the  canile  to  the  pommel,  and  thiow  the  right  leg 
quickly,  but  not  hastily,  or  with  a jeik,  across  the  horse,  and 
sink  easily  (no  jerking  or  bumping)  into  the  saddle.  By  turning 
the  toe  of  the  boot  slightly  inwaids,  so  as  to  strike  the  right 
stirrup  gently,  the  movement  will  cause  it  to  swing  partly 
round  ; by  this  means  the  foot  obtains  possession  of  it  with- 
out the  aid  of  the  hand,  which  should  never  be  employed 
when  the  stirrups  arc  lost ; after  a little  practice  the  stirrups 
may  be  dropped  even  when  galloping,  and  quickly  regained 
by  striking  both  toes  simultaneously  inwards. 

Get  into  the  habit  of  making  your  horse  stand  steady  dur- 
ing and  immediately  after  mounting.  When  an  animal  has 
been  in  caieless  hands,  he  not  unfrequently  tries  to  move  off 
immediately  he  feels  your  weight  on  the  stirrup.  This  is  not 
only  an  unpleasant  but  also  a dangeious  proceeding,  especially 
when  a lady  is  mounting.  It  may  be  checked  by  keeping  the 


RIDING. 


reins  tight,  and,  if  necessary,  using  the  curb-rein.  The  horse 
is  so  docile  an  animal,  though  a creature  of  habit,  that  it  can 
easily  be  taught  what  is  required,  or  cured  of  its  defects,  pro- 
vided only  that  its  master  is  patient  and  intelligent.  Thus, 


when  mounted,  instead  of  immediately  starting  off  at  a trot  or 
or  walk,  wait  a few  seconds,  and  thus  teach  your  horse  that 
he  is  not  to  rush  away  immediately  he  feels  your  weight  in  the 
saddle. 

In  order  to  discover  the  proper  length  for  your  stirrups,  sit 
comfortably  down  on  your  saddle,  keep  the  body  upright,  let 
the  legs  hang  loosely  at  first,  then  clasp  the  horse  slightly 
with  them,  turn  the  toe  in  and  rather  up  ; then  the  stirrup 
ought  just  to  support  the  foot.  Then  stand  up  in  the  stirrups 
with  the  legs  straight,  and  see  whether  the  fork  will  clear  the 
pommel  of  the  saddle:  it  ought  just  to  do  so  if  the  stirrups 
are  the  correct  length.  Having  once  ascertained  what  is  the 
correct  length  for  the  stirrups,  you  should  measure  from  the 
finger-tip  to  armpit  the  length  from  the  buckle  to  the  end  of 


the  stirrups,  and  thus  you  can  always  on  future  occasions  tell 
whether  any  alterations  are  required  before  mounting. 

Being  now  seated  on  the  horse,  which  we  will  suppose  is  a 
quiet,  well-trained  animal,  it  would  be  advisable  that  a groom 

S&r 


or  some  friend  should  lead  the  horse  for  a lime,  in  order  that 
we  may  get  accustomed  to  the  motion  of  the  horse  and  to  sit- 
ting in  the  saddle. 

The  seat  in  the  saddle  should  be  obtained  by  sitting  t veh 
down,  leaning  rather  backwards  than  forwards,  and  grasping 
the  horse  with  a tolerably  firm  grip  of  both  legs.  There  are 
two  seats  to  be  avoided,  but  which  neatly  all  beginners  at  first 
practice  : one  is  leaning  forward  as  if  in  readiness  to  go  over  the 
horse’s  head  ; the  other  is  sitting  on  the  saddle  as  though  it 
were  red  hot.  The  very  best  method  of  getting  “shaken 
down  in  the  saddle,”  as  the  term  is,  is  to  quit  the  stirrups — 
that  is,  take  the  feet  out  of  them — and  trot  round  and  round  a 
circle.  This  can  be  easily  done  by  having  a rope  attached  to 
a head-collar  on  the  horse,  and  getting  this  rope  held  by  an 
attendant.  After  a few  days  of  this  kind  of  bumping,  we 
learn  how  to  grasp  with  the  legs  so  that  we  scarcely  move 
from  the  saddle,  and  we  do  not  then  adopt  the  dangerous  and 
unsightly  practice  of  depending  mainly  on  the  stirrups  for  our 
equilibrium. 

During  the  time  that  we  are  “ jogging  ” in  the  trot,  the  reins 
should  be  held  one  in  each  hand,  and  so  that  we  “feel” 


gently  the  horse’s  mouth  : at  no  time  should  the  reins  become 
slack,  but  an  uniform  “feel”  should  be  maintained.  A horse 
soon  becomes  accustomed  to  the  hand  of  its  rider,  and  learns 
to  obey  the  slightest  change.  Many  horses,  especially  those 
gifted  with  tender  mouths,  will  become  restive,  or  will  rear, 
attempt  to  run  away,  etc.,  when  their  riders  either  suddenly 
slacken,  then  tighten  the  reins,  or  in  other  ways  alter  their 
hold  upon  them. 

The  Trot. — Having  passed  through  the  process  of  being 
shaken  down  in  the  saddle,  we  may  then  take  our  stirrups  and 
learn  how  to  sit  down  in  the  saddle,  keep  our  stirrups,  and 
yet  not  to  rise  in  them  when  the  horse  trots  ; after  which  we 
may  practice  rising  to  the  trot.  There  is  scarcely  a more 
ridiculous  exhibition  than  that  of  a rider  working  laboriously 
to  rise  to  his  horse’s  trot,  using  much  more  exertion  than  the 
animal  he  bestrides,  whilst  he  works  his  arms  and  body  as 
though  riding  were  a very  painful  matter.  The  very  slightest 
movement  of  the  instep  and  a spring  from  the  knee  is  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  the  bumping  produced  by  a horse’s  trot  ; and 
the  skill  or  awkwardness  of  a rider  is  never  more  prominent 
than  when  his  horse  is  indulged  in  a long  slashing  trot. 


204 


RIDING. 


The  Canter. — To  “raise  a horse  into  a canter”  from  a 
trot,  we  should  slightly  pull  the  left  rein,  at  the  same  time 
closing  the  legs.  By  a steady  hand  on  the  reins  we  may  in- 
crease or  decrease  the  speed  of  the  horse,  or  again  reduce  his 
pace  to  a trot. 

Nothing  but  practice  and  instruction  will  ever  give  a rider 
a good  firm  seat  on  a horse  ; but  at  the  same  time,  practice 
alone  may  produce  a strong  seat  but  a very  awkward  one,  un- 
less the  defects  of  the  seat  are  pointed  out  early. 

Vices  and  their  Treatment. — Having  attained  a certain 
amount  of  skill  in  sitting  on  a horse  and  in  handling  the  reins, 
the  horseman  may  devote  his  attention  to  certain  matters 
which  are  not  unlikely  to  happen  to  every  equestrian  per- 
former. These  may  be  classed  under  the  head  of  the  vices  of 
the  horse,  and  are  principally  as  follows  : running  away,  shy- 
ing, rearing,  bucking,  and  refusing  to  move  ; kicking,  biting, 
and  stumbling. 

Running  Away. — A runaway  horse  is  a most  dangerous 
animal,  and  for  an  unskilled  rider  to  keep  such  a creature  is 
not  advisable.  Many  so-called  runaway  horses,  however,  are 
merely  high-spirited  animals  whose  former  riders  were  unable 
to  manage  them.  As  an  example  : we  possessed  for  three 


years  a horse  which  we  regularly  hunted,  and  on  which  we 
placed  a lady,  and  which  had  been  sold  because  he  was  a de- 
termined runaway.  Only  once  did  this  horse  run  away  with 
us,  and  that  was  in  consequence  of  the  reins  breaking.  That 
horses  do  run  away,  however,  is  a fact  ; and  we  will  now  con- 
sider the  best  means  of  dealing  with  this  vice. 

A runaway  horse  is  usually  one  with  a very  hard  mouth, 
which  is  unaffected  by  any  amount  of  pulling  applied  merely 
as  a dead  pull.  A horse  is  stronger  than  a man,  and  there- 
fore to  pull  against  him  is  useless. 

A particular  kind  of  “ bit  ” is  requisite  fora  runaway  horse  ; 
the  best  that  we  have  found  being  a powerful  “ Pelham.” 
The  reins  should  be  very  stout,  so  as  to  afford  a firm  grasp, 
with  no  fear  of  breaking.  Stout  strong  reins  also  do  not  slip 
through  the  fingers  as  do  those  which  are  thin. 

We  will  now  suppose  that  a rider  is  seated  on  a horse,  and 
starts  for  a canter  on  a nice  bit  of  turf.  Ilis  horse,  probably 
fresh,  bounds  off,  and  the  rider  soon  finds  the  animal  pays  no 
attention  to  his  “ Woa,  woa  ! ” or  to  the  pull  at  the  reins.  A 
bad  rider  has  at  this  point  come  to  the  end  of  his  expedients, 
and  usually  does  nothing  more  than  give  a dead  pull  at  the 


reins  until  he  gets  cramp  in  his  arms  and  fingers,  and  is  unable 
to  use  them  effectively,  when  he  is  at  the  mercy  of  his  horse. 
Some  riders  vary  the  “dead  pull”  by  sawing  their  horses’ 
mouths  by  alternately  pulling  the  right  and  left  rein.  This 
sometimes,  but  rarely,  has  the  effect  of  stopping  a horse  ; the 
common  result  being  that  the  animal  throws  up  its  head, 
changes  its  feet  in  the  gallop,  but  still  goes  on,  probably  with 
a temper  not  improved  by  the  fact  of  its  mouth  bleeding  in 
consequence  of  this  ill  treatment. 

As  an  effectual  method  for  pulling  up  a runaway  horse  we 
have  never  found  any  equal  to  the  following  : 

The  reins  being  very  strong,  and  the  bit  a “ Pelham,”  or 
one  which  will  not  slip  through  a horse’s  mouth,  we  gather 
the  reins  short  up  in  the  left  hand,  so  short  that  the  hand  is 
pressed  against  the  horse’s  mane  ; then  pass  the  right  hand 
down  the  right  rein  until  it  grasps  this  rein  within  a few 
inches  of  the  bit ; with  a firm  hold  pull  this  round  towards 
the  right  knee,  taking  care  that  the  horse  does  not  snatch  the 
rein  out  of  your  hand,  as  he  will  try  to  do  if  he  be  an  accom- 
plished runaway.  When  the  horse's  head  is  thus  pulled  round 
he  cannot  gallop,  nor  can  he  do  more  than  twist  round.  We 
have  by  this  method  the  advantage  of  a lever  pulling  round 
the  horse’s  head  with  enormous  power. 

Against  this  plan  it  has  been  urged  that  we  are  very  likely 
to  throw  a horse  down.  Grant  this  ; and  it  is  perhaps  the  less 
of  the  two  evils  that  we  throw  a horse  down  where  we  like, 
selecting  a soft  piece  of  turf,  than  that  we  get  dashed  to  pieces 
by  coming  in  collision  with  a carnage  or  cart,  a lamp-post  or 
railing,  or  slip  up  on  stone  pavement,  etc.  But  in  answer  to 
this  objection  we  can  say  that,  on  an  average,  once  a week  the 
horse  we  before  mentioned  tried  to  run  away  with  us,  but  we 
invariably  stopped  him  by  this  plan,  and  never,  during  three 
years,  did  we  ever  throw  him  down.  Two  other  horses  that 
we  rode  also  on  one  or  two  occasions  tried  to  run  away,  and 
were  instantly  stopped  by  this  method  ; thus  we  have  practical 
proof  of  its  efficacy,  against  the  theoretical  objection  urged 
against  it. 

To  a bad  or  timid  rider,  or  even  to  one  not  capable  of  deal- 
ing with  it,  a runaway  horse  is  a dangerous  possession  ; un- 
less, therefore,  a rider  is  well  skilled,  well  nerved,  and  strong 
armed,  our  advice  is,  never  mount  a known  runaway  horse. 

As,  however,  every  horse  may,  some  time  or  other,  try  to 
run  away,  the  preceding  advice  should  not  be  neglected,  as  it 
may  save  a fall,  a broken  arm,  leg,  or  neck. 

Shying. — Shying  is  a very  common  practice  of  horses,  par- 
ticularly of  young  horses.  It  may  arise  from  defective  sight, 
or  from  mere  frolic.  To  a good  rider  it  is  of  no  consequence, 
but  to  a bad  horseman  a fall  may  result.  After  a brief  ac- 
quaintance with  an  animal, we  can  tolerably  well  tell  at  what  ob- 
jects he  usually  shies.  To  overcome  this  practice  we  should 
never  be  off  our  guard,  but  should  ever  keep  a watch  on  our 
horse’s  ears.  When  we  notice  that  he  suddenly  raises  his  ears, 
and  looks  attentively  at  any  object,  it  is  probable  that  he  may 
shy.  To  avoid  such  a result,  we  should  endeavor  to  distract 
the  animal's  attention  by  patting  his  neck  and  speaking  to 
him,  a slight  movement  of  the  reins  to  arouse  him,  or  by  let- 
ting the  whip  rest  on  his  neck,  his  attention  may  be  with- 
drawn from  the  object  that  alarms  him.  A brutal  and  igno- 


RIDING. 


rant  horseman  usually  commences  thrashing  his  horse  when  it 
shies,  and  thus  only  adds  to  its  fear,  and  causes  it  to  repeat 
its  vice  with  double  effect. 

The  late  Mr.  Rarey  used  to  say  that  a horse  never  could 
surprise  him.  because  its  ears  always  told  him  what  it  was 
thinking  of  doing.  There  is  much  truth  in  this  remark,  as 
every  one  accustomed  to  horses  must  know,  and  those  unac- 
customed to  them  may  learn. 

Rearing. — Rearing  is  one  of  the  most  dangerous  and  incur- 


able of  vices  ; it  may,  however,  arise  from  a harsh  use  of  the 
curb  ; but  a rearing  horse  may  at  any  time  cause  his  rider’s 
death  by  falling  back  on  him.  When  a horse  rears  we  should 
sit  quietly  on  him,  and  well  forward.  A rider  without  a firm 
seat  may  lean  back,  holding  on  to  the  reins,  and  will  thus  pull 
the  horse  over  on  him.  A sharp  pair  of  spurs  may  be  used 
with  advantage  on  a rearing  horse,  but  the  reins  must  be  very 
delicately  handled — the  cause  of  rearing  being  in  many  cases 
due  to  that  abominable  habit  of  bad  riders  of  continually  jerk- 
ing their  horse’s  mouth,  for  no  other  reason,  apparently,  than 
that  they  are  themselves  bad  riders. 

Buck-jumping. — Bucking  is  an  endeavor  to  unseat  a 
rider,  and  consists  in  a series  of  bucks  in  the  air,  or  a sort  of 
rocking  motion  produced  by  a succession  of  jumps.  The 
horse  tries  to  get  its  head  down  between  its  legs,  arches  its 
back,  and  springs  several  times  from  the  ground.  There  is 
no  other  means  left  than  to  sit  the  horse  through  its  perform- 
ance, which  generally  takes  place  when  first  mounted,  after 
which  it  not  unusually  will  travel  quietly  all  day. 

Refusing  to  Move. — This  is  not  a very  common  vice, 
except  with  a horse  which  has  been  cruelly  ill-used.  We  once 
found  a horse  belonging  to  a friend  which  possessed  this  vice, 
and  we  cured  it  by  getting  two  leather  straps,  like  handcuffs  ; 
by  these  we  fastened  the  horse’s  fore  legs  together  so  that  it 
could  not  move,  and  then  sat  patiently  on  its  back.  In  about 
ten  minutes  the  animal  got  tired  of  standing  still ; but  we  de- 
termined on  giving  it  a lesson,  so  we  kept  it  hobbled  for  fully 
an  hour,  after  which  it  at  once  moved  on.  On  every  occasion 
afterwards,  either  the  exhibition  of  these  handcuffs  or  the  at- 


265 


tempt  to  put  them  on,  at  once  was  received  as  a hint,  and  the 
horse  was  ready  to  start  off. 

Kicking. — A kicking  horse  is  always  dangerous  ; when, 
however,  we  are  on  his  back,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  he 
cannot  kick  with  both  hind  legs  whilst  his  head  is  held  up. 
We  should,  however,  be  very  careful  how  we  allow  any  one  to 
approach  him  ; also  when  in  the  stable  great  caution  is  req- 
uisite. The  same  remarks  apply  to  a biting  horse  ; it  is  bet- 
ter at  once  to  get  rid  of  such  a brute,  for  we  are  never  safe 
from  his  vicious  habit. 

Stumbling. — Stumbling  may  arise  from  careless  riding  or 
from  the  imperfect  form  of  a horse.  An  animal  which  in  its 
walk  or  trot  does  not  raise  its  feet  much  will  usually  be  a 
stumbler  ; and  if  its  fore  feet,  when  they  come  to  the  ground, 
are  not  placed  in  advance  of  the  shoulder,  the  horse  is  likely 
to  be  a dangerous  stumbler. 

Those  who  wish  to  become  adepts  in  regard  to  horses 
should,  when  the  opportunity  offers,  study  the  form  and  ac- 
tion of  a well-known  good  horse  ; the  shape  of  his  shoulders, 
set  on  of  the  head,  and,  in  fact,  every  peculiarity  should  be 
noticed. 

There  is  no  indicator  equal  to  the  eyes  and  the  ears  for  tell- 
ing the  character  of  a horse  ; the  eye  of  a vicious  horse  never 
will  look  good-tempered,  nor  can  he  conceal  its  vicious  look. 
The  ears  of  a playful  horse  may,  to  the  inexperienced,  seem  to 
indicate  vice  ; for  a horse  that  is  playful,  well  bred,  and  fond 
of  its  master  or  groom,  will  often  put  back  its  ears  and  bite 
at  its  manger  when  its  master  approaches  it  ; but  this  is  not 
vice,  and  should  not  be  misunderstood  for  such.  ' Experience 
in  this  respect  is  needed  to  prevent  mistakes. 


The  bits  in  most  general  use  are  the  Plain  Snaffle , the  Curb, 
the  Pelham,  and  the  Hanoverian  Bit. 

The  Snaffle  is  used  for  horses  with  good  mouths,  and  may, 
in  the  hands  of  a skillful  rider,  be  used  even  for  hard-mouthed, 
pulling  animals. 


THE  SNAFFLE. 


The  Curb  is  often  used  with  the  snaffle. 
It  is  more  powerful,  and  will  pull  up 
most  horses  ; it  also  makes  a horse  carry 
his  head  well,  and  is  a favorite  bit  with 
military  riders. 

The  Pelham  bit  is  very  powerful,  and 
is  that  which  we  recommend  for  a run- 


266 


RIDING. 


away  horse.  It  can  be  used  either  as  a snaffle  or  curb,  and 
is  a very  serviceable  bit. 


THE  PELHAM. 


THE  HANOVERIAN. 


The  Hanoverian  bit  is  more  powerful  even  than  the  Pel- 
ham, but  cannot  be  used  as  freely  or  like  a snaffle.  It  is  very 
similar  to  the  curb,  the  mouth-piece  being  bigger. 


When  a rider  has  become  sufficiently  skilled  to  sit  a horse 
well  during  its  trot  and  canter,  it  is  not  improbable  that  he 
will  wish  to  try  a leap  with  it,  or  he  may  be 
desirous  of  hunting.  Should  this  be  the  case, 
the  first  precaution  is  to  find  whether  your  ' _ 

horse  can  leap. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  a horse  is 
know  how  to  do  anything  which  he  nas  not 
been  taught  any  more  than  that  a man  should. 

Some  horses  may  have  reached  the  age  of 
four  or  five  years,  and  have  never  taken  a 
leap;  they  don’t  know  how  to  do  it,  and 
should  be  taught.  If  we  ride  a strange  horse 
at  a stile  or  stout  fence,  we  may  very  probably 
find  that  the  animal  has  been  called  upon  to 
perform  a feat  as  difficult  to  him  as  for  a boy 
to  leap  with  a pole,  when  he  has  never  before 
attempted  to  do  so. 

Remarking  upon  the  number  of  accidents 
that  annually  occur  in  consequence  of  fool- 
hardy conduct  with  firearms,  when  some  boy 
points  a gun  at  his  friend,  and  says,  “I’ll 
shoot  you  ! ” and  straightway  does  so,  whilst 
the  boy  shrieks,  “Oh  dear!  I didn’t  know  ? Mu„le  and  par1s 
«C  was  loaded  ! ” a veteran  sportsman  once  about  the  muz- 

recommended  us  “ always  to  treat  a gun  as  2.  Gullet 
if  it  were  loaded  and  on  full  cock , then  we  3-  ^^P'Pe 
shall  never  have  an  accident  ; ” so  we  would  s-  Withers. 


recommend  a young  horseman  always  to  treat  a horse  as 
though  he  were  likely  to  run  away,  likely  to  shy,  and  were 
unable  to  leap  a stile  safely,  until  we  have  personally  proved 
the  contrary.  We  can  easily  test  our  horse’s  leaping  power 
by  trying  him  at  small  safe  fences  ; but  we  must  bear  in 
mind  that  many  good  horses  will  often  refuse  a leap  at 
which  they  are  not  ridden  in  a determined  manner.  A horse 
is  very  quick  at  finding  out  whether  his  rider  really  means  to 
ride  at  a leap,  or  is  “just  a little  nervous  ” about  it ; and  as 
few  animals  care  to  exert  themselves  unnecessarily,  the  horse 
is  not  likely  to  take  a leap  unless  he  believes  his  rider  means 
it. 

Many  horses  which  have  been  badly  ridden,  or  bullied  by 
bad  riders,  have  bad  tempers,  which  show  themselves  by  re- 
fusing leaps,  or  refusing  other  things.  A good  rider,  or  even 
an  observant  person,  will  soon  discover  what  irritates  his 
horse,  and  will  avoid  any  acts  which  produce  this  effect. 

Horses  that  are  usually  ridden,  vary  in  age  from  about  four 
years  to  seven  or  eight.  Whenever  your  horse  commits  any 
fault,  bear  in  mind  that  he  is  not  so  old  as  you  are,  and,  in 
fact,  is  a mere  child  in  years  ; treat  him  accordingly,  try  to  as- 
sist his  weaker  mental  powers  by  your  skill,  and  you  will  al- 
ways find  him  a good  and  faithful  servant  ; bully  and  ill  treat 
him,  and  he  is  partially  your  enemy.  When  once,  by  ill  treat- 
ment, you  have  produced  any  particular  vice  in  a horse,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  eradicate  it. 

The  age  of  a horse  may  be  known  by  his  teeth,  and  the  fol- 
lowing will  aid  the  tyro  in  learning  how  to  discover  a horse’s 
age. 

When  a colt  is  two  years  old,  its  teeth  are  called  “ milch 
teeth,”  the  center  of  which  is  whitish. 

At  three  years  old  the  two  center  milch  teeth  are  displaced 


6.  Chest. 

7.  Girth. 

8.  back. 

9.  Loins. 

10.  Ilium  or  Hip. 

11.  Croup. 


ia.  Haunch  or  Quar- 
ters. 

13.  Thigh. 

14.  Hock 

15.  Shank  or  Cannon. 

16.  Fetlock. 

17.  Pastern. 


18.  Shoulder-bone  oj 

Scapula. 

19.  Elbow. 

20.  Fore-arm. 

21.  Knee. 

22  Coronet. 


RIDING. 


!$r 


by  two  which  are  called  “ permanent  teeth,”  and  are  distin- 
guished by  being  broader,  larger,  and  in  the  center  upper  sur- 
face having  dark  cavities. 

When  a horse  is  four  years  old  there  will  be  four  instead  of 
two  permanent  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw,  and  between  four  and 
five  years  old  the  tusks  begin  to  appear  in  males.  Up  to  four 
years  old  a male  is  called  “ a colt,”  after  this  age  “ a horse.” 

At  five  years  of  age  the  horse’s  permanent  teeth  are  com- 
plete, and  the  age  after  this  is  known  by  the  wearing  down 
of  the  cavities  of  the  permanent  teeth. 

At  six  years  old  the  dark  cval  mark  on  the  center  teeth  is 
worn  down,  whilst  the  cavities  in  the  other  teeth  are  more 
filled  up.  The  tusks  of  the  horse  are  longer  than  when  five 
years  old,  but  are  still  sharp,  and  not  much  worn. 

At  seven  years  old  the  cavities  of  the  second  pair  of  nippers 
are  filled  up  ; the  tusks  are  blunted  by  wear,  and  are  longer 
than  former!?. 


At  eight  years  the  horse  is  sometimes  said  “ not  to  have  a 
good  tooth  in  its  head,”  that  is,  the  corner  nippers  are  filled 
up,  and  the  age  teeth  are  nearly  all  alike,  the  tusks  exhibit 
greater  signs  of  wear  and  tear,  and  are  very  blunt 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 

Be  kind  and  conciliatory  to  the  noble  beast  that  bears  you, 
and  never  show  the  spirit  of  the  coward  by  acting  cruelly  or 
with  unnecessary  severity,  towards  a creature  so  docile,  so  in- 
telligent, and  so  useful  as  the  horse.  Let  the  young  horseman 
remember  that  this  creature  is  endowed  not  only  with  strength 
for  our  service,  and  beauty  for  our  admiration,  but  with 
nerves  sensitive  to  pain,  and  a nature  keenly  alive  to  ill-usage. 
To  a kind  master,  a good-tempered  horse  will  by  many  signs 
show  his  attachment,  which  will  increase  as  he  becomes  better 
acquainted  with  him. 


% 


268 


DRIVING. 


V 


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DRIVING  A SINGLE  HORSE. 


AKING  YOUR  SEAT. — In  commencing  these 
instructions  we  will  suppose  your  horse  to  have 
been  harnessed  and  brought  to  your  door.  It  is 
of  course  to  be  expected  that  the  groom  has  seen 
to  his  shoes,  his  harness,  and  the  axles  of  the 
wheels ; still  no  prudent  driver  would  mount  a 
vehicle  in  which  was  a high-couraged  horse,  without 
looking  to  see  that  the  reins  were  properly  fastened 
to  the  bit,  the  head-piece  properly  on,  the  throat-lash  fas- 
tened, the  traces,  back-band  and  belly-band  quits  as  they 
ought  to  be,  nor  indeed  without  giving  a look  around  his 
horse  to  see  that  his  shoes  were  on,  which  can  of  course  be 
done  without  holding  up  the  foot.  And  we  will  here  remark, 
that  if  it  be  necessary  to  see  that  the  main  points  of  your  har- 
ness are  right,  when  you  have  the  advantage  of  the  daylight, 
it  is  even  more  necessary  that  a critical  examination  take  place 
by  night ; this  can  be  effected  as  well  by  the  hand  as  by  the 
eyes  ; and  we  should  advise  you  particularly  to  observe  that 
the  reins  are  correctly  placed,  as  many  accidents  have  arisen 
from  their  being  crossed.  Having  attended  to  these  things, 
take  the  reins  and  whip  in  your  right  hand  ; then  mount  the 
vehicle,  and  transfer  the  reins  to  the  left  hand,  one  of  them 
(the  near  rein)  passing  over  the  upper  finger,  the  other,  be- 
tween it  and  the  next  ; then  close  the  thumb  upon  them,  and 
they  will  be  firmly  grasped  in  the  hand.  Whilst  turning,  or 
when  driving  a high-couraged  horse,  and  in  critical  situations 
generally,  the  right  hand  must  be  at  all  times  called  to  the 
assistance  of  the  left ; thus  the  reins  being  grasped  as  before 
stated,  you  pass  the  second  and  third  fingers  between  them,  and 
loosening  your  hold  on  the  off  rein  a little,  let  the  right  hand 
have  complete  control  of  its  guidance,  still,  however,  firmly 
holding  both  reins  in  your  left.  This  position  gives  you  great 
power  over  your  horse. 

Starting. — Holding  your  reins  as  described,  start  your  horse 
either  by  your  voice  or  by  the  reins,  gently  feeling  his  mouth, 
but  neither  pulling  at  it,  nor  jerking  the  reins.  Many  liigh- 
souraged  horses  have  been  made  jibbers  by  the  stupidity  of  a 


driver.  If  a young  horse’s  mouth  is  hurt,  by  the  driver  check* 
ing  him  every  time  he  starts,  he  will  be  sure  to  incur  some  vice  ; 
the  habit  of  rearing  or  of  jibbing  will  most  probably  be  the 
result.  The  learner  may  say,  “Suppose,  however,  he  refuse 
to  start,  what  then  is  to  be  done  ?”  We  reply,  have  patience, 
let  the  groom  lead  him  off,  caress  him,  speak  quietly  and  en- 
courage him  to  proceed,  and  if  he  presses  on  one  side,  as  if  he 
wanted  to  go  round,  tnm  him  round,  if  there  be  room,  and  as 
soon  as  he  has  his  head  the  right  way,  give  him  his  liberty, 
and,  by  the  voice  or  the  whip,  urge  him  to  proceed.  Much 
must  here  be  left  to  the  judgment  ; a touch  with  the  whip  in 
such  Circumstances  would  make  some  horses  jib,  while  it  would 
immediately  start  others  ; some  it  would  be  advisable  to  urge 
only  with  the  voice,  and  to  have  a person  to  push  the  gig  on, 
so  that  the  collar  should  scarcely  touch  the  shoulder  in  start- 
ing. Supposing  there  is  not  room  for  the  horse  to  turn,  and 
he  persists  in  his  attempt  to  do  so,  we  have  always  found  it 
best  in  such  a case  to  desire  the  groom  to  let  his  head  alone, 
and  to  go  to  the  side  towards  which  the  horse  is  inclined  to 
turn,  and  then  push  against  the  extreme  end  of  the  shaft ; if 
he  does  this,  speaking  quietly  to  him  all  the  time,  forty-nine 
horses  out  of  fifty,  that  are  not  irreclaimable  jibbers,  will,  after 
a short  struggle,  proceed.  The  sooner  you  get  rid  of  a con- 
firmed jibber  the  better  ; no  quality  such  a brute  can  possess 
would  repay  you  for  the  trouble  the  vice  occasions  ; which  is, 
besides,  always  a dangerous  one. 

The  Road.— Having  started  your  horse,  keep  your  eyes 
open,  looking  well  before  you,  not  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
avoiding  other  carriages,  but  looking  up  the  road,  and  on  each 
side  of  it,  so  as  to  notice  if  there  be  any  impediment  to  your 
horse’s  progress  ; any  loose  stones  which  he  might  tread  upon, 
and  thereby  be  thrown  down  ; any  sudden  risings  or  fallings 
in  the  road,  of  any  object  which  might  frighten  him.  Always 
keep  your  horse  well  in  hand — that  is,  feel  his  mouth  ; if  you 
do  not,  you  are  never  prepared  for  emergencies : if  he 
stumbles,  you  cannot  help  him  to  recover  his  legs  ; if  he 
starts,  you  cannot  check  him.  But  in  keeping  him  in  hand, 
as  it  is  called,  you  may  still  fall  into  error,  for  if  the  horse  be 
very  light  in  the  mouth,  there  is  a probability  that  an  inex- 

# 


r- 


DRIVING. 


perienced  person  may  so  check  him  as  not  only  to  impede  his 
progress,  but  to  put  him  out  of  temper  ; and  as  nothing  is 
more  difficult  for  a novice  to  manage  than  a very  light- 
mouthed horse,  when  he  once  takes  it  in  his  head  to  have  his 
own  way,  you  must  be  careful  merely  to  feel  his  mouth  so  as 
to  have  the  reins  at  command,  but  still  not  sufficiently  tight  to 
check  him  ; this  is  called  driving  with  a light  hand,  and  in- 
deed is  the  perfection  of  driving,  when  it  has  become  so 
habitual  as  to  have  assumed  the  character  of  “ a style.” 


DIFFICULT  SITUATIONS  FOR  YOUNG 
DRIVERS. 

Tusking  the  Bit  and  Running  Away.— Some  ill-tem- 
pered horses  will  become  violent  upon  being  in  any  manner 
put  out  of  their  way— such,  for  instance,  as  being  suddenly 
stopped  two  or  three  times  within  a short  distance,  or  receiving 
a sudden  cut  with  the  whip  ; but  instead  of  exhibiting  this 
violence  by  rearing  or  kicking,  they  will  seize  the  bit  in  their 
mouths,  close  against  the  tusk,  and  run  violently  to  one  side  of 
the  road,  as  if  with  the  intention  of  landing  you  in  a ditch,  or 
giving  you  a resting-place  in  a shop-window.  Your  best  mode 
is  to  stop  them  at  once  by  a quiet  pull,  speaking  softly,  as  if 
nothing  were  the  matter  ; and  then  coax  them  into  good  tem- 
per. If  this  cannot  be  done,  give  them  the  head  for  a 
moment  (a  short  one  it  must  be),  and  after  bestowing  a violent 
switch  across  the  ears,  snatch  the  reins  suddenly  towards  the 
side  to  which  the  horse  is  boring,  which  will  probably,  from 
the  surprise,  disengage  the  bit,  and  enable  you  almost  simul- 
taneously either  to  pull  him  up  or  draw  him  away  from  the 
danger.  You  will  observe  we  have  said  on  the  side  to  which 
he  is  pressing,  for  it  would  be  all  but  impossible  to  draw  him  to 
the  other  ; for  such  a brute  always  seizes  the  bit  by  the  branch 
or  side  which  is  next  to  the  place  he  is  running  to,  knowing, 
or  rather  thinking,  you  will  pull  the  other  rein,  in  which  case 
the  side  of  the  face  would  aid  him  in  resisting  your  efforts. 
The  remedy  for  this  is  a ring-bit,  for  it  has  no  branches  for 
the  horse  to  get  hold  of,  and  if  he  merely  seizes  that  part  of 
the  bit  which  is  in  his  mouth,  a sudden  jerk  will  instantly  dis- 
engage it,  that  is,  if  it  be  done  with  sufficient  decision. 

Frequently,  however,  a horse  tusks  the  bit,  as  it  is  called, 
with  a view  of  bolting  ; if  you  cannot  disengage  the  bit  in  the 
way  directed,  you  have  only  to  stop  him  as  quickly  as  you  can. 
Recollect,  however,  that  a continual  dead  pull  will  never  stop 
a runaway  horse,  unless  indeed  you  have  the  strength  of  Her- 
cules ; his  mouth  soon  becomes  callous  to  the  action  of  the 
sharpest  bit.  Nor  is  it  proper  to  keep  jerking  a horse  under 
such  circumstances,  as  that  would  rather  urge  him  to  increase 
his  speed.  The  ordinary  mode  is  to  take  the  reins  short  in 
your  hands,  and  then  by  a sudden,  steady  movement  of  the 
body  backwards,  exerting  at  the  same  time  all  the  strength  of 
the  arms,  endeavor  to  pull  him  up  ; this,  repeated  two  or  three 
times,  will  generally  be  effectual.  Suppose  it  not  to  succeed, 
adopt  the  following  plan  : Cross  the  reins  in  your  hand — that 
is,  -place  the  right  rein  in  the  left  hand,  the  left  in  the  right 
hand — take  them  very  short,  and  then  suddenly  put  all  your 
strength  to  them  with  a sudden  jerk,  but  continue  the  press- 
ure, violently  sawing  them  at  the  same  time  ; if  this  will  not 


— % 

269 


bring  the  horse  to  his  haunches  at  the  first  attempt,  let  him 
partially  have  his  head — that  is,  sufficiently  slacken  your  puP 
to  give  his  mouth  time  to  recover  its  feeling — and  then  repeat 
the  effort. 

Stumbling  and  Slipping. — If  your  horse  be  kept  wul  in 
hand,  you  will  generally  be  able  to  keep  him  from  absolutely 
coming  down.  You  will  naturally  put  more  force  to  your  pull 
upon  his  making  the  stumble,  and  this  jerk,  if  succeeded  by  a 
strong,  continuous  aid,  generally  keeps  him  on  his  legs  ; a 
smart  stroke  with  tfie  whip  should  follow,  to  remind  him  that  this 
carelessness  is  not  to  be  repeated.  A horse  that  is  apt  to  stum- 
ble, or  even  one  that  from  his  form  is  likely  to  stumble, should 
not  only  always  be  kept  well  in  hand,  but  also  be  kept  alive 
by  now  and  then  being  reminded,  without  actually  punishing 
him,  that  his  driver  has  a whip  in  his  hand.  A horse  with  his 
head  set  too  forward — that  is,  low  in  the  withers — is  almost 
sure  to  come  down  sooner  or  later,  particularly  if  his  fore-legs 
“ stand  at  all  under  him,”  as  it  is  technically  termed — that  is, 
slant  a little  inwards.  Stumbling,  however,  be  it  remembered, 
is  totally  distinct  from  slipping  ; wood  pavements  will  give  the 
tyro  plenty  of  opportunities  of  perceiving  the  difference.  If  a 
horse  slips,  a sudden  jerk  would  probably  throw  him  down ' 
in  such  a case  the  driver  must  aid  the  horse  by  a strong  steady 
hold,  letting  him,  as  it  were,  lean  on  the  bit  to  help  himself  to 
stand.  It  requires  some  nerve  thus  to  aid  the  horse,  without 
being  induced  to  jerk  him  by  the  suddenness  of  the  slip. 

Jibbing  is  that  sort  of  obstinacy  in  a horse  which  causes 
him  to  plant  his  fore-feet  upon  the  ground  and  refuse  to  move. 
If  we  are  asked  what  is  the  best  mode  to  adopt  with  a jibber, 
we  say,  Patience  ! This,  however,  must  be  qualified  by  the 
temper  of  the  horse.  Some  jibbers  (but  very  few)  may  be 
started  by  sudden  and  severe  whipping ; ninety-nine  times  out 
of  a hundred  it  will  render  a jibber  restive,  mischievous,  or  ob- 
stinate. Experience  only  can  dictate  the  management  of  such 
animals.  Some  will  start  after  waiting  for  a short  time,  hav- 
ing their  head  free  ; coaxing  is  generally  the  best  means,  and, 
as  before  said,  have  patience,  and  do  not  be  in  too  great  a 
hurry  to  start.  Some  may  be  started  by  being  turned  round, 
and  others,  by  being  backed  for  a short  distance.  Many  think 
it  a good  plan  to  punish  a jibber  when  he  is  once  started  ; our 
experience  proves  the  contrary,  for,  depend  upon  it,  he  will 
recollect  this  next  time,  and  will  not  fail  further  to  exercise 
your  patience,  for  fear  of  the  flogging.  Kindness  and  good 
driving  may  cure  a horse  who  is  not  a confirmed  jibber  ; but 
when  once  this  vice  has  become  habitual,  you  can  never  de- 
pend upon  the  horse  ; as  we  have  said  before,  get  rid  of  him. 

Kicking. — An  experienced  eye  can  generally  tell  if  a horse 
is  likely  to  kick,  and  also  when  he  is  about  to  kick.  We, 
however,  always  drive  with  a kicking-strap,  and  would  recom- 
mend the  practice.  When  a horse  attempts  to  kick,  you  must 
hold  him  well  in  hand,  and  lay  the  whip  well  into  him  about 
the  ears,  rating  him  at  the  same  time  with  a loud  voice  ; this 
plan  we  have  generally  found  effective. 

Rearing. — Little  can  be  done  in  harness  with  a deter- 
mined rearer.  When  he  tries  to  rear,  if  you  have  room, 
give  him  a half  turn  ; this  will  make  him  move  his  hind-legs, 
and  will  consequently  bring  him  down  ; you  will  find  a series 
of  turns  punish  and  surprise  him  more  than  anything  else 


I 


170 


DRIVING. 


When  you  have  once  got  him  on  the  move,  with  his  head  the 
right  way,  you  can  punish  him  with  the  whip,  if  he  is  one  that 
you  are  sure  you  can  manage  ; if  not,  you  had  better  leave 
well  alone.  With  respect  to  rearing  in  double  harness,  we 
will  here  observe,  the  best  way  to  act  is,  to  push  the  other 
horse  forward,  and  soothe  the  restive  one,  until  you  have  fairly 
got  him  on  ; you  can  then  punish  or  not,  according  to  your 
judgment,  but  not  without  reference  to  your  ability  to  manage 
the  horses.  , 

Shying. — Before  a horse  starts  at  anything  on  the  side  of 
the  road,  or  lying  on  the  road,  he  usually  gives  some  notice  of 
his  intention,  by  cocking  his  ears,  and  bending  his  head  to- 
wards the  object.  As  soon  as  the  driver  perceives  these  signs 
of  uneasiness,  he  should  be  upon  his  guard  to  prevent  a sud- 
den turn  round,  or  flying  to  one  side,  which  would  evidently 
be  dangerous  ; and  not  only  on  this  account  should  he  be  at- 
tentive, but  because  each  time  the  horse  violently  shies,  the 
habit  is  in  progress  of  being  confirmed.  As  soon,  therefore, 
as  a horse,  accustomed  to  shy,  gives  notice  of  uneasiness,  he 
should  be  coaxed  up  to  the  object  of  his  terror,  so  that  he  may 
perceive  its  harmlessness  ; let  him  deliberately  stand  and  view 
it,  and  if  he  cannot  be  got  to  it,  let  it,  if  possible,  be  brought 
to  him,  and  then  replaced  in  its  former  position  ; thus  let  him 
be  induced  to  go  up  to  it  by  care  and  kindness  before  it  is 
passed,  and  you  will  generally  find  that  a repetition  of  this 
practice  will  greatly  improve,  if  it  do  not  cure  him  ; but  by 
no  means  flog  or  force  him  up  to  it — let  him  take  his  time. 
Some  horses  have  a nasty  nack  of  flying  on  one  side  in  pass- 
ing, or  flying  around  on  meeting  a carriage  ; care  and  patience 
are  the  remedies,  in  addition  to  more  work.  It  very  fre- 
quently arises  from  playfulness  rather  than  vice  ; and  giving 
them  more  work  to  do  will  cure  this.  An  experienced  hand 
may  force  a horse  forward,  under  such  circumstances,  by  the 
reins  and  whip  ; but  we  recommend  the  tyro  rather  to  slacken 
his  pace  upon  meeting  an  object  that  his  horse  will  go  round, 
or  attempt  to  go  round  at  ; by  doing  this,  and  speaking  kindly, 
the  animal  will  either  be  soothed  or  diverted  from  his  purpose. 

DRIVING  TWO  HORSES. 

We  have  addressed  most  of  our  remarks  to  a person  driving 
a single  horse,  for  this  reason,  that  it  is  much  more  difficult  to 
drive  one  horse,  than  it  is  to  drive  a pair,  that  is,  if  you  have 
sufficient  nerve.  In  almost  all  situations  of  difficulty,  you  can 
make  the  second  horse  assist  you  in  managing  the  other  ; if 
the  one  shies,  and  will  go  to  the  right — we  will  suppose  it  is 
the  near  wheeler — by  opposing  the  strength  of  the  other  to 
him,  which  you  will  do  by  the  reins,  touching  him  with  the 
whip  on  the  off-side,  you  will  prevent  any  very  great  deviation 
from  the  straight  line.  Again,  if  one  will  not  start  readily, 
the  other,  generally  speaking,  may  be  made  to  pull  him  on  ; 
in  this  case,  never  hit  the  restive  horse  ; or  at  any  rate  until 
your  judgment  is  sufficiently  matured  to  determine  whether  it 
will  do  good  or  harm.  Suppose  the  one  tries  to  run  away — if 
he  is  an  ill-tempered  brute,  it  may  sometimes  be  advisable  not 
to  irritate  him  by  hard  pulling — then  all  you  have  to  do  is  to 
keep  back  the  other,  and  he  must  shortly  be  beaten,  as  he  will 
not  only  have  the  carriage  and  its  contents  opposed  to  him, 


but  the  weight  and  strength  of  his  companion  to  pull  against. 
Sometimes  a horse  will  be  awkward  in  turning  a corner,  here 
again  his  companion  assists  you  ; if  he  turns  too  quick,  the 
other  opposes  him  ; if  not  sufficiently  so,  a touch  with  the 
whip  makes  the  other  force  him  on.  Instead  of  its  being 
more  difficult  to  drive  two  horses  than  one,  as  the  tyro  doubt- 
less imagines,  it  is,  in  fact  just  the  reverse,  when  he  has  ob- 
tained sufficient  confidence  to  attempt  it.  But  although  it  is 
easier  to  manage  two  horses  than  one,  it  requires  much  more 
attention  in  some  respects  ; you  must  continually  watch  them, 
or,  perhaps,  one  will  do  all  the  work  while  the  other  is  doing 
nothing. 

The  Seat. — When  driving,  sit  quite  straight  towards  your 
horses,  and  rather  more  to  the  middle  than  to  the  off-side  of 
the  box-seat.  Keep  your  body  nearly  upright,  or  inclined  a 
little  backward  rather  than  forward,  and  your  feet  well  to- 
gether, extended  upwards,  and  on  no  account  doubled  under 
your  legs  ; a firm  seat  is  indispensable  for  your  own  safety  and 
that  of  the  friends  you  may  be  driving,  therefore  never  sit  with 
your  feet  doubled  under  you,  for  a sudden  jolting  of  the  car- 
riage, or  increase  of  the  pace  of  your  horses,  may  capsize  you 
into  the  road.  Never  ride  in  a vehicle  that  has  the  wheels  se- 
cured only  by  a common  linchpin,  for  accidents  arising  from 
wheels,  thus  fastened,  coming  off,  are  generally  of  a serious 
character. 

Accidents. — As  accidents  are  usually  unforeseen,  the  sud- 
denness with  which  they  arise  is  apt  to  unnerve  the  rider,  and 
so  sure  as  this  be  the  case,  his  judgment  will  be  at  fault. 
Presence  of  mind  should,  therefore,  be  exercised  on  all  occa- 
sions of  danger.  With  kicking  horses  before  you  ( unless  you 
are  in  a gig),  the  best  plan  is  to  let  the  whip  take  it  out  of 
them.  With  runaways,  never  think  of  deserting  the  box  by 
jumping  off,  for  there  is  a chance  of  your  being  able  to  pull 
them  up,  but  none  of  your  escaping  severe  contusions,  if  not 
broken  limbs  or  loss  of  life,  should  you  throw  yourself  from 
the  vehicle. 

Down  Hills. — If  these  are  of  an  ordinary  character,  we 
would  not  advise  locking  the  wheel  except  with  a heavy  load, 
or  when  your  horses  will  not  hold  back  ; besides  the  trouble, 
locking  is  a great  disadvantage,  for  by  letting  out  your  horses 
when  you  have  passed  the  pitch  of  a hill,  the  motion  of  the 
carriage  takes  it  half  way  up  an  ordinary  rise  before  your 
horses  feel  the  weight,  and  this,  in  a day’s  journey,  will  be 
found  of  considerable  importance.  If  your  horses  will  not 
hold  back,  or  are  not  masters  of  their  load,  locking  the  wheel 
becomes  necessary  when  the  hill  is  long  or  steep.  When  the 
hill  is  not  very  steep,  and  the  near  edge  of  the  road  happens 
to  be  of  a rough,  rutty  nature,  or  has  gravel  or  granite  strewn 
upon  it,  take  your  near  wheels  a few  inches  upon  the  resisting 
substance,  which  will  supply  the  additional  friction,  or  bite, 
necessary  to  check  the  increasing  momentum  of  a downward 
pace,  and  obviate  the  necessity  of  skidding. 

Stopping. — When  pulling  up,  accustom  your  horses  to 
stop  by  some  signal,  and  draw  in  the  reins  equally,  unless 
either  of  the  animals  shows  a disinclination  to  obey  the  notice. 
Young  horses  should  be  stopped  very  gradually,  and  eight  or 
ten  yards  allowed  them  to  pull  up  in  ; for  they  are  apt  to  re- 
sist attempts  to  stop  them  short. 


DRIVING. 


* 


Matching  Horses. — Some  persons  are  particular  as  to  the 
eolor  of  their  horses,  but  it  is  much  more  important  that  their 
paces  and  their  tempers  should  match,  than  that  their  colors 
should  be  alike  ; for  if  you  have  one  slow  and  the  other  fast — 
one  irritable  and  nervous,  and  the  other  stupid  and  obstinate — 
one  free,  and  the  other  like  a lawyer  that  will  not  move  with, 
out  being  paid — you  are  sure  to  weary  out  the  free,  nervous, 
and  fast  horse,  by  whipping  up  the  other  to  his  pace  ; and 
although  you  may  hold  him  back,  you  will  take  as  much 
strength  out  of  him  as  though  he  was  doing  all  the  work.  If, 
therefore,  your  horses  do  not  match  in  pace  and  freeness,  get 
rid  of  the  dull  one,  or  depend  on  it  your  work  will  soon  kill 
the  other  ; besides,  you  can  never  have  any  pleasure  in  driving. 

RECORDS  OF  TROTTING  HORSES  OF  2.20 
AND  UNDER. 


Maud  S 2.  104 

St.  Julien 2.114 

Rams 2.13J 

Goldsmith  Maid  2.14 

Trinket 2.14 

Hopeful 2.143 

Lulu 2.15 

Smuggler 2.154 

Hattie  Woodward 2.154 

Darby 2.164 

Lucille  Golddust 2.i6J 

American  Girl 2.i6i 

Occident 2.164 

Charley  Ford 2.  i6J 

Gloster 2.17 

Dexter 2.174 

So  So 2.174 

Piedmont 2.174 

Edwin  Thorne 2.173 

Santa  Claus 2.174 

Hannis 2.17} 

Proteine 2.18 

Judge  Fullerton 2.18 

Nettie 2.18 

Red  Cloud 2.18 

Great  Eastern 2.18 

Edwin  Forrest 2.18 

Dick  Swiveler 2.18 

Kate  Sprague 2.18 

Robert  MacGregor 2.18 

Lady  Thorne 2.1 84 

Lady  Maude 2.184 

Midnight  2 18  4 


Lucy 

Monroe  Chief 

Slow  Go 

Colonel  Lewis 

Nutwood 

Patchen 

J.  B.  Thomas 

Albemarle 

Edward 

Cozette 

Bonesetter 

Alley 

Kittie  Bates 

Wedgewood 

Alexander 

Croxie * 

Thomas  L.  Young. 

Bodine 

George  Palmer 

Comee 

Parana 

Will  Cody 

Driver 

Moose 

Troubadour 

Adelaide 

Flora  Temple 

Camors 

Deck  Wright 

Keene  Jim 

Daisy  Dale 

Clingstone 

Fanny  Witherspoon 

John  S.  Clark 

Josephus 

Fleety  Golddust.. . . 

Little  Fred 

Nancy  Hackett. . . . 

Mambrino  Gift 

May  Queen 

Prospero 

Graves 

John  H, 

Etta  Jones 

Belle  Brassfield. . . . 

Frank 

Orange  Girl 

Captain  Emmons.  . 

Elaine 

Annie  W 


2.  i8i 

2.184 

2.184 
2.184 
2. 18J 
2.183 
2 183 
2. 19 
2 . 19 
2.19 
2.19 
2.19 
2.19 

2.19 
2 19 
2 194 
2.  i9i 
2.19i 

2.194 

2.19 
2.194 

2i9i 

2.194 

2.194 

2.194 

2.193 

2.193 

2.193 

2.193 

2.193 

2.193 

2.193 

2.193 

2.193 

2.193 

2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 


i 72 


LESSONS  IN  BICYCLE  RIDING. 


UY  one  of  the  old-fash- 
ioned to  begin  upon ; 
these  may  be  got  at  a 
reasonable  price,  as 
many  have  been  dis- 
carded for  the  modern 
ones.  They  are  called 
leers,”  or,  more  familiarly, 
shakers.”  In  learning  to 
is  advisable  to  have  a corn- 
teacher,  who  cannot  only 
/hat  is  wanted,  but  can 
t the  beginner  in  the  way 
g it  himself  ; but  as  many 
may  be  unable,  from  distance  or  other  causes,  to  avail 
themselves  of  this  kind  of  assistance,  the  following  in- 
structions are  intended  for  those  who  are  thus  thrown 
upon  their  own  resources.  Of  course  it  is  necessary 
to  have  recourse  to  a friendly  arm,  and  there  may  be 
many  cases  in  which  trvo  friends  are  desirous  to  learn 
the  bicycle,  and  can  give  mutual  help. 

The  old-fashioned  bicycle  is  of  this  construction, 
that  is,  of  moderate  height  and  the  most  solid  build, 
and  altogether  very  different  from  its  latest  develop- 
ment, with  its  enormous  driving-wheel  and  general 
lightness  of  make.  These  machines,  with  compara- 
tively little  difference  in  the  height  of  the  wheel,  are 
best  for  beginners,  as,  being  low,  the  getting  on  and 
off  is  easier  and  safer,  and  they  are  in  every  way 
adapted  for  the  purpose  ; and  it  is  only  when  toler- 
able command  of  this  kind  is  acquired,  that  the 
modern  large-wheeled  bicycle  may  be  adventured 
with  fair  prospect  of  success. 

But  even  with  these  some  discrimination  is  neces- 
sary. In  choosing  a machine  on  which  to  begin 


practicing,  we  strongly  advise  the  learner  to  select 
one  of  the  size  suitable  to  his  height,  as,  if  it  is  too 
small,  his  knees  will  knock  against  the  handles,  and 
if  too  large,  his  legs  will  not  be  long  enough  fairly  to 
reach  the  throw  of  the  crank.  We  know  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  begin  with  a boy’s  machine,  and  on 
an  inclined  plan  ; but  the  benefit  of  these  is  very 
doubtful,  unless  you  are  totally  without  help,  and 
have  no  one  to  lend  you  a helping  hand. 

The  best  guide  in  measuring  oneself  for  a bicycle  to 
learn  on  is,  we  consider,  to  stand  by  its  side  and  see  that 
the  saddle  is  in  a line  with  the  hips.  The  point  of  the 
saddle  should  be  about  six  inches  from  the  upright 
which  supports  the  handles  ; for  if  the  saddle  is 
placed  too  far  back,  you  decrease  your  power  over 
the  driving-wheel,  especially  in  ascending  a hill. 

When  you  have  secured  a good  velocipede,  well 
suited  to  your  size,  you  will  find  it  useful  to  practice 
wheeling  it  slowly  along  while  holding  the  handles. 
While  thus  leading  it  about,  of  course  you  will  soon 
perceive  the  fact  that  the  first  desideratum  is  to  keep 
the  machine  perfectly  upright,  which  is  done  by 
turning  the  handles  to  the  right  or  left  when  there 
is  any  inclination  to  deviate  from  the  perpendicular. 
If  inclining  to  the  right,  turn  the  wheel  in  the  same 
direction , and  vice  versa,  as  it  is  only  the  rapidly 
advancing  motion  that  keeps  it  upright,  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  boy’s  hoop,  which,  the  faster  it  rolls,  the 
better  it  keeps  its  perpendicular,  and  which,  when 
losing  its  momentum,  begins  to  oscillate,  and  finally 
must  fall  on  one  side  or  the  other. 

Now  for  the — 

FIRST  LESSON. 

Having  become  accustomed  to  the  motion  of  the  machine, 
and  well  studied  its  mode  of  traveling,  the  next  thing  is  to  get 


LESSONS  IN  BICYCLE  RIDING. 


273 


the  assistant  to  hold  it  steady  while  you  get  astride,  and  then 
let  him  slowly  wheel  it  along. 

Do  not  attempt  at  first  to  put  your  feet  on  the  treadles,  but 
lei  iflem  hang  down,  and  simply  sit  quiet  on  the  saddle,  and 
take  hold  of  the  handles,  while  the  assistant  moves  you  slowly 
along,  with  one  hand  on  your  arm  and  the  other  on  the  end 
of  the  spring. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  best  place  to  learn  is 
a large  room  or  gallery,  with  smooth-boarded  floor  or  flag- 
stone pavement. 

Now,  directly  you  are  in  motion  you  will  feel  quite  helpless, 
and  experience  a sensation  of  being  run  away  with,  and  it  will 
seem  as  if  the  machine  were  trying  to  throw  you  off ; but  all 
you  have  to  do  is  to  keep  the  front  wheel  straight  with  the 
back  wheel  by  means  of  the  handles,  and  the  assistant  will 
keep  you  up  and  wheel  you  about  for  a quarter  of  an  hour  or 
so,  taking  rest  at  intervals.  When  you  want  to  turn,  move 
the  handle  so  as  to  turn  the  front  wheel  in  the  direction  re- 
quired, but  avoid  turning  too  quickly,  or  you  will  fall  off  the 
reverse  way. 

Observe  that  in  keeping  your  balance,  all  is  done  by  the 
hands  guiding  the  front  wheel  Do  not  attempt  to  sway  your 
body,  and  so  preserve  your  balance,  but  sit  upright,  and  if 
you  feel  yourself  falling  to  the  left,  turn  the  wheel  to  the  left  j 
that  is  to  say,  guide  the  machine  in  the  direction  in  which  you 
are  falling,  and  it  will  bring  you  up  again  ; but  this  must  be 
done  the  same  moment  you  feel  any  inclination  from  the  per- 
pendicular. Do  not  be  violent  and  turn  the  wheel  too  much, 
or  you  will  overdo  it,  and  cause  it  to  fall  the  other  way. 

Practice  guiding  the  machine  in  this  way  until  you  feel 
yourself  able  to  be  left  to  yourself  for  a short  distance,  and  then 
let  the  assistant  give  you  a push,  and  leaving  his  hold,  let  you 
run  by  yourself  for  a few  yards  before  you  incline  to  fall. 
Should  you  feel  that  you  are  losing  your  balance,  stretch  out 
the  foot  on  the  side  on  which  you  incline,  so  that  you  may 
pitch  upon  i^  and  thus  arrest  your  fall. 

SECOND  LESSON. 

Having  pretty  well  mastered  the  balancing  and  keeping  the 
machine  straight,  you  may  now  take  a further  step,  and  venture 
to  place  your  feet  on  the  treadles,  and  you  will  now  find 
the  novel  movement  of  the  legs  up  and  down  liable  to  distract 
your  attention  from  the  steering  or  balancing  ; but  after  a few 
turns  you  will  get  familiarized  with  the  motion,  and  find  this 
difficulty  disappear ; and  it  will  seem  within  the  bounds  of 
possibility  that  you  may  some  time  or  other  begin  to  travel 
without  assistance. 

Of  course,  in  this  and  the  former  lesson,  some  will  take  to  it 
more  quickly  than  others,  and  the  duration  of  the  lessons  must 
depend  on  the  learner  himself,  and  the  amount  of  mechanical 
aptitude  which  he  may  be  gifted  with.  Some  we  have  known 
to  take  six  times  as  much  teaching  as  others. 

THIRD  LESSON. 

Now,  having  in  the  first  lesson  ridden  with  the  feet  hang- 
ing down,  and  in  the  second  with  them  on  the  treadles,  in  the 


third  lesson  you  should  be  able  to  go  along  for  a short  dis- 
tance, working  the  treadles  in  the  usual  way. 

Of  course,  when  we  speak  of  the  first  and  second  lessons,  we 
do  not  mean  that  after  practicing  each  of  them  once  you  will 
be  able,  of  necessity,  to  ride  at  the  third  attempt ; although  we 
have  taught  some  who  seemed  to  take  to  it  all  at  once  ; but 
that  these  are  the  progressive  steps  in  learning  to  ride,  and 
you  must  practice  each  of  them  until  tolerably  proficient. 

When  you  are  sufficiently  familiar  with  the  working  of  the 
treadles  while  held  by  the  assistant,  it  depends  entirely  on 
vourself,  and  the  amount  of  confidence  you  may  possess,  to 
determine  the  time  at  which  he  may  let  go  his  hold  of  you, 
and  you  may  begin  to  go  alone  ; but  of  course  for  some  time 
it  will  be  advisable  for  him  to  walk  by  your  side,  to  catch  you 
in  case  of  falling.  When  you  have  arrived  at  this  stage,  you 
only  require  practice  to  make  a good  rider,  and  the  amount  of 
practice  taken  is  generally  a guide  to  the  amount  of  skill 
gained. 

T o Get  On  and  Off. — Having  now  learnt  to  ride  the  veloci- 
pede without  assistance,  we  will  now  proceed  to  getting  on 
and  off  in  a respectable  manner,  in  case  you  have  not  a step, 
which  all  modern  machines  are  now  provided  with.  The 
proper  way  is  to  vault  on  and  off,  which  is  the  easiest  way  of  all, 
when  yon  can  do  it , but  it  certainly  requires  a little  courage 
and  skill. 

At  first,  it  may  be,  from  want  of  confidence  in  yourself,  you 
will  jump  at  the  machine  and  knock  it  over,  both  you  and  it 
coming  down.  But  what  is  required  to  be  done  is,  to  stand  on 
the  left- hand  side  of  the  bicycle,  and  throw  your  light  leg 
over  the  saddle.  Stand  close  to  the  machine,  holding  the 
handles  firmly  ; then  run  a few  steps  with  it  to  get  a sufficient 
momentum,  and  then,  leaning  your  body  well  over  the  han- 
dles, and  throwing  as  much  of  your  weight  as  you  can  upon 
them,  with  a slight  jump  throw  your  right  leg  over  the  saddle. 

This  may  sound  formidable,  but  it  is  in  reality  no  more 
than  most  equestrians  do  every  time  they  mount,  as  the  height 
of  the  bicycle  to  be  cleared  is  little  more  than  that  of  the 
horse's  back  when  the  foot  is  in  the  stirrup,  only  the  horse  is 
supposed  to  stand  quiet,  and  therefore  you  can  jump  with  a 
kind  of  swing. 

You  must  be  very  careful  that  while  running  by  the  side  you 
keep  the  machine  perfectly  upright,  particularly  at  the  mo- 
ment of  jumping.  Perhaps  at  first  you  will  vault  on,  forget- 
ting to  keep  the  machine  quite  perpendicular,  and  as  an  in- 
evitable consequence  you  will  come  to  the  ground  again, 
either  on  your  own  side,  or,  what  is  worse,  you  may  go  right 
over  it,  and  fall  with  it  on  the  top  of  you  on  the  other  side. 

Of  course  it  is  much  better  to  have  an  assistant  with  you  at 
your  first  attempts  at  vaulting,  and  it  is  good  practice  to  let 
him  hold  the  machine  steady  while  you  vault  on  and  off  as 
many  times  as  you  can  manage.  You  must  not  forget  to  put 
all  the  weight  you  can  on  the  handles,  and  although  at  first 
this  seems  difficult,  it  is  comparatively  easy  when  the  knack  is 
acquired. 

You  will  not  attempt  any  vaulting  until  you  can  manage 
the  machine  pretty  well  when  you  are  on,  up  to  which  time 
the  assistant  should  help  you  on  and  set  you  straight. 


LESSONS  IN  BICYCLE  RIDING. 


To  get  on  with  the  help  of  the  treadle  is  a very  neat  and 
useful  method,  but  requires  considerably  more  practice  than 
vaulting. 

Stand  with  the  left  foot  on  the  treadle,  and  taking  a slight 
spring  or  “beat"  from  the  ground  with  the  right  foot,  give  the 
machine  a good  send  forward,  of  course  following  it  yourself, 
and  with  a rise  bring  the  right  foot  over  to  the  saddle.  The 
secret  of  this  movement  is  that  you  put  as  little  weight  as 
you  can  on  the  treadle,  merely  following  the  movement, 
which  hajs  a tendency  to  lift  you,  and  keep  the  greater  part 
of  your  weight  on  the  handles. 

You  may  mount  the  bicycle  in  another  way,  and  that  is 
by  running  by  its  side,  and  watching  the  time  when  one  of 
the  treadles  is  at  its  lowest,  then  place  your  foot  upon  it, 
and  as  it  comes  up,  the  momentum  thus  gained  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  lift  you  quite  over  on  to  the  saddle.  In  this  move- 
ment also,  as  in  most  others,  it  is  much  better  to  have  as- 
sistance at  first. 

To  vault  off,  you  have  merely  to  reverse  all  the  move 
ments  just  described. 

Another  capital  way  of  alighting  from  the  machine  while 
in  motion  is  to  throw  the  right  leg  over  the  handles.  You 
hold  the  left  handle  firmly,  and  raise  your  right  leg  over 
and  into  the  center  of  the  handles,  previously  raising  your 
right  hand  to  allow  the  leg  to  pass  under.  Then  lifting 
your  left  hand  for  the  same  purpose,  you  will  be  able  to 
bring  your  leg  over  into  a side-sitting  posture,  and  drop  on 
to  the  ground  with  the  same  movement. 

But  at  this  time  pay  strict  attention  to  the  steering , and  take 
care  never  to  let  go  one  hand  until  you  have  a firm  hold  with 
the  other,  or  you  and  the  whole  affair  may  come  to  extreme 
grief. 

This  we  consider  one  of  the  easiest  methods  of  getting  off, 
although  it  looks  so  difficult. 

To  Ride  Side-saddle. — Riding  in  a side-sitting  position 
is  very  simple,  but  you  must  first  learn  the  foregoing  exercises. 
First  vault  on  the  usual  way,  and  work  up  to  a moderate 
speed,  then  throw  the  right  leg  over  the  handles  as  in  the  act 
of  getting  off,  but  still  retain  your  seat,  and  continue  working 
with  the  left  leg  only.  Now  from  this  position  you  may  prac- 
tice passing  the  right  leg  back  again  into  its  original  position 
when  sitting  across  the  saddle  in  the  usual  way. 

To  Rest  the  Legs. — A very  useful  position  is  that  of 
stretching  out  the  legs  in  front  when  taking  long  journeys,  as 
it  rests  the  legs,  and  also,  as  sometimes  you  do  not  require  to 
work  the  treadle  descending  an  incline,  the  weight  of  the 
machine  and  yourself  being  sufficient  to  continue  the  desired 
momentum. 

In  this  position  the  break  is  generally  used  ; but  when  put- 
ting it  on,  mind  you  do  not  turn  the  handles  with  both  hands 
at  once,  but  turn  with  one  first  and  then  with  the  other ; as,  if 
the  spring  should  be  strong,  and  you  attempt  to  use  both 
hands  in  turning  it,  as  a matter  of  course  when  you  let  go  to 
take  fresh  hold  the  handles  will  fly  back,  to  your  great  an- 
noyance. 

To  Ride  without  using  the  Hands. — This  is  a very 
pretty  and  effective  performance,  but  of  course  it  is  rather 
difficult,  and  requires  much  practice  before  attempting  it,  as 


the  steering  must  be  done  with  the  feet  alone,  the  arms  being 
generally  folded. 

To  accomplish  this  feat,  you  must  keep  your  feet  firmly  on 
the  treadles  in  the  upward  as  well  as  the  downward  movement, 
taking  care  not  to  take  them  off  at  all,  as  you  will  thereby  keep 
entire  command  of  them,  which  is  absolutely  necessary,  as  in 
fact  they  are  doing  double  work,  both  propelling  and  also 
steering  the  machine.  You  will,  as  you  become  expert  in  this 
feat,  acquire  a kind  of  clinging  hold  of  the  treadles,  which  you 
will  find  very  useful,  indeed,  in  ascending  a hill  when  you  take 
to  outdoor  traveling.  Fancy  riding  of  this  kind  must  only  be 
attempted  on  good  surfaces. 

Description  will  not  assist  you  much  here,  but  when  you 
attempt  it  you  will  soon  find  out  that  when  riding  without 
using  the  hands,  every  stroke  of  the  foot,  either  right  or  left, 
must  be  of  the  same  force,  as,  if  you  press  heavier  on  one 
treadle  than  on  the  other,  the  machine  will  have  a tendency 
to  go  in  that  direction  ; and  thus  you  must  be  on  the  watch  to 
counteract  it  by  a little  extra  pressure  on  the  other  treadle, 
without  giving  enough  to  turn  the  machine  in  the  reverse 
direction. 

This  is  all  a matter  of  nice  judgment,  but  when  you  can  do 
it  a very  good  effect  is  produced,  giving  spectators  the  idea  of 
your  complete  mastery  of  the  bicycle. 

But  remember  that  you  must  be  always  ready  to  seize  the 
handles,  and  resume  command  if  any  interruption  to  your  prog- 
ress presents  itself. 

To  Ride  without  using  Legs  or  Hands. — As  you  can 

now  ride  without  using  the  hands,  let  us  now  proceed  to  try  a 
performance  which,  at  first  sight,  will  perhaps  seem  almost 
impossible,  but  which  is  really  not  much  more  difficult  than 
going  without  hands.  This  is  to  get  the  velocipede  up  to  full 
speed,  and  then  lift  your  feet  off  the  treadles  and  place  them 
on  each  side  of  the  rest,  and  when  your  legs  are  up  in  this 
way,  you  will  find  that  you  can  let  go  the  handles  and  fold 
your  arms,  and  thus  actually  ride  without  using  either  legs  or 
hands. 

In  progressing  thus,  the  simple  fact  is  that  you  overcome 
gravity  by  motion,  and  the  machine  cannot  fall  until  the 
momentum  is  lost. 

This  should  only  be  attempted  by  an  expert  rider,  who  can 
get  up  a speed  of  twelve  to  fourteen  miles  per  hour,  and  on 
a very  good  surface  and  with  a good  run ; and,  in  fact,  from 
this  position  you  may  lean  back,  and  lie  flat  down,  your  body 
resting  on  and  along  the  spring. 

At  Rest. — We  are  now  come  to  the  last  and  best,  or,  we 
may  say,  the  most  useful  feat  of  all,  and  this  is  to  stop  the 
bicycle  and  sit  quite  still  upon  it. 

The  best  way  to  commence  practicing  this  is  to  run  into  a 
position  where  you  can  hold  by  a railing  or  a wall,  or  perhaps 
the  assistant  will  stand  with  his  shoulder  ready  for  you  to  take 
hold  of. 

Now  gradually  slacken  speed,  and  when  coming  nearly  to  a 
standstill,  turn  the  front  wheel  until  it  makes  an  angle  of  45 
deg.  with  the  back  wheel,  and  try  all  you  know  to  sit  perfectly 
still  and  upright. 

Of  course  this  is  a question  of  balancing,  and  you  will  soon 
find  the  knack  of  it.  When  the  machine  inclines  to  the  left 


4 


LESSONS  IN  BICYCLE  RIDING. 


slightly  press  the  left  treadle,  and  if  it  evinces  a tendency  to 
lean  to  the  right,  press  the  right  treadle  ; and  so  on,  until, 
sooner  or  later,  you  achieve  a correct  equilibrium,  when  you 
may  take  out  your  pocket-book  and  read  or  even  write  letters, 

; &c.,  without  difficulty. 

Now,  we  do  not  think  that  there  is  anything  further  to  be 
said  as  to  learning  to  ride  the  bicycle,  and  we  can  only  express 
a hope  that  if  you  follow  the  advice  and  instruction  we  have 
been  able  to  give,  you  will  become  an  expert  rider  and  be 
able  to  begin  practicing  on  the  “ Modern  Bicycle.” 


Choice  of  a Machine. — And  first,  as  to  the  choice  of  a 
machine.  In  this  case  it  is  imperative  to  have  the  very  best 
you  can  get,  as  it  is  utter  folly  to  risk  life  and  limb  by  using 
one  of  inferior  make. 

In  choosing  a bicycle,  of  course  the  first  thing  to  be  con- 
sidered is  the  height  of  wheel,  which  greatly  depends  on  the 
length  of  limb  of  the  rider;  as,  of  course,  although  two  men 
may  be  of  equal  height,  one  may  have  a longer  leg  than  the 
other.  A good  guide  is  to  sit  on  the  machine  and  let  the  toe 
touch  the  lower  treadle  without  quite  straightening  the  leg,  as 
of  course  command  must  never  be  lost.  Fora  rider  of  average 
height,  say  5 feet  8 inches,  a machine  of  52  to  54  inches  we 
should  consider  suitable.  But  of  course  any  well-known 
and  reliable  maker  will  furnish  you  with  a machine  to  suit 
you. 

Having  selected  your  “ Modern  Bicycle,”  the  first  thing  you 
want  to  accomplish  is  to  be  able  to  mount  and  dismount.  Of 
course,  the  saddle  being  nearly  as  high  as  your  shoulder,  it  is 
impossible  to  vault  on,  as  with  the  old  “ practices  ” It  is 
therefore  necessary  to  provide  a “step,”  which,  in  all  the 
modern  machines,  is  fitted  on  the  backbone,  or  connecting- 
iron,  just  above  the  hinder  fork  on  the  left  side,  at  a conve 
nient  height.  It  consists  of  a small  round  plate,  jagged,  to 
afford  a firm  grip  for  the  toe  when  placed  upon  it. 

There  are  two  ways  of  mounting.  One  is  to  start  the  ma- 
chine and  to  run*by  the  left  side,  and  put  the  left  toe  upon  the 
step  while  in  motion,  throwing  the  right  leg  over  on  to  the 
seat  ; the  other  is  to  stand  at  the  back  of  the  machine,  standing 
on  the  right  leg,  with  the  left  toe  on  the  step,  and,  gently 
starting,  hop  with  the  right  leg  until  you  have  gained  a sufficient 
impetus  to  raise  yourself  on  the  step,  and  throw  your  right  leg 
across  the  seat. 

The  first  is  the  best  plan,  as  you  can  run  with  greater  speed, 
and  mount  ; in  fact,  the  quicker  you  go,  the  easier  to  get  on. 
In  many  cases  it  is  the  only  practicable  plan,  as,  for  instance, 
on  remounting  on  a slight  ascent,  where  it  would  be  most 
difficult  to  get  up  sufficient  speed  by  the  hopping  plan,  which, 
moreover,  does  not  present  a very  graceful  appearance. 

Now,  in  the  second  way  of  getting  on  by  the  step,  you  hold 
the  handle  with  the  left  hand  to  guide  the  machine,  placing 
the  other  on  the  seat.  You  can  now  run  it  along  easily.  Your 
object  in  having  one  hand  on  the  seat  is,  that  if  both  hands  are 
on  the  handles,  you  are  over-reached,  and  it  is  difficult  to  keep 
your  balance.  Now  take  a few  running  steps,  and  when  the 
right  foot  is  on  the  ground  give  a hop  with  that  foot,  and  at 
the  same  time  place  the  left  foot  on  the  step,  throwing  your 
right  leg  over  on  to  the  seat.  Now,  the  hop  is  the  principal 

kr 


275 


thing  to  be  done,  as  if,  when  running  beside  the  bicycle  at  a 
good  speed,  you  were  merely  to  place  the  left  foot  on  the  step 
without  giving  a good  hop  with  the  other,  the  right  leg  would 
be  left  behind,  and  you  would  be  merely  what  is  called  “ doing 
the  splits.” 

You  will  see  at  once  that  as  the  machine  is  traveling  at 
good  speed,  you  have  no  time  to  raise  one  foot  after  the  other 
(as  in  walking  up  stairs),  as  when  you  lift  up  your  foot,  you  are, 
as  it  were,  “ in  the  air,”  and  nothing  but  a good  long  running 
hop  will  give  time  to  adjust  your  toe  on  the  step  as  it  is  mov- 
ing. This  is,  of  course,  difficult  to  describe,  and  we  need  not 
say,  requires  a certain  amount  of  strength  and  agility,  without 
which  no  one  can  expect  to  become  an  expert  rider. 

But,  in  the  high  racing  machines,  no  one  would  think  of 
trying  to  mount  without  the  assistance  of  a friendly  arm,  and 
a stand  or  stool  of  suitable  height. 

Having  now  mounted  the  high  machine,  you  will  find  that 
the  reach  of  the  leg,  and  the  position  altogether,  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  seat  on  the  “bone-shaker;”  but  when  you 
get  some  command,  you  will  find  the  easy  gliding  motion 
much  pleasanter,  as  well  as  faster.  You  are  now  seated  much 
higher,  in  fact,  almost  on  the  top  of  the  wheel ; and,  instead  of 
using  the  ball  of  the  foot,  you  must  use  your  toe  ; and  when 
the  treadle  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  throw  of  the  crank,  your 
leg  will  be  almost  at  its  fullest  extent,  and  nearly  straight. 

Now  you  must  pay  a little  attention  to  the  process  of 
alighting. 

In  getting  off  by  the  step,  all  you  have  to  do  is  to  reach  back 
your  left  foot  until  you  feel  the  step,  and,  resting  upon  the 
handles,  raise  yourself  up,  and  throw  the  right  leg  over  the 
seat  on  to  the  ground 

But  we  consider  getting  off  by  the  treadle  much  the  prefer- 
able way  when  you  can  manage  it  ; but  you  must  be  very 
careful  when  first  trying  not  to  attempt  it  until  the  machine  is 
perfectly  at  rest.  Get  some  one  to  hold  you  up,  the  bicycle 
being  stationary,  and  practice  getting  off  in  the  following 
manner  : First,  see  that  the  left  hand  crank  is  at  the  bottom, 
and  with  your  left  foot  on  that  treadle  practice  swinging  your 
right  leg  backwards  and  forwards,  in  order  to  get  used  to  the 
movement  Now  while  in  position,  throw  your  right  leg  with 
a swing  backwards,  resting  as  much  as  you  can  of  your  weight 
upon  the  handles,  and  raise  yourself  with  your  right  foot  into 
position,  continuing  your  swinging  movement  until  you  are  off 
the  seat  and  on  the  ground. 

When  you  are  well  able  to  get  off  in  this  way,  with  the 
bicycle  at  rest,  you  may  attempt  it  when  slackening  speed  to 
stop.  As  it  is,  of  course,  easier  to  get  off  the  slower  you  are 
going,  you  must  come  almost  to  a standstill,  just  keeping  way 
enough  to  prevent  the  machine  falling  over,  as,  if  you  attempt 
it  when  going  at  all  quickly,  you  will  have  to  run  by  its  side 
after  you  are  off,  which  is  a difficult  feat  for  any  but  a skillful 
rider. 

The  great  advantage  of  getting  off  in  this  way  is  that,  with 
practice,  you  can  choose  your  own  time,  which  is  very  useful 
when  an  obstacle  suddenly  presents  itself,  as  in  turning  a cor- 
ner; and  in  getting  off  the  other  way  you  are  liable  to  lose 
time  in  feeling  for  the  step. 

There  are  different  styles  of  riding,  and  of  course  at  first 

4$ 


276 


LESSONS  IN  BICYCLE  RIDING. 


you  are  glad  to  be  able  to  get  along  in  any  way  you  can  ; but 
when  you  come  to  have  any  command  over  your  machine,  and 
and  have  time  to  think  about  style , you  cannot  do  better  than 
take  for  your  model  some  graceful  rider,  whose  upright  and 
graceful  seat  gives  an  impression  of  quiet  power.  Very  dif- 
ferent is  the  appearance  presented  by  some  well-known  riders, 
who,  although  going  at  really  good  speed,  present  a painful 
appearance,  hanging  forwards  over  the  handles  as  if  about  to 
topple  over,  and  favoring  the  beholders  with  such  a variety  of 
facial  contortions. 

Hints  on  Training. — It  is  very  difficult  to  give  any  rules 
that  will  apply  to  all,  as  constitutions  differ  so  widely ; but 
the  simple  rules  of  regular  diet,  rest,  and  exercise  will  apply 
to  every  one,  whether  they  are  going,  as  the  saying  is,  “ to 
race  for  a man’s  life,”  or  merely  trying  to  get  themselves  into 


the  best  frame  of  body  to  endure  moderate  exertion.  The 
daily  use  of  the  cold  bath,  or  tepid  if  necessary,  cannot  be 
too  strongly  insisted  upon  ; and  also  early  rising  and  going  to 
rest;  and  the  avoidance  of  all  rich  viands,  such  as  pork,  veal, 
duck,  salmon,  pastry,  etc.,  etc.  Beef,  mutton,  fowls,  soles, 
and  fish  of  similar  kind,  should  form  the  principal  diet.  The 
severity  of  the  rules  of  professional  training  has  been  much 
relaxed  of  late  years,  and  many  things,  such  as  vegetables, 
stimulants  in  great  moderation,  etc.,  are  now  allowed,  which 
before  were  rigidly  excluded. 

In  training  for  any  special  effort,  of  course  it  is  necessary 
to  have  professional  assistance  ; but  with  moderate  attention 
to  diet  and  regimen,  any  one  may  soon  get  himself  into  good 
condition,  and  particularly  if  he  becomes  an  habitual  bicycle- 
rider. 


SWIMMING. 


277 


WIMMING  is  the  art  of  keeping  the  body  afloat 
and  propelling  it  by  means  of  the  body  and 
hands.  The  swimming  of  man  is  artificial,  but 
as  the  specific  gravity  of  the  human  body  is  very 
little  greater  than  that  of  water,  it  can  be  floated 
with  very  little  difficulty. 

Every  boy  should  be  taught  to  swim,  and  if  he  reads 
vspjSy  the  following  pages  and  abides  by  the  instructions,  he 
can  easily  teach  himself. 

The  first  care  of  the  intending  swimmer  is,  of  course,  to  find 
a proper  piece  of  water  in  which  to  learn  his  first  lessons.  The 
very  best  water  that  can  be  found  is  that  of  the  sea,  on  account 
of  its  saltness  and  bitterness,  whereby  two  great  advantages 
are  obtained. 

The  first  advantage  is,  that,  on  account  of  the  salt  and 
other  substances  which  are  dissolved  in  it,  the  sea-water  is  so 
much  heavier  than  fresh  that  it  gives  more  support  to  the  body, 
and  enables  the  beginner  to  float  much  sooner  than  he  can  ex- 
pect to  do  in  fresh  water. 

The  other  advantage  is,  that  the  taste  of  the  sea-water  is  so 
nauseous  that  the  learner  takes  very  good 
care  to  keep  his  lips  tightly  shut,  and  so  does 
not  commit  the  common  error  of  opening 
the  mouth,  which  is  fatal  to  all  swimming, 
and  is  sure  to  dishearten  a beginner  by  letting 
water  get  down  his  throat  and  half-choke  him. 

As  to  place,  there  is  nothing  better  than  a 
sloping  sandy  shore,  where  the  tide  is  not 
very  strong.  In  some  places  the  tide  runs 
with  such  a force,  that  if  the  beginner  is  taken 
offhis  legs  he  will  be  carried  away,  or,  at  least, 
that  he  will  have  great  difficulty  in  regaining 
his  feet. 

We  strongly  recommend  him  to  walk  over 
the  spot  at  low  water,  and  see  whether  there 
are  any  stones,  sticks,  rocks,  or  holes,  and  if 
so,  to  remove  all  the  movable  impediments 
and  mark  the  position  of  the  others. 

Take  a special  care  of  the  holes,  for  there 
is  nothing  so  treacherous.  A hole  of  some 
six  or  seven  inches  in  depth  and  a yard  in  di- 
ameter looks  so  insignificant  when  the  water 


is  out  that  few  persons  would  take  any  notice  of  it ; but,  when  a 
novice  is  in  the  water,  these  few  inches  may  just  make  the 
difference  between  safety  and  death. 

On  sandy  shores  the  most  fertile  source  of  holes  is  to  be 
found  in  large  stones.  They  sink  rather  deeply  into  the  sand 
and  form  miniature  rocks,  round  which  the  water  courses  as  the 
tides  ebb  and  flow,  thus  cutting  a channel  completely  round 
the  stone.  Even  when  the  stone  is  removed,  the  hole  will 
remain  unfilled  throughout  several  tides. 

The  next  best  place  for  learning  to  swim  is  a river  with  a 
fine  sandy  bed,  clear  water,  and  no  weeds. 

When  such  a spot  has  been  found,  the  next  care  is  to  exam- 
ine the  bed  of  the  river  and  to  remove  very  carefully  every- 
thing that  might  hurt  the  feet.  If  bushes  should  grow  on  the 
banks,  look  out  carefully  for  broken  scraps  of  boughs,  which 
fall  into  the  stream,  become  saturated  with  water,  sink  to  the 
bottom,  and  become  fixed  to  one  of  the  points  upwards. 

If  human  habitations  should  be  near,  beware  of  broken  glass 
and  crockery  ; fragments  of  which  are  generally  flung  into  the 
river,  and  will  inflict  most  dangerous  wounds  if  trodden  on. 


SWIMMING. 


278 


If  the  bed  of  the  stream  should  be  in  the  least  muddy,  look 
out  for  mussels,  which  lie  imbedded  almost  to  their  sharp 
edges,  that  project  upwards  and  cut  the  feet  nearly  as  badly  as 
broken  glass. 

Failing  sea  and  river,  a pond  or  canal  is  the  only  resource, 
and  furnishes  the  very  worst  kind  of  water.  The  bed  of  most 
ponds  is  studded  with  all  kinds  of  cutting  and  piercing  objects, 
which  are  thrown  in  by  careless  boys,  and  remain  where  they 
fell.  Then,  the  bottom  is  almost  invariably  muddy,  and  the 
water  is  seldom  clean.  Still,  bad  as  is  a pond,  it  is  better 
than  nothing,  and  the  intending  swimmer  may  console  him- 
self with  the  reflection  that  he  is  doing  his  duty,  and  with  the 
prospect  of  swimming  in  the  sea  some  time  or  other. 

Of  course  the  large  public  baths  possess  some  of  the  draw- 
backs of  ponds  ; but  they  have,  at  all  events,  the  advantage 
of  a regulated  depth,  a firm  bank,  and  no  mud. 

As  the  very  essence  of  swimming  lies  in  confidence,  it  is  al- 
ways better  for  the  learner  to  feel  secure  that  he  can  leave  the 
water  whenever  he  likes.  Therefore,  let  him  take  a light  rope 
of  tolerable  length,  tie  one  end  to  some  firm  object  on  the 
bank,  and  let  the  rest  of  the  rope  lie  in  the  water.  “ Manilla” 
is  the  best  kind  of  rope  for  this  purpose,  because  it  is  so  light 
that  it  floats  on  the  surface  instead  of  sinking,  as  is  the  case 
with  an  ordinary  hempen  rope. 

If  there  is  only  sand  on  the  shore,  the  rope  can  be  moored 
quite  firmly  by  tying  it  to  the  middle  of  a stout  stick,  burying 
the  stick  a foot  or  so  in  the  sand,  and  filling  up  the  trench. 
You  may  pull  till  you  break  the  rope,  but  you  will  never  pull 
the  stick  out  of  its  place.  If  you  are  very  nervous,  tie  two 
sticks  in  the  shape  of  a cross  and  bury  them  in  like  manner. 

The  rope  need  not  be  a large  one.  as  it  will  not  have  to 
sustain  the  whole  weight  of  your  body,  and  it  will  be  found 
that  a cord  as  thick  as  an  ordinary  washing-line  will  answer 
every  purpose. 

On  the  side  of  a stream  or  pond,  tie  the  rope  to  a tree,  or 
hammer  a stake  in  the  ground.  A stake  eighteen  inches  in 
length,  and  as  thick  as  an  ordinary  broomstick  is  quite  large 
enough.  Hammer  it  rather  more  than  two-thirds  into  the 
ground,  and  let  it  lean  baldly  away  from  the  water’s  edge. 
The  best  way  of  fixing  the  rope  to  it  is  by  the  “ clove  hitch.” 

Now,  having  your  rope  in  your  hand,  go  quietly  into  the 
water  backwards , keeping  your  face  towards  the  bank.  As 
soop.  as  you  are  fairly  in  the  water,  duck  completely  beneath 
the  surface.  Be  sure  that  you  really  do  go  fairly  under  water, 
for  there  is  nothing  more  deceptive  than  the  feel  of  the  water 
to  a novice.  He  dips  his  head,  as  he  fancies,  at  least  a foot 
beneath  the  surface  ; he  feels  the  water  in  his  nose,  he  hears 
it  in  his  ears,  and  thinks  he  is  almost  at  the  bottom,  when,  in 
reality,  the  back  of  his  head  is  quite  dry. 

The  best  way  of  “ ducking”  easily  is  to  put  the  left  hand 
on  the  back  of  the  head,  hold  to  the  rope  with  the  right  hand, 
and  then  duck  until  the  left  hand  is  well  under  water. 

The  learner  should  next  accustom  himself  to  the  new  ele- 
ment by  moving  about  as  much  as  possible,  walking  as  far  as 
the  rope  will  allow  him,  and  jumping  up  and  down  so  as  to 
learn  by  experience  the  buoyancy  of  the  water. 

Perhaps  the  first  day  may  be  occupied  by  this  preliminary 
process,  and  on  the  second  visit  the  real  business  may  begin. 


In  swimming,  as  in  most  other  pursuits,  a good  beginning 
is  invaluable. 

Let  the  learner  bestow  a little  care  on  the  preliminaries, 
and  he  will  have  no  bad  habits  to  unteach  himself  after- 
wards. It  is  quite  as  easy  to  learn  a good  style  at  first  as 
a bad  style,  although  the  novice  may  just  at  the  beginning 
fancy  that  he  could  do  better  by  following  his  own  devices. 

The  first  great  object  is  to  feel  a perfect  confidence  in  the 
sustaining  power  of  the  water,  and,  according  to  our  ideas, 
the  best  method  of  doing  so  is  by  learning  to  float  on  the 
back. 

Floating  on  the  Back. 

Take  care  that  the  cord  is  within  easy  reach,  so  that  it 
may  be  grasped  in  a moment,  should  the  novice  become 
nervous,  as  he  is  rather  apt  to  do  just  at  first.  Take  it  in 
both  hands,  and  lay  yourself  very  gently  in  the  water,  arch- 
ing the  spine  backwards  as  much  as  possible,  and  keeping 
the  legs  and  knees  perfectly  straight  and  stiff. 

Now  press  the  head  as  far  back  as  possibly  can  be  done, 
and  try  to  force  the  back  of  the  head  between  the  shoulder- 
blades.  You  can  practice  this  attitude  at  home,  by  lying 
on  two  chairs  and  seeing  whether  your  attitude  corresponds 
with  that  which  is  given  in  the  illustration. 

When  you  have  thus  lain  in  the  water  you  will  find  that 
you  are  almost  entirely  upheld  by  its  sustaining  power,  and 


that  only  a very  little  weight  is  sustained  by  the  rope.  On 
reflection  you  will  also  discern  that  the  only  weight  which 
pulls  on  the  rope  is  that  of  your  hands  and  arms,  which  are 
out  of  water,  and  which,  therefore,  act  as  dead  weight. 

Indeed,  you  might  just  as  well  lay  several  iron  weights  of 
a pound  each  upon  your  body,  for  the  hands  and  arms  are 
much  heavier  than  we  generally  fancy.  Just  break  an  arm  or 
a leg,  and  you  will  find  out  what  heavy  articles  they  are. 

Now  let  your  arms  sink  gradually  into  the  water,  and  you 
will  see  that  exactly  in  proportion  as  they  sink,  so  much  weight 
is  taken  off  the  rope  ; and  if  you  have  only  courage  to  put 
them  entirely  under  water,  and  to  loose  the  rope,  your  body 
will  be  supported  by  the  water  alone. 

Swimming  on  the  Back,  Head  First. 

There  are  many  modes  of  swimming  on  the  back,  head  first ; 
some  in  which  the  hands  are  the  moving  power,  others  in  which 
the  force  is  derived  from  the  legs,  and  some  in  which  the  legs 
and  arms  are  both  exerted. 

To  practice  one  of  these  methods — viz.,  that  commonly 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


SWIMMING. 


279 


| called  floating — you  should  throw  your  head  gently  back,  as 
before,  bringing  your  feet  to  the  surface ; let  your  arms  lie  in 
the  water  close  to  your  sides,  using  the  hands  in  the  same 
manner  as  when  sculling,  with  a swift  pushing  motion  of  the 
palms  towards  the  feet,  returning  edgeways,  thumbs  first,  by 
bending  the  arms;  and  pushing  again  towards  the  feet  by 
straightening  the  arms  close  to  the  sides.  This  produces  a 
very  rapid  progress  through  the  water,  and  may  be  continued 
for  some  time. 

Another  method  is  as  follows  : — Throw  yourself  round  on 
your  back  without  stopping  (which  may  be  done  with  a swing 
of  the  body,  while  swimming  in  the  first  described  method), 
and  you  will  retain  part  of  the  impetus  already  acquired. 
Then  throw  both  hands  out  of  the  water,  as  far  as  you  can 
reach,  in  the  direction  you  wish  to  proceed,  entering  again 
edgeways  beyond  your  head,  and  describe  a segment  of  a 
circle  in  the  water,  having  the  shoulders  for  a center.  The 
hands  on  appearing  again  on  the  surface  below  the  hips,  should 
pass  immediately  through  the  air  for  another  stroke.  This 
mode  is  very  serviceable  when  taken  with  cramp,  or  symptoms 
of  cramp,  as  it  removes  the  stress  entirely  off  the  muscles  of 
the  leg.  It  may  be  gracefully  varied  by  using  the  right  and 
left  hands  alternately. 

tor  the  practice  of  a third  method  the  hands  and  arms  are 
to  be  used  as  in  the  last,  but  the  progress  should  be  aided  by 
the  lower  limbs  striking  out  with  vigor,  after  having  been 
drawn  up  to  the  body  by  the  stroke  made  with  the  arms. 
The  kick  should  be  made  as  the  hands  pass  through  the  air. 
This  is  a very  quick  manner  of  swimming,  and  is  most  com- 
monly resorted  to  for  relief  when  swimming  in  a match. 

For  another  method,  lie  on  your  back  with  your  arms  folded, 
or  with  your  hands  passed  over  your  shoulders  beneath  your 
neck,  or  floating  quietly  by  your  side,  drawing  up  your  legs 
towards  the  chest  as  high  as  possible,  and  then  striking  them 
backwards  with  vigor,  which  will  cause  you  to  make  consider- 
able progress  through  the  water  without  using  the  arms  at  all. 
When  you  draw  up  your  feet  the  movement  is  against  the  sur- 
face, where  there  is  little  resistance,  but,  when  you  strike 
them  out,  the  force  is  applied  in  a downward  direction,  where 
the  resistance  is  greatest.  The  foregoing  method  is  useful 
when  your  arms  are  tired,  or  you  have  something  to  carry  or 
tow  after  you,  the  hands  being  perfectly  free. 

Steering  the  course  is  easily  managed  by  means  of  the  legs.  If 
the  left  leg  is  allowed  to  remain  still,  and  the  right  leg  is  used, 
the  body  is  driven  to  the  left,  and  vice' versa  when  the  left  leg 
is  used  and  the  right  kept  quiet.  The  young  swimmer  must 
remember  that  when  he  brings  his  legs  together  they  must  be 
kept  quite  straight  and  the  knees  stiff.  The  toes  should  also 
be  pointed,  so  as  to  offer  no  resistance  to  the  water. 

Swimming  on  the  back  is  a most  useful  branch  of  the  art, 
as  it  requires  comparatively  little  exertion  and  serves  to  rest 
the  arms  when  they  are  tired  with  the  ordinary  mode  of  swim- 
ming. All  swimmers  who  have  to  traverse  a considerable  dis- 
tance always  turn  occasionally  on  the  back.  They  even  in 
this  position  allow  the  arms  to  lie  by  the  sides  until  they  are 
completely  rested,  while  at  the  same  time  the  body  is  gently 
sent  through  the  water  by  the  legs. 

Let  swimming  on  the  back  be  perfectly  learned,  and  prac- 


ticed continually,  so  that  the  young  swimmer  may  always  feel 
secure  of  himself  when  he  is  in  that  position. 

The  feet  should  be  kept  about  twelve  or  fourteen  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  water,  as,  if  they  are  kept  too  high, 
the  stroke  is  apt  to  drive  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  eyes 
under  the  water. 

It  must  always  be  remarked  that  it  is  impossible  to  arch  the 
spine  too  much,  or  to  press  the  head  too  far  between  tha 
shoulders. 

Swimming  on  the  Chest. 

We  now  come  to  swimming  on  the  chest,  which  is  the  mode 
adopted  by  most  persons,  and  which,  together  with  swimming 
on  the  back,  will  enable  the  learner  to  perform  almost  any 
aquatic  feat. 

In  order  to  begin  with  confidence,  walk  into  the  water  until 
it  is  almost  as  high  as  the  chest,  and  then  turn  towards  the 
land,  so  that  every  movement  may  carry  you  from  the  deeper 
to  the  shallower  water.  Next  place  your  hands  in  front  of  the 
chest,  the  fingers  stiff  and  pressed  together,  and  the  thumb 
held  tightly  against  the  forefinger.  Do  not  press  the  palms 
together,  as  too  many  books  enjoin,  but  hold  the  hands  with 
the  thumbs  together,  the  palms  downwards  and  the  backs  up- 
wards. 

Now  lean  gently  forward  in  the  water,  pushing  your  hands 
out  before  you  until  the  arms  are  quite  straight,  and  just  before 
your  feet  leave  the  bottom  give  a little  push  forwards.  You 
will  now  propel  yourself  a foot  or  two  towards  the  land.  Try 


how  long  you  can  float,  and  then  gently  drop  the  feet  to  the 
ground.  Be  careful  to  keep  the  head  well  back  and  the  spine 
arched. 

Repeat  this  seven  or  eight  times,  until  you  have  gained  con- 
fidence that  the  water  will  support  you  for  a few  seconds. 

The  accompanying  illustration  shows  the  proper  attitude. 

Now  go  back  to  the  spot  whence  you  started,  and  try  to 
make  a stroke.  Lay  yourself  on  the  water  as  before,  but  when 
the  feet  leave  the  bottom  draw  them  up  close  to  the  body,  and 
then  kick  them  out  quickly.  When  they  have  reached  their  full 
extent,  press  them  together  firmly,  keeping  them  quite  straight 
and  the  toes  pointed. 

This  movement  will  drive  you  onwards  for  a short  distance, 
and  when  you  feel  that  you  are  likely  to  sink,  drop  the  feet  as 
before.  Start  again  and  make  another  stroke,  and  so  on  until 
the  water  is  too  shallow. 

At  first  you  will  hardly  gain  more  than  an  inch  or  two  at 
each  stroke  ; but  after  a little  practice  you  will  gain  more 

£ 


SWIMMING. 


280 


and  more  until  you  can  advance  three  or  four  feet  without  put- 
ting the  legs  to  the  ground.  It  is  a good  plan  to  start  always 
from  the  same  spot,  and  to  try  in  how  few  strokes  you  can 
reach  the  land.  There  is  a great  interest  in  having  some 
definite  object  in  view,  and  one  gets  quite  excited  in  trying  to 
reduce  the  number  of  strokes. 

The  action  of  the  legs  may  be  seen  in  the  illustration. 

The  next  point  is  the  movement  of  the  arms. 

In  reality  the  arms  are  more  valuable  in  swimming  than  the 
legs,  and  for  this  simple  reason  : any  one  who  has  the  use  of 
his  limbs  at  all  is  obliged  to  use  his  legs  daily,  and  that  to 
a considerable  extent.  However  sedentary  he  may  be,  he 
must  walk  up  and  down  stairs  twice  at  least  in  the  day.  He 
must  walk  from  one  room  to  another.  He  must  get  into  and 
out  of  his  carriage,  and  walk  a few  paces  to  his  office.  And 
in  all  these  little  walks  his  legs  have  to  carry  the  weight  of  his 
body,  which,  to  set  it  at  the  least  figure,  weighs  from  seventy 
to  ninety  pounds. 

The  Side-Stroke. 

There  is  no  stroke  that  enables  the  swimmer  to  last  so  long 
as  this  does,  and  for  this  reason  : instead  of  employing  both 
arms  and  legs  simultaneously  in  the  same  manner,  the  side- 
stroke  employs  them  simultaneously  but  in  different  manners; 
so  that  when  the  swimmer  is  tired  of  exercising  one  side  he 
can  just  turn  over  and  proceed  with  the  other,  the  change  of 
action  resting  the  limbs  almost  as  much  as  actual  repose 
would  do. 

The  side-stroke  is  thu§  managed  : the  swimmer  lies  on  his 
right  side,  stretching  his  right  arm  out  as  far  as  he  can  reach, 
keeping  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  quite  straight  and  the 
hand  itself  held  edgewise,  so  as  to  cutthe  water  like  a shark’s 
fin.  The  left  hand  is  placed  across  the  chest,  with  the  back 


against  the  right  breast,  and  the  swimmer  is  then  ready  to 
begin. 

He  commences  by  making  the  usual  stroke  with  his  legs, 
and  the  right  leg,  being  undermost,  doing  the  greater  share 
of  the  work.  Before  the  impetus  gained  by  the  stroke  is 
quite  expended,  the  right  arm  is  brought  round  with  a broad 
sweep,  until  the  palm  of  the  hand  almost  touches  the  right 
thigh.  At  the  same  moment,  the  left  hand  makes  a similar 
sweep,  but  is  carried  backwards  as  far  as  it  can  go. 

The  reader  will  see  that  the  hands  act  directly  upon  th? 


water  like  the  blades  of  a pair  of  oars,  and  do  not  waste 
any  of  their  power  by  oblique  action. 

In  ordinary  swimming  we  seldom  use  the  left  arm,  but  allow 
it  to  hang  quietly  in  the  water,  so  that  it  may  be  perfectly 
ready  for  work  when  wanted.  Then,  after  some  little  time, 
we  turn  round,  swim  on  the  other  side,  and  give  the  left 
arm  its  fair  share  of  labor. 

There  is  a modification  of  swimming  on  the  side,  which 
is  sometimes  called  Thrusting,  and  sometimes  the  INDIAN 
Stroke,  because  the  North  American  Indians  generally  em- 
ploy it. 


DROWNING. 


281 


I. — Preliminary  Rules. 

N cases  of  apparent  death,  either  from  drowning 
or  other  suffocation,  send  immediately  for  medi- 
cal assistance,  blankets,  and  dry  clothing,  but 
proceed  to  treat  the  patient  instantly  on  the 
spot,  in  the  open  air,  with  the  face  downward, 
whether  on  shore  or  afloat  ; exposing  the  face, 
neck,  and  chest  to  the  wind,  except  in  severe  weather, 
and  removing  all  tight  clothing  from  the  neck  and 
chest,  especially  the  braces. 

The  points  to  be  aimed  at  are  : first  and  immediately , the 
restoration  of  breathing  ; and  secondly,  after  breathing  is  re- 
stored, the  promotion  of  warmth  and  circulation. 

The  efforts  to  restore  breathing  must  be  commenced  imme- 
diately and  energetically  and  persevered  in  for  one  or  two 
hours,  or  until  a medical  man  has  pronounced  that  life  is  ex- 
tinct. 

Efforts  to  promote  warmth  and  circulation,  beyond  removing 
the  wet  clothes  and  drying  the  skin,  must  not  be  made  until 
the  first  appearance  of  natural  breathing.  For  if  circulation 
of  the  blood  be  induced  before  breathing  has  recommenced, 
the  restoration  to  life  will  be  endangered. 

II. — Treatment  to  Restore  Breathing,  According  to 
Dr.  Marshall  Hall’s  Method. 


1. — To  clear  the  throat. 

Place  the  patient  on  the  floor  or  ground  with  the  face  down- 
wards, and  one  of  the  arms  under  the  forehead,  in  which 
position  all  fluids  will  more  readily  escape  by  the  mouth,  and 
the  tongue  itself  will  fall  forward,  leaving  the  entrance  into 
the  windpipe  free.  Assist  this  operation  by  wiping  and 
cleansing  the  mouth. 

If  satisfactory  breathing  commences,  use  the  treatment  de- 
scribed below  to  promote  warmth. 


If  there  be  only  slight  breathing,  or  no  breathing,  or  if  the 
breathing  fail,  then — 

2. — To  excite  breathing. 

Turn  the  patient  well  and  instantly  on  the  side,  supporting 
the  head,  and  excite  the  nostrils  with  snuff,  hartshorn,  and 
smelling  salts  ; or  tickle  the  throat  with  a feather,  &c.,  if  they 
are  at  hand.  Rub  the  chest  and  face  warm,  and  dash  cold 
water,  or  cold  and  hot  water  alternately,  on  them. 

If  there  be  no  success,  lose  not  a moment,  but  instantly — 

3. — To  imitate  breathing. 

Replace  the  patient  on  the  face,  raising  and  supporting  the 
chest  well  on  a folded  coat  or  other  article  of  dress. 

Turn  the  body  very  gently  on  the  side  and  a little  beyond 
and  then  briskly  on  the  face,  back  again  ; repeating  these 
measures  cautiously,  efficiently,  and  perseveringly  about  fifteen 
times  in  the  minute,  or  once  every  four  or  five  seconds,  occa- 
sionally varying  the  side. 

By  placing  the  patient  on  the  chest,  the  weight  of  the  body 
forces  the  air  out ; when  turned  on  the  side,  this  pressure  is 
removed,  and  air  enters  the  chest. 

On  each  occasion  that  the  body  is  replaced  on  the  faoe, 
make  uniform  out  efficient  pressure  with  brisk  movement,  on 
the  back  between  and  below  the  shoulder  blades  or  bones  on 
each  side,  removing  the  pressure  immediately  before  turning 
the  body  on  the  side. 

During  the  whole  of  the  operations  let  one  person  attend 
solely  to  the  movements  of  the  head,  and  of  the  arm  placed 
under  it. 

The  result  is  respiration  or  natural  breathing  ; and,  if  not 
too  late,  life. 

Whilst  the  above  operations  are  being  proceeded  with,  dry 
the  hands  and  feet  ; and  as  soon  as  dry  clothing  or  blankets 
can  be  procured,  strip  the  body,  and  cover  or  gradually  re- 
clothe it,  but  taking  care  not  to  interfere  with  the  efforts  to 
restore  breathing. 


282 


DROWNING. 


As 


III. — Treatment  to  Restore  Breathing,  According  to 
Dr.  Silvester’s  Method. 

Instead  of  these  proceedings,  or  should  these  efforts  not 
prove  successful  in  the  course  of  from  two  to  five  minutes, 
proceed  to  imitate  breathing  by  Dr.  Silvester’s  method,  as 
follows : — 

I. — Patient's  position. 

Place  the  patient  on  the  back  of  a flat  surface,  inclined  a 
little  upwards  from  the  feet  ; raise  and  support  the  head  and 
shoulders  on  a small  firm  cushion,  or  folded  article  of  dress 
placed  under  the  shoulder  blades. 

2. — To  effect  a free  entrance  of  air  into  the  windpipe. 

Cleanse  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  draw  forward  the  patient’s 
tongue,  and  keep  it  projecting  beyond  the  lips  ; an  elastic 
band  over  the  tongue  and  under  the  chin  will  answer  this  pur- 
pose, or  a piece  of  string  or  tape  may  be  tied  round  them,  or 
by  raising  the  lower  jaw,  the  teeth  may  be  made  to  retain  the 
tongue  in  that  position.  Remove  all  light  clothing  from 
about  the  neck  and  chest,  especially  the  braces. 

3. — To  imitate  the  movements  of  breathing. 

Standing  at  the  patient’s  head,  grasp  the  arms  just  above 
the  elbows,  and  draw  the  arms  gently  and  steadily  upwards 
above  the  head,  and  keep  them  stretched  upwards  for  two 
seconds.  {By  this  means  air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs.)  Then 
turn  down  the  patient’s  arms  and  press  them  gently  and  firmly 
for  two  seconds  against  the  sides  of  the  chest.  ( By  this  means 
air  is  pressed  out  of  the  lungs.  Pressure  on  the  breast-bone 
will  aid  this.) 

Repeat  these  measures  alternately,  deliberately,  and  per- 
severingly,  about  fifteen  times  in  a minute,  until  a sponta- 
neous effort  to  respire  is  perceived  ; immediately  upon  which 
cease  to  imitate  the  movements  of  breathing,  and  proceed  to 
induce  circulation  and  warmth. 

Should  a warm  bath  be  procurable,  the  body  may  be  placed 
in  it  up  to  the  neck,  continuing  to  imitate  the  movements  of 
breathing.  Raise  the  body  in  twenty  seconds  in  a sitting 
position,  and  dash  cold  water  against  the  chest  and  face,  and 
pass  ammonia  under  the  nose.  The  patient  should  not  be 
kept  in  the  warm  bath  longer  than  five  or  six  minutes. 

4. — To  excite  inspiration. 

During  the  employment  of  the  aoove  method  excite  the 
nostrils  with  snuff  or  smelling  salts,  or  tickle  the  throat  with 
a feather.  Rub  the  chest  and  face  briskly,  and  dash  cold  and 
hot  water  alternately  on  them. 

The  above  directions  are  chiefly  Dr.  H.  R.  Silvester’s 
method  of  restoring  the  apparently  dead  or  drowned,  and 
have  been  approved  by  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chirurgical 
Society. 


IV. — Treatment  after  Natural  Breathing  has  been  [ 
Restored. 

1 — To  promote  warmth  and  circulation. 

Wrap  the  patient  in  dry  blankets,  commence  rubbing  the 
limbs  upwards,  with  firm  grasping  pressure  and  energy,  using 
handkerchiefs,  flannels,  &c.  (By  this  measure  the  blood  is 
propelled  along  the  veins  towards  the  heart.) 

The  friction  must  be  continued  under  the  blanket  or  over 
the  dry  clothing. 

1.  Promote  the  warmth  of  the  body  by  the  application  of 
hot  flannels,  bottles,  or  bladders  of  hot  water,  heated  bricks, 

&c.,  to  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  the  arm-pits,  between  the 
thighs,  and  to  the  soles  of  the  feet.  Warm  clothing  may 
generally  be  obtained  from  bystanders. 

2.  If  the  patient  has  been  carried  to  a house  after  respira- 
tion has  been  restored,  be  careful  to  let  the  air  play  freely 
about  the  room. 

3.  On  the  restoration  of  life,  when  the  power  of  swallowing 
has  returned,  a teaspoonful  of  warm  water,  small  quantities 
of  v.’ine,  warm  brandy  and  water,  or  coffee,  should  be  admin- 
istered. The  patient  should  be  kept  in  bed,  and  a disposition 
to  sleep  encouraged.  During  reaction,  large  mustard  plasters 
to  the  chest  below  the  shoulders  will  greatly  relieve  the  dis- 
tressed breathing. 

V.— General  Observations. 

The  above  treatment  should  be  continued  for  some  hours, 
as  it  is  an  erroneous  opinion  that  persons  are  irrecoverable  be- 
cause life  does  not  soon  make  its  appearance,  persons  having 
been  restored  after  persevering  for  many  hours. 

VI. — Appearances  which  Generally  Indicate  Death 
from  Drowning. 

Breathing  and  the  heart’s  action  cease  entirely  ; the  eyelids 
are  generally  half  closed  ; the  pupils  dilated ; the  jaws 
clenched  ; the  fingers  semi-contracted  ; the  tongue  approaches 
to  the  under  edges  of  the  lips,  and  these,  as  well  as  the  nos- 
trils, are  covered  with  a frothy  mucus.  Coldness  and  pallor 
of  surface  increase. 

VII. — Cautions. 

1.  Prevent  unnecessary  crowding  of  persons  round  the 
body  ; especially  if  in  an  apartment. 

2.  Avoid  rough  usage,  and  do  not  allow  the  body  to  remain 
on  the  back  unless  the  tongue  is  secured. 

3.  Under  no  circumstances  hold  the  body  up  by  the  feet. 

4.  On  no  account  place  the  body  in  a warm  bath,  unless 
under  medical  direction,  and  even  then  it  should  only  be  em- 
ployed as  a momentary  excitant. 


ROWING. 


283 


lOxunfftfl-Q? 


(7osiiwirtri) « 


CV^5 


HE  immense  and  in- 
creasing importance 
which  the  art  of  Rowing 
is  assuming  in  this  coun- 
try has  induced  the  pub- 
lisher to  include  the  sub- 
ject in  the  Manual. 

The  publisher  feels  himself 
justified  i n recommending  the 
present  volume  to  the  attention 
of  Youths  whose  proclivities 
take  the  form  of  Rowing  or 
Sailing. 

ROWING. 


We  suppose  that  every  American  man  or  boy  who  takes  to 
rowing  or  sailing  for  amusement  wishes  to  go  fast  ; now,  every 
fast  boat  is  more  or  less  liable  to  be  upset,  even  with  the  best 
and  most  skillful  management  ; and  when  a boat  is  upset,  while 
he  who  can  swim  laughs  at  the  adventure,  he  who  cannot  is 
not  only  himself  in  danger,  but  endangers  others  who  feel 
obliged  to  risk  their  own  lives  in  order  to  save  his.  There- 
fore, let  every  one  learn  to  swim  before  he  attempts  either  to 
row  or  sail  in  a fast  boat  ; he  will  then  be  able  to  enjoy  the 
amusement,  and  his  friends  on  shore  will  feel  at  ease,  and  not 
wish  to  deter  him.  Having  acquired  this  art,  he  may  safely 
proceed  in  learning  to  row,  and  with  it  to  learn  the  general 
management  of  a rowing-boat.  Boys  at  school,  and  men  at 
college,  can  often  row  very  well  without  being  watermen — 
that  is  to  say,  without  understanding  how  the  boat,  the  oars, 
the  rudder,  etc.,  ought  to  be  fitted,  or  how  to  steer  or  manage 
a boat  in  difficulties,  or  how  to  row  except  in  a boat  and  with 


an  oar  fitted  exactly  as  it  ought  to  be  ; but  let  the  beginner 
not  follow  this  example — let  him  determine  to  learn  how  to 
detect  and  correct  any  fault  in  the  fittings  of  a boat,  and  how 
to  row  under  difficulties.  Of  course  any  one  can  row  better 
in  a properly-fitted  boat  than  in  one  that  is  not  so,  but  grum- 
bling at  the  boat  and  fittings  is  the  sign  of  a greenhorn  ; a 
good  waterman  should  be  able  to  row  anywhere  and  anyhow 
— with  a mopstick  across  a tenpenny  nail,  if  necessary,  and  at 
the  same  time  should  know  how  to  make  the  best  of  a good 
boat  and  oars  when  he  has  got  them.  These  arts  are  only  to 
be  acquired  by  rowing  in  all  sorts  of  boats,  by  listening  to 
what  watermen  or  experienced  oarsmen  have  to  say  on  the 
subject,  by  always  looking  out  to  pick  up  something  new,  and 
to  learn  something  every  day  ; and,  first,  let  the  beginner  learn 
the  names  and  use  of  every  part  of  a boat,  and  of  its  fittings. 

There  are  several  methods  of  fitting  the  oars  and  boat,  ac- 
cording to  the  purpose  required  : we  will  begin  with  fresh- 
water boats  and  the  style  of  rowing  adapted  for  them,  inas 
much  as  seamen  hate  rowing,  and  without  exception  row 
badly.  The  boats  now  used  in  fresh  rvater  are  either  outriggers 
ox  gigs ; wherries,  funnies,  skiffs,  etc.,  being  almost  super 
seded.  The  outrigger  is  so  called  from  having  an  iron  frame 
or  outrigger  on  each  side  of  the  boat  to  carry  the  rowlock,  and 
so  enable  a longer-handled  oar  to  be  used.  They  were  first 
brought  into  notice  by  the  Claspers  from  Newcastle,  in  Eng- 
land, and  have  now  superseded  all  other  boats  for  racing  pur. 
poses.  The  gig  is  a broader  and  higher  boat,  and  has  a 
straight  gunwale,  a stern  nearly  upright,  and  a transom , or  flat 
piece,  to  the  stern.  A funny  is  a long  sculling  boat,  sharp  at 
each  end  ; a skiff  is  a stronger,  shorter,  heavier,  and  wider 
boat,  used  to  carry  people  or  goods  without  risk  of  upsetting ; 
a shallop  is  a still  larger  boat,  used  for  pleasure  parties,  etc.  ; 
a punt  is  a strongly-built  boat,  with  a flat  bottom  and  square 
ends,  used  for  fishing,  and  is  usually  propelled  by  pushing  on 
the  ground  with  a punt-pole.  Four-oars,  six-oars  ( seldom  usedj 


284 


ROWING. 


and  eight-oars  are  now  always  outriggers  when  used  for  racing, 
gigs  for  ordinary  pulling.  An  outrigger  wager  sculler’s  boat  is 
30  feet  long,  16  inches  wide,  and  weighs  about  40  pounds  ; a 
pair-oar  wager-boat  is  36  feet  long,  20  inches  wide  ; an  eight- 
oar  from  56  feet  to  66  feet  long,  and  2 feet  3 inches  wide. 

We  proceed  to  give  the  technical  names  of  the  parts  of  a 

boat  ; i.  The  bows,  or  front  part  of  the  boat  , the  stern, 

after  part,  or  hind  part  of  the  boat  ; the  rest  of  the  boat 
is  called  the  midships.  Under  the  bottom  of  the  boat, 
projecting  about  an  inch,  is  a long  piece  of  wood  called  a keel ; 
where  the  lceel  turns  up  forward,  it  is  called  the  stem  ,*  the 
upright  piece  of  wood  fitting  into  the  keel  abaft  is  called  the 
stern-post,  and  to  this  the  rudder  is  hung.  In  square-sterned 
boats  there  is,  besides,  the  transom.  1 he  sides  of  the  boat  are 
made  of  planks  nailed  together,  and  called  strokes  ; the  lowest 
strakes  next  the  keel  are  called  the  garboards.  The  strakes 
are  strengthened  and  the  boat  is  kept  in  shape  by  pieces  of 
wood  crossing  the  boat  in  the  inside,  like  ribs,  called  limbers 
or  lands.  The  square  holes  are  called  rowlocks,  and  consist 
of  the  thole,  against  which  the  oar  is  pulled  ; the  stopper , or 
after  thole,  forming  the  other  side  of  the  rowlock  ; and  the 
leather  filling,  forming  the  bottom  of  the  rowlock.  The  seats 
across  the  boat  are  called  thwarts;  the  pieces  of  wood  fasten- 
ing them  to  the  sides  of  the  boat  are  knees;  the  piece  of 
board  against  which  the  feet  rest,  the  stretcher ; the  boards 
for  standing  on  at  the  bottom  of  the  boat  amidships  are  bot- 
tom-boards or  burdens  ; the  boards  in  the  bow,  the  bow-sheets , 
those  in  the  stern,  the  stern-sheets ; the  space  between  the 
steerer’s  thwart  and  the  thwart  of  the  stroke-oar  is  the  state- 
room, and  in  large  boats  has  seats  on  each  side  for  sitters. 

Fitted  to  the  top  of  the  rudder  is  a cross-piece  of  wood  or 
brass  called  the  yoke,  attached  to  which  are  ropes  called  yoke- 
lines, for  the  steerer’s  hands.  In  eight-oars  it  is  usual  to  have 
the  yoke-lines  attached  to  the  side  of  the  boat,  and  passing 
through  pulleys  in  the  yoke,  in  order  to  give  more  power  to 
the  steerer.  The  rope  by  which  the  boat  is  made  fast  is  called 
the  painter,  or  sometimes  the  headfast.  Wager-boats  are 
built  of  white  fir  or  mahogany,  gigs  usually  of  white  fir,  but 
sometimes  of  oak.  Fir  is  perhaps  lighter,  but  oak  lasts  much 
longer.  Sea-going  boats  are  usually  built  of  elm  ; and  the 
timbers  of  ash. 

When  the  rower  rows  with  an  oar  in  each  hand,  the  oars  are 
called  sculls,  and  are  shorter  ; when  he  uses  only  one  oar,  it 
is  called  an  oar,  and  is  about  13  feet  5 inches  long.  Sculls 
and  oars  are  usually  of  white  pine,  and  consist  of  the  han- 
dle and  the  loom , within  the  rowlock,  the  part  outside  of  the 
rowlock  consisting  of  the  shank  or  small,  and  the  blade, 
and  are  fitted  either  with  boxing  or  filling,  and  a button, 
or  with  leather  and  a stop.  The  sculls  usually  overlap  about 
four  inches ; the  handle  of  the  oar  should  just  clear  the 
other  side  of  the  boat.  The  oars  in  a boat  are  numbered 
from  the  bow,  No.  I being  the  bow,  No.  2 the  next,  and 
so  on  to  No.  8,  or  stroke  in  an  eight-oar.  The  stroke-oar 
is  always  on  the  port,  larboard,  or  left  side  of  the  boat,  and 
the  oars  on  that  side  are  called  the  stroke  or  larboard  owes  ; the 
oars  on  the  right  side  of  the  boat,  the  bow  or  starboard  oars. 

It  should  be  recollected  that  pair-oar  rowing  is  the  founda- 
tion of  all  rowing ; in  a four,  and  still  more  easily  in  an  eight, 


defects,  especially  shirking,  may  pass  undetected,  but  not 
easily  in  a pair-oar.  Let  the  beginner,  therefore,  get  some  ex- 
perienced friend  or  a waterman  to  give  the  first  lessons  in  a 
steady  and  not  too  light  boat  ; if  he  can  get  some  one  to  row 
stroke  whilst  the  friend  or  waterman  steers  and  instructs,  so 
much  the  better  ; if  not,  let  the  friend  or  waterman  pull  the 
bow  oar  so  as  to  see  his  pupil  at  his  work.  The  mat  must  be 
firmly  tied  to  the  thwart,  and  this  every  man  should  learn  to 
do  for  himself,  as  the  men  at  the  boat-house  never  do  it  prop- 
erly. Flannel  mats  with  strings  are  much  the  best.  Let  the 
pupil  then  seat  himself  on  the  thwart  nearly  on  the  after  edge 
of  it,  bending  his  knees  a little,  and  opening  them  about  a 
foot,  and  placing  his  feet  firmly  against  the  stretcher,  with 
heels  close  together  and  toes  turned  out  straight  before  him  ; 
if  the  strap  is  used,  the  outside  foot,  or  that  nearest  the  mid- 
dle of  the  boat,  will  be  passed  under  it  ; but  for  the  first  few 
lessons,  the  strap  should  not  be  used,  as  a man  ought  to  be 
able  to  row  without  it.  The  stretcher  must  of  course  be  ad- 
justed to  the  proper  length.  The  pupil  will  then  take  hold 
of  the  oar  with  the  button  just  inside  the  thole,  and  grasp  the 
oar  with  the  outside  hand  close  to  the  end,  but  not  capping  it, 
and  thumb  above  the  oar,  the  inside  hand  about  three  inches 
from  the  other,  just  where  the  square  loom  begins,  thumb  un- 
der the  oar.  Let  him  then  sit  upright,  straighten  his  back, 
flatten  and  drop  his  shoulders,  keeping  them  perfectly  square, 
and  hold  his  head  a very  little  forward,  elbows  close  to  his 
sides,  sitting  very  nearly  as  he  would  be  directed  to  sit  by  a 
drill  sergeant  or  dancing-master,  the  only  exception  being 
that  the  knees  are  open  and  the  head  a little  forward,  and  that 
he  holds  the  oar.  Let  him  then  stretch  forward  as  far  as  the 
stooper  will  allow  the  oar  to  go,  which  is  about  as  far  as  he 
can  reach,  still  keeping  his  back  straight,  his  shoulders  square, 
though  of  course  a little  raised,  his  arms  extended,  his  outside 
wrist  flat  with  the  arm,  his  inside  wrist  bent  convexly.  And 
here  let  the  pupil  understand  clearly  that  all  the  motions  are 
to  be  made  by  swinging  evenly  backwards  and  forwards  on 
his  seat  as  on  a hinge  ; the  back  is  never  to  be  bent,  and 
though  the  shoulders  must  necessarily  be  raised  a little  in 
reaching  forward,  in  going  back  they  should  be  dropped  as 
low  as  they  can  be  brought.  There  is  a common  notion  that 
rowing  rounds  the  back  and  shoulders,  and  bad  rowing  does 
so,  but  a good  oar  has  his  shoulders  and  back  as  flat  as  any 
drill  sergeant  would  wish  them  to  be  t when  his  shouldeis  are 
humped  or  his  back  rounded,  it  is  a sign  that  he  is  tired  out 
and  done.  If  the  rower  raises  one  shoulder  higher  than  the 
other,  or  does  not  swing  evenly  backwards  and  forwards, 
he  makes  the  boat  roll,  and  prevents  the  other  men  from 
rowing  properly.  Let  the  pupil  then  resume  the  upright 
position,  stretch  forward  a little,  and  dip  the  oar  into  the 
water,  taking  care  that  the  blade  is  upright,  and  the  button 
against  the  thole  ; let  him  then  pull  a short  stroke,  keeping 
the  blade  uDright  and  leaning  back  a little,  the  first  stroke 
or  two  without  any  pressure,  afterwards  pressing  on  the  oar, 
taking  care  to  have  the  chest  well  bent  forward  towards  the 
loom,  so  as  to  strike  the  water  and  feel  resistance  at  once. 
Let  the  pupil  continue  to  make  short  strokes  like  this  until  he 
can  keep  his  oar  upright  and  recover  himself  after  each  stroke, 
keeping  the  button  against  the  thole,  and  when  he  can  do  this 


ROWING. 


pretty  well,  let  him  begin  to  feather,  or  bring  the  oar  out  of 
the  water  in  a horizontal  or  flat  position  ; this  is  done  by 
dropping  the  wrists  sharply  at  the  end  of  the  stroke,  and, 
though  difficult  at  first,  is  very  soon  acquired. 

There  are  different  styles  of  feathering:  the  Harvard  men 
feather  high  ; Yale  men  almost  graze  the  surface  of  the  water, 
which  certainly  looks  well,  but  cannot  be  done  if  there  is  any 
sea  or  rough  water.  In  about  an  hour  any  one  who  takes  pains 
ought  to  have  mastered  these  points,  and  that  ought  to  suffice 
for  one  day  ; and  at  the  end  of  each  quarter  of  an  hour,  the 
pupil  should  change  sides  and  work  with  the  other  oar.  If 
this  is  not  done  at  the  very  beginning,  he  is  likely  to  contract 
a habit  of  rowing  on  one  side  only,  and  will  never  learn  to  row 
on  the  other  side  : a deficiency  which  will  cause  great  incon- 
venience to  himself  and  others  in  future  time. 

On  the  following  day,  the  pupil  should  be  taught  to  stretch 
out  and  pull  his  stroke  through,  and  to  keep  time,  the  instruc- 
tor pulling  a very  long,  slow,  and  steady  stroke  ; the  pupil 
shou.J  then  be  taught  to  back  water,  which  is  exactly  the  re- 
verse of  pulling,  as  the  oar  is  then  pushed  through  the  water 
so  as  to  pronel  the  boat  stern  foremost,  or  to  assist  in  turning 
the  boat  round  ; he  should  also  be  taught  to  ship  his  oar  neatly 
and  quickly  ; and  this  is  done  by  letting  go  with  the  outside 
hand,  and  lifting  the  oar  sharply  up  out  of  the  rowlock  with 
the  inside  hand,  letting  the  blade  float  astern.  The  beginner 
would  do  well  to  go  out  in  a safe  boat  with  a friend,  and 
practice  backing  and  shipping  till  he  can  do  both  quickly  and 
neatly  at  the  word  of  command  ; and  in  about  three  lessons  of 
an  hour  each  the  pupil  ought  to  become  a passable  oar.  This 
system  of  pair-oared  tuition  is  immeasurably  superior  to  and 
quicker  than  the  ordinary  plan  pursued  at  schools  and  colleges, 
of  putting  seven  raw  hands  into  an  eight-oar  with  a tolerable 
stroke  and  a good  coxswain,  and  trying  to  teach  them  all  at 
once.  The  unhappy  wretches  have  no  idea  of  what  they 
ought  to  do,  and  cannot  understand  the  directions  of  their 
coxswain,  who  sits  raving  and  storming  at  them,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  lesson  they  return  stiff,  sore,  tired,  and  disgusted, 
having  learnt  very  little,  and  probably  begun  to  contract  faults 
which  they  may  never  get  rid  of.  Let  the  first  rowing  of  every 
man  be  carefully  attended  to,  and  all  faults  checked  at  once 
before  they  grow  into  habits.  For  all  further  tuition  we  refer 
to  the  following  extract  from  “ The  Principles  of  Rowing  and 
Steering,”  by  studying  which  the  beginner,  or  even  the  advanced 
oar,  may  learn  what  to  do  and  what  to  avoid  : — 

“ The  requisites  for  a perfect  stroke  are  : — 

“ I.  Taking  the  whole  reach  forward,  and  falling  back 
gradually  a little  past  the  perpendicular,  preserving  the 
shoulders  throughout  square,  and  the  chest  developed  at  the 
end. 

“ 2.  Catching  the  water  and  beginning  the  stroke  with  a 
full  tension  on  the  arms  at  the  instant  of  contact. 

“3.  A horizontal  and  dashing  pull  through  the  water  im- 
mediately the  blade  is  covered,  without  deepening  in  the  space 
subsequently  traversed. 

“ 4.  Rapid  recovery  after  feathering  by  an  elastic  motion  of 
the  body  from  the  hips,  the  arms  being  thrown  forward  per- 
fectly straight  simultaneously  with  the  body,  and  the  forward 
motion  of  each  ceasing  at  the  same  time. 

4- 


“ 5.  Lastly,  equability  in  all  actions,  preserving  full  strength 
without  harsh,  jerking,  isolated,  and  uncompensated  movements 
in  any  single  part  of  the  frame.” 

“ Faults  in  Roiling. — The  above  laws  are  sinned  against 
when  the  rower — 

“ I.  Does  not  straighten  both  arms  before  him. 

“ 2.  Keeps  two  convex  wrists  instead  of  the  outside  wrist 
flat. 

“ 3.  Contrives  to  put  his  hands  forward  by  a subsequent 
motion  after  the  shoulders  have  attained  their  reach,  which  is 
getting  the  body  forward  without  the  arms. 

“ 4.  Extends  the  arms  without  a corresponding  bend  on  the 
part  of  the  shoulders,  which  is  getting  the  arms  forward  with- 
out the  body. 

“ 5.  Catches  the  water  with  unstraightened  arms  or  arm,  and 
a slackened  tension  as  its  consequence  : thus  time  may  be  kept 
but  not  stroke  ; keeping  stroke  always  implying  uniformity  of 
work. 

“ 6.  Hangs  before  dipping  downward  to  begin  the  stroke. 

“ 7.  Does  not  cover  the  blade  up  to  the  shoulder. 

“ 8.  Rows  round  and  deep  in  the  middle,  with  hands  high 
and  blade  still  sunken  after  the  first  contact. 

“ 9.  Curves  his  back  forward  or  aft. 

“ 10.  Keeps  one  shoulder  higher  than  the  other. 

“ 11.  Jerks. 

“ 12.  Doubles  forward  and  bends  over  the  oar  at  the  feather, 
bringing  the  body  up  to  the  handle,  and  not  the  handle  up  to 
the  body. 

“ 13.  Strikes  the  water  at  an  obtuse  angle,  or  rows  the  first 
part  in  the  air. 

“ 14.  Cuts  short  the  end,  prematurely  slacking  the  arms. 

“ 15.  Shivers  out  the  feather,  commencing  it  too  soon  and 
bringing  the  blade  into  a plane  with  the  water  while  work  may 
yet  be  done  : thus  the  oar  may  leave  the  water  in  perfect  time, 
but  stroke  is  not  kept.  This  and  No.  5 are  the  most  subtle 
faults  in  rowing,  and  involve  the  science  of  shirking. 

“ 16.  Rolls  backward,  with  an  inclination  towards  the  inside 
or  outside  of  the  boat. 

“ 17.  Turns  his  elbows  at  the  feather  instead  of  bringing 
them  sharp  past  the  flanks. 

“ 18.  Keeps  the  head  depressed  between  the  shoulders 
instead  of  erect. 

“ 19.  Looks  out  of  the  boat  instead  of  straight  before  him. 
(This  almost  inevitably  rolls  the  boat.) 

“20.  Throws  up  water  instead  of  turning  it  well  aft  off  the 
lower  angle  of  the  blade.  A wave  thus  created  is  extremely 
annoying  to  the  oar  farther  aft ; there  should  be  no  wave  travel- 
ing astern,  but  an  eddy  containing  two  small  circling  swirls.” 

Nos.  17  and  18  perhaps  only  affect  the  appearance,  but  all 
the  other  requisites  and  faults  go  to  the  essentials  of  rowing. 

As  soon  as  the  pupil  has  become  totally  skillful  in  the 
management  of  his  oar  he  will  be  put  into  a four  or  eight  oar, 
and  will  have  to  practice  what  he  has  learnt,  and  we  will  ven- 
ture to  give  him  two  hints: — 1st.  To  pay  particular  attention 
to  keeping  time.  2d.  To  take  particular  care  not  to  put  his 
oar  in  the  water  before  he  has  finished  going  forward  ; of  the 
two  it  is  better  to  make  the  first  part  of  the  stroke  in  the  air, 
though  that,  of  course,  is  not  right  ; but  putting  the  oar  in  the 


a86 


ROWING. 


water  too  soon  will  inevitably  splash  the  men  who  are  forward, 
and  of  all  the  faults  which  annoy  the  other  men,  splashing  and 
not  keeping  time  are  the  worst.  One  misfortune  which  will 
probably  happen  once  or  twice  to  every  learner  is  catching  a 
crab,  by  letting  the  oar  turn  in  the  water  the  wrong  way  before 
taking  it  out ; the  water  then  pens  the  oar  down,  and  the  handle 
bears  the  rower  backwards  off  his  seat.  The  moment  he  feels 
this  likely  to  happen  he  must  sharply  ship  his  oar,  and  if  he  is 
quick  he  may  escape  the  annoyance  and  danger  of  being 
knocked  backwards.  It  will  be  at  least  a month  before  the 
beginner  is  able  to  handle  his  oar  with  ease  and  comfort  to 
himself  and  satisfaction  to  others  ; and  during  this  time,  as  at 
all  times,  he  ought  to  pay  attention  to  the  instructions  of  the 
captain  and  coxswain,  and  take  their  scolding  and  remarks 
willingly  and  good-humoredly.  Above  all  things  let  him  not 
take  it  into  his  head  that  he  is  right  and  the  others  wrong  ; in 
the  first  place,  it  is  very  unlikely  ; and  in  the  next  place,  how- 
ever right  he  may  be,  until  he  is  captain,  and  able  to  enforce 
his  own  ideas,  he  must  row  as  the  others  row'.  Eight  inferior 
oars  rowing  together,  and  in  the  same  way,  would  inevitably 
beat  the  best  eight  oars  in  America  if  each  of  them  persisted 
in  rowing  in  his  own  way.  Another  most  important  thing  to 
a beginner  is,  never  row  a single  stroke  carelessly  or  badly  ; if 
you  are  tired,  row  easily,  but  in  good  form  and  style.  In  fact, 
form  and  style  must  be  taught  and  learnt  in  paddling — i.  e. 
rowing  easily — and  that  is  the  time  for  it  ; but  there  is  never 
a time  for  rowing  badly,  and  every  stroke  badly  rowed  is 
positively  injurious. 

Sculling  is  practiced  on  exactly  the  same  principles  as  rowing 
with  oars,  except  that,  both  sculls  being  managed  by  one  man, 
he  has  but  one  hand  for  each.  The  sculler  must,  of  course,  sit 
exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  boat,  and  he  must  keep  his  back 
flatter  and  his  shoulders  lower,  if  possible,  than  when  rowing  ; 
the  strength  which  can  be  put  into  the  last  part  of  the  stroke 
depending  entirely  upon  the  drop  of  the  shoulders.  The  great 
difficulty  in  sculling,  especially  since  the  light  outriggers  have 
been  introduced,  is  in  the  steering,  as  the  sculler  must  look 
behind  him  at  least  every  third  stroke  ; and  to  turn  the  head 
without  turning  the  body  or  rocking  the  boat  requires  long 
practice. 

In  pair-oar  rowing  the  bow-oar  steers  and  directs,  whilst  the 
stroke-oar  merely  pulls  steadily  and  follows  the  directions  of 
the  bow-oar.  The  bow-oar,  being  forward,  has  of  course  most 
power  over  the  boat ; but  it  often  happens  that  the  best  steerer 
is  the  strongest  oar,  and  will  therefore  pull  stroke  and  steer  at 
the  same  time — of  course,  at  a disadvantage.  The  great  secret 
in  ordinary  pair-oar  rowing  is  to  let  one  man  steer  and 
direct,  the  other  merely  following  the  directions  and  not 
slacking  or  pulling  harder  without  orders,  or  without  saying 
what  he  is  going  to  do.  Nothing  is  more  provoking  to  the 
steerer  and  more  likely  to  lead  to  accidents,  and  at  the  same 
time  there  is  nothing  more  common,  than  for  his  companion 
to  pull  harder  or  easier  without  orders,  and  exactly  when  the 
steerer  wishes  it  not  to  be  done.  When  there  is  a side-wind 
the  bow  of  the  boat  tends  to  turn  towards  the  direction  from 
which  the  wind  is  blowing  ; this  tendency  must,  of  course,  be 
counteracted  by  the  rower  whose  oar  is  on  that  side,  and  he 
is  then  said  to  have  the  labor. 


In  fours  and  eights  there  is  always  a steersman  or  coxswain, 
and  his  art  is  at  least  as  difficult  to  learn  as  the  art  of  rowing. 
He  should  sit  upright  on  his  thwart,  but  well  forward  on  it, 
putting  his  knees  forward  and  his  shins  tucked  under  his 
thighs,  with  his  feet  as  far  beneath  him  as  they  can  be  brought, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  throw  all  his  strength  and  weight  upon  the 
lines  when  required.  lie  should  take  a turn  with  each  line 
round  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  let  the  end  come  out  between 
his  forefinger  and  thumb,  where  it  must  be  tightly  nipped. 
His  hands  are  to  be  well  in  front  and  against  the  ribs,  the  little 
fingers  resting  on  the  thighs  ; the  lines  are  always  to  be  kept 
on  the  stretch,  so  that  any  necessary  pull  may  be  instantly 
given.  The  steerer  will  find  himself  obliged  to  bend  forward 
at  each  stroke  ; but  let  him  only  yield  to  the  motion  and  not 
bob  violently,  a process  which  cannot  do  any  good,  disturbs 
his  own  view,  and  tends  to  shake  the  boat.  If  any  man  be- 
lieves in  the  efficacy  of  bobbing,  let  him  get  into  a boat  by 
himself  and  try  to  make  her  advance  by  bobbing.  As  soon  as 
the  steerer  has  had  a little  practice,  and  knows  how  much 
effect  a pull  on  the  yoke-lines  produces,  he  ought  to  turn  all 
his  attention  to  steering  straight,  an  art  which  is  of  immense 
importance,  but  which  is  usually  neglected  or  left  to  chance. 
Let  any  one  place  himself  where  he  can  see  an  ordinary  eight- 
oar  coming  towards  him,  and  he  will  then  see  the  zigzag  de- 
vious course  that  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  she  will  take.  To 
prevent  this,  the  steerer  should  early  learn  always  to  steer  for 
some  object  right  in  the  course,  the  farther  off  it  is  the  better; 
and  let  him  then  keep,  or  try  to  keep,  the  boat’s  stem  steadily 
pointed  at  that  object.  He  will  find  this  not  so  easy,  but  will 
attain  the  art  by  dint  of  practice,  but  not  if  he  learns  to  lounge 
about  and  steer  carelessly.  When  that  object  is  no  longer  in 
the  course,  let  him  take  another,  and  so  on,  recollecting  that 
every  touch  of  either  yoke-line  stops  the  boat,  and  that  a zig- 
zag is  longer  than  a straight  line.  One  thing  which  puzzles 
young  steerers  much  is  steering  in  a strong  side-wind  ; the  boat 
is  then  constantly  being  driven  bodily  to  leeward,  and,  in 
order  to  keep  a straight  line,  the  stem  must  not  point  at  any 
object  in  the  course,  but  must  constantly  point  to  windward 
of  the  course,  and  the  boat  must  take  a kind  of  crab-like  mo- 
tion, the  proper  angle  for  which  must  be  found  by  tria  . 

The  steerer  has  also  to  instruct  the  crew  ; and  to  learn  how 
to  do  that,  he  should  carefully  observe  good  rowing  whenever 
he  sees  it,  and  read  a good  work  on  the  subject.  In  instruct- 
ing, he  should  not  bully  individuals  : many  faults  are  incurable, 
and  many  men  will  not  try  to  alter.  If  a man  has  been  told 
three  times  of  a fault,  and  shows  no  symptoms  of  amendment, 
it  is  useless  to  annoy  him  further,  and  he  must  either  be  turned 
out  of  the  boat,  or  allowed  to  go  on  in  his  own  way.  When 
a man  has  improved  or  corrected  a fault,  let  him  be  immediately 
praised  and  complimented.  All  general  unmeaning  exclama- 
tions in  which  steersmen  are  wont  to  indulge,  probably  from  not 
knowing  what  really  ought  to  be  said,  are  totally  useless.  In 
training  a crew,  it  is  an  excellent  plan  for  the  stroke  or  best 
oar  in  the  boat  himself  to  take  the  yoke-lines  occasionally,  and 
see  what  the  men  are  doing.  If  the  river  is  narrow,  the  men 
can  best  be  seen  by  running  along  the  bank. 

A fast  sculler  will  make  about  thirty-six  strokes  a minute; 
with  oars,  forty  strokes  a minute  may  be  taken. 


ROWING. 


We  now  come  to  the  two  painful  subjects  connected 
with  rowing,  the  mere  mention  of  which  causes  a shudder 
in  every  old  oarsman : blisters  on  the  hands,  and  raws  on  the 
stern : — 

Every  man  suffers  at  first  from  blisters,  and  the  harder  he 
pulls,  the  worse  they  are  ; but  after  a time  his  hands  get  hard 
and  horny,  and  no  ordinary  exertion  will  leave  a mark.  The 
blisters  are  often  burst  during  the  rowing : they  are  then 
usually  painful,  and  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  grin  and  bear  it, 
avoiding  the  contact  of  water,  which  smarts  at  the  time  and 
retards  the  cure.  If  they  get  too  bad,  two  or  three  days’  rest 
will  usually  set  matters  right  ; if  not,  you  are  in  bad  health, 
and  should  go  to  the  doctor.  If  the  blister  does  not  burst, 
let  it  remain  as  a protection  for  two  days  ; at  the  end  of  that 
time  the  new  skin  will  be  formed  underneath,  and  the  blister 
should  be  pricked  to  let  out  the  water  which  keeps  the  new 
skin  soft  and  incomplete.  Raws  will  come  at  all  times,  but 
wriggling  on  the  seat  is  a very  frequent  cause  ; the  steadier  a 
man  sits,  the  less  likely  are  raws.  Of  course  any  folds  in  the 
cushion  or  trowsers  are  to  be  carefully  avoided,  as  very  likely 
to  raise  a raw.  If  the  skin  is  fairly  rubbed  off,  the  place 
should  be  covered  with  goldbeater’s-skin,  and  a day’s  rest  will 
then  almost  invariably  effect  a cure. 

Wc  will  add  a few  words  as  to  sea-going  boats.  The  sides  of 


the  rowlocks  are  in  them  formed  by  two  movable  pegs  called 
tholes  j there  is  no  button  or  stop  on  the  oars  ; the  oars  are 
often  of  ash ; there  is  no  difference  between  oars  and  sculls, 
and  the  term  sculling  is  applied  to  propelling  a boat  by  work- 
ing an  oar  through  a notch  in  the  stern  of  the  boat. 

Small  rowing-boats  in  the  sea,  from  nine  to  thirteen  feet 
long,  are  called  punts  ; the  oars,  instead  of  rowlocks,  often 
work  on  a single  pin  or  thole , which  passes  through  a block  of 
hard  wood  called  a cleat , nailed  to  the  oar.  Cleat-oars,  of 
course,  cannot  be  feathered,  but  are  convenient  for  going 
alongside  a vessel,  and  in  other  ways,  as  they  may  be  let  go 
without  being  lost.  Those  who  use  cleat-oars  for  the  first 
time  should  recollect  to  put  the  oar  on  or  abaft  the  thole  so 
as  to  pull  upon  the  thole,  not  from  it,  which  would  soon  tear 
off  the  cleat.  The  fittings  of  sea-going  boats  are  usually  very 
bad  ; the  thwarts  are  too  high  and  too  near  the  rowlocks,  the 
oars  are  badly  balanced,  and  there  is  no  stretcher.  If  there 
is  much  sea,  it  is  not  possible  to  pull  a long  stroke  or  to 
feather  quickly.  This,  and  the  general  defects  in  the  fittings, 
render  the  rowing  of  sailors  almost  always  very  bad,  and 
utterly  unfit  for  imitation  ; but  the  good  oarsman  should 
always  row  as  well  as  the  boat  will  admit  : the  back  may 
always  be  kept  flat,  the  shoulders  down,  and  the  stroke  pulled 
through. 


SS r~ 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


288 


Sdrqir\i^ti4ktioi|  of  5^$tcite$  of 
©edek^'ed 

HEN  a person  dies,  leav- 
ing no  valid  will  behind 
him,  his  estate'  is  distrib- 
uted among  his  heirs  by 
what  is  known  as  opera- 
tion of  law.  This  is  reg- 
ulated by  the  statute  of 
the  State  in  which  the 
deceased  resided  at  the 
time  of  his  death.  The 
distribution  must  be  made 
by  an  administrator  duly 
appointed  by  law.  The 
administrator  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  court  having  jurisdiction  in  such 
cases  on  being  satisfied  that  the  person  proposed  is 
legally  qualified.  The  appointment  must  be  made 
with  the  consent  of  the  person  appointed.  It  is  the 
generally  accepted  rule  that  any  one  is  legally  com- 
petent to  be  an  administrator  who  is  competent  to 
make  a contract.  Certain  classes  of  persons  are  dis- 
qualified by  statute,  as  in  the  State  of  New  York, 
for  instance,  drunkards,  gamblers,  spendthrifts,  etc. 
The  relatives  of  the  deceased  are  considered  as  en- 
titled to  the  appointment  to  administer  the  estate, 
and  the  order  of  precedence  is  regulated  by  statute. 
The  husband  is  to  be  granted  administration  on  the 


wife’s  personal  estate,  and  administration  on  the 
husband’s  estate  is  to  be  granted  to  the  widow  and 
the  next  of  kin  in  the  following  order  if  they  or  any 
of  them  will  accept  : 

1.  To  the  widow. 

2.  To  the  children. 

3.  To  the  father. 

4.  To  the  brothers. 

5.  To  the  sisters.  , 

6.  To  the  grandchildren. 

7.  To  any  other  of  the  next  of  kin  who  would  be 
entitled  to  a share  in  the  distribution  of  the  estate. 

The  guardians  of  minors  who  are  entitled  may  ad- 
minister for  them.  In  case  none  of  the  relatives  or 
guardians  will  accept,  the  administration  will  be  given 
to  the  creditors  of  the  deceased.  The  creditor  who 
applies  first,  if  legally  competent,  is  to  be  preferred. 
If  no  creditor  applies,  any  person  who  is  legally 
qualified  may  be  appointed.  In  the  City  of  New 
York  the  public  administrator  may  administer  the 
estate  after  the  next  of  kin.  In  the  State  of  New 
York  the  Surrogate  may  select,  among  the  next  of 
kin,  any  one  in  equal  degree,  and  appoint  him  sole 
administrator  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others.  In 
case  there  are  several  persons  of  the  same  degree  of 
kindred  to  the  intestate,  entitled  to  administration, 
they  are  preferred  in  the  following  order  : 

1.  Males  to  females. 

2.  Relatives  of  the  whole  blood  to  those  of  the 
half  blood. 

3.  Unmarried  to  married  women  ; and  should 
there  be  several  persons  equally  entitled,  the  Surro- 


r 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


289 


gate  may  grant  letters  to  one  or  more  of  them,  as 
his  judgment  may  suggest. 

If  letters  of  administration  should  be  unduly 
granted  they  may  be  revoked. 

Administration  may  likewise  be  granted  on  certain 
conditions,  for  a certain  limited  time,  or  for  a special 
purpose. 

The  powers  and  duties  of  an  administrator  differ 
from  those  of  an  executor  only  inasmuch  as  he  must 
distribute  and  dispose  of  the  estate  according  to  the 
direction  of  the  law,  as  he  has  no  will  to  follow. 

First.  The  administrator  must  give  bonds  with 
sureties  for  the  faithful  execution  of  his  trust. 

Second.  He  must  make  an  inventory  of  the  goods 
and  chattels  of  the  intestate,  in  accordance  with  the 
requirements  of  the  law. 

Third.  Two  copies  of  this  inventory  shall  be 
made,  one  of  which  will  be  lodged  with  the  judge  of 
the  court,  and  the  other  will  be  kept  by  the  admin- 
istrator. The  latter  will  be  obliged  to  account  for 
the  property  mentioned  in  the  inventory. 

Fourth.  Having  completed  the  inventory,  the  ad- 
ministrator must  then  collect  the  outstanding  debts 
of  the  intestate,  and  also  pay  the  debts  of  the  same. 
The  order  of  payment  is  regulated  by  local  sta- 
tutes. 

Having  liquidated  all  the  debts  of  the  intestate, 
the  administrator  will  divide  the  remainder  of  the 
assets  among  the  surviving  relatives  of  the  deceased. 
In  so  doing,  he  will  act  under  the  direction  of  the 
court. 

S^erjdy. 

By  Agency  is  meant  the  substitution  of  one  per- 
son by  and  for  another,  the  former  to  transact  busi- 
ness for  the  latter.  An  Agency  may  be  established 
by  implication — an  express  agreement  with  a person 
that  he  is  to  become  the  agent  of  another,  not  being 
necessary — or  verbally , or  by  writing.  A verbal 
creation  of  agency  suffices  to  authorize  the  agent  to 
make  a contract  even  in  cases  where  such  contract 
must  be  in  writing. 

Agency  is  of  three  kinds : special,  general,  and 
professional.  A special  agency  is  an  authority  ex- 
ercised for  a special  purpose.  If  a special  agent 
exceed  the  limits  of  his  authority,  his  principal  is  not 
bound  by  his  acts. 

A general  agency  authorizes  the  transaction  of  all 
business  of  a particular  kind,  or  growing  out  of  a 


particular  employment.  The  principal  will  be 
bound  by  the  acts  of  a general  agent  though  the 
latter  act  contrary  to  private  instructions,  provided 
he  keep,  at  the  same  time,  within  the  general  limits 
of  his  authority. 

Professional  agents  are  those  licensed  by  the 
proper  authority  to  transact  certain  kinds  of  busi- 
ness for  a compensation.  The  following  are  among 
this  class  of  agents  : 

1.  Attorneys. 

2.  Brokers. 

3.  Factors. 

4.  Auctioneers. 

5.  Masters  of  Ships. 

In  regard  to  the  subject  of  an  agency,  the  general 
rule  is  that  whatever  a man  may  do  in  his  own 
right,  he  may  also  transact  through  another.  Things 
of  a personal  nature,  implying  personal  confidence 
on  the  part  of  the  person  possessing  them,  cannot 
be  delegated. 

Infants,  married  women,  lunatics,  idiots,  aliens, 
belligerents,  and  persons  incapable  of  making  legal 
contracts,  cannot  act  as  principals  in  the  appoint’ 
ment  of  agents.  Infants  and  married  women  may, 
however,  become  principals  in  certain  cases. 

Agency  may  be  terminated  in  two  ways  : ( 1 ) by 
the  act  of  the  principal  or  agent ; (2)  by  operation 
of  law.  In  the  latter  case,  the  termination  of  the 
agency  is  effected  by  lapse  of  time,  by  completion 
of  the  subject  matter  of  the  agency,  by  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  subject  matter,  or  by  the  insanity, 
bankruptcy,  or  death  of  either  party. 

STliitrktioij. 

Arbitration  is  an  investigation  and  determination 
of  subjects  of  difference  between  persons  involved 
in  dispute,  by  unofficial  persons  chosen  by  the  par- 
ties in  question. 

The  general  rule  is  that  any  person  capable  of 
making  a valid  contract  concerning  the  subject  in 
dispute  may  be  a party  to  an  arbitration.  Any 
matter  which  the  parties  may  adjust  by  agreement, 
or  which  may  be  made  the  subject  of  a suit  at  law, 
may  be  determined  by  arbitration.  Crimes  cannot 
be  made  the  subject  matter  of  an  arbitration.  This 
matter  is  regulated  by  statute  in  the  different  States. 

Questions  may  be  submitted  for  arbitration  in  the 
following  ways : 


f 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


■J 


*90 


1.  By  parol. 

2.  By  writing. 

3.  Under  the  statute , which  must  be  done  if  the 
parties  are  desirous  of  availing  themselves  of  its 
provisions. 

4.  By  rule  of  court,  which  occurs  when  an  action 
is  pending  in  court  and  the  parties  agree  to  take  it 
before  arbitrators,  in  accordance  with  an  order  of 
the  court. 

5.  By  deposit  of  notes. 

A person  may  be  selected  as  arbitrator,  notwith- 
standing his  natural  incapacity  or  legal  disability  to 
make  contracts. 

The  arbitrators  must  fix  the  time  and  place  of 
hearing,  and  give  due  notice  of  the  same  to  the  par- 
ties. They  must  be  sworn,  if  the  statute  requires 
an  oath,  unless  such  oath  is  weighed  by  the  parties 
themselves.  In  the  matter  of  hearing  evidence  the 
statute  of  the  State  must  be  followed. 

The  arbitrators  may  adjourn  from  time  to  time, 
provided  the  time  does  not  extend  beyond  the 
period  appointed  for  the  delivery  of  the  award. 

In  arbitrations  the  parties  are  entitled  to  the  aid 
of  counsel,  the  same  as  they  would  be  in  court. 

After  a fair  submission  and  a legal  award,  the 
matter  submitted  cannot  be  litigated  on,  any  more 
than  if  it  had  been  settled  by  a judgment. 

An  award  may  be  impeached  where  it  has  been 
procured  by  corruption,  fraud,  or  other  undue 
means  ; by  misconduct,  corruption  or  irregularity 
on  the  part  of  the  arbitrators,  when  the  arbitrators 
acknowledge  they  have  made  a mistake  in  their  de- 
cision ; where  the  arbitrators  have  exceeded  their 
powers  ; where  pertinent  and  material  evidence  was 
rejected,  etc.  If  either  party  revokes  the  submission, 
he  will  be  liable  for  an  action  for  breach  of  contract, 
and  the  payment  of  damages  by  the  other  party. 

SiYe^'t. 

The  defendant  in  an  action  may  be  arrested  for 
the  following  causes,  when  the  action  is  to  recover 
damages  : 

1.  Personal  injury. 

2.  Injury  to  property,  including  wrongful  taking, 
detention,  or  conversion  of  property. 

3.  Breach  of  promise  to  marry. 

4.  Fraud  or  deceit. 


5.  Misconduct  or  neglect  in  office,  or  in  profes 
sional  employment. 

6.  In  an  action  to  recover  a chattel  where  said 
chattel  or  a part  thereof  has  been  removed,  con- 
cealed, or  disposed  of,  so  that  it  cannot  be  found  or 
be  taken  by  the  Sheriff,  and  with  intent  that  it  should 
not  be  found  or  taken  by  the  Sheriff,  or  with  the 
intent  of  depriving  the  plaintiff  of  the  benefit 
thereof. 

7.  In  an  action  upon  contract,  express  or  implied, 
other  than  a promise  to  marry,  where  the  defendant 
has  been  guilty  of  fraud  in  contracting  or  incurring 
the  liability. 

8.  In  an  action  upon  contract,  either  express  or 
implied,  other  than  a promise  to  marry,  where  de- 
fendant has,  since  the  making  of  the  contract,  or  in 
contemplation  of  the  same,  removed  or  disposed  of 
his  property  with  the  intent  of  defrauding  his  cred- 
itors, or  where  he  is  about  to  remove  or  dispose  of 
the  same  with  like  intent. 

9.  In  case  of  action  to  recover  for  money  re- 
ceived, or  to  recover  property  or  damages  for  the 
conversion  or  misapplication  of  the  same,  where  the 
money  was  received,  or  where  the  property  was 
embezzled,  or  fraudulently  misapplied  by  a public 
official,  or  by  an  attorney,  solicitor,  or  counselor,  or 
by  an  officer  or  agent  of  a corporation  or  banking 
association  in  the  course  of  his  employment,  or  by  a 
factor,  agent,  broker,  or  any  person  in  a fiduciary 
capacity. 

10.  In  an  action  wherein  the  judgment  demanded 
requires  the  performance  of  an  act,  the  neglect  or 
the  refusal  to  perform  which  would  be  punishable 
by  the  court  as  contempt,  or  where  the  defendant, 
not  being  a resident  of  the  State,  or  being  a resident, 
is  about  to  depart  from  the  State,  by  reason  of 
which  departure  there  is  a danger  that  a judgment 
or  an  order  requiring  the  performance  of  the  said 
act  will  be  rendered  ineffectual. 

Females  are  liable  to  arrest  only  in  the  cases 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  subdivision,  or  in 
cases  of  willful  injury  to  person,  character,  or  pro- 
perty. 

A debtor  may  be  arrested  in  this  State  only  when 
it  can  be  proved  that  he  employed  fraud  in  con- 
tracting the  debt,  or  that  he  concealed  or  put  his 
property  out  of  his  hands  with  the  intent  of  defeat- 
ing his  creditors. 

The  defendant,  when  arrested,  may  give  bail. 


4 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


291 


Sttkdl]Tqei|t. 

An  attachment  may  be  issued,  when  it  is  a ques- 
tion of  recovering  a sum  of  money,  for  damages,  in 
the  following  cases  : 

1.  For  breach  of  contract,  whether  express  or 
implied,  other  than  a contract  to  marry. 

2.  For  wrongful  conversion  of  personal  property, 
or  for  any  injury  to  personal  property,  in  conse- 
quence of  fraud,  negligence,  or  any  other  act. 

The  plaintiff  must  prove  that  a cause  of  action 
exists  under  one  of  the  above  heads  before  he  is  en- 
titled to  a warrant  of  attachment.  In  case  of  an 
action  to  recover  damages,  his  affidavit  must  show 
that  he  is  entitled  to  recover  a sum  therein  stated 
over  and  above  any  or  all  counter  claims  against 
him.  In  addition,  he  must  show  that  the  defendant 
is  either  a foreign  corporation  or  a non-resident  of 
this  State,  or  in  case  he  is  an  individual  person  and 
resides  in  the  State,  that  he  has  departed  therefrom 
with  the  intention  of  defrauding  his  creditors,  or 
avoiding  being  served  with  a summons,  or  that  he 
keeps  himself  concealed  within  the  State  with  like 
intent.  If  the  defendant  is  a natural  person  or  a 
domestic  corporation,  the  affidavit  must  show  that 
he  or  it  has  removed  his  or  its  property  from  the 
State  with  the  intention  of  defrauding  his  or  its 
creditors,  or  that  he  has  assigned,  disposed  of,  or 
secreted  his  property,  or  that  he  is  about  to  do  so 
with  like  intent.  The  plaintiff  must  also  give  a bond 
or  undertaking  to  the  amount  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty  dollars  before  the  attachment  issues.  Salary 
or  wages  may  be  attached  provided  the  conditions 
already  mentioned  exist  for  so  doing.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  said  conditions,  and  after  unsatisfied  judg- 
ment and  execution,  wages  may  be  taken  by  supple- 
mentary proceedings.  The  earnings  of  the  debtor 
for  his  personal  services  for  sixty  days  previous  to 
the  institution  of  said  supplementary  proceedings, 
where  such  earnings  appear  to  be  necessary  for  the 
support  of  a family  wholly  or  in  part  supported  by 
his  labor,  cannot  be  reached. 


Chattel  ^!oixtc£ic*e$. 


A mortgage  of  goods  and  chattels  will  be  void  to 
creditors  of  the  mortgagee,  if  the  following  con- 
ditions are  not  complied  with  : 

1.  The  immediate  delivery  of  the  property  accom- 


Zkr- 


panying  the  mortgage,  followed  by  actual  and  con- 
tinued claim  of  possession. 

2.  The  filing  of  the  mortgage,  or  a true  copy 
thereof,  as  required  by  law,  in  the  clerk’s  or  regis- 
ter’s office  of  the  town,  city  or  county  where  the 
mortgagor  resides,  and  where  the  property  lies  at 
the  time  the  instrument  was  executed.  The  mort- 
gage must  be  filed  where  the  mortgagee  resides,  if 
he  is  a resident  of  the  State;  if  not,  it  must  be  filed 
in  the  city  or  town  where  the  property  is  located  at 
the  time  of  the  execution  of  the  mortgage.  It  must 
be  filed  in  the  Register’s  Office  in  the  cities  of  New 
York  and  Brooklyn. 

The  conditions  of  a contract,  as  applying  to 
individuals,  are:  1.  Age;  2.  Rationality;  and  3, 
as  to  Corporations,  the  possession  of  general  or 
special  statutory  powers. 

Persons  under  age  are  incompetent  to  make  con- 
tracts, except  under  certain  limitations.  Generally 
such  persons  are  incapable  of  making  binding  con- 
tracts. 

As  to  rationality,  the  general  principle  of  law  is 
that  all  persons  not  rendered  incompetent  by  per- 
sonal disability,  or  by  considerations  of  public 
policy,  are  capable  of  making  a contract. 

Corporations  have  powers  to  make  contracts 
strictly  within  the  limits  prescribed  by  their  char- 
ters, or  by  special  or  general  statute.  The  following 
classes  of  contracts  are  void,  unless  they  shall  be  in 
writing  and  subscribed  by  the  party  to  be  charged 
thereby  : 

1.  Every  agreement  that  by  its  terms  is  not  to  be 
performed  within  one  year  from  the  making  thereof. 

2.  Every  special  promise  to  answer  for  the  debt, 
default,  or  miscarriage  of  another  person. 

3.  Every  agreement,  promise  or  undertaking, 
made  upon  consideration  of  marriage,  except  mutual 
promises  to  marry. 

4.  Every  contract  for  the  leasing  of  a longer 
period  than  one  year,  or  for  the  sale  of  any  lands,  or 
any  interest  in  lands,  shall  be  void,  unless  the  con- 
tract, or  some  note  or  memorandum  thereof,  express- 
ing the  consideration,  be  in  writing  and  subscribed 
by  the  party  by  whom  the  lease  or  sale  is  made. 

Every  contract  for  the  sale  of  any  goods,  chattels, 
or  things  in  action  shall  be  void,  unless, 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


1.  A note  or  memorandum  of  such  contract  be 
made  in  writing,  and  be  subscribed  by  the  parties 
to  be  charged  thereby  ; or, 

2.  Unless  the  buyer  shall  accept  and  receive  part 
of  such  goods,  or  the  evidences,  or  some  of  them, 
of  such  things  in  action  ; or, 

3.  Unless  the  buyer  shall,  at  the  time,  pay  some 
part  of  the  purchase  money. 

doi^of^tior^. 

Corporations  are  bodies  created  by  law,  which 
consist  of  individuals  united  under  a common  name, 
whose  members  succeed  each  other,  so  that  the 
body  continues  the  same,  notwithstanding  the 
change  of  the  individuals  who  compose  it. 

Three  or  more  persons  so  desiring  may  form  a 
corporation. 

The  persons  desiring  to  form  a corporation  must 
make  and  acknowledge  the  same  before  an  officer 
empowered  to  take  the  acknowledgment  of  deeds  a 
certificate  in  writing,  in  accordance  with  the  direc- 
tions required  by  law. 

A duplicate  of  this  certificate  must  be  filed  in  the 
office  of  the  Secretary  of  State. 

The  stockholders  of  the  incorporated  company  are 
individually  liable  to  the  company’s  creditors  to  the 
amount  of  the  stock  held  by  them  respectively,  until 
all  the  capital  stock  shall  have  been  paid  in,  and 
until  a certificate  stating  the  amount  of  the  capital 
fixed  and  paid  in  shall  be  filed  in  the  office  of  the 
County  Clerk,  in  accordance  with  the  requirements 
of  the  law.  The  stockholders  are  jointly  and  seve- 
rally individually  liable  to  the  laborers  or  servants 
of  the  corporation  for  work  performed  for  the 
same. 

Corporations  are  liable  for  contracts  made  by  the 
duly  authorized  agent  within  the  scope  of  his 
authority,  as  well  as  for  trespasses  or  torts  committed 
by  such  agents  under  authority  of  such  corpora- 
tions. 

Corporations  are  liable  for  negligence  or  breach 
of  duty  the  same  as  individuals. 

Corporations  are  liable  to  pay  taxes  in  the  same 
manner  as  individual  owners  of  property. 

Corporations  are  likewise  subject  to  visitation , 
which  consists  of  an  authority  to  inspect  the  actions 
and  regulate  the  behavior  of  the  members  who  share 
in  the  franchise. 


©e^der\t  kqd  ©i^tributioi}  of  fW- 

When  a person  dies  intestate,  his  personal  estate 
remaining  after  the  payment  of  his  debts,  and  where 
a will  has  been  left,  the  surplus  remaining  after  the 
payment  of  debts  and  legacies,  if  not  bequeathed, 
shall  be  distributed  to  the  widow,  children,  or  next 
of  kin  of  the  deceased  in  the  following  manner : 

1.  One  third  part  thereof  to  the  widow,  and  all 
the  residue  in  equal  portions  among  the  children, 
and  such  persons  as  may  legally  represent  such 
children,  if  any  of  them  shall  have  died  before  the 
deceased. 

2.  If  there  be  no  children,  and  no  legal  repre- 
sentative of  them,  then  one  moiety  of  the  whole 
surplus,  after  the  payment  of  debts,  shall  be  allotted 
to  the  widow,  and  the  other  moiety  shall  be  distri- 
buted to  the  next  of  kin  of  the  deceased. 

3.  If  the  deceased  shall  leave  a widow,  and  no 
descendant,  parent,  brother  or  sister,  nephew  or 
niece,  the  widow  shall  be  entitled  to  the  whole  sur- 
plus ; but  if  there  be  a brother  or  sister,  nephew  or 
niece,  and  no  descendant  or  parent,  the  widow  shall 
be  entitled  to  a moiety  of  the  surplus  and  to  the 
whole  of  the  residue,  where  it  does  not  exceed  two 
thousand  dollars  ; if  the  residue  exceed  that  sum, 
she  shall  receive,  in  addition  to  the  moiety,  two 
thousand  dollars  ; and  the  remainder  shall  be  dis- 
tributed to  the  brothers  and  sisters  and  their  repre- 
sentatives. 

4.  If  there  be  no  widow,  then  the  whole  surplus 
shall  be  distributed  equally  to  and  among  the  chil- 
dren and  such  as  legally  represent  them. 

5.  In  case  there  be  no  widow  and  no  children,  and 
no  representatives  of  a child,  then  the  whole  surplus 
shall  be  distributed  to  the  next  of  kin,  in  equal  de- 
gree to  the  deceased,  and  their  legal  representatives. 

6.  If  the  deceased  shall  leave  no  children,  and  no 
representatives  of  them,  and  no  father,  and  shall 
leave  a widow  and  a mother,  the  moiety  not  dis- 
tributed to  the  widow  shall  be  distributed  in  equal 
shares  to  the  mother,  and  brothers  and  sisters,  or 
the  representatives  of  such  brothers  and  sisters ; 
and,  if  there  be  no  widow,  the  whole  surplus  shall 
be  distributed  in  like  manner  to  the  mother,  and  to 
the  brothers  and  sisters,  or  the  representatives  of 
such  brothers  and  sisters. 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


7.  If  the  deceased  leave  a father,  and  no  child  or 
descendant,  the  father  shall  take  a moiety,  if  there 
be  a widow,  and  the  whole  if  there  be  no  widow. 

8.  If  the  deceased  leave  a mother,  and  no  child, 
descendant,  father,  brother,  sister,  or  representative 
of  a brother  or  sister,  the  mother,  if  there  be  a widow, 
shall  take  a moiety,  and  the  whole  if  there  be  no 
widow. 

9.  Where  the  descendants,  or  next  of  kin  of  the 
deceased  entitled  to  share  in  his  estate,  shall  be  all 
in  equal  degree  to  the  deceased,  their  shares  shall 
be  equal. 

10.  When  such  descendants,  or  next  of  kin,  are 
of  unequal  degrees  of  kindred,  the  surplus  shall 
be  apportioned  among  those  entitled  thereto,  ac- 
cording to  their  respective  stocks  ; so  that  those  who 
take  in  their  own  right  shall  receive  equal  shares, 
and  those  who  take  by  representation  shall  receive 
the  shares  to  which  the  parent  whom  they  represent, 
if  living,  would  have  been  entitled. 

11.  No  representation  shall  be  admitted  among 
collaterals  after  brothers’  and  sisters’  children. 

12.  Relatives  of  the  half  blood  shall  take  equally 
with  those  of  the  whole  blood  in  the  same  degree  ; 
and  the  representatives  of  such  relatives  shall  take 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  representatives  of  the 
whole  blood. 

13.  Descendants  and  next  of  kin  of  the  deceased, 
begotten  before  his  death,  but  born  thereafter,  shall 
take  in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  had  been  born 
in  the  lifetime  of  the  deceased,  and  had  survived  him. 

The  above  provisions  apply  to  the  personal  es- 
tates of  married  women  who  die  intestate,  leaving 
descendants  ; and  the  husband  of  any  deceased 
married  woman  may  demand,  recover,  and  enjoy 
the  same  distributive  share  in  her  personal  estate 
that  she,  if  a widow,  would  be  entitled  to  in  his  per- 
sonal estate,  but  no  more. 

The  real  property  of  every  person  dying  intestate 
shall  descend  as  follows  : 

1.  To  his  lineal  descendants. 

2.  To  his  father. 

3.  To  his  mother. 

4.  To  his  collateral  relatives. 

In  case  the  inheritance  comes  to  the  intestate  on 
the  part  of  the  mother,  the  father  does  not  take  if 
the  mother  be  living ; and  in  such  a case,  if  she  be 
dead,  the  father  only  takes  a life  interest,  unless  all 
the  brothers  and  sisters  of  the  deceased,  and  their 


descendants,  be  dead,  or  unless  the  deceased  had  no 
brothers  or  sisters,  in  which  cases  the  father  is  en- 
titled to  take  the  fee. 

In  case  there  is  no  father  or  mother,  and  the  in- 
heritance came  to  the  deceased  on  the  part  of  the 
mother,  it  will  descend  to  the  collateral  relatives  of 
the  mother  in  preference  to  those  of  the  father. 

In  case  the  inheritance  came  to  the  deceased  on 
the  part  of  neither  father  nor  mother,  it  will  descend 
to  the  collateral  relatives  of  both  in  equal  shares. 

Relatives  of  the  half  blood  inherit  equally  with 
those  of  the  whole  blood  in  the  same  degree. 

The  descendants  and  relatives  of  the  intestate, 
begotten  before  his  death,  but  born  thereafter,  in- 
herit in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  had  been  born 
in  the  lifetime  of  the  intestate. 

The  mother  of  an  illegitimate  child,  dying  with- 
out any  descendants,  takes  the  inheritance. 

Besides  the  provisions  in  favor  of  the  widow  and 
the  minor  children  from  the  personal  estate  of  her 
husband,  it  is  provided  that  she  may  tarry  in  the 
house  of  her  husband  forty  days  after  his  death,, 
whether  her  dower  be  sooner  assigned  or  not,  with 
out  being  liable  to  rent  for  the  same,  and  meantime 
she  shall  have  her  reasonable  sustenance  off  the  estate 
of  her  husband.  This  sustenance  shall  be  provided 
out  of  the  personal  property  of  her  husband,  and 
through  the  executor  or  administrator,  should  one 
be  appointed  prior  to  the  expiration  of  the  forty 
days,  and  shall  be  given  according  to  the  circum- 
stances and  station  in  life  of  the  family,  to  the 
widow  and  children  dependent  on  her.  In  pro- 
viding this  sustenance,  the  executor  or  administrator 
must  exercise  judgment  and  discretion,  as  he  should 
in  paying  funeral  expenses. 


Ii\terebrt  kqd  TJVutV. 

Interest  is  a moderate  profit  for  the  use  of  money. 

In  the  different  States  the  rate  of  interest  is  estab- 
lished by  statute.  In  New  York  State  seven  per 
cent,  is  the  legal  rate  of  interest.  Any  excess  over 
this,  whether  received  directly  or  indirectly,  will  ren- 
der the  contract  void,  and  is  a misdemeanor,  pun- 
ishable by  a fine  not  exceeding  $1,000,  or  by  im- 
prisonment not  exceeding  six  months,  or  both.  An 
excess  of  interest  above  the  legal  rate  may  be  re- 
covered by  an  action  at  law,  if  brought  in  one 
year  from  the  time  of  payment. 

^ 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


Corporations  cannot  set  up  the  defence  of  usury. 

In  case  promissory  notes  and  bills  of  exchange 
do  not  specify  the  payment  of  interest,  interest  is 
not  allowable  until  maturity.  But  from  the  moment 
they  fall  due,  they  bear  interest,  whether  it  be  so 
specified  or  not. 

As  a rule,  compound  interest  is  not  allowable,  but 
a contract  is  not  usurious  or  void  because  of  a stipu- 
lation for  the  payment  of  compound  interest.  The 
courts,  however,  will  not  enforce  its  payment,  when 
the  agreement  is  made  before  any  interest  has  ac- 
crued. If  a debt  already  due  has  an  accumulation 
of  interest  not  paid,  the  parties  may  agree  to  have 
the  principal  and  interest  added  together,  and  draw 
interest. 

Interest  is  not  allowable  upon  unliquidated  de- 
mands for  board  and  lodging,  where  price  or  time 
of  payment  is  not  agreed  upon  between  the  parties. 

A lender,  whether  banker  or  broker,  can  charge  a 
reasonable  amount  for  his  services  in  addition  to 
the  interest,  without  being  liable  for  usury. 

Interest  in  advatice  is  allowed  under  certain  limi- 
tations. 

I^kqdlofd  itr^d  ^e:qkqt. 

Leases  for  one  year  or  less  need  no  written  agree- 
ment. Leases  for  more  than  a year  must  be  in 
writing  ; if  for  life,  signed,  sealed,  and  witnessed  in 
the  same  manner  as  any  other  important  document. 

Leases  for  over  three  years  must  be  recorded.  No 
particular  form  is  necessary. 

If  no  agreement  in  writing  for  more  than  a year 
can  be  produced,  the  tenant  holds  the  property  from 
year  to  year  at  the  will  of  the  landlord.  If  there  is 
no  agreement  as  to  time,  the  tenant  as  a rule  holds 
from  year  to  year. 

In  the  City  of  New  York,  when  the  duration  of 
the  occupation  is  not  specified,  the  agreement  shall 
be  held  valid  until  the  first  day  of  the  May  follow- 
ing the  occupation  under  such  agreement. 

A tenancy  at  will  may  be  terminated  by  giving 
the  tenant  one  month’s  notice  in  writing,  requiring 
him  to  remove  from  the  premises  occupied. 

A landlord  can  no  longer  distress  for  rent  in  New 
York,  nor  has  any  lien  on  the  goods  and  chattels  of 
a tenant  for  rent  due.  Rent  may  be  collected  by 
action  after  the  removal  of  the  tenant. 

A tenant  is  not  responsible  for  taxes,  unless  it  is 
so  stated  in  the  lease. 


A lease  falling  into  the  hands  of  a party  accident- 
ally would  be  invalid,  and  must  in  all  cases  be  de- 
livered to  the  party  for  whom  it  is  intended. 

The  tenant  may  underlet  as  much  of  the  property 
as  he  desires,  unless  it  is  expressly  forbidden  in  the 
lease.  Tenants  at  will  cannot  underlet. 

A lease  made  by  a minor  is  not  binding  after  the 
minor  has  attained  his  majority.  It  binds  the  lessee, 
however,  unless  the  minor  should  release  him. 
Should  the  minor  receive  rent  after  attaining  his  ma- 
jority, the  lease  will  be  thereby  ratified.  A lease 
given  by  a guardian  will  not  extend  beyond  the 
majority  of  the  ward.  A new  lease  renders  void  a 
former  lease. 

In  case  there  are  no  writings,  the  tenancy  begins 
from  the  day  possession  is  taken  ; where  there  are 
writings  and  the  time  of  commencement  is  not 
stated,  the  tenancy  will  be  held  to  commence  from 
the  date  of  said  writings. 

If  a landlord  consents  to  receive  a substitute,  the 
former  tenant  is  released. 

I<ier\  LcLw^. 

Any  one  who,  as  contractor,  sub-contractor,  or 
laborer,  performs  any  work,  or  furnishes  any  mate- 
rials, in  pursuance  of,  or  in  conformity  with,  any 
agreement  or  contract  with  the  owner,  lessee,  agent, 
or  one  in  possession  of  the  property,  toward  the 
erection,  altering,  improving,  or  repairing  of  any 
building,  shall  have  a lien  for  the  value  of  such 
labor  or  materials  on  the  building  or  land  on  which 
it  stands,  to  the  extent  of  the  right,  title  and  interest 
of  the  owner,  lessee  or  person  in  possession  at  the 
time  of  the  claimant’s  filing  his  notice  with  the  clerk 
of  the  County  Court. 

This  notice  should  be  filed  within  thirty  days 
after  completion  of  the  work,  or  the  furnishing  of 
the  materials,  and  should  state  the  residence  of  the 
claimant,  the  amount  claimed,  from  whom  due, 
when  due,  and  to  whom  due,  the  name  of  the  person 
against  whom  claimed,  the  name  of  the  owner,  lessee 
or  person  in  possession  of  the  premises,  with  a brief 
description  of  the  latter. 

Liens  cease  in  one  year  after  the  filing  of  the 
notice,  unless  an  action  is  begun,  or  the 'lien  is  con- 
tinued by  an  order  of  Court. 

The  following  classes  of  persons  are  generally  en- 
titled to  lien  : 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


295 


1.  Bailees,  who  may  perform  labor  and  services 
on  the  thing  bailed,  at  the  request  of  the  bailor. 

2.  Innkeepers,  upon  the  baggage  of  guests  they 
have  accommodated. 

3.  Common  carriers,  upon  goods  carried,  for  the 
amount  of  their  freight  and  disbursements. 

4.  Venders,  on  the  goods  sold  for  payment  of  the 
price  where  no  credit  has  been  expressly  promised 
or  implied. 

5.  Agents,  upon  goods  of  their  principals,  for 
advancements  for  the  benefit  of  the  latter. 

6.  All  persons  are  entitled  to  the  right  of  lien  who 
are  compelled  by  law  to  receive  property,  and  be- 
stow labor  or  expense  on  the  same. 

The  right  of  lien  may  be  waived  : 

1.  By  express  contract. 

2.  By  neglect. 

3.  By  new  agreement. 

4.  By  allowing  change  of  possession. 

5.  By  surrendering  possession. 

The  manner  of  the  enforcement  of  a lien,  whether 
it  be  an  innkeeper’s,  agent’s,  carrier’s  factor’s,  etc., 
depends  wholly  upon  the  nature  and  character  of 
the  lien. 

I<m}itktioi\  of  Sdtioi\ — Wl\ei\  k 
I)ebt  Outlawed. 

Actions  upon  judgments  or  decrees  of  a court,  or 
a contract  under  seal,  or  for  the  recovery  of  real 
estate,  must  be  commenced  within  a period  of 
twenty  years  from  the  date  when  the  cause  of  action 
accrued. 

All  actions  upon  unsealed  contracts,  express  or 
implied,  become  outlawed  in  six  years. 

Claims  for  damages  to  property  become  outlawed 
in  six  years. 

Claims  for  damages  for  injury  to  the  person  or 
rights  of  another  are  outlawed  in  six  years,  except 
in  cases  of  personal  injuries  caused  by  negligence, 
when  the  claim  is  outlawed  in  three  years. 

All  actions  for  libel,  slander,  assault,  battery,  false 
imprisonment,  and  for  forfeitures  or  penalties  to  the 
people  of  the  State,  are  outlawed  in  two  years. 

Claims  for  the  specific  recovery  of  personal  prop- 
erty and  on  judgments  of  Courts  not  of  record,  are 
outlawed  in  six  years. 

In  the  case  enforcing  the  payment  of  a bill,  note, 

hr- 


or  other  evidence  of  debt  that  may  be  issued  by  a 
moneyed  corporation,  or  to  enforce  the  payment  of 
same  issued  or  put  in  circulation  as  money,  there 
is  no  limitation  of  time  to  sue. 

An  acknowledgment  or  new  promise  cannot  take  a 
contract  or  other  liability  out  of  the  statute  of  out* 
lawry,  unless  it  be  in  writing. 

A payment  on  account  of  principal  or  interest 
takes  the  case  out  of  the  statute,  without  being  in 
writing. 

^fktkkk^e  kqd  ©ivofde. 

Marriage  may  be  entered  into  by  any  two  persons, 
with  the  following  exceptions  : Idiots,  lunatics,  per- 
sons of  unsound  mind,  persons  related  by  blood  or 
affinity  within  certain  degrees  prohibited  by  law, 
infants  under  the  age  of  consent,  which  is  in  New 
York  State  14  for  males  and  12  for  females,  and  all 
persons  already  married  and  not  legally  divorced. 

Absolute  divorce  can  be  obtained  in  the  State  of 
New  York  for  adultery  alone. 

Limited  divorce  is  granted  on  the  following 
grounds. 

First — Idiocy  or  lunacy. 

Second — Consent  of  either  party  having  been 
obtained  by  force,  duress,  or  fraud. 

Third — Want  of  age  or  physical  incapacity. 

Fourth — The  former  husband  or  wife  of  either 
party  being  still  living. 

Fifth — Inhuman  treatment,  abandonment,  ne- 
glect, or  failure  on  the  part  of  the  husband  to 
provide  for  the  wife. 

Sixth — Such  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  defendant 
as  would  render  it  dangerous  for  the  plaintiff  to 
cohabit  with  the  former. 

]Vfote$  kqd  Sill$  of  5^xdl\kr^e. 

Notes  are,  as  a rule,  entitled  to  three  day’s  grace — 
that  is,  the  note  is  not  payable  till  the  third  day 
after  the  day  expressed  for  its  payment.  Notes 
made  payable  “ on  demand  ” are  not  entitled  to 
grace. 

In  the  following  cases  there  are  no  days  of  grace  : 

1.  Bills  of  exchange  or  drafts,  payable  at  sight 
at  any  place  within  this  State,  shall  be  deemed  due 
and  shall  be  payable  on  presentation,  without  the 
allowance  of  any  days,  grace. 

2.  Checks,  bills  of  exchange  or  drafts  appearing 

-~ i 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


on  their  face  to  have  been  drawn  upon  any  bank,  or 
banking  association,  or  banker,  carrying  on  banking 
business  under  the  act  to  authorize  the  business  of 
banking,  which  are  on  their  face  payable  on  any 
specified  day,  or  in  any  number  of  days  after  the 
date  or  sight  thereof,  shall  be  deemed  due  and  pay- 
able on  the  day  mentioned  for  payment  of  same, 
without  any  days  of  grace  being  allowed  ; nor  shall 
it  be  necessary  to  protest  the  same  for  non- 
acceptance. 

When  the  last  of  the  days  of  grace  falls  on  Sunday, 
or  any  leading  public  holiday  when  general  business 
is  suspended,  the  presentment  for  payment  must  be 
made  on  the  Saturday  preceding  the  Sunday,  or  the 
day  preceding  the  holiday.  Drawers  and  endorsers 
should  be  notified  not  later  than  the  following 
Monday,  or  the  day  after  the  holiday. 

As  a general  rule,  the  note  or  bill  must  be  pre- 
sented for  payment  on  the  last  of  the  days  of  grace, 
and  the  drawers  and  endorsers  must  be  notified  of 
non-payment  not  later  than  the  following  day. 

Notes  and  bills,  when  made  payable  to  or  at  any 
person’s  order  and  endorsed  in  blank,  pass  by 
delivery. 

The  words  “ value  received,”  though  ordinarily 
used,  are  not  indispensable,  as  value  is  held  to  be 
implied. 

Notes  do  not  bear  interest  except  when  it  is  so 
stated.  After  maturity  all  notes  bear  legal  interest. 

The  holder  of  a note  that  is  made  payable  to  or- 
der, may  sue  in  his  own  name. 

A promissory  note  given  by  a minor  is  void. 

The  indorser  of  an  accommodation  is  a surety  for 
the  maker,  and  he  is  liable  to  the  costs  of  collection 
that  may  be  brought  against  such  maker  or  indorser. 

Any  promise  to  pay,  without  specifying  the  time 
of  payment,  is  equivalent  to  a promise  to  pay  on  de- 
mand. 

The  general  rule  is  that  every  person  of  sound 
mind,  and  not  otherwise  restrained  by  law,  may  enter 
into  a contract  of  partnership. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  partners,  which  may  be 
classed  as  follows  : 

1.  Ostensible  partners,  or  those  whose  names  are 
made  public  as  partners,  and  who  in  reality  are 
such,  and  who  take  all  the  benefits  and  risks. 

2.  Nominal  partners,  or  those  who  appear  before 


the  public  as  partners,  but  who  have  no  real  interest 
in  the  business. 

3.  Dormant , or  silent  partners,  or  those  whose 
names  are  not  known  or  do  not  appear  as  partners, 
but  who,  nevertheless,  have  an  interest  in  the  busi- 
ness. 

4.  Special  partners,  or  those  who  are  interested  in 
the  business  only  to  the  amount  of  the  capital  they 
have  invested  in  it. 

5.  General  partners,  who  manage  the  business, 
while  the  capital,  either  in  whole  or  in  part,  is  sup- 
plied by  a special  partner  or  partners.  They 
are  liable  for  all  the  debts  and  contracts  of  the 
firm. 

A nominal  partner  renders  himself  liable  for  all 
the  debts  and  contracts  of  the  firm-. 

A dormant  partner,  if  it  becomes  known  that  he 
has  an  interest,  whether  creditors  trusted  the  firm 
on  his  account  or  not,  becomes  liable  equally  with 
the  other  partners. 

The  partnership  firm  is  responsible  for  any  acts 
done  by  any  partner,  touching  the  partnership  busi- 
ness. 

The  representation  or  misrepresentation  of  any 
fact  made  by  any  partner  within  the  scope  of  the 
business,  is  binding  on  the  firm. 

A notice  to  or  by  any  of  the  firm  is  deemed  a no- 
tice to  or  by  all  of  them. 

Each  partner  is  liable  to  third  parties  for  the  whole 
partnership  debts. 

The  articles  of  partnership  must  in  all  cases  be 
in  writing. 

It  is  not  allowable  to  transact  business  in  the  name 
of  a partner  not  interested  in  his  firm,  and  the  des- 
ignation “and  Company,”  or  “&  Co.”,  when  used, 
must  represent  an  actual  partner  or  partners. 

A violation  of  these  provisions  constitutes  a mis- 
demeanor, and  is  punishable  by  a fine  not  exceed- 
ing $1,000. 

The  following  are  the  exceptions  to  this  rule 

1.  Firms  having  business  relations  with  foreign 
countries. 

2.  Firms  that  have  transacted  business  in  this 
State  for  five  years  or  more. 

In  the  above  cases,  a certificate  of  the  change  in 
the  persons  constituting  the  partnership,  and  declar- 
ing the  persons  thus  dealing  under  the  partnership 
name,  shall  be  made  and  filed  with  the  county  clerk, 
and  published  for  four  consecutive  weeks  in  a news- 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


29 


paper  of  the  town  which  shall  be  the  principal  place 
of  business  of  such  firm. 

Should  a firm  fail  to  comply  with  these  provisions, 
the  law  would  refuse  to  lend  its  aid  to  such  a firm  in 
enforcing  its  contracts. 


fVopefty  f^xerqpt  ffoirj  Sttkdly 
rqeiqt  o:q  f^xedutioi}. 

The  different  States  have  different  laws  relative 
to  the  property  exempted  by  statute  from  attach- 
ment and  execution. 

In  the  State  of  New  York  the  following  personal 
property  is  exempt  : 

First. — All  spinning-wheels,  weaving-looms,  and 
stoves  put  up  or  kept  for  family  use  in  any  dwell- 
ing-house, and  one  sewing-machine  with  appurte- 
nances. 

Second. — The  family  bible,  family  pictures,  and 
school-books  used  by  or  in  the  family,  and  books — 
not  exceeding  fifty  dollars  in  value — part  of  the 
family  library. 

Third. — A pew  or  seat  in  church,  used  by  the 
debtor  or  his  family. 

Fourth. — Ten  sheep,  with  their  fleeces,  and  the 
yarn  or  cloth  manufactured  therefrom,  together  with 
one  cow  and  two  swine,  and  the  necessary  food  for 
them. 

Fifth.— All  pork,  beef,  fish,  flour,  and  vegetables 
provided  for  family  use  ; and  fuel,  oil  and  candles 
necessary  for  family  for  sixty  days. 

Sixth. — All  necessary  wearing  apparel,  beds,  bed- 
steads, and  bedding  for  debtor  and  family  ; all  arms 
and  accoutrements  required  by  law  ; all  necessary 
cooking  utensils  ; one  table,  six  chairs,  six  knives 
and  forks,  six  plates,  six  tea-cups  and  saucers,  one 
sugar-dish,  one  milk-pot,  one  tea-pot,  six  spoons,  one 
crane  with  appendages,  one  pair  of  andirons,  one 
shovel  and  tongs,  and  all  the  tools  and  implements 
of  a mechanic  necessary  to  carry  on  his  trade,  to 
the  value  of  twenty-five  dollars. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  when  owned  by  a 
householder  or  anybody  having  a family  for  which 
he  provides,  the  following  exemptions  are  made. 
All  necessary  household  furniture,  working  tools, 
professional  instruments,  furniture,  and  library  ; a 
team  not  worth  over  $250,  and  the  food  necessary 
for  such  team  for  ninety  days,  except  on  executions 


/ 


for  purchase-money  for  such,  or  for  wages  of  a do- 
mestic in  the  family,  in  which  case  the  debtor  is  not 
entitled  to  the  benefit  of  the  exemptions  ; lastly, 
land  not  over  a quarter  of  an  acre  set  apart  for  bur- 
ial-place and  the  vault  thereon. 

The  following  real  property  is  exempted  : 

The  lot  and  building  thereon  to  the  value  of 
one  thousand  dollars,  owned  and  occupied  as  a 
residence  by  the  debtor.  This  exemption  continues 
after  the  death  of  the  judgment-debtor  for  the  ben- 
efit of  his  widow  and  family,  until  the  youngest  child 
becomes  of  age,  and  until  the  death  of  the  widow, 
on  condition  that  one  or  more  of  the  family  occupy 
the  premises. 

To  be  valid,  the  release  of  the  exemption  must  be 
in  writing,  subscribed  by  the  householder,  and  ac- 
knowledged in  the  same  way  as  a conveyance  of 
real  estate.  No  property  is  exempted  from  sale  for 
the  non-payment  of  taxes,  assessments,  or  a debt 
contracted  for  the  purchase-money  of  the  property, 
or  contracted  previous  to  the  recording  of  the  deed 
as  required  by  law. 

If  the  sheriff  holding  the  execution  thinks  the 
property  worth  more  than  one  thousand  dollars,  he 
must  summon  six  qualified  jurors  of  his  county,  and 
have  the  premises  appraised  and  sold  accordingly 
within  sixty  days,  unless  the  debtor  pays  meantime 
the  surplus  over  and  above  one  thousand  dollars. 
In  case  the  premises  are  sold,  the  debtor  receives 
one  thousand  dollars,  the  surplus  going  to  the  liq- 
uidation of  the  debt. 

£{igl)t$  of  JVtkffied  Woiijei). 

Any  and  all  property  which  a woman  owns  at  her 
marriage,  together  with  the  rents,  issues,  and  profits 
thereof,  and  the  property  that  comes  to  her  by  descent, 
devise,  bequest,  gift,  or  grant,  or  which  she  acquires 
by  her  trade,  business,  labor,  or  services  performed 
on  her  separate  account,  shall,  notwithstanding  her 
marriage,  remain  her  sole  and  separate  property,  and 
may  be  used,  collected,  and  invested  by  her  in  her 
own  name,  and  shall  not  be  subject  to  the  inter- 
ference or  control  of  her  husband,  or  be  liable  for 
his  debts,  unless  for  such  debts  as  may  have  been 
contracted  for  the  support  of  herself  or  children  by 
her  as  his  agent. 

A married  woman  may  likewise  bargain,  sell, 
assign,  transfer,  and  convey  such  property,  and 


298 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


enter  into  contracts  regarding  the  same  on  her  sepa- 
rate trade,  labor,  or  business  with  the  like  effect  as 
if  she  were  unmarried.  Her  husband,  however,  is 
not  liable  for  such  contracts,  and  they  do  not  render 
him  or  his  property  in  any  way  liable  therefor.  She 
may  also  sue  and  be  sued  in  all  matters  having  rela- 
tion to  her  sole  and  separate  property  in  the  same 
manner  as  if  she  were  sole. 

In  the  following  cases  a married  woman’s  contract 
may  be  enforced  against  her  and  her  separate  estate  : 

1.  When  the  contract  is  created  in  or  respecting 
the  carrying  on  of  the  trade  or  business  of  the  wife. 

2.  When  it  relates  to  or  is  made  for  the  benefit  of 
her  sole  or  separate  estate. 

3.  When  the  intention  to  charge  the  separate  es- 
tate is  expressed  in  the  contract  creating  the  liability. 

When  a husband  receives  a principal  sum  of  money 
belonging  to  his  wife,  the  law  presumes  he  receives 
it  for  her  use,  and  he  must  account  for  it,  or  expend 
it  on  her  account  by  her  authority  or  direction, 
or  that  she  gave  it  to  him  as  a gift. 

If  he  receives  interest  or  income  and  spends  it 
with  her  knowledge  and  without  objection,  a gift 
will  be  presumed  from  acquiescence. 

Money  received  by  a husband  from  his  wife  and 
expended  by  him,  under  her  direction,  on  his  land, 
in  improving  the  home  of  the  family,  is  a gift,  and 
cannot  be  recovered  by  the  wife,  or  reclaimed,  or  an 
account  demanded. 

An  appropriation  by  a wife,  herself,  of  her  sepa- 
rate property  to  the  use  and  benefit  of  her  husband, 
in  the  absence  of  an  agreement  to  repay,  or  any  cir- 
cumstances from  which  such  an  agreement  can  be 
inferred,  will  not  create  the  relation  of  debtor  and 
creditor,  nor  render  the  husband  liable  to  account. 

Though  no  words  of  gift  be  spoken,  a gift  by  a 
wife  to  her  husband  may  be  shown  by  the  very 
nature  of  the  transaction,  or  appear  from  the  attend- 
ing circumstances. 

A wife  who  causelessly  deserts  her  husband  is  not 
entitled  to  the  aid  of  a Court  of  Equity  in  getting 
possession  of  such  chattels  as  she  has  contributed 
to  the  furnishing  and  adornment  of  her  husband’s 
house.  Her  legal  title  remains,  and  she  could  con- 
vey her  interest  to  a third  party  by  sale,  and  said 
party  would  have  a good  title,  unless  her  husband 
should  prove  a gift. 

Wife’s  property  is  not  liable  to  a lien  of  a sub- 
contractor for  materials  furnished  to  the  husband 


for  the  erection  of  a building  thereon,  where  it  is  not 
shown  that  the  wife  was  notified  of  the  intention  to 
furnish  the  materials,  or  a settlement  made  with  the 
contractor  and  given  to  the  wife,  her  agent  or 
trustee. 

Will^. 

All  persons  of  sound  mind  and  proper  age  may 
dispose  of  their  property  by  last  will  and  testament. 
In  some  States  minors  may  bequeath  personal  prop- 
erty. The  limitation  for  disposing  of  personal  estate 
by  will  is  eighteen  years  for  males  and  sixteen  years 
for  females. 

All  wills  must  be  made  in  writing  and  subscribed 
with  the  testator’s  full  name,  unless  the  person  be 
prevented  from  so  doing  by  the  extremity  of  his  last 
illness,  when  his  name  may  be  signed  in  his  presence, 
and  by  his  express  direction. 

A will  requires  at  least  two  attesting  witnesses. 

The  form  of  a will  is  not  material  provided  it 
manifests,  in  a sufficiently  clear  manner,  the  inten- 
tion of  the  testator.  It  may  be  put  in  any  language 
he  may  choose. 

A will  may  be  revoked  at  any  time  by  the  testator. 

The  following  are  among  the  modes  of  revoking 
a will  : 

First.  By  subsequent  instrument.  A second  will 
nullifies  a former  one,  provided  it  contains  words 
expressly  revoking  it,  or  that  it  makes  a different 
and  incompatible  disposition  of  the  property. 

Second.  By  the  destruction  of  the  will. 

Third.  By  marriage.  Marriage,  and  the  birth  of 
a child  after  the  execution  of  a will,  is  a presump- 
tive revocation  of  such  will,  provided  wife  and  child 
are  left  unprovided  for. 

The  will  of  an  unmarried  woman  is  annulled  by 
her  marriage.  She  may  make  a deed  of  settlement 
of  her  estate,  however,  before  marriage,  empowering 
her  to  retain  the  right  to  make  a will  after  marriage. 

Children  born  after  the  execution  of  the  will,  and 
in  the  lifetime  of  the  father,  will  inherit  at  the  death 
of  the  testator  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  died 
without  making  a will. 

Fourth.  By  alteration  of  estate.  Any  alteration  of 
the  estate  or  interest  of  the  testator  in  the  property 
devised,  implies  a revocation  of  the  will. 

A sale  of  the  devised  property,  or  a valid  agree- 
ment to  sell  it,  is  a legal  revocation  of  such  will. 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


A codicil,  so  far  as  it  may  be  inconsistent  with 
the  will,  works  as  a revocation. 

A subsequent  will,  duly  executed,  revokes  all  for- 
mer wills,  though  no  words  to  that  effect  may  be  used. 

Property  cannot  be  devised  to  corporations,  unless 
such  corporations  are  expressly  authorized  to  receive 
bequests  by  its  charter. 

A will  should  not  be  written  by  a legatee  or  de- 
visee, nor  should  either  of  them,  or  an  executor,  or 
any  one  interested  in  the  will  be  called  upon  to  wit- 
ness such  will. 


Aliens  not  authorized  by  law  to  hold  property 
cannot  receive  bequests. 

All  debts  and  incumbrances  must  be  settled 
before  the  bequests  shall  be  distributed. 

A codicil,  that  is  an  addition  or  supplement  to  a 
will,  must  be  executed  with  the  same  formalities  as 
the  will  itself.  The  witnesses  may  be  the  same  or 
different  ones.  When  there  are  several  codicils,  the 
later  operate  to  revive  and  republish  the  earlier 
ones. 


® of  tl\e  ^ule$  of  JVkdtide  ii\  tl\e  limited  $tkte$  Pkteijt  Offide. 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


')LL  business  with  the 
-’office  should  be  transact- 
ed in  writing. 

All  office  letters  must  be 
sent  in  the  name  of  the 
“ Commissioner  of  Patents.” 
k Express  charges,  freight, 
) ' postage,  and  all  other  charges 
' on  matter  sent  to  the  patent 
office  must  be  prepaid  in  full ; 
otherwise  it  will  not  be 
received. 

The  personal  attendance  of 
applicants  at  the  patent  office 
is  unnecessary. 

When  a letter  concerns  an  application,  it  should 
state  the  name  of  the  applicant,  the  title  of  the 
invention,  the  serial  number  of  the  application,  and 
the  date  of  filing  the  same. 

When  the  letter  concerns  a patent,  it  should  state 
the  name  of  the  patentee,  the  title  of  the  invention, 
and  the  number  and  date  of  the  patent. 

Letters  received  at  the  office  will  be  answered, 
and  orders  for  printed  copies  filled,  without  unneces- 
sary delay.  Telegrams,  if  not  received  before  3 
o’clock  p.m.,  cannot  ordinarily  be  answered  until  the 
following  day. 

ATTORNEYS. 

Any  person  of  intelligence  and  good  moral 
character  may  appear  as  the  agent  or  the  attorney 
in  fact  of  an  applicant,  upon  filing  a proper  power  of 
fcttorney. 

Before  any  attorney,  original  or  associate,  will  be 


allowed  to  inspect  papers  or  take  action  of  any  kind 
his  power  of  attorney  must  be  filed. 

APPLICANTS. 

A patent  may  be  obtained  by  any  person  who  has 
invented  or  discovered  any  new  and  useful  art, 
machine,  manufacture,  or  composition  of  matter,  or 
any  new  and  useful  improvement  thereof,  not  known 
or  used  by  others  in  this  country,  and  not  patented 
or  described  in  any  printed  publication  in  this  or 
any  foreign  country,  before  his  invention  or  discov- 
ery thereof,  and  not  in  public  use  or  on  sale  for  more 
than  two  years  prior  to  his  application,  unless  the 
same  is  proved  to  have  been  abandoned  ; and  by  any 
person  who,  by  his  own  industry,  genius,  efforts,  and 
expense,  has  invented  and  produced  any  new  and 
original  design  for  a manufacture,  bust,  statute, 
alto-relievo,  or  bas-relief,  any  new  and  original 
design  for  the  printing  of  woolen,  silk,  cot- 
ton, or  other  fabrics  ; any  new  and  original  impres- 
sion, ornament,  pattern,  print,  or  picture  to  be 
printed,  painted,  cast,  or  otherwise  placed  on  or 
worked  into  any  article  of  manufacture  ; or  any  new, 
useful,  and  original  shape  or  configuration  of  any 
article  of  manufacture,  the  same  not  having  been 
known  or  used  by  others  before  his  invention  or  pro- 
duction thereof,  nor  patented  or  described  in  any 
printed  publication,  upon  payment  of  the  lees 
required  by  law  and  other  due  proceedings  had. 

In  case  of  the  death  of  the  inventor,  the  applica- 
tion may  be  made  by,  and  the  patent  will  issue  to, 
his  executor  or  administrator.  In  such  case  the  oath 
will  be  made  by  the  executor  or  administrator. 

In  case  of  an  assignment  of  the  whole  interest  ir. 
the  invention,  or  of  the  whole  interest  in  the  patent 
to  be  granted,  the  patent  will,  upon  request  of  the 


joo 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


applicant  or  assignee,  issue  to  the  assignee  ; and  if 
the  assignee  hold  an  undivided  part  interest,  the 
patent  will,  upon  like  request,  issue  jointly  to  the 
inventor  and  the  assignee  ; but  the  assignment  in 
either  case  must  first  have  been  entered  of  record, 
and  at  a day  not  later  than  the  date  of  the  payment 
of  the  final  fee.  The  application  and  oath  must  be 
made  by  the  actual  inventor,  if  alive,  even  if  the 
patent  is  to  issue  to  an  assignee.  If  the  inventor  be 
dead  it  may  be  made  by  the  executor  or  adminis- 
trator, or  by  the  assignee  of  the  entire  interest. 

THE  APPLICATION. 

Applications  for  letters  patent  of  the  United  States 
must  be  made  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents.  A 
complete  application  comprises  the  petition,  specifi- 
cation, oath,  and  drawings,  and  the  model  or  speci- 
men when  required. 

No  application  for  a patent  will  be  placed  upon 
the  files  for  examination  until  all  its  parts,  except  the 
model  or  specimen,  are  received. 

THE  SPECIFICATION. 

The  specification  is  a written  description  of  the 
invention  or  discovery,  and  of  the  manner  and  pro- 
cess of  making,  constructing,  compounding,  and 
using  the  same,  and  is  required  to  be  in  such  full, 
clear,  concise,  and  exact  terms  as  to  enable  any  per- 
son skilled  in  the  art  or  science  to  which  it  apper- 
tains, or  with  which  it  is  most  nearly  connected,  to 
make,  construct,  compound,  and  use  the  same. 
It  must  conclude  with  a specific  and  distinct  claim 
or  claims  of  the  part,  improvement,  or  combination 
which  the  applicant  regards  as  his  invention  or  dis- 
covery. 

The  following  order  of  arrangement  should  be 
observed,  when  convenient,  in  framing  the  specifica- 
tion, such  portions  as  refer  to  drawings  being  omitted 
when  the  invention  does  not  admit  of  representation 
by  drawings. 

(i.)  Preamble  giving  the  name  and  residence  of 
the  applicant,  and  the  title  of  the  invention  ; 

(2.)  General  statement  of  the  object  and  nature 
of  the  invention  ; 

(3.)  Brief  description  of  the  drawings,  showing 
what  each  view  represents  ; 

(4.)  Detailed  description,  explaining  fully  the 
alleged  invention,  and  the  manner  of  constructing, 
practicing,  operating,  and  using  it  ; 


(5.)  Claim,  or  claims. 

(6.)  Signature  of  inventor. 

(7.)  Signatures  of  two  witnesses. 

In  every  original  application  the  applicant  must 
distinctly  state,  under  oath,  whether  the  invention 
has  been  patented  to  himself  or  to  others  with  his 
consent  or  knowledge  in  any  country. 

THE  OATH. 

The  applicant,  if  the  inventor,  must  make  oath  or 
affirmation  that  he  does  verily  believe  himself  to 
be  the  original  and  first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  the 
art,  machine,  manufacture,  composition,  or  improve- 
ment for  which  he  solicits  a patent,  and  that  he  does 
not  know  and  does  not  believe  that  the  same  was 
ever  before  known  or  used  ; and  shall  state  of  what 
country  he  is  a citizen,  and  where  he  resides. 

If  the  application  be  made  by  an  executor  or 
administrator,  the  form  of  the  oath  will  be  corre- 
spondingly changed. 

THE  DRAWINGS. 

The  applicant  for  a patent  is  required  by  law  to 
furnish  a drawing  of  his  invention,  where  the  nature 
of  the  case  admits  of  it. 

(1.)  Drawings  must  be  made  upon  pure  white 
paper  of  a thickness  corresponding  to  three-sheet 
Bristol  board.  The  surface  of  the  paper  must 
be  calendered  and  smooth.  India  ink  alone 
must  be  used,  to  secure  perfectly  black  and  solid 
lines. 

(2.)  The  size  of  a sheet  on  which  a drawing  is 
made  must  be  exactly  10  by  15  inches.  One  inch 
from  its  edges  a single  marginal  line  is  to  be 
drawn,  leaving  the  “ sight  ” precisely  8 by  13 
inches.  Within  this  margin  all  work  and  signa- 
tures must  be  included. 

(3.)  All  drawings  must  be  made  with  the  pen 
only. 

(4.)  Drawings  should  be  made  with  the  fewest 
lines  possible  consistent  with  clearness. 

(5.)  Letters  and  figures  of  reference  must  be 
carefully  formed.  They  must  never  appear  upon 
shaded  surfaces,  and,  when  it  is  difficult  to  avoid 
this,  a blank  space  must  be  left  in  the  shading 
where  the  letter  occurs,  so  that  it  shall  appear  per- 
fectly distinct  and  separate  from  the  work.  If 
the  same  part  of  an  invention  appear  in  more  than 
one  view  of  the  drawing  it  must  always  be  repre- 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


/$ 


3° 


sented  by  the  same  character,  and  the  same  char- 
acter must  never  be  used  to  designate  different 
parts. 

(6.)  The  signature  of  the  inventor  is  to  be 
placed  at  the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  the 
sheet,  and  the  signatures  of  the  witnesses  at  the 
lower  left-hand  corner,  all  within  the  marginal 
line. 

(7.)  Drawings  should  be  rolled  for  transmission 
to  the  office,  not  folded. 

Applicants  are  advised  to  employ  competent  artists 
to  make  their  drawings.  The  office  will  furnish  the 
drawings  at  cost,  as  promptly  as  its  draughtsmen  can 
make  them,  for  applicants  who  cannot  otherwise 
conveniently  procure  them. 

THE  MODEL. 

The  model  must  clearly  exhibit  every  feature  of 
the  machine  which  forms  the  subject  of  a claim  of 
invention,  but  should  not  include  other  matter  than 
that  covered  by  the  actual  invention  or  improvement, 
unless  it  is  necessary  to  the  exhibition  of  the  inven- 
tion in  a working  model. 

A working  model  is  often  desirable,  in  order  to 
enable  the  office  fully  and  readily  to  understand  the 
precise  operation  of  the  machine. 

THE  EXAMINATION. 

All  cases  in  the  patent  office  are  classified  and 
taken  up  for  examination  in  regular  order,  those  in 
the  same  class  being  examined  and  disposed  of,  as 
far  as  practicable,  in  the  order  in  which  the  respec- 
tive applications  are  completed. 


AMENDMENTS  AND  ACTIONS  BY 
APPLICANTS. 


The  applicant  has  a right  to  amend  before  or  after 
the  first  rejection  ; and  he  may  amend  as  often  as 
the  examiner  presents  any  new  references  or  reasons 
for  rejection. 

When  an  original  or  reissue  application  is  rejected 
on  reference  to  an  expired  or  unexpired  domestic 
patent,  which  substantially  shows  or  describes  but 
does  not  claim  the  rejected  invention,  or  to  a foreign 
patent,  or  to  a printed  publication,  and  the  applicant 
shall  make  oath  to  facts  showing  a completion  of  the 
invention  before  the  filing  of  the  application  for  the 
domestic  patent,  or  before  the  date  of  the  foreign 
patent,  or  before  the  date  at  which  the  printed  pub- 


lication was  made,  and  shall  also  make  oath  that  he 
does  not  know  and  does  not  believe  that  the  inven- 
tion has  been  in  public  use  or  on  sale  in  this  coun- 
try for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  his  application, 
and  that  he  has  never  abandoned  the  invention,  then 
the  patent  or  publication  cited  will  not  bar  the 
grant  of  a patent  to  the  applicant,  except  upon  inter - 
feretice. 

When  an  application  is  rejected  on  reference  to  an 
expired  or  unexpired  domestic  patent  which  shows 
or  describes,  but  does  not  claim,  the  rejected  inven- 
tion, or  to  a foreign  patent,  or  to  a printed  publica- 
tion, or  to  facts  within  the  personal  knowledge  of 
an  employe  of  the  office,  set  forth  in  an  affidavit  of 
such  employ^,  or  on  the  ground  of  public  use  or 
sale,  or  upon  a mode  or  capability  of  operation 
attributed  to  a reference,  or  because  the  alleged 
invention  is  held  to  be  inoperative,  or  frivolous,  or 
injurious  to  public  health  or  morals,  affidavits  or 
depositions  supporting  or  traversing  these  references 
or  objections  may  be  received  ; but  they  will  be 
received  in  no  other  cases,  without  special  permis- 
sion of  the  Commissioner. 

If  an  applicant  neglect  to  prosecute  his  applica- 
tion for  two  years  after  the  date  when  the  last 
official  notice  of  any  action  by  the  office  was  mailed 
to  him,  the  application  will  be  held  to  be  abandoned. 

DESIGNS. 

Patents  for  designs  are  granted  for  the  term  of 
three  and  one-half  years,  or  for  seven  years,  or  for 
fourteen  years,  as  the  applicant  may,  in  his  applica- 
tion, elect. 

When  the  design  can  be  sufficiently  represented 
by  drawings  or  photographs;  a model  will  not  be 
required. 

Whenever  a photograph  or  an  engraving  is  em- 
ployed to  illustrate  the  design  it  must  be  mounted 
upon  Bristol-board,  10  by  15  inches  in  size,  and 
properly  signed  and  witnessed.  The  applicant  will 
be  required  to  furnish  ten  extra  copies  of  such 
photograph  or  engraving  (not  mounted),  of  a size 
not  exceeding  7^  inches  by  11. 


REISSUES. 


A reissue  is  granted  to  the  original  patentee,  his 
legal  representatives,  or  the  assignees  of  the  entire 
interest,  when,  by  reason  of  a defective  or  insuffici- 
ent specification,  or  by  reason  of  the  patentee  claim- 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


302 


ing  as  his  invention  or  discovery  more  than  he  had 
a right  to  claim  as  new,  the  original  patent  is 
inoperative  or  invalid,  provided  the  error  has  arisen 
from  inadvertence,  accident,  or  mistake,  and  without 
any  fraudulent  or  deceptive  intention. 

INTERFERENCES. 

An  interference  is  a proceeding  instituted  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  the  question  of  priority  of 
invention  between  two  or  more  parties  claiming  sub- 
stantially the  same  patentable  invention.  The  fact 
that  one  of  the  parties  has  already  obtained  a patent 
will  not  prevent  an  interference  ; for,  although  the 
Commissioner  has  no  power  to  cancel  a patent,  he 
may  grant  a patent  for  the  same  invention  to  another 
person  who  proves  to  be  the  prior  inventor. 

Interferences  will  be  declared  in  certain  cases, 
when  all  the  parties  claim  substantially  the  same 
patentable  invention. 

APPEALS. 

Every  applicant  for  a patent  or  the  reissue  of  a 
patent,  any  of  the  claims  of  whose  application  have 
been  twice  rejected  upon  grounds  involving  the  mer- 
its of  the  invention,  such  as  lack  of  novelty  or  utility, 
abandonment,  public  use,  or  want  of  identity  of 
invention,  either  in  amended  or  in  reissue  applica- 
tions, may  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  primary 
examiner  to  the  board  of  examiners-in-chief,  having 
once  paid  a fee  of  ten  dollars.  The  appeal  must  be 
made  in  writing,  signed  by  the  party,  or  his  duly 
authorized  agent  or  attorney,  setting  forth  the  points 
of  the  decision  upon  which  the  appeal  is  taken  and 
duly  filed. 

HEARINGS  AND  INTERVIEWS. 

Hearings  will  be  had  by  the  Commissioner  at  10 
o’clock  a.m.,  and  by  the  board  of  examiners-in-chief 
and  the  examiner  of  interferences  at  1 o’clock  p.m., 
on  the  day  appointed,  unless  some  other  hour  be 
specially  designated. 

DATE,  DURATION,  AND  FORM  OF 
PATENTS. 

Every  patent  will  bear  date  as  of  a day  not  later 
than  six  months  from  the  time  at  which  the  applica- 
tion was  passed  and  allowed  and  notice  thereof  was 
mailed  to  the  applicant  or  his  agent,  if  within  that 
period  the  final  fee  be  paid  to  the  Commissioner  of  I 


Patents,  or  if  it  be  paid  to  the  treasurer,  or  any  ot 
the  assistant  treasurers  or  designated  depositaries  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  certificate  promptly  for- 
warded to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  ; and  if  the 
final  fee  be  not  paid  within  that  period,  the  patent 
will  be  withheld. 

A patent  will  not  be  antedated. 

Every  patent  will  contain  a short  title  of  the 
invention  or  discovery,  indicating  its  nature  and 
object,  and  a grant  to  the  patentee,  his  heirs  and 
assigns,  for  the  term  of  seventeen  years,  of  the 
exclusive  right  to  make,  use,  and  vend  the  invention 
or  discovery  throughout  the  United  States  and  Terri- 
tories thereof. 

EXTENSIONS. 

No  patent  granted  since  March  2,  1861,  can  be 
extended,  except  by  act  of  Congress. 

\ 

CAVEATS. 

A caveat,  under  the  patent  law,  is  a notice  given 
to  the  office  of  the  caveator’s  claim  as  inventor,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  grant  of  a patent  to  another  for 
the  same  alleged  invention  upon  an  application  filed 
during  the  life  of  the  caveat  without  notice  to  the 
caveator. 

Any  citizen  of  the  United  States  who- has  made  a 
new  invention  or  discovery  and  desires  further  time 
to  mature  the  same,  may,  on  payment  of  a fee  of  ten 
dollars,  file  in  the  patent  office  a caveat  setting  forth 
the  object  and  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
the  invention,  ana  praying  protection  of  his  right 
until  he  shall  have  matured  his  invention.  Such 
caveat  shall  be  filed  in  the  confidential  archives  of 
the  office  and  preserved  in  secrecy,  and  shall  be 
operative  for  the  term  of  one  year  from  the  filing 
thereof 

ASSIGNMENTS. 

Every  patent  or  any  interest  therein  shall  be 
assignable  in  law  by  an  instrument  in  writing  ; and 
the  patentee  or  his  assigns  or  legal  representatives 
may,  in  like  manner,  grant  and  convey  an  exclusive 
right  under  his  patent  to  the  whole  or  any  specified 
part  of  the  United  States. 

OFFICE  FEES. 

Nearly  all  the  fees  payable  to  the  patent  office  are 
positively  required  by  law  to  be  paid  in  advance— 


MERCANTILE  LAW. 


that  is,  upon  making  application  for  any  action  by 
the  office  for  which  a fee  is  payable.  For  the  sake 
of  uniformity  and  convenience,  the  remaining  fees 
will  be  required  to  be  paid  in  the  same  manner. 


The  following  is  the  schedule  of  fees  : — 

On  filing  every  application  for  a design 

patent $10  oo 

On  issuing  a design  patent  for  three  years 
and  six  months  no  further  charge. 

On  issuing  a design  patent  for  seven  years.  5 00 
On  issuing  a design  patent  for  fourteen 

years 20  00 

On  filing  every  caveat 10  00 

On  filing  every  application  for  a patent  for 

an  invention  or  discovery 15  00 

On  issuing  each  original  patent  for  an  inven- 
tion or  discovery 20  00 

On  filing  a disclaimer 10  00 

On  filing  every  application  for  a reissue. ...  30  00 

On  filing  every  application  for  a division  of 

a reissue 30  00 

On  filing  every  application  for  an  extension.  50  00 

On  the  grant  of  every  extension 50  00 

On  filing  an  appeal  from  a primary  examiner 

to  the  examiners-in-chief 10  00 

On  filing  an  appeal  to  the  Commissioner 

from  the  examiners-in-chief 20  00 

For  certified  copies  of  patents  or  other  in- 
struments,except  copies  of  printed  patents 
sold  by  the  office,  for  every  100  words. . . 10 


For  certified  copies  of  printed  patents  sold 
by  the  office,  10  cents  for  every  100  words, 
less  the  price  actually  paid  for  such  copies 


without  certification. 

For  certified  copies  of  drawings,  the  reason- 
able cost  of  making  them. 

For  recording  an  assignment  of  300  words 

or  less 1 00 

For  recording  an  assignment  of  more  than 

300  and  not  more  than  1,000  words 2 00 

For  recording  every  assignment  of  more 

than  r,ooo  words 3 00 

For  uncertified  copies  of  the  specifications 
and  accompanying  drawings  of  all  patents 
which  are  in  print  : — 

Single  copies 25 


Twenty  copies  or  more,  whether  of  one  or 

several  patents,  per  copy 10 

For  uncertified  copies  of  the  specifications 


and  drawings  of  patents  not  in  print,  the 
reasonable  cost  of  making  the  same. 

For  copies  of  matter  in  any  foreign  language, 

per  100  words $0  2c 

For  translations,  per  100  words 50 

For  assistance  to  attorneys  in  examination 

of  records,  one  hour  or  less 5a 

Each  additional  hour 50 

For  assistance  to  attorneys  in  examination 
of  patents  and  other  works  in  the  Scientific 

Library,  one  hour  or  less 1 00 

Each  additional  hour 1 00 


No  person  will  be  allowed  to  make  copies  or  trac- 
ings from  the  files  or  records  of  the  office.  Such 
copies  will  be  furnished,  when  ordered,  at  the  rates 
already  specified. 

The  money  required  for  office  fees  may  be  paid  to 
the  Commissioner,  or  to  the  treasurer,  or  any  of  the 
assistant  treasurers  of  the  United  States,  or  to  any 
of  the  designated  depositaries,  national  banks,  or 
receivers  of  public  money,  designated  by  the  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury  for  that  purpose,  who  shall  give 
the  depositor  a receipt  or  certificate  of  deposit 
therefor,  which  shall  be  transmitted  to  the  patent 
office.  When  this  cannot  be  done  without  much 
inconvenience,  the  money  may  be  remitted  by  mail, 
and  in  every  such  case  the  letter  should  state  the 
exact  amount  inclosed.  Letters  containing  money 
may  be  registered.  Post-office  money-orders  now 
afford  a safe  and  convenient  mode  of  transmitting 
fees.  All  such  orders  should  be  made  payable  to  the 
“ Commissioner  of  Patents.” 

All  money  sent  by  mail,  either  to  or  from  the 
patent  office,  will  be  at  the  risk  of  the  sender. 

REPAYMENT  OF  MONEY. 

Money  paid  by  actual  mistake,  such  as  a payment 
in  excess,  or  when  not  required  by  law,  or  by  neglect 
or  misinformation  on  the  part  of  the  office,  will  be 
refunded. 

PUBLICATIONS. 

The  “ Official  Gazette,”  a weekly  publication 
which  has  been  issued  since  1872,  takes  the  place 
of  the  old  “Patent-Office  Report.”  It  contains  the 
claims  of  all  patents  issued,  including  reissues,  with 
portions  of  the  drawings  selected  to  illustrate  the 
claims,  and  also  lists  of  design  patents,  together  with 
decisions  of  the  courts  and  of  the  Commissioner, 
and  other  spe.cial  matters  of  interest  to  inventors. 


I 5°4 


FORMS  OF  LEGAL  DOCUMENTS. 


GENERAL  FORM  OF  AGREEMENT. 

This  Agreement,  made  the  first  day  of  May , one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  eighty-two,  between  John  Doe,  of  the  city  of  Hartford , 
in  the  county  of  Hartford , and  State  of  Connecticut , of  the  first  part, 
and  Richard  Roe,  of  the  village  of  Windsor , in  said  county  and  State , 
of  the  second  part — 

Witnesseth,  that  the  said  John  Doe,  in  consideration  of  the  coven- 
ants on  the  part  of  the  party  of  the  second  part,  hereinafter  contained, 
doth  covenant  and  agree  to  and  with  the  said  Richard  Roe,  that  [here 
insert  the  agreement  on  the  part  of  John  Doe\. 

And  the  said  Richard  Roe,  in  consideration  of  the  covenants  on  the 
part  of  the  party  of  the  first  part,  doth  covenant  and  agree  to  and  with 
the  said  John  Doe,  that  [here  insert  the  agreement  on  the  part  of  Rich- 
ard Roe], 

In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals,  the 
day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Sealed  and  delivered,  J 

in  presence  of  [ JOHN  DOE.  [t-.s.l 

John  Smith,  f RICHARD  ROE.  [l.s.J 

Thos.  Brown.  J 

[When  required  this  clause  may  he  inserted  :] 

And  it  is  further  agreed , between  the  parties  hereto,  that  the  party 
that  shall  fail  to  perform  this  agreement  on  his  part,  will  pay  to  the 
other  the  full  sum  of  fifty  dollars,  as  liquidated,  fixed,  and  settled 
damages. 

AGREEMENT  FOR  THE  PURCHASE  OF  A HOUSE 
AND  LOT 

Memorandum  of  an  agreement  made  this  15th  day  of  November,  in  the 
year  1882,  between  John  Smith,  Jeweler,  of  the  city  of  New  York,  and 
Henry  Brown,  Merchant,  of  the  same  city,  witnesseth — That  the  said 
John  Smith  agrees  to  sell,  and  the  said  Henry  Brown  agrtes  to  pur- 
chase, for  the  price  or  consideration  of  dollars,  the  house  and  lot 

known  and  distinguished  as  number  ninety-nine,  in  street,  in  the 

said  city  of  New  York.  The  possession  of  the  property  is  to  be  deliv- 
ered on  the  first  day  of  May  next,  when  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the 
purchase-money  is  to  be  paid  in  cash,  and  a bond  and  mortgage  on  the 
premises,  bearing  seven  per  cent,  interest,  payable  in  five  years  (such 
interest  payable  quarterly),  is  to  be  executed  for  the  balance  of  the  pur- 
chase-money, at  which  time  also  a deed  of  conveyance  in  fee  simple, 
containing  the  usual  full  covenants  and  warranty  is  to  be  delivered, 
executed  by  the  said  John  Smith  and  wife,  and  the  title  made  satisfac- 
tory to  the  said  Henry  Brown  ; it  being  understood  that  this  agreement 
shall  be  binding  upon  the  heirs,  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns 
of  the  respective  parties ; and  also  that  the  said  premises  are  now 

insured  for dollars,  and,  in  case  the  said  house  should  be  burnt  before 

the  said  first  day  of  May  next,  that  the  said  John  Smith  shall  hold  the 


said  insurance  in  trust,  and  will  then  transfer  the  same  to  said  Henry 
Brown  with  the  said  deed. 

In  Witness,  &c.  [as  in  General  Form ]. 

AGREEMENT  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  REAL  ESTATE. 

Articles  of  agreement  made  and  entered  into  this day  of 

between  A.  B.  of . of  the  one  part,  and  C.  D.  of  , of  the  other 

part,  as  follows  : ThesaidA.  B doth  hereby  agree  with  the  said  C.  D to 

sell  him  the  lot  of  ground  [here  describe  it],  for  the  sum  of ; and  that 

he,  the  said  A B., shall  and  will,  on  the day  of next,  on  receiving 

from  the  said  C.  D.  the  said  sum,  at  his  own  cost  and  expense,  execute 
a proper  conveyance  for  the  conveying  and  assuring  the  fee  simple  of 
the  said  premises  to  the  said  C.  D.,  free  from  all  encumbrances,  which 
conveyance  shall  contain  a general  warranty  and  the  usual  full  cove- 
nants. And  the  said  C.  D.  agrees  with  the  said  A.  B that  he,  the  said 

C.  D.,  shall  and  will,  on  the  said day  of  - — - next,  and  on  execution 

of  such  conveyance,  pay  unto  the  said  A B.  the  sum  of aforesaid. 

And  it  is  further  agreed  between  the  parties  aforesaid,  as  follows: 
The  said  A.  B shall  have  and  retain  the  possession  of  the  property,  and 
receive  and  be  entitled  to  the  rents  and  profits  thereof,  until  the  said 

- — — day  of next ; when,  and  upon  delivery  of  the  conveyance,  the 

possession  is  to  be  delivered  to  the  said  C D.  And  it  is  understood  that 
the  stipulations  aforesaid  are  to  apply  to  and  to  bind  the  heirs,  executors, 
and  administrators  of  the  respective  parties.  And  in  case  of  failure, 

the  parties  bind  themselves  each  unto  the  other  in  the  sum  of , which 

they  hereby  consent  to  fix  and  liquidate  the  amount  of  damages  to  be 
paid  by  the  failing  party  for  his  non-performance. 

In  witness,  &c.  [as  in  General  Form ]. 

AGREEMENT  FOR  BUILDING  A HOUSE. 

Memorandum. — That  on  this day  of  , it  is  agreed  between 

A.  B and  C.  D ,of , in  manner  following,  viz.  : the  said  C. 

D. ,  for  the  considerations  hereinafter  mentioned,  doth  for  himself,  his 
heirs,  executors,  and  adminislrators,  covenant  with  the  said  A.  B , his 
executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  that  he  the  said  C.  D.  or  his 

assigns  shall  and  will,  within  the  space  of next  after  the  date 

hereof,  in  a good  and  workmanlike  manner,  and  at  his  own  proper  charge 

and  expense,  at , well  and  substantially  erect,  build,  and  finish, 

one  house,  or  messuage,  according  to  the  draught,  scheme,  and  explana- 
tion hereunto  annexed,  with  such  stone,  brick,  timber,  and  other 
materials,  as  the  said  A.  B.  or  his  assigns  shall  find  and  provide  for  the 
same.  In  consideration  whereof,  the  said  A.  B.  doth  for  himself,  his 
executors,  and  administrators,  covenant  with  the  said  C.  D.,  his 
executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  well  and  truly  to  pay  unto 
the  said  C D , bis  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  the  sum  of 
of  lawful  money  of in'  manner  following,  viz.  : part 


FORMS  OF  LEGAL  DOCUMENTS. 


305 


thereof  at  the  beginning  of  the  said  work  ; another  part  thereof 

when  the  said  work  shall  be  half  done;  and  the  remaining in  full 

for  the  said  work,  when  the  same  shall  be  completely  finished  : And 
also  that  he,  the  said  A.  B-,his  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns, 
shall  and  will  from  time  to  time,  as  the  same  small  be  required,  at  his 
and  their  own  proper  expense,  find  and  provide  stone,  brick,  timber, 
and  other  materials  necessary  for  making,  building,  and  finishing  the 
said  house.  And  for  the  performance  of  all  and  every  the  articles  and 
agreements  above  mentioned,  the  said  A.  B.  and  C-  D.  do  hereby  bind 
themselves,  their  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  each  to  the 
other,  in  the  penal  sum  of firmly  by  these  presents. 

In  witness,  &c.  [as  in  General  Form]. 

AGREEMENT  TO  BE  SIGNED  BY  AN  AUCTIONEER, 
AFTER  A SAXE  OF  LAND  AT  AUCTION. 

I hereby  acknowledge  that  A-  B.  has  been  this  day  declared  by  me 
the  highest  bidder  and  purchaser  of  [ describe  the  land ],  at  the  sum  of 

dollars  [or,  at  the  sum  of dollars cents  per  acre  or 

foot],  and  that  he  has  paid  into  my  hands  the  sum  of , as  a deposit, 

and  in  part  payment  of  the  purchase  money  ; and  I hereby  agree  that  the 
vender,  C-  D.,  shall  in  all  respects  fulfill  the  conditions  of  sale  hereunto 

annexed.  Witness  my  hand,  at ,on  the day  of , A.  D. 

*860- 

I.  S„  Attctumeer. 

ARTICLES  OF  COPARTNERSHIP. 

Articles  of  copartnership  made  and  concluded  this day  of 

• , in  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty,  by  and 

between  A.  B , bookseller,  of  the  first  part,  and  C.  D.,  bookseller  of  the 
second  part,  both  of , in  the  county  of . 

Whereas,  it  is  the  intention  of  the  said  parties  to  form  a copartner- 
ship, for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  the  retail  business  of  booksellers 
and  stationers,  for  which  purpose  they  have  agreed  on  the  following 
terms  and  articles  of  agreement,  to  the  faithful  performance  of  which 
they  mutually  bind  and  engage  themselves  each  to  the  other,  his  execu- 
tors and  administrators. 

First.  The  style  of  the  said  copartnership  shall  be  “ and  com- 
pany and  it  shall  continue  for  the  term  of years  from  the  above 

date,  except  in  case  of  the  death  of  either  of  the  said  parties  within  the 
said  term. 

Second.  The  said  A.  B.  and  C.  D.  are  the  proprietors  of  the  stock,  a 
schedule  of  which  is  contained  in  their  stock  book,  in  the  proportion  of 
two  thirds  to  the  said  A.  B.,  and  of  one  third  to  the  said  C D.  ; and  the 
said  parties  shall  continue  to  be  owners  of  their  joint  stock  in  the 
same  proportions  ; and  in  case  of  any  addition  being  made  to  the  same 
by  mutual  consent,  the  said  A B.  shall  advance  two  thirds,  and  the  said 
C.  D.  one  third  of  the  cost  thereof. 

Third.  All  profits  which  may  accrue  to  the  said  partnership  shall  be 
divided,  and  all  losses  happening  to  the  said  firm,  whether  from  bad 
debts,  depreciation  of  goods,  or  any  other  cause  or  accident,  and  all 
expenses  of  the  business,  shall  be  borne  by  the  said  parties  in  the  afore- 
said proportions  of  their  interest  in  the  said  stock. 

Fourth.  The  said  C.  D.  shall  devote  and  give  all  his  time  and  atten- 
tion to  the  business  of  the  said  firm  as  a salesman,  and  generally  to  the 
care  and  superintendence  of  the  store  ; and  the  said  A.  B.  shall  devote 
so  much  of  his  time  as  may  be  requisite,  in  advising,  overseeing,  and 
directing  the  importation  of  books  and  other  articles  necessary  to  the 
said  business. 

Fifth.  All  the  purchases,  sales,  transactions,  and  accounts  of  the 
said  firm  shall  be  kept  in  regular  books,  which  shall  be  always  open  to 
the  inspection  of  both  parties  and  their  legal  representatives  respec- 
tively. An  account  of  stock  shall  be  taken,  and  an  account  between  the 
said  parties  shall  be  settled,  as  often  as  once  in  every  year,  and  as  much 
oftener  as  either  partner  may  desire  and  in  writing  request. 

Sixth.  Neither  of  the  said  parties  shall  subscribe  any  bond,  sign  or 
endorse  any  note  of  hand,  accept,  sign,  or  endorse  any  draff  or  bill  of 
exchange,  or  assume  any  other  liability,  verbal  or  written,  either  in  his 
own  name  or  in  the  name  of  the  firm,  for  the  accommodation  of  any 
other  person  or  persons  whatsoever,  without  the  consent  in  writing  of 
the  other  party  ; nor  shall  cither  party  lend  any  of  the  funds  of  the 
copartnership  without  such  consent  of  the  other  partner. 

Seventh.  No  importation,  or  large  purchase  of  books  or  other  things, 


shall  be  made,  nor  any  transaction  out  of  the  usual  course  of  thfe  retail 
business  shall  be  undertaken  by  either  of  the  partners,  without  previous 
consultation  with,  and  the  approbation  of,  the  other  partner. 

Eighth.  Neither  party  shall  withdraw  from  the  joint  stock,  at  any 
time,  more  than  his  share  of  the  profits  of  the  business  then  earned,  nor 
shall  either  party  be  entitled  to  interest  on  his  share  of  the  capital  ; but 
if,  at  the  expiration,  of  the  year,  a balance  of  profits  be  found  due  to 
either  partner,  he  shall  be  at  liberty  to  withdraw  the  said  balance,  or  to 
leave  it  in  the  business,  provided  the  other  partner  consent  thereto,  and 
in  that  case  he  shall  be  allowed  interest  on  the  said  balance. 

Ninth.  At  the  expiration  of  the  aforesaid  term,  or  earlier  dissolution 
of  this  copartnership,  if  the  said  parties  or  their  legal  representatives 
cannot  agree  in  the  division  of  the  stock  then  on  hand,  the  whole 
copartnership  effects,  except  the  debts  due  to  the  firm,  shall  be  sold  at 
public  auction,  at  which  both  parties  shall  be  at  liberty  to  bid  and  pur- 
chase like  other  individuals,  and  the  proceeds  shall  be  divided,  after 
payment  of  the  debts  of  the  firm,  in  the  proportions  aforesaid. 

Tenth.  For  the  purpose  of  securing  the  performance  of  the  foregoing 
agreements,  it  is  agreed  that  either  party,  in  case  of  any  violation  of 
them  or  either  of  them  by  the  other,  shall  have  the  right  to  dissolve  this 
copartnership  forthwith,  on  his  becoming  informed  of  such  violation. 

In  witness,  &c.  [as  in  General  Form ] . 

AGREEMENT  TO  CONTINUE  THE  PARTNERSHIP; 

TO  BE  ENDORSED  ON  THE  BACK  OF  THE  ORIGI- 
NAL ARTICLES. 

Whereas,  the  partnership  evidenced  by  the  within-written  articles 
has  this  day  expired  by  the  limitations  contained  therein  [or,  wilt  expire 

on  the day  of next],  it  is  hereby  agreed,  that  the  same  shall 

be  continued  on  the  same  terms,  and  with  all  the  provisions  and  restric- 
tions therein  contained,  for  the  further  term  of years  from  this 

date  [or  from  the day  of next]. 

In  W'itness,  &c.  [rcr  in  General  Form], 

DEED  WITHOUT  COVENANTS. 

This  indenture,  made  the day  of , In  the  year  of  our  Lord 

one  thousand , between  A.  B.,  of,  &c.,  of  the  first  part,  and 

C-  D.,  of,  &c.,  of  the  second  part,  Witnesseth  : That  the  said  party  of 
the  first  part,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  fifty  dollars,  to  him 
in  hand  paid,  by  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  the  receipt  whereol 
is  hereby  acknowledged  : hath  bargained  and  sold,  and  by  these  pres- 
ents doth  bargain  and  sell,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  and 
to  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever,  all,  &c.  [Here  describe  the  property .] 
Together  with  all  and  singular,  the  heraditaments  and  appurtenances 
thereunto  belonging,  or  in  any  wise  appertaining,  and  the  reversion  and 
reversions,  remainder  and  remainders,  rents,  issues,  and  profits  thereof ; 
and  also  all  the  estate,  right,  title,  interest,  claim,  or  demand,  whatso- 
ever cf  him  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  either  in  law  or  equity,  of, 
in,  and  to,  the  above  bargained  premises,  and  every  part  and  parcel 
thereof  : To  have  and  to  hold  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his 
heirs,  and  assigns,  to  the  sole  and  only  proper  use,  benefit,  and  behoof, 
of  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  hts  heirs  and  assigns,  forever. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals,  ths 
day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Sealed  and  delivered  \ 

in  presence  of  [_  A.  B.  [l.  s.1 

John  Smith,  f C.  D.  [l.  s.J 

Frank  Robinson.  ; 

CONVEYANCES  OF  LANDS  ON  SALE  BY  MORTGAGE. 

This  indenture,  made  the day  of , in  the  year , 

between  A.  B.,  of,  &c.,  of  the  one  part,  and  C D.,  of,  &c.,  of  the  other 
part.  Whereas,  E.  F.,  of,&c.,  did,  by  a certain  indenture  of  mortgage 

dated  the day  of , in  the  year  — - — -,  for  the  consideration 

of , bargain  and  sell  unto  the  said  A.  B.,and  to  his  heirs  and 

assigns  forever,  all  that  certain,  &c. ; together  with  all  and  singular 
the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances  thereunto  belonging:  To  have 
and  to  hold  the  said  granted  and  bargained  premises,  with  the  appur- 
tenances, unto  the  said  A.  B.,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  the  only  proper 
use  and  behoof  of  the  said  A.  B.,  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever;  pro- 
vided, nevertheless,  and  the  said  indenture  of  mortgage  was  thereby 
declared  to  be  upon  condition,  that  if  the  said  E.  F.,  his  heirs,  executors, 
or  administrators,  should  well  and  truly  pay  unto  the  said  A.  B.,  his 


306 


FORMS  OF  LEGAL  DOCUMENTS. 


executors,  administrators,  or  assigns,  the  just  and  full  sum  of  , 

with  lawful  interest  for  the  same,  on  or  before  the day  of , 

in  the  year  , according  to  the  condition  of  a certain  bond  or 

writing,  obligatory,  bearing  even  date  with  the  said  indenture  of  mort- 
gage, that  then,  and  in  such  case,  the  said  indenture,  and  the  said  writ 
ing  obligatory,  should  be  void  and  of  no  effect : and  the  said  E F.  did, 
by  the  said  indenture,  for  himself,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  agree  with  the 
said  A.  B. , his  heirs,  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  that  in  case  it 

should  so  happen,  that  the  said  sum  of , and  the  interest  for  the 

same,  should  be  due  and  unpaid  at  the  time  limited  for  the  payment 
thereof,  in  the  whole  or  in  part  thereof,  that  then  it  should  and  might 
be  lawful  for  the  said  A.  B.,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  at  any  time  after  default 
in  payment,  to  bargain,  sell,  and  dispose  of  the  said  mortgaged 
premises,  with  the  appurtenances,  at  public  vendue,  and  out  of  the 
moneys  to  arise  from  the  sale  thereof,  to  retain  and  keep  the  said  sum 

of dollars,  and  the  interest,  or  so  much  thereof  as  might  be  due. 

together  with  the  costs  and  charges  of  such  sa,e.  or  sales,  rendering  the 
overplus  money,  if  any,  to  the  said  E.  F..  his  heirs,  executors,  adminis- 
trators, or  assigns  : And,  whereas  the  said  E.  F.  did  not  pay  to  the  said 

A.  B.  the  said  sum  of  money,  with  the  interest,  at  the  time  limited  for 
payment,  or  at  any  time  since  : and  the  said  A.  B.  hath,  therefore,  in 
pursuance  of  the  authority  so  given  to  him  as  aforesaid,  and  according 
to  the  statute  in  such  case  made  and  provided,  caused  the  premises 
to  be  advertised  and  sold  at  public  auction : and  the  same  has  been 

struck  off  to  the  said  C.  D.,  for , being  the  highest  sum  bid  for  the 

same. 

Now,  therefore,  this  indenture  witnesseth.  that  the  said  A.  B.,  in  pur. 
suance  of  the  power  and  statute  aforesaid,  and  also  for  and  in  consid 

erationof  thesaid  sum  of , to  him  in  hand  paid,  by  the  said  C.  D., 

at  and  before  the  ensealing  and  delivery  hereof,  the  receipt  whereof  is 
hereby  acknowledged,  hath  granted,  bargained,  aliened,  released,  and 
confirmed,  and  by  these  presents  doth  grant,  bargain,  sell,  alien,  release 
and  confirm  unto  the  said  C.  D.,  and  to  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever, 
all  the  farm,  piece,  or  parcel  of  land  above  mentioned,  together  with 
the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances,  as  the  same  is  described  and  con- 
veyed by  said  indenture  of  mortgage  ; and  all  the  estate,  right,  title, 
interest,  claim,  and  demand  at  law  and  in  equity,  of  him  the  said  A.  B., 
and  also  of  the  said  E.  F.,  as  far  forth  as  the  said  A.  B.  hath  power  to 
grant  and  convey  the  same,  of,  in,  and  to  the  premises,  and  every  part 
aud  parcel  thereof  : To  have  and  to  hold  the  said  above  granted  and 
bargained  premises,  with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said  C.  D.,  his 
heirs  and  assigns,  to  the  sole  and  only  proper  use  and  behoof  of  thesaid 
C.  D.,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  forever. 

In  witness,  &c.  [ar  in  General  Form  of  Agreement}. 

DEED  OF  GIFT  OF  PERSONAL  ESTATE. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.B.,of,  &c.,  in  consideration 
of  the  natural  love  and  affection  which  I have  and  bear  for  my  son,  C. 

B. ,  and  also  for  divers  other  good  causes  and  considerations,  I,  the 
said  A.  B.,  hereunto  moving,  have  given,  granted,  and  confirmed,  and 
by  these  presents,  do  give,  grant  and  confirm  unto  the  said  C.  B.,  all 
and  singular,  my  goods,  chattels,  leases,  and  personal  estate  whatsoever, 
in  whose  hands,  custody,  or  possession  soever  they  be  : To  have,  hold, 
and  enjoy,  all  and  singular,  the  said  goods,  chattels,  and  personal 
estate,  aforesaid,  unto  the  said  C.  B.,  his  executors,  administrators,  and 
assigns,  to  the  only  proper  use  and  behoof  of  the  said  C.  B..  his  execu- 
tors, administrators.  and  assigns,  forever.  And  I.  the  said  A.  B..  ail 
and  singular,  the  said  goods,  chattels,  personal  estate,  and  other  the 
premises,  to  the  said  C.  B.,  his  executors  administrators,  and  assigns, 
against  me,  the  said  A.  B.,  my  executors  and  administrators,  and  all 
and  every  other  person  and  persons,  whatsoever,  shall  and  will  warrant, 
and  forever  defend,  by  these  presents  • of  all  and  singular  which  said 
goods,  chattels,  personal  estate,  and  other  premises.  I.  the  said  A.  B.. 
have  put  the  said  C.  B.  in  full  possession,  by  delivering  to  him  one 
pewter  dish,  at  the  time  of  the  sealing  and  delivery  of  these  presents.  In 
the  "same  of  the  whole  premises  hereby  granted. 

In  witness,  &c.  [as  in  General  Form  of  Agreement 1. 

DEED  OF  GIFT  BY  A FATHER  TO  A SON  OF  HIS 

PERSONAL  PROPERTY.  ON  CONDITIONS. 

This  indenture,  made  the,  &c.,  between  A.  B ,of,  &c.,  of  the  one  part, 


and  C.  B.,of,&c.,  of  the  other  part.  Whereas, the  said  A.  B.,  being  the 
father  of  the  said  C.  B.,  by  reason  of  his  age  and  infirmities,  is  not  capa- 
ble of  attending  to  his  estate  and  affairs  as  formerly,  and  has  therefore 
agreed,  for  advancement  of  the  said  C.  B.,  to  make  over  his  property 
to  the  said  C B.,  so  that  the  said  C.  B.  should  pay  the  debts  of  the 
said  A.  B.,  and  afford  him  a maintenance  as  is  hereinafter  mentioned: 
Now  this  indenture  IVitnesseth,  That  the  said  A.  B.,  in  order  to  carry 
the  said  agreement  into  effect,  and  in  consideration  of  the  natural  love 
and  affection  which  he  hath  for  and  towards  his  son,  the  said  C.  B., 
and  of  the  provisoes,  covenants,  and  agreements,  hereinafter  mentioned, 
by  the  said  C.  B.,  to  be  observed  and  performed,  hath  given,  granted, 
bargained,  sold,  and  assigned,  and  by  these  presents  doth  give,  grant, 
bargain,  sell,  and  assign,  unto  the  said  C.  B.,  his  executors,  adminstra- 
tors,and  assigns,  all  and  singular  his  household  goods  and  implements 
of  household,  stock  in  trade,  debts,  rights,  credits,  and  personal  estate, 
whereof  he  is  now  possessed,  or  any  way  interested  in  or  entitled 
unto,  of  what  nature  or  kind  soever  the  same  are,  or  wheresoever  or  in 
whosesoever  hands  they  be  or  may  be  found,  with  their  and  every  of 
their  rights,  members,  and  appurtenances : To  have  and  to  hold  the  said 
goods,  household  stuff,  stock  in  trade,  debts,  rights,  and  personal 
estate,  and  the  other  the  premises,  unto  the  said  C.  B.,  his  executors, 
administrators,  and  assigns,  forever,  without  rendering  any  account  or 
being  therefor  in  any  wise  accountable  to  the  said  A.  B.,  his  heirs, 
executors,  or  administrators,  for  the  same. 

And  the  said  C.  B..  for  himself,  his  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators, 
doth  covenant,  promise,  grant,  and  agree,  to  and  with  the  said  A.  B., 
his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  in  manner  and  form  follow- 
ing, that  is  to  say:  that  he,  the  said  C.  B.,  his  heirs,  executors,  and 
administrators,  shall  and  will,  settle,  pay,  discharge,  and  satisfy,  or 
cause  to  be  settled,  paid,  discharged,  and  satisfied,  all  accounts,  debts, 
judgments,  and  demands  of  every  nature  and  kind  whatsoever,  now 
outstanding,  against,  or  now  due  from  or  payable  by  the  said  A.  B.,  ot 
for  the  payment  of  which  the  said  A.  B.  shah  be  liable,  or  be  held  liable 
either  at  law  or  equity,  on  account  of  any  matter,  cause,  or  thing  hereto- 
fore had.  suffered,  done,  or  performed,  and  at  all  times  hereafter,  free, 
discharge,  and  keep  harmless,  and  indemnified,  thesaid  A.  B.,  his  heirs, 
executors,  administrators,  from  ail  and  every  such  accounts,  debts,  judg- 
ments, and  demands,  and  from  all  actions,  suits,  and  damages,  that  may 
to  him  or  them  arise,  by  reason  of  the  non-payment  thereof ; and  more- 
over, that  he.  the  said  C.  B.,  his  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators, 
shall  and  will  yearly,  and  every  year,  during  the  term  of  the  natural  life 
of  the  said  A.  B.,  by  four  equai  quarterly  payments,  the  first  to  oegin 

on  the day  of next,  well  and  truly  pay,  or  cause  to  be  paid, 

to  the  said  A.  B.,  or  his  assigns,  the  sum  of , for,  or  toward  his 

support  and  maintenance,  or  find  or  provide  for  him  sufficient  meat, 
drink,  washing,  lodging,  apparel,  and  attendance,  suitable  to  his 
state  and  situation,  at  the  choice  and  election,  from  time  to  time,  of  the 
said  A.  B. 

Provided  always,  and  upon  this  condition,  and  it  is  the  true  intent 
and  meaning  of  these  presents,  that  if  the  said  C.  B.,  his  heirs,  exec- 
utors, and  administrators,  shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  pay  the  said  accounts, 
debts,  judgments,  and  demands,  according  to  his  covenant  aforesaid,  or 
shall  suffer  the  said  A.  B.  to  be  put  to  any  cost,  charge,  trouble,  or 
expense,  on  account  of  the  same,  or  shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  pay  the 
said  annual  sum,  in  manner  aforesaid,  or  to  find  and  provide  for  thesaid 
A.  B.,  as  aforesaid,  that  then,  in  all,  any,  or  either  of  the  cases  afore- 
said. it  shall  and  may  be  lawful  to  and  for  the  said  A.  B , all  and 
singular,  the  premises  hereby  granted  to  take,  repossess,  and  enjoy,  as 
in  his  former  estate. 

In  witness,  &c.  [ar  in  General  Form  of  Agreement ]. 

MARRIAGE  CERTIFICATE. 

r,  William  Frazer,  Minister  of  the  Gospel  and  Rector  of  St.  Paul’s 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  at  Leopardsion,  Orange  County,  and  State 
of  New  York,  do  hereby  certify,  that,  on  the  fourth  day  of  July,  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-two,  at  the 
rectory  of  said  church  at  Leopardston  aforesaid,  I joined  together  in 
Holy  Matrimony,  John  Smith,  of  the  City,  County,  and  State  of  New 
York,  and  Julia  Tompkins,  of  Fayville,  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey 
according  to  the  forms  and  customs  of  said  church  to  which  I belong,  in 
the  presence  of  Joseph  Nipp,  of  said  City  of  New  York,  and  George  Rog 
ers,  of  said  Fayville,  attesting  witnesses  thereto.  I further  certify,  tha’ 


FORMS  OF  LEGAL  DOCUMENTS. 


3°) 


ihe  said  parties  married  by  me  as  aforesaid,  were  personally  known  to 
me  (or,  if  not,  “ were  satisfactorily  proved  by  the  oath  of  Joseph  Nipp,  a 
person  known  to  me  ”)  to  be  the  persons  described  in  this  Certificate, 
and  that  before  I solemnized  such  marriage  as  aforesaid,  I ascertained 
that  the  said  John  Smith  and  Julia  Tompkins  were  of  sufficient  age  to 
contract  marriage ; and  after  due  inquiry  made  by  me  at  such  time, 
there  appeared  no  lawful  impediment  to  such  marriage. 

William  Frazer. 

SAME  BY  A PUBLIC  OFFICER. 

This  is  to  certify,  that  on  the  fourth  day  of  August,  1882,  I,  John 
Jones,  Mayor  of  the  City  of  Brooklyn,  joined  together  in  marriage,  at 
my  office,  in  said  City,  Charles  Jones,  of  Jamaica,  Queen’s  County,  and 
Mary  Briggs,  of  the  City  of  Chicago  and  State  of  Illinois,  according  to 
the  law  in  such  case  made  and  provided,  in  the  presence  of  James 
Burke,  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  Charles  Ambler,  of  Yonkers, 
Westchester  County,  New  York,  attesting  witnesses  thereto.  I further 
certify  (same  as  preceding  form  to  end,  altering  names). 

Given  at  my  office,  in  said  City  of  Brooklyn,  the  day  and  year  above 
mentioned. 

John  Jones,  Mayor. 

ARTICLE  OF  SEPARATION  BETWEEN  HUSBAND 
AND  WIFE. 

This  Indenture  of  three  parts,  made  the  day  of , one 

thousand  eight  hundred  and , betwen  A.  B.,  of  the  city  of , 

of  the  first  part,  and  C.  D.,  his  wife,  of  the  second  part,  and  E.  F. 
trustee  of  the  said  C.  D.,of  the  third  part : Whereas,  divers  disputes 
and  unhappy  differences  have  arisen  between  the  said  party  of  the  first 
part, and  his  said  wife,  for  which  reason  they  have  consented  and  agreed 
to  live  separate  and  apart  from  each  other  during  their  natural  life ; 
therefore,  this  Indenture  witnesseth , That  the  said  party  of  the  first 
part,  in  consideration  of  the  premises,  and  in  pursuance  thereof,  doth 
hereby  covenant,  promise,  and  agree,  to  and  with  the  said  trustee,  and 
also  to  and  with  his  said  wife,  that  it  shall  and  may  be  lawful  for  her, 
his  said  wife,  at  all  times  hereafter,  to  live  separate  and  apart  from  him  ; 
and  that  he  shall  and  will  allow  and  permit  her  to  reside  and  be  in  such 
place  and  places,  and  in  such  family  and  families,  and  with  such  rela- 
tions, friends,  and  other  persons,  and  to  follow  and  carry  on  such  trade 
or  business  as  she  may  from  time  to  time  choose,  or  think  fit  to  do  ; and 
that  he  shall  not,  or  will  at  any  time  sue,  or  suffer  her  to  be  sued,  for 
living  separate  and  apart  from  him,  or  compel  her  to  live  with  him,  or 
sue,  molest,  disturb, or  trouble  her  for  living  separate  and  apart  from  him, 
or  any  other  person  whomsoever,  for  receiving,  entertaining,  or  harbor- 
ing her;  and  that  he  will  not.  without  her  consent,  visit  her,  or  knowingly 
enter  any  house  or  place  where  she  shall  dwell,  reside,  or  be,  or  send, 
or  cause  to  be  sent,  any  letter  or  message  to  her  ; nor  shall,  or  will,  at 
any  time  hereafter,  claim  or  demand  any  of  her  money,  jewels,  plate, 
clothing,  household  goods,  furniture,  or  stock  in  trade,  which  she  now 
hath  in  her  power,  custody  or  possession,  or  which  she  shall 
or  may  at  any  time  hereafter  have,  buy,  or  procure,  or  which  shall 
be  devised  or  given  to  her,  or  that  she  may  otherwise  acquire  ; and  that 
she  shall  and  may  enjoy  and  absolutely  dispose  of  the  same,  as  if  she 
were  a feme  sole  and  unmarried  ; and  further,  that  the  said  party  of  the 
first  part  shall  and  will  well  and  truly  pay,  or  cause  to  be  paid  unto  her, 
his  said  wife,  for  and  towards  her  better  support  and  maintenance,  the 

yearly  sum  of dollars,  free  and  clear  of  all  charges  and  deductions 

whatever,  for,  and  during  her  natural  life,  at.  or  upon  the  first  days  of 
January,  April,  July,  and  October,  in  each  and  every  year  during  her 
said  natural  life,  which  the  said  trustee  doth  hereby  agree  to  take,  in 
full  satisfaction  for  her  support  and  maintenance,  and  all  alimony  what- 
ever. And  the  said  trustee,  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  one  dollar, 
to  him  duly  paid,  doth  covenant  and  agree,  to,  and  with  the  said  party 
of  the  first  part,  to  indemnify  and  bear  him  harmless  of,  and  from  all 
debts  of  his  said  wife,  contracted,  or  that  may  hereafter  be  contracted 
by  her,  or  on  her  account ; and  if  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  shall 
be  compelled  to  pay  any  such  debt  or  debts,  the  said  trustee  hereby 
agrees  to  repay  the  same  on  demand,  to  the  said  party  of  the  first  part, 
with  all  damage  and  loss  that  he  may  sustain  thereby. 

In  witness, etc.  [as  in  Marriage  Settlement ]. 

A WILL  OF  REAL  ESTATE. 

Thk  last  will  and  testament  of  A.  C.,  &c.  I,  A.  C.,  considering  the 


uncertainty  of  this  mortal  life,  and  being  of  sound  mind  and  memory 
(blessed  be  Almighty  God  for  the  same  !),  do  make  and  publish  this  my 
last  will  and  testament,  in  manner  and  form  following  (that  is  to  say)  : 

First,  I give  and  bequeath  unto  my  beloved  wife,  J.  C.,  the  sum  of . 

Item , I give  and  bequeath  to  my  eldest  son,  G.  C.,  the  sum  of . 

Item.  I give  and  bequeath  unto  my  two  youngest  sons,  J.  C.  and  F.  C., 

the  sum  of each.  Item,  1 give  and  bequeath  to  my  daughter-in- 

law,  S.  H , widow,  the  sum  cf ; which  said  several  legacies  or 

sums  of  money  I will  and  order  to  be  paid  to  the  said  respective  legatees, 
within  six  months  after  my  decease.  I further  give  and  devise  to  my 
said  eldest  son  G.  C.,  his  heirs,  and  assigns,  all  that  messuage  or  tene- 
ment, situated,  lying,  and  being  in,  &c.,  together  with  all  my  other 
freehold  estate  whatsoever,  to  hold  to  him  the  said  G.  C.,  his  heirs  and 
assigns,  forever.  And  I hereby  give  and  bequeath  to  my  said  younger 
sons,  J.  C.  and  F.  C.,  all  my  leasehold  estate,  of  and  in  all  those  mes- 
suages or  tenements,  with  the  appurtenances,  situate,  &c.,  equally  to 
be  divided  between  them.  And  lastly,  as  to  all  the  rest,  residue,  and 
remainder  of  my  personal  estate,  goods,  and  chattels,  of  what  kind  and 
nature  soever,  I give  and  bequeath  the  same  to  my  said  beloved  wife, 
J.  C. , whom  I appoint  sole  executrix,  of  this  my  last  will  and  testament, 
hereby  revoking  all  former  wills  by  me  made. 

In  witness  whereof,  I have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  the 

day  of , in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand . 

A.  C.  [l.  s.j 

The  above  instrument,  consisting  of  one  sheet  (or,  of  two  sheets), 
was  now  here  subscribed  by  A.  C..  the  testator,  in  the  presence  of  each 
of  us  ; and  was  at  the  same  time  declared  by  him  to  be  his  last  will  and 
testament ; and  we,  at  his  request,  sign  our  names  hereto  as  attesting 
witnesses 

D.  F„  residing  at , in County. 

G.  H.,  residing  at , in County. 

[Or,  if  the  suit  nesses  do  not  see  the  testator  subscribe  the  will , it  may  be 
attested  by  his  acknowledgment  in  the  following  form] 

The  above  instrument  of  one  sheet  (or,  of  two  sheets)  was,  at  the  date 
thereof,  declared  to  us  by  the  testator,  A.  C.,  to  be  his  last  will  and 
testament ; and  he  then  acknowledged  to  each  of  us,  that  he  had  sub- 
scribed the  same ; and  we,  at  his  request,  sign  our  names  hereto  as 
attesting  witnesses. 

D.  F.,  residing  at , in County. 

G.  H.,  residing  at , in County. 

CODICIL  TO  A WILL. 

Whereas  I,  A.  C.,  of,  &c.,  have  made  my  last  will  and  testament  in 
writing,  bearing  date,  &c.  [and  have  thereby,  &c.,  &c.].  Now  I do  by 
this  my  writing,  which  I hereby  declare  to  be  a codicil  to  my  said  will, 
to  be  taken  as  a part  thereof  [will  and  direct,  &c.,  &c.],  give  and  bequeath 
to  my  niece  M.  S.,  one  gold  watch,  one  large  diamond  ring,  and  one 
silver  coffee-pot.  And  whereas,  in  and  by  my  last  will  and  testament, 
I have  given  and  bequeathed  to  my  daughter-in-law  G.  H.,  the  sum  of 

. I do  hereby  order  and  declare,  that  my  will  is  that  only  the  sum  of 

be  paid  unto  her,  in  full  of  the  said  legacy  I have  as  aforesaid 

given  and  bequeathed  unto  her ; and  that  the  remaining  part  of  the 
said  legacy,  be  given  and  paid  to  my  nephew  E.  G.  And  lastly,  it  is 
my  desire  that  this  my  present  codicil  be  annexed  to,  and  made  a part  of 
my  last  will  and  testament,  to  all  intents  and  purposes. 

In  witness  whereof,  I have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this 

day  of , &c. 

A.  C.  [l.  s.] 

The  above  instrument  of  one  sheet  was,  at  the  date  thereof,  declared 
to  us  by  the  testator,  A.  C.,  to  be  a codicil  to  be  annexed  to  his  last  will 
and  testament  ; and  he  acknowledged,  to  each  of  us,  that  he  had  sub- 
scribed the  same;  and  we,  at  his  request,  sign  our  names  hereto  as 
attesting  witnesses. 

D.  F.,  residing  at , in County. 

G.  H.,  residing  at , in County. 

GENERAL  FORM,  DISPOSING  OF  BOTH  REAL  AND 
PERSONAL  ESTATE. 

In  the  name  of  God,  Amen.  I,  A.  B . of,  &c  , being  in  good  bodily 
health,  and  of  sound  and  disposing  mind  and  memory,  calling  to  mind 
the  frailty  and  uncertainty  of  human  life,  and  being  desirous  of  settling 


FORMS  OF  LEGAL  DOCUMENTS. 


308 


my  worldly  affairs,  and  directing  how  the  estates  with  which  it  has 
pleased  God  to  bless  me,  shall  be  disposed  of  after  my  decease,  while  I 
have  strength  and  capacity  so  to  do,  do  make  and  publish  this  my  last 
will  and  testament,  hereby  revoking  and  making  null  and  void  all  other 
last  wills  and  testaments  by  me  heretofore  made.  And,  first,  I com- 
mend my  immortal  being  to  Him  who  gave  it,  and  my  body  to  the  earth, 
to  be  buried  with  little  expense  or  ostentation,  by  my  executors  herein- 
after named. 

And  as  to  my  worldly  estate,  and  all  the  property,  real,  personal,  or 
mixed,  of  which  I shall  die  seized  and  possessed,  or  to  which  I shall  be 
entitled  at  the  time  of  my  decease,  I devise,  bequeath,  and  dispose 
thereof  in  the  manner  following,  to  wit : 

Imprimis.  My  will  is,  that  all  my  just  debts  and  funeral  charges 
shall,  by  my  executors  hereinafter  named,  be  paid  out  of  my  estate,  as 
soon  after  my  decease  as  shall  by  them  be  found  convenient. 

Item.  I give,  devise,  and  bequeath  to  my  beloved  wife,  C.  B.,  all  my 
household  furniture,  and  my  library  in  my  mansion  or  dwelling-house, 
my  pair  of  horses,  coach,  and  chaise,  and  their  harnesses  ; and  also  fif- 
teen thousand  dollars,  in  money,  to  be  paid  to  her  by  my  executors 
hereinafter  named,  within  six  months  after  my  decease  : To  have  and  to 
hold  the  same  to  her,  and  her  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns 
forever.  I also  give  to  her  the  use,  improvement,  and  income  of  my 

dwelling-house,  land,  and  its  appurtenances,  situated  in  , my 

warehouse,  land,  and  its  appurtenances,  situated  in to  have  and 

to  hold  the  same  to  her  for  and  during  her  natural  life. 

Item.  I give  and  bequeath  to  my  honored  mother,  O.  B.,  two  thou- 
land  dollars,  in  money,  to  be  paid  to  her  by  my  executors  hereinafter 
named,  within  six  months  after  my  decease  ; to  be  for  the  sole  use  of 
herself,  her  heirs,  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns. 

Item.  I give,  devise,  and  bequeath  to  my  son,  E.  B.,  the  reversion  or 
remainder  of  my  dwelling  or  mansion-house,  land,  and  its  appurte- 
nances, situated  in , and  all  profit,  income,  and  advantage  that  may 

result  therefrom,  from  and  after  the  decease  of  my  beloved  wife,  C.  B. : 
To  have  and  to  hold  the  same  to  him,  the  said  E.  B.,  his  heirs  and  assigns, 
from  and  after  the  decease  of  my  said  wife,  to  his  and  their  use  and 
behoof  forever. 

Item.  I give,  devise,  and  bequeath  to  my  son,  F.  B.,  the  reversion  or 
remainder  of  my  warehouse,  land,  and  its  appurtenances,  situated  in 

, and  all  the  profit,  income,  and  advantage  that  may  result  therefrom, 

from  and  after  the  decease  of  my  beloved  wife,  C.  B.  : To  have  and  to 
hold  the  same  to  the  said  F.  B , his  heirs  and  assigns,  from  and  afterthe 
decease  of  my  said  wife,  to  his  and  their  use  and  behoof  forever. 

Item.  All  the  rest  and  residue  of  my  estate,  real , personal,  or  mixed, 
of  which  I shall  die  seized  and  possessed,  or  to  which  I shall  be  entitled 
at  the  time  of  my  decease,  I give,  devise,  and  bequeath,  to  be  equally 
divided  to  and  among  my  said  sons,  E.  B.  and  F.  B.  And, 

Lastly.  I do  nominate  and  appoint  my  said  sons,  E.  B.  and  F.  B.,  to 
be  the  executors  of  this  my  last  will  and  testament. 

In  testimony,  whereof,  I,  the  said  A.  B , have  to  this  my  last  will  and 
testament,  contained  on  three  sheets  of  paper,  and  to  every  sheet 
thereof  subscribed  my  name,  and  to  this  the  last  sheet  thereof  I have 

here  subscribed  my  name,  and  affixed  my  seal,  this —day  of , 

in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and . 

A.  B.  [l.  s/1 

This  will  must  be  attested  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  preceding 
forms. 

DEVISE  from:  a husband  to  his  wife,  of  an 

ESTATE  FOR  LIFE,  IN  LIEU  OF  DOWER ; 

REMAINDER  TO  HIS  CHILDREN  AS  TENANTS  IN 
COMMON. 

Item.  I give  and  devise  unto  my  said  wife,  all  that  my  said  messuage 
or  tenement,  with  the  appurtenances,  situate,  &c.,  with  the  lands  and 
hereditaments  thereunto  belonging,  and  the  rents,  issues,  and  profits 
thereof,  for  and  during  the  term  of  her  natural  life  ; and  from  and  after 
the  decease  of  my  said  wife.  I give  and  bequeath  the  said  messuage  or 
tenement,  lands,  and  hereditaments,  unto  su'h  child  or  children,  as  I 
shall  leave  or  have  living  at  the  time  of  my  decease,  and  to  their  heirs 
and  assigns  forever,  as  tenants  in  common,  and  if  I shall  have  no  such 
child  or  children,  &c.,  then  I give  and  devise,  &c.,  which  said  legacy 
given  to  my  said  wife  as  aforesaid,  I hereby  declare  is  intended  to  be, 

" 


and  is  so  given  to  her,  in  full  satisfaction  and  recompense  of,  and  fol 
her  dower  and  thirds,  which  she  may,  or  can  in  any  wise  claim  01 
demand  out  of  my  estate. 

Item.  I give  and  devise  all  the  rest  and  residue  of  my  estate,  both 
real  and  personal  (not  hereinbefore  by  me  given  and  bequeathed),  unto, 
&c. 

MORTGAGE  OF  LANDS  BY  HUSBAND  AND  WIFE. 

This  Indenture,  made  the day  of , in  the  year  of  our  Lord 

one  thousand  eight  hundred  and , between  F.  F.,  of  the  city  of  New 

York,  merchant,  and  J.  his  wife,  of  the  first  part,  and  L.  M.,  of  said  city, 
merchant,  of  the  second  part,  wi/nesset/i : That  the  said  parties  of  the 

first  part,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of , lawful  money 

of  the  United  States,  to  them  in  hand  paid,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby 
acknowledged,  have  granted,  bargained,  sold,  aliened,  released,  con- 
veyed, and  confirmed,  and  by  these  presents  do  grant,  bargain,  sell, 
alien,  release,  convey,  and  confirm,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part,  and  to  his  assigns  forever,  all  that  certain  lot,  &c.  ; together  with 
all  and  singular  the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances  thereunto  belong- 
ing, or  in  any  wise  appertaining,  and  the  reversion  and  reversions, 
remainder  and  remainders,  rents,  issues,  and  profits  thereof  ; and  also 
all  the  estate,  right,  title,  interest,  dower,  possession,  claim,  and  demand 
whatsoever,  of  the  said  parties  of  the  first  part,  of,  in.  and  to  the  same, 
and  every  part  thereof,  with  the  appurtenances:  To  have  and  to  hold  the 
said  hereby  granted  premises,  with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said 
party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs,  and  assigns,  to  his  and  their  only 
proper  use,  benefit,  and  behoof  forever.  Provided  always,  and  these 
presents  are  upon  this  condition,  that  if  the  said  parties  of  the  first 
part,  their  heirs,  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns,  shall  pay  unto 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators,  or 

assigns,  the  sum  of , on  or  before  the day  of , which 

will  be  in  the  year , with  interest,  according  to  the  condition  of  a 

bond  of  the  said  F.  F.,  to  the  said  L.  M.,  bearing  even  date  herewith, 
then  these  presents  shall  become  void,  and  the  estate  hereby  granted 
shall  cease  and  utterly  determine.  But  if  default  shall  be  made  in  the 
payment  of  the  said  sum  of  money,  or  the  interest,  or  of  any  part 
thereof,  at  the  time  hereinbefore  specified  for  the  payment  thereof 
the  said  parties  of  the  first  part,  in  such  case,  do  hereby  authorize  and 
fully  empower  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  admin- 
istrators, and  assigns,  to  sell  the  said  hereby  granted  premises,  at  public 
auction,  and  convey  the  same  to  the  purchaser,  in  fee  simple,  agreeably 
to  the  act  in  such  case  made  and  provided,  and  out  of  the  moneys  aris- 
ing from  such  sale,  to  retain  the  principal  and  interest  which  shall  then 
be  due  on  the  said  bond,  together  with  all  costs  and  charges,  and  pay 
the  overplus  (if  any)  to  the  said  F.  F.,  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs, 
executors,  administrators,  or  assigns. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  parties  to  these  presents  have  hereunto  set 
their  hands  and  seals,  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Sealed  and  delivered  in  I FRANCIS  FOREST,  [l.s.] 

the  presence  of  ( JULIA  FOREST.  [l.s.] 

John  Smith. 

A MORTGAGE  GIVEN  FOR  FART  OF  THE  PUR- 
CHASE MONEY  OF  LAND. 

This  Indenture,  made  the day  of , in  the  year  of  our  Lord 

, between  A.  B.,  of  the  city  of  New  York,  merchant,  of  the  first 

part,  and  R.  T.,  of  the  said  city,  esquire,  of  the  second  part,  -jt/itnesseth  : 
That  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum 
of  three  thousand  dollars,  lawful  money  of  the  United  Sates,  to  him  in 
hand  paid,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  hath  granted 
bargained,  sold,  aliened,  released,  conveyed,  and  confirmed,  and  by 
these  presents  doth  grant,  bargain, sell,  alien,  release,  convey,  and  con- 
firm, unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  and  to  his  heirs  and  assigns 
forever,  all  those  three  certain  lots,  pieces  and  parcels  of  land,  situate, 
lying,  and  being,  &c. ; the  said  three  lots  of  land  being  part  of  the  pre- 
mises this  day  conveyed  to  the  said  A.  B.  by  the  said  R.  T.  and  his 
wife,  and  these  presents  are  given  to  secure  the  payment  of  part  of  the 
consideration  money  of  the  said  premises  ; together  with  all  and  singu- 
lar the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances  thereunto  belonging,  or  in  any 
wise  appertaining,  and  the  reversion  and  reversions,  remainder  and 
remainders,  rents,  issues,  and  profits  thereof,  and  also,  all  the  estate. 


FORMS  OF  LEGAL  DOCUMENTS. 


3°9 


right,  title,  interest,  dower,  possession,  claim,  and  demand  whatsoever, 
of  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  of,  in,  and  to  the  same,  and  every  part 
thereof,  with  the  appurtenances.  To  have  and  to  hold  the  said  hereby 
granted  premises,  with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  his  and  their  only  proper  use,  bene- 
fit, and  behoof  forever.  Provided  always,  and  these  presents  are  upon 
this  condition,  that  if  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs,  executors, 
administrators,  and  assigns,  shall  pay  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part, his  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns,  the  sum  of  three  thousand 

dollars,  lawful  money  aforesaid,  on  or  before  the -—day  of next, 

with  interest  thereon  at  the  rate  of  six  per  cent,  per  annum,  payable 
half  yearly,  on  the  first  days  of  May  and  November  in  each  year,  until  the 
whole  principal  sum  shall  be  fully  paid  and  satisfied,  according  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  bond  of  the  said  A.  B.  to  the  said  R.  T.,  bearing  even  date 
herewith,  then  these  presents,  and  the  estate  hereby  granted,  shall  cease 
and  be  void.  And  if  default  shall  be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  said  sum 
of  money,  or  the  interest,  or  of  any  part  thereof,  at  the  time  hereinbe- 
fore specified  for  the  payment  thereof,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  in 
each  case  does  hereby  authorize  and  fully  empower  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  to  sell  the  said 
hereby  granted  premises  at  public  auction,  and  convey  the  same  to  the 
purchaser,  in  fee  simple,  according  to  law,  and  out  of  the  moneys  aris- 
ing from  such  sale  to  retain  the  principal  and  interest  which  shall  then 
be  due  on  the  said  bond,  together  with  all  the  costs  and  charges,  and  the 
overplus  (if  any)  pay  to  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  1 eirs,  execu- 
tors, administrators,  and  assigns.  And  it  is  also  agreed,  by  and  between 
(he  parties  to  these  presents,  that  until  the  payment  of  the  said  princi- 
pal and  interest  moneys  in  full,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  party  of  the 
second  part,  his  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns,  to  keep  the  build- 
ings erected,  or  to  be  erected,  upon  the  lands  above  conveyed,  insured 
against  loss  or  damage  by  fire,  and  these  presents  shall  operate  to  secure 
the  repayment  of  the  premium  or  premiums  paid  for  effecting  or  con- 
tinuing such  insurance. 

In  witness,  &c.  [at  in  Mortgage  0/  Lands  by  Husband  and  IVifie], 

MORTGAGE  ON  GOODS  OR  CHATTELS. 


said  sum  above  mentioned,  and  all  charges  touching  the  same,  render 
ing  the  overplus  (if  any)  unto  me,  or  to  my  executors,  administrators, 
or  assigns.  And  until  default  be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  said  sum 
of  money  I am  to  remain  and  continue  in  the  quiet  and  peaceable  posses 
sion  of  the  said  goods  and  chattels,  and  the  full  and  free  enjoyment  of 
the  same. 

In  witness,  &c.  [or  in  Mortgage  of  Lands  by  Husband  and  1 1 7/i'j  • 

NATURALIZATION  PAPERS. 


DECLARATION  OF  INTENTION. 

I,  A.  B.,do  declare,  on  oath,  that  it  is  bona  fide  my  intention  to  become 
a citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  to  renounce  forever  all  allegiance  and 
fidelity  to  all  and  any  foreign  prince,  potentate,  state,  and  sovereignty 
whatever  ; and  particularly  to  Victoria,  Queen  of  the  United  Kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Sworn  in  open  court,  this  I . D 

day  of Jig-,  f A’B- 

I,  L.  T.,  clerk  of  the court  of , do  certify  that  the  above 

is  a true  copy  of  the  original  declaration  of  intention  of  A.  B.  to  become 
a citizen  of  the  United  States,  remaining  of  record  of  my  office. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I have  hereunto  subscribed  my  name  and  affixed 

the  seal  of  the  said  court,  the  day  of .one  thousand 

L1--  S-J  eight  hundred  and . L.  T. 

OATH  OP  ALIEN. 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

State  of  New  York,  I 
County  of , f "• 

A.  B.,  being  duly  sworn,  doth  depose  and  say,  that  he  is  a resident  in 
the  State  of  New  York,  and  intends  always  to  reside  in  the  United  States, 
and  to  become  a citizen  thereof  as  soon  as  he  can  be  naturalized,  and 
that  he  has  taken  such  incipient  measures  as  the  laws  of  the  United 
Slates  require,  to  enable  him  to  obtain  naturalization. 

Sworn  before  me,  the day  of , 18 — . 

J.  S.,  Clerk  of  the  U.  S.  District  Court 


To  all  to  whom  these  presents  shall  come  : Know  ye,  that  I,  A.  B.,  of 

, party  of  the  first  part,  for  securing  the  payment  of  the  money 

hereinafter  mentioned,  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  one  dollar  to 

me  duly  paid  by  C.  D.  of , of  the  second  part,  at  or  before  the 

ensealing  and  delivery  of  these  presents,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby 
acknowledged,  having  bargained  and  sold,  and  by  these  presents  do 
grant,  bargain,  and  sell  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  two  bay 
horses,  and  all  other  goods  and  chattels  mentioned  in  the  schedule  here- 
unto annexed,  and  now  in  the  possession  of ; to  have  and  to  hold 

all  and  singular  the  goods  and  chattels  above  bargained  and  sold,  or 
intended  so  to  be,  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors, 
administrators,  and  assigns,  forever.  And  I,  the  said  party  of  the  first 
part,  for  myself,  my  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  all  and  singular, 
the  said  goods  and  chattels  above  bargained  and  sold  unto  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  his  heirs,  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns, 
against  me,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  and  against  all  and  every 
person  or  persons  whomsoever,  shall  and  will  warrant  and  for  ever 
defend ; upon  condition,  that  if  I,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  shall 
and  do  well  and  truly  pay  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his 

executors,  administrators,  or  assigns,  the  full  sum  of dollars,  on 

(he day  of next,  according  to  the  tenor  and  effect  of  a cer- 

tain promissory  note,  bearing  even  date  herewith,  made  by  me  in  favor 
of  the  said  C.  D.,  then  these  presents  shall  be  void.  And  I,  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part,  for  myself,  my  executors,  administrators,  and 
assigns,  do  covenant  and  agree,  to  and  with  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part,  his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  that  in  case  default  shall 
be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  said  sum  above  mentioned,  then  it  shall 
and  may  be  lawful  for,  and  I,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  do  hereby 
authorize  and  empower  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his 
executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  with  the  aid  and  assistance  of 
any  person  or  persons,  to  enter  my  dwelling-house,  store,  and  other 
premises,  and  such  other  place  or  places  as  the  said  goods  or  chattels 
are,  or  may  be  placed,  and  take  and  carry  away  the  said  goods  and  chat- 
tels, and  to  sell  and  dispose  of  the  same  for  the  best  price  they  can 
j obtain  ; and  out  of  the  money  arising  therefrom,  to  retain  and  pay  the 


CERTIFICATE  OF  CITIZENSHIP. 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  the day  of , in  the  year  of  our 

Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and , A.  B.,  late  of  Limerick, 

Ireland,  at  present  of  the  city  of , in  the  State  of , appeared 

in  the court  of (the  said  court  being  a court  of  record, 

having  common-law  jurisdiction,  and  a clerk  and  seal),  and  applied  to 
the  said  court  to  be  admitted  to  become  a citizen  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  pursuant  to  the  directions  of  the  act  of  Congress  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  entitled,  “ An  act  to  establish  an  uniform  rule  of 
naturalization,  and  to  repeal  the  acts  heretofore  passed  on  that  subject 
and  also  to  an  act  entitled  “ An  act  in  addition  to  an  act,  entitled,  ‘ An 
act  to  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  to  repeal  the  acts 
heretofore  passed  on  that  subject ” and  also  to  the  “ Act  relative  to 
evidence  in  cases  of  naturalization,”  passed  22d  March,  1816 ; and  also 
to  an  act  entitled  11  An  act  in  further  addition  to  an  act  to  establish  an 
uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  to  repeal  the  acts  heretofore  passed 
on  that  subject,”  passed  May  26,  1824.  And  the  said  A.  B.,  having 
thereupon  produced  to  the  court  such  evidence,  made  such  declaration 
and  renunciation,  and  taken  such  oath,  as  are  by  the  said  acts  required  : 

Thereupon  it  was  ordered  by  the  said  court,  that  the  said  A.  B.  be 
admitted,  and  he  was  accordingly  admitted  by  the  said  court  to  be  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

In  testimony  whereof,  the  seal  of  the  said  court  is  hereunto  affixed  this 

[l.  s.]  day  *n  **'c  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 

, and  in  the year  of  our  independence. 

Per  curiam.  L.  T. , Clerk. 

POWER  OF  ATTORNEY  TO  COLLECT  DEBTS. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B.,  of , have  consti- 

tuted, made,  and  appointed,  and  by  these  presents  do  constitute,  make, 

and  appoint  T.  U.,  of , to  be  my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  for  me 

and  in  my  name  and  stead,  and  to  my  use,  to  ask,  demand,  sue  for,  levy, 
recover,  and  receive,  all  such  sum  and  sums  of  money,  debts,  rents, 
goods,  wares,  dues,  accounts,  and  other  demands  whatsoever,  which 


FORMS  OF  LEGAL  DOCUMENTS. 


are  or  shall  be  due,  owing,  payable,  and  belonging  to  me,  or  detained 
from  me,  in  any  manner  of  ways  or  means  whatsoever,  by  I.  K.,  his 
heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  or  any  of  them,  giving  and  grant- 
ing unto  my  said  attorney,  by  these  presents,  my  full  and  whole  power, 
strength,  and  authority,  in  and  about  the  premises,  to  have,  sue,  and 
take  all  lawful  ways  and  means,  in  my  name,  for  the  recovery  thereof  ; 
and  upon  the  receipt  of  any  such  debts,  dues,  or  sums  of  money  afore- 
said, acquittances,  or  other  sufficient  discharges,  for  me  and  in  my  name 
to  make,  seal,  and  deliver ; and  generally  all  and  every  other  act  and 
acts,  thing  and  things,  device  and  devices,  in  the  law  whatsoever,  need- 
ful and  necessary  to  be  done  in  and  about  the  premises,  for  me  and  in 
my  name  to  do,  execute,  and  perform,  as  largely  and  amply,  to  all 
intents  and  purposes,  as  I might  or  could  do,  if  personally  present,  or 
as  the  matter  required  more  special  authority  than  is  herein  given  ; and 
attorneys,  one  or  more  under  him,  for  the  purpose  aforesaid,  to  make 
and  constitute,  and  again  at  pleasure  to  revoke,  ratifying,  allowing,  and 
holding,  for  firm  and  effectual,  all  and  whatsoever  my  said  attorney  shall 
lawfully  do  in  and  about  the  premises,  by  virtue  hereof. 

In  witness,  &c  [ar  in  Power  of  Attorney  to  Sell  and  Lease  Lands], 

POWER  TO  RECEIVE  A LEGACY. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  whereas  A.  B.,  late  of  , 

deceased,  by  his  last  will  and  testament  did  give  and  bequeath  unto 

me,  C D , of , a legacy  of , to  be  paid  unto  me  on , of 

which  said  will  E.  F.,  of , and  C.  H.,of ,are  joint  executors 

as  in  and  by  the  said  will  may  appear : now  know  ye,  that  I,  the  said  C. 

D.,  have  made,  ordained,  constituted,  and  appointed  J.  K.,  of , 

my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  for  me  and  in  my  name,  and  for  my  use 
and  benefit,  to  ask,  demand,  and  receive,  of  and  from  the  said  E.  F.  and 
G.  H.,  the  legacy  given  and  bequeathed  unto  me,  the  said  C.  D , by  the 
said  will  of  the  said  A.  B.,  as  aforesaid  ; and  upon  receipt  thereof  by, 
or  payment  thereof  to,  my  said  attorney,  a general  release  or  discharge 
for  the  same  to  make,  execute,  and  deliver  ; hereby  ratifying,  confirm- 
ing, and  allowing  whatsoever  my  said  attorney  shall  lawfully  do  in  the 
premises. 

In  witness,  &c. 


STOCK  POWER. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B.,  of , do  hereby 

make,  constitute,  and  appoint  C.  D.,  of  , my  true  and  lawful 

attorney,  for  me  and  in  my  name  to  sell,  transfer,  and  assign 

shares  of  capital  stock,  standing  in  my  name  on  the  books  of  the  Mer- 
chants’ Bank  in  the  city  of , with  power  also  an  attorney  or 

attorneys  under  him  for  that  purpose  to  make  and  substitute,  with  like 
power,  and  to  do  all  lawful  acts  requisite  for  effecting  the  premises  ; 
hereby  ratifying  and  confirming  all  that  my  said  attorney  or  his  substi- 
tute or  substitutes  shall  do  therein  by  virtue  of  these  presents. 

In  witness,  &c. 

TRANSFER  OF  STOCK. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  C.  D.,  of  , for  value 

received,  have  bargained,  sold,  assigned,  and  transferred,  and  by  these 

presents  do  bargain,  sell,  assign,  and  transfer  unto  E.  F., shares 

of  capital  stock,  standing  in  my  name  on  the  books  of  the  Merchants’ 

Bank  in  the  city  of , and  do  hereby  constitute  and  appoint  A.  B., 

of , my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  irrevocable  for  me  and  in  my 

name  and  stead,  but  to  his  use,  to  sell,  assign,  transfer,  and  set  over  all 
or  any  part  of  the  said  stock,  and  for  that  purpose  to  make  and  execute 
all  necessary  acts  of  assignment  and  transfer,  and  one  or  more  persons 
to  substitute  with  like  full  power;  hereby  ratifying  and  confirming  all 
that  my  said  attorney,  or  his  substitute  or  substitutes,  shall  lawfully  do 
by  virtue  hereof. 

In  witness,  &c. 


POWER  TO  RECEIVE  DIVIDEND. 


Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B.,  of , do  authorize, 

constitute,  and  appoint  C.  D.  to  receive  from  the  cashier  of  the  Mer- 
chants’ Bank  of , the  dividend  now  due  to  me  on  all  stock  stand- 

ing to  my  name  on  the  books  of  the  said  company,  and  receipt  for  the 
same  ; hereby  ratifying  and  confirming  all  that  may  lawfully  be  done  in 
the  premises  by  virtue  hereof. 

In  witness, &c. 


GENERAL  RELEASE  OF  ALL  DEMANDS. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B.,  of,  &c.,  for  and  in  con. 

sideration  of  the  sum  of , to  me  paid  by  C.  D.,  of,  &c.  (the  receipt 

whereof  I do  hereby  acknowledge), have  remised, released, and  forever 
discharged,  and  I do  hereby,  for  myself,  my  heirs,  executors,  adminis- 
trators, and  assigns,  remise,  release,  and  forever  discharge  the  said  C. 
D.,  his  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  of  and  from  all  debts, 
demands,  actions,  and  causes  of  action,  which  I now  have,  in  law  or 
equity,  or  which  may  result  from  the  existing  stale  of  things,  from  any 
and  all  contracts,  liabilities,  doings,  and  omissions,  from  the  beginning 
of  the  world  to  this  day. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this  six- 
teenth day  of  May,  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-two. 

JOHN  SMITH.  [l.s.] 

AGREEMENT  FOR  A LEASE. 

This  agreement,  made  the  — — — day  of , in  the  year  eighteen 

hundred  and  eighty-two,  between  A.  B.  of  , and  C.  D.,  of  said 

city,  merchant,  witnesseth , That  A.  B.  agrees,  by  indenture,  to  be 

executed  on  or  before  the day  of next,  to  demise  and  let  to 

the  said  C.  D.  a certain  house  and  lot  in  said  city,  now  or  late  in  the 

occupation  of  E.  F.,  known  as  No.  — , in street,  to  hold  to  the  said 

C.  D , his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  from  the day  of 

, aforesaid,  for  and  during  the  term  of  three  years,  at  or  under  the 

clear  yearly  rent  of dollars,  payabie  quarterly,  clear  of  all  taxes 

and  deductions  except  the  ground  rent.  In  which  lease  there  shall  be 
contained  covenants  on  the  part  of  the  said  C.  D.,his  executors,  admin- 
istrators, and  assigns,  to  pay  the  rent  (except  in  case  the  premises  are 
destroyed  by  fire,  the  rent  is  to  cease  until  they  are  rebuilt  by  the  said 
A.  B ),  and  to  pay  all  taxes  and  assessments  (except  the  ground  rent) ; 
to  repair  the  premises  (except  damages  by  fire) ; not  to  carry  on  any 
offensive  business  on  the  same  (except  by  written  permission  of  thesaid 
A.  B ) ; to  deliver  the  same  up  at  the  end  of  the  term,  in  good  repair 
(except  damages  by  fire,  aforesaid) ; with  all  other  usual  and  reasonable 
covenants,  and  a proviso  for  the  re-entry  of  the  said  C.  D.,  his  heirs 
and  assigns,  in  case  of  the  non-payment  of  the  rent  for  the  space  of  fif- 
teen days  after  either  of  the  said  rent-days,  or  the  non-performance  of 
any  of  the  covenants.  And  there  shall  also  be  contained  covenants  ott 
the  part  of  the  said  A.  B.,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  for  quiet  enjoyment  ;to 
renew  said  lease,  at  the  expiration  of  said  term,  for  a further  period  of 
twenty-one  years  at  the  same  rent,  on  the  said  C.  D.,  his  executors 
administrators,  or  assigns,  paying  the  said  A.  B.,  his  executors,  admin- 
istrators, or  assigns,  the  sum  of  five  hundred  dollars,  as  a premium  for 
such  renewal  ; and  that  in  case  of  accidental  fire,  at  any  time  during  the 
term,  the  said  A.  B.  will  forthwith  proceed  to  put  the  premises  in  as 
good  repair  as  before  such  fire,  the  rent  in  the  meantime  to  cease.  And 
the  said  C.  D.  hereby  agrees  to  accept  such  lease  on  the  terms  aforesaid. 
And  it  is  mutually  agreed,  that  the  cost  of  this  agreement,  and  of  mak- 
ing and  recording  said  lease,  and  a counterpart  thereof,  shall  be  borne 
by  the  said  parties  equally. 

As  witness  our  hands  and  seals,  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

In  presence  of  I A.  B.  [l.  s.] 

J.S.  ( C.D.  [l.  s.j 

LANDLORD’S  AGREEMENT  OF  LEASE. 

This  is  to  certify,  that  I have,  this day  of , 1880,  let  and 

rented  unto  Mr.  C.  D.  my  house  and  lot,  known  as  No.  — , in 

street,  in  the  city  of , with  the  appurtenances,  and  the  sole  and 

uninterrupted  use  and  occupation  thereof,  for  one  year,  to  commence 
the day  of next,  at  the  yearly  rent  of dollars,  pay- 

able quarterly,  on  the  usual  quarter-days  ; rent  to  cease  in  case  the 
premises  are  destroyed  by  fire.  A.  B. 

TENANT’S  AGREEMENT. 

This  is  to  certify,  that  I have  hired  and  taken  from  Mr.  A.  B.  his 

house  and  lot,  known  as  No.  — , in  ■ ■ - ■ street,  in  the  city  of , 

with  the  appurtenances,  for  the  term  of  one  year,  to  commence  the  first 

day  of next,  at  the  yearly  rent  of dollars,  payable  quarterly 

on  the  usual  quarter-days.  And  I do  hereby  promise  to  make  punctual 
payment  of  the  rent  in  manner  aforesaid,  except  in  case  the  premises 
become  untenantable  from  fire  or  any  other  cause,  when  the  rent  is  to 
cease  ; and  do  further  promise  to  quit  and  surrender  the  premises,  at 


FORMS  OF  LEGAL  DOCUMENTS. 


the  expiration  of  the  term,  in  as  good  state  and  condition  as  reason- 
able use  and  weat  thereof  will  permit,  damages  by  the  elements 
excepted. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  seal,  the day  of , i860. 

In  presence  of  I C.  D.  [l.  s.] 

J.S.  f 

SECURITY  FOR  RENT. 

In  consideration  of  the  letting  of  the  premises  above  described,  and 
for  the  sum  of  one  dollar,  I do  hereby  become  surety  for  the  punctual 
payment  of  the  rent,  and  performance  of  the  covenants  in  the  above 
written  agreement  mentioned,  to  be  paid  and  performed  by  C.  D.,  as 
therein  specified  and  expected  ; and  if  any  default  shall  be  made  therein 
I do  hereby  promise  and  agree  to  pay  unto  Mr.  A.  B.  such  sum  or  sums 
of  money  as  will  be  sufficient  to  make  Up  such  deficiency,  and  fully 
satisfy  the  conditions  of  the  said  agreement,  without  requiring  any 
notice  of  non-payment  or  proof  of  demand  being  made. 

Given,  &c.  [as  in  Tenant's  Agreement]. 

TENANT’S  AGREEMENT  FOR  A HOUSE,  EMBRAC- 
ING A MORTGAGE  OF  HIS  CHATTELS. 

This  is  to  certify,  that  I,  A.  B.,  have  hired  and  taken  from  C.  D.,  the 

premises  known  as  No.  — , in street,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  for 

the  term  of  one  year  from  the  first  day  of  May  next,  at  the  yearly  rent 
of  six  hundred  dollars,  payable  quarterly.  And  I hereby  promise  to 
make  punctual  payment  of  the  rent  in  manner  aforesaid,  and  quit  and 
surrender  the  premises  at  the  expiration  of  said  term,  in  as  good  state 
and  condition  as  reasonable  use  and  wear  thereof  will  permit,  damages 
by  the  elements  excepted  ; and  engage  not  to  let  or  underlet  the  whole 
or  any  part  of  the  said  premises,  or  occupy  the  same  for  any  business 
deemed  extra-hazardous  on  account  of  fire,  without  the  written  consent 
of  the  landlord,  under  the  penalty  of  forfeiture  and  damages.  And  I do 
hereby  mortgage  and  pledge  all  the  personal  property,  of  what  kind 
soever,  which  I shall  at  any  time  have  on  said  premises,  and  whether 
exempt  by  law  from  distress  for  rent  or  sale  under  execution,  or  not,  to 
the  faithful  performance  of  these  covenants,  hereby  authorizing  the 
said  C.  D.,  or  his  assigns,  to  distrain  upon  and  sell  the  same,  in  case  of 
any  failure  on  my  part  to  perform  the  said  covenants,  or  any  or  either 
of  them. 

Given,  &c. 

LANDLORD’S  AGREEMENT. 

This  is  to  certify,  that  I,  C.  D , have  let  and  rented  unto  A.  B.  the 

premises  known  as  No.  — , in street,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  for 

the  term  of  one  year  from  the  first  day  of  May  next,  at  the  yearly  rent 
of  six  hundred  dollars,  payable  quarterly.  The  premises  are  not  to  be 
used  or  occupied  for  any  business  deemed  extra-hazardous  on  account 
of  fire,  nor  shall  the  same,  or  any  part  thereof,  be  let  or  underlet,  except 
with  the  consent  of  the  landlord  in  writing,  under  the  penalty  of  for- 
feiture and  damages. 

Given,  &c. 

AGREEMENT  FOR  PART  OF  A HOUSE. 

Memorandum  of  an  agreement  entered  into,  the day  of , 

1880,  by  and  between  A.  B.,  of ,and  C.  D.,  of,  &c.,  whereby  the 

said  A.  B.  agrees  to  let,  and  the  said  C D.  agrees  to  take,  the  rooms,  or 
apartments  following,  that  is  to  say : an  entire  first  floor  and  one  room 
in  the  attic  story  or  garret,  and  a back  kitchen  and  cellar  opposite,  with 
the  use  of  the  yard  for  drying  linen,  or  beating  carpets  or  clothes,  being 
part  of  a house  and  premises  in  which  the  said  A.  B.  now  resides,  situ- 
ate and  being  in  No.  — , in street,  in  the  city  of  , to  have 

and  to  hold  the  said  rooms  and  apartments,  and  the  use  of  the  said  yard 
as  aforesaid,  for  and  during  the  term  of  half  a year,  to  commence  from 
the day  of , instant,  at  and  for  the  yearly  rent  of dol- 

lars, lawful  money  of  the  United  States,  payable  monthly,  by  even  and 

equal  portions,  the  first  payment  to  be  made  on  the day  of 

next  ensuing  the  date  thereof  ; and  it  is  further  agreed  that,  at  the  expi- 
ration of  the  said  term  of  half  a year,  the  said  C D.  may  hold,  occupy, 
and  enjoy  the  said  rooms  or  apartments,  and  have  the  use  of  the  said 
yard  as  aforesaid,  from  month  to  month,  for  so  long  a time  as  the  said 
C.  D.  and  A.  B.  may  and  shall  agree,  at  the  rent  above  specified  ; and 


311 


that  each  party  be  at  liberty  to  quit  possession  on  giving  the  other  a 
month’s  notice  in  writing.  And  it  is  also  further  agreed,  that  when  the 
said  C.  D.  shall  quit  the  premises,  he  shall  leave  them  in  as  good  condi- 
tion and  repair  as  they  shall  be  in  on  his  taking  possession  thereof, 
reasonable  wear  excepted. 

Witness,  &c. 

NOTICE  TO  QUIT,  BY  LANDLORD. 

Please  to  take  notice  that  you  are  hereby  required  to  surrender  and 

deliver  up  possession  of  the  house  and  lot  known  as  No.  — in 

street,  in  the  city  of , which  you  now  hold  of  me  ; and  to  remove 

therefrom  on  the  first  day  of next,  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of 

the  statute  relating  to  the  rights  and  duties  of  landlord  and  tenant. 

Dated  this day  of , 1880. 

To  Mr.  C.  D.  A.  B.,  Landlord. 

NOTICE  TO  QUIT,  BY  TENANT. 

Please  to  take  notice,  that  on  the  first  day  of  May  next  I shall  quit 
possession  and  remove  from  the  premises  I now  occupy,  known  as  house 
and  lot  No.  — , in street,  in  the  city  of . 

Dated  this  — day  of , i860. 

To  Mr.  A.  B.  Yours,  &c.,  C.  D. 

THE  LIKE  WHERE  THE  COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE 
TENANCY  IS  UNCERTAIN. 

Mr.  C.  D. — I hereby  give  you  notice  to  quit,  and  deliver  up  on  the 

day  of next  the  possession  of  the  messuage  or  dwelling 

house  [or,  rooms  and  apartments,  or,  farm  lands  and  premises],  with 

the  appurtenances,  which  you  now  hold  of  me,  situate  in  the of 

, in  the  county  of , provided  your  tenancy  originally  com- 
menced at  that  time  of  the  year  ; or  otherwise,  that  you  quit  and  deliver 
up  the  possession  of  the  said  messuage,  &c.,  at  the  end  of  the  year  of 
your  tenancy  which  shall  expire  next  after  the  end  of  one  half-year  from 
the  time  of  your  being  served  with  this  notice. 

Dated,  &c.  [as  in  Notice  to  Quit,  by  Landlord], 

NOTICE  TO  THE  TENANT  EITHER  TO  QUIT  THE 
PREMISES,  OR  TO  PAY  DOUBLE  VALUE. 

Sir  : I hereby  give  you  notice  to  quit,  and  yield  up,  on  the day 

of next,  possession  of  the  messuage,  lands,  tenements  and  hered- 
itaments, which  you  now  hold  of  me,  situate  at in  the  parish  of 

, and  county  of , in  failure  whereof  I shall  require  and  insist 

upon  double  the  value  of  the  said  premises,  according  to  the  statute  in 
such  case  made  and  provided. 

Dated,  &c.  [as  in  Notice  to  Quit,  by  Landlord], 

OATH  OF  HOLDING  OVER. 

City  of , ss. 

A.  B.,  of  said  city,  merchant,  being  duly  sworn,  doth  depose  and  say, 

that  on  or  about  the day  of , the  deponent  rented  unto  C. 

D.,  of  said  city,  printer,  the  house  and  lot  known  as  No.  — , in 

street,  in  said  city,  for  the  term  of  one  year  from  the  first  day  of  May 
then  next,  which  said  term  has  expired,  and  that  the  said  C.  D.  or  his 
assigns  hold  over  and  continue  in  the  possession  of  the  said  premises, 
without  the  permission  of  this  deponent. 

Sworn  before  me,  this day  of . A.  B. 

O.  P.,  Commissioner  of  Deeds. 

ASSIGNMENT. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B.,  having  become  insolv- 
ent, did,  in  conjunction  with  so  many  of  my  creditors,  residing  within 
the  United  States,  whose  debts,  in  good  faith,  amount  to  two-thirds  of 
all  the  debts  owing  by  me  to  creditors  residing  within  the  United  States, 

present  a petition  to  the  Hon.  J.  P.  H.,  County  Judge  of county 

[or,  as  the  case  may  be],  praying  for  relief,  pursuant  to  the  provisions 
of  the  statute  authorizing  an  insolvent  debtor  to  be  discharged  from  his 
debts;  whereupon  the  said  Judge  ordered  notice  to  be  given  to  all  my 
creditors  to  show  cause,  if  any  they  had,  before  him,  at  a certain  day 
and  place,  why  the  prayer  of  the  petitioner  should  not  be  granted  ; which 
notice  was  duly  published,  and  no  good  cause  appearing  to  the  contrary, 
he  being  satisfied  that  the  proceedings  were  just  and  fair,  and  that  J 


312 


FORMS  OF  LEGAL  DOCUMENTS. 


bad  in  all  things  conformed  to  those  matters  required  by  the  said 
statute,  directed  an  assignment  of  all  my  estate  to  be  made  by  me  for 
the  benefit  of  all  my  creditors.  Now,  therefore,  know  ye,  that,  in  con- 
formity to  the  said  direction,  I have  granted,  released,  assigned,  and  set 
over,  and  by  these  presents,  do  grant,  release,  assign,  and  set  over,  unto 
J.  K , of,  &c.,  and  L.  M.,  of,  &c.,  assignees  nominated  to  receive  the 
same,  all  my  estate,  real  and  personal,  both  in  law  and  equity,  in  posses- 
sion, reversion,  or  remainder,  and  all  books,  vouchers,  and  securities 
relating  thereto,  to  hold  the  same  unto  the  said  assignees,  to  and  for  the 
use  of  all  my  creditors. 

In  witness  whereof,  I have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this  

day  of , in  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and . 

A.  B.  [l.  s.] 

Sealed  and  delivered  I 
in  presence  of  f 
G.  H. 

NOTE  WITH  SURETY. 


DUE  BILE,  PAYABLE  IN  GOODS. 

Due  John  Jones,  or  bearer,  fifty  dollars  in  merchandise,  for  value 
received,  payable  on  demand.  THOMAS  BOLAND. 

New  York,  May  3,  1882. 

ORDER  FOR  GOODS. 

Mr.  J.  Tongue.  New  York,  April  16,  1882. 

Please  pay  John  Jones,  or  order,  one  hundred  dollars  in  merchandise, 
and  charge  the  same  to  account  of  HENRY  WALFORD. 

BILL  OF  EXCHANGE. 

$1000.  Hartford,  Conn.,  April  20,  1882. 

Thirty  days  after  sight,  pay  to  the  order  of  Messrs.  John  Smith  & 
Co.  one  thousand  dollars,  and  charge  the  same  to  account  of 

RICHARD  JAY. 

To  Messrs.  Wilson  & Rivers,  New  York. 


$100.  New  York,  April  12,  1880. 

Six  months  after  date,  I promise  to  pay  John  Thompson,  or  order, 
one  hundred  dollars,  value  received.  JOHN  BROWN. 

Geo.  Smith,  Surety. 

AN  UNNEGOTIABLE  NOTE. 

$1000.  New  York,  April  10,  1880. 

Three  months  after  date,  I promise  to  pay  John  Thompson  one  thou- 
sand dollars,  for  value  received.  JAMES  FOWLER. 

A NEGOTIABLE  NOTE. 

$»»oo.  New  York,  April  19,  1880. 

Three  months  after  date,  I promise  to  pay  John  Thompson,  or  order, 
one  thousand  dollars,  for  value  received.  JAMES  FOWLER. 

A NOTE,  OR  DUE  BILL,  PAYABLE  ON  DEMAND. 

$100.  Cincinnati,  O.,  April  14,  1880. 

On  demand  I promise  to  pay  Charles  Jones,  or  order,  one  hundred 
dollars,  for  value  received. 

HENRY  WARING,  120  State-street. 

A NOTE  BEARING  INTEREST. 

$100.  New  Orleans,  La.,  May  1,  1882. 

Six  months  after  date,  I promise  to  pay  George  Robinson,  or  order, 
one  hundred  dollars,  with  interest,  for  value  received. 

PHILIP  REDMOND. 

A NOTE  PAYABLE  BY  INSTALMENTS. 

Is000-  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  April  20,  1882. 

For  value  received,  I promise  to  pay  Smith  & Brown,  or  order,  three 
thousand  dollars,  in  the  manner  following,  viz. : one  thousand  dollars 
in  one  year,  one  thousand  dollars  in  two  years,  and  one  thousand  dol- 
lars in  three  years,  with  ^interest  on  all  said  sums,  payable  semi- 
annually, without  defalcation  or  discount. 

HUGH  FAULKNER,  120  Chestnut-st. 


A SET  OF  BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE. 

No.  188. — Ex.  16300.  New  York,  April  26,  1882. 

Three  days  after  sightof  this,  my  first  of  exchange  (second  and  third 
unpaid),  pay  to  Charles  Walker,  or  order,  three  hundred  pounds  ster- 
ling, value  received,  and  charge  the  same  to  account  of 

JOHN  SMITH. 

No.  188. — Ex.  £300.  New  York,  April  26,  1882. 

Three  days  after  sightof  this,  my  second  of  exchange  (first  and  third 
unpaid),  pay  to  Charles  Walker,  or  order,  three  hundred  pounds  ster- 
ling, value  received,  and  charge  the  same  to  account  of 

JOHN  SMITH. 

No.  188. — Ex.  ^300.  New  York,  April  8,  1832. 

Three  days  after  sight  of  this,  my  third  of  exchange  (first  and  sec 
ond  unpaid),  pay  to  Charles  Walker,  or  order,  three  hundred  pounds 
sterling,  value  received,  and  charge  the  same  to  account  of 

JOHN  SMITH. 

MONEY  ORDER. 

Mr.  Henry  Denhis  : New  York,  May  20,  1882. 

Please  pay  Charles  Robinson,  or  order,  one  hundred  dollars,  and 
charge  the  same  to  account  of  JOSEPH  DOYLE. 

NOTICE  OF  NON-PAYMENT. 

TO  BE  GIVEN  TO  THE  DRAWER  AND  ENDORSERS. 

New  York,  Feb.  26,  1882. 

Please  to  take  notice,  that  a certain  bill  of  exchange,  dated , fot 

$1000,  drawn  by , on  and  accepted  by , of and  by  you 

endorsed,  was  this  day  protested  for  non-payment,  and  the  holders  look 
to  you  for  the  payment  thereof.  Yours,  &c.. 

To  Mr.  A.  B.  J.  T.,  Notary  Public. 

RECEIPT  IN  FULL  OF  ALL  DEMANDS. 

$500.  New  York,  March  28,  1882. 

Received  of  John  Smith  five  hundred  dollars,  in  full  of  all  demands 
against  him.  WM.  JONES. 


SEALED  NOTE. 


RECEIPT  ON  ACCOUNT. 


Is000-  Cleveland,  O.,  May  8,  1882. 

For  value  received,  I promise  to  pay  Smith  & Edgar,  or  order,  five 
thousand  dollars,  in  three  years  from  the  date  hereof,  with  interest, 
payable  semi-annually,  without  defalcation  or  discount.  And  in  case 
of  default  of  my  payment  of  the  interest  or  principal  aforesaid  with 
punctuality,  I hereby  empower  any  attorney-at-law,  to  be  appointed  by 
said  Smith  & Edgar,  or  their  assigns,  to  appear  in  any  court  which  said 
Smith  & Edgar,  or  their  assigns,  may  select,  and  commence  and  prose- 
cute a suit  against  me  on  said  note,  to  confess  judgment  for  all  and 
every  part  of  the  interest  or  principal  on  said  note,  in  the  payment  of 
which  I may  be  delinquent. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal,  this  8th  day  of  June,  A.  D.  1882. 


Attest,  George  White. 


JOHN  DREW,  [seal.] 


$100.  New  York,  March  28, 1882. 

Received  of  John  Smith  one  hundred  dollars,  to  apply  on  account. 

WM.  JONES. 

RECEIPT  FOR  MONEY  PAID  FOR  ANOTHER. 

$100.  New  York,  March  28,  1882. 

Received  of  J.  G.  Wells  one  hundred  dollars,  in  full  of  all  demands 
against  John  Smith.  WM.  JONES. 


GENERAL  FORM  OF  ASSIGNMENT. 

TO  BE  WRITTEN  OR  ENDORSED  ON  THE  BACK  OF  ANY  INSTRUMENT. 


Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  the  within-named  A.  B.,  in 
consideration  of  one  hundred  dollars  to  me  paid  by  C.  D.,  have  assigned 


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University  of  Chicago  Chicago 

Romance,  Ger.  Eng.  Literature 


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The  Administrative  Library  has  those  that  are  checked 


f 


University  of  Illinois,  President’s  Office 


111.  3 


FORMS  OF  LEGAL  DOCUMENTS. 


3i3 


to  the  said  C.  D.,  and  his  assigns,  all  my  interest  in  the  within  written 
Instrument,  and  every  clause,  article,  or  thing  therein  contained  ; and  1 
do  hereby  constitute  the  said  C.  D.,  my  attorney,  in  my  name,  but  to 
his  own  use,  and  at  his  own  risk  and  cost,  to  take  all  legal  measures 
which  may  be  proper  for  the  complete  recovery  and  enjoyment  of  the 
assigned  premises,  with  power  of  substitution. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this 
tenth  day  of  May,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty. 

Executed  and  delivered  I . n r t 

in  the  presence  of  j A.  . [seal.] 


ASSIGNMENT  OF  A LEASE. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  the  within-named  A.  B.,  the 
lessee,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars,  to 
me  in  hand  paid  by  C.  D.,of,  &c.,  at  and  before  the  sealing  and  delivery 
hereof  (the  receipt  whereof  I do  hereby  acknowledge),  have  granted, 
assigned,  and  set  over,  and  by  these  presents  do  grant,  assign,  and  set 
over,  unto  the  said  C.  D.,  his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns 
the  within  indenture  of  lease,  and  all  that  messuage,  &c.,  thereby 
demised,  with  the  appurtenances  ; and  also  all  my  estate,  right,  title, 
term  of  years  yet  to  come,  claim,  and  demand  whatsoever,  of,  in,  to,  or 
out  of  the  same.  To  have  and  to  hold  the  said  messuage,  &c.,  unto  the 
said  C.  D.,  his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  for  the  residue  of 
the  term  within  mentioned,  under  the  yearly  rent  and  covenants  within 
reserved  and  contained,  on  my  part  and  behalf  to  be  done,  kept,  and 
performed. 

In  testimony,  &c.  [ax  in  General  Form  0/ Assignment ]. 


ASSIGNMENT  OF  A MORTGAGE. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B.,  the  mortgagee  within 
named,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  sixteen  hundred  dollars, 
to  me  paid  by  C.  D.,  of,  &c.,at  and  before  the  sealing  and  delivery 
hereof  (the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged),  have  granted, 
bargained,  sold,  assigned,  and  set  over,  and  by  these  presents  do  grant, 
bargain,  sell,  assign,  and  set  over,  unto  the  said  C.  D.,  his  heirs,  exec- 
utors, administrators,  and  assigns,  the  within  deed  of  mortgage,  and 
all  my  right  and  title  to  that  messuage,  &c.,  therein  mentioned  and 
described,  together  with  the  original  debt  for  which  the  said  mortgage 
was  given,  and  all  evidence  thereof,  and  all  the  rights  and  appurtenances 
thereunto  belonging.  To  have  and  to  hold  all  and  singular  the  premises 
hereby  granted  and  assigned,  or  mentioned,  or  intended  so  to  be,  unto 
the  said  C.  D , his  heirs  and  assigns,  forever  ; subject,  nevertheless,  to 
the  right  and  equity  of  redemption  of  the  within  named  E.  F. , his  heirs 
and  assigns  (if  any  they  have),  in  the  same. 

In  testimony,  &c.  [ax  in  General  Form  0/  Assignment ]. 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  A PATENT. 

Whereas,  letters  patent,  bearing  date dayof , in  the  year 

, were  granted  and  issued  by  the  government  of  the  United  States, 

under  the  seal  thereof,  to  A.  B.,  of  the  town  of  , in  the  county  of 

. in  the  State  of , for  [here  state  the  nature  of  the  invention 

in  general  terms,  as  in  the  patent],  a more  particular  and  full  descrip- 
tion whereof  is  annexed  to  the  said  letters  patent  in  a schedule ; by 
which  letters  patent  the  full  and  exclusive  right  and  liberty  of  making 
and  using  the  said  invention,  and  of  vending  the  same  to  others  to  be 
used,  was  granted  to  the  said  A.  B.,  his  heirs,  executors,  and  adminis- 
trators, or  assigns,  for  the  term  of  fourteen  years  from  the  said  date  : 

Now  know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  the  said  A.  B.,  for  and 

in  consideration  of  the  sum  of dollars,  to  me  in  hand  paid  (the 

receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged),  have  granted,  assigned,  and 
set  over,  and  by  these  presents  do  grant,  assign,  and  set  over,  unto  C. 

D.,  of  the  town  of , in  the  county  of , and  State  of , 

his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  forever,  the  said  letters 
patent  and  all  my  right,  title,  and  interest,  in  and  to  the  said  invention, 
so  granted  unto  me  : To  have  and  to  hold  the  said  letters  patent  and 
invention,  with  all  benefit,  profit,  and  advantage  thereof,  unto  the  said 
C.  D , his  executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  in  as  full,  ample,  and 
beneficial  a manner,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  I,  the  said  A.  B.,  by 
virtue  of  the  said  letters  patent,  may  or  might  have  or  hold  the  same,  if 
this  assignment  had  not  been  made,  for  and  during  all  the  rest  and  resi- 
due of  the  said  term  of  fourteen  years. 

In  testimony,  &c.,  [ax  in  General  Form  0/ Assignment .] 


ASSIGNMENT  OF  A POLICY  OF  INSURANCE. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  the  within-named  A.  B.,  fot 

and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of , to  me  paid  by  C.  D.,  of,  &c. 

(the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged),  have  granted,  sold, 
assigned,  transferred,  and  set  over,  and  by  these  presents  I do  abso- 
lutely grant,  sell,  assign,  transfer,  and  set  over  to  him,  the  said  C.  D., 
all  my  right,  property,  interest,  claim,  and  demand  in  and  to  the  within 
policy  of  insurance,  which  have  already  arisen,  or  which  may  hereafter 
arise  thereon,  with  full  power  to  use  my  name  so  far  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  enable  him  fully  to  avail  himself  of  the  interest  herein  assigned, 
or  hereby  intended  to  be  assigned.  The  conveyance  herein  made,  and 
the  powers  hereby  given,  are  for  myself  and  my  legal  representatives  to 
said  C.  D.  and  his  legal  representatives. 

In  testimony,  &c.  [ax  in  General  Form  0/ Assignment], 


ASSIGNMENT  OF  DEMAND  FOR  WAGES  OR  DEBT. 

In  consideration  of  $100  to  me  in  hand  paid  by  M.  D.,  of  the  city  of 

, the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  I,  L.  C.,  of  the  same 

place,  have  sold,  and  by  these  presents  do  sell,  assign,  transfer,  and  set 
over,  unto  the  said  M.  D.,  a certain  debt  due  from  N.  E.,  amounting  ta 
the  sum  of  $150,  for  work,  labor,  and  services,  by  me  performed  for  the 
said  N.  E.  (or  for  goods  sold  and  delivered  to  the  said  N.  E.),  with  full 
power  to  sue  for,  collect,  and  discharge,  or  sell  and  assign  the  same  in 
my  name  or  otherwise,  but  at  his  own  cost  and  charges ; and  I do 
hereby  covenant  that  the  said  sum  of  $150  is  justly  due  as  aforesaid,  and 
that  I have  not  done  and  will  not  do  any  act  to  hinder  or  prevent  the 
collection  of  the  same  by  the  said  M.  D. 

Witness  my  hand,  this  April  10th,  1863. 

L.  C. 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  ACCOUNT  ENDORSED  THEREON. 

In  consideration  of  $1,  value  received,  I hereby  sell  and  assign 
to  M.  D.  the  within  account  which  is  justly  due  from  the  within  named 
N.  E.,  and  I hereby  authorize  the  said  M.  D.  to  collect  the  same. 

L.  C. 

Troy,  April  10th,  1863. 


BOND  TO  A CORPORATION. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B.,  of,  &c.,  am  held  and 

firmly  bound  unto  the Insurance  Company,  in  the  sum  of  one 

thousand  dollars,  lawful  money  of  the  United  States,  to  be  paid  to  the 

said — Insurance  Company  or  assigns  ; for  which  payment,  wei* 

and  truly  to  be  made,  I bind  myself,  my  heirs,  executors,  and  adminis- 
trators, firmly  by  these  presents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal.  Dated  the day  of  - — — , one  thousand 

eight  hundred  and . 

The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  is  such,  that  if  the  above 
bounden  A.  B.,  his  heirs,  executors,  or  administrators,  shall  well  and 

truly  pay,  or  cause  to  be  paid  unto  the  above  named Insurance 

Company,  or  assigns,  the  just  and  full  sum,  &c.  [ox  in  Common  Bond}. 


COMMON  CHATTEL  MORTGAGE. 

This  Indenture,  made  the  day  of,  &c.,  between  A.  B.,  of,  &c., 

of  the  first  part,  and  C.  D.,  of,  &c.,  of  the  second  part,  witnesseth; 

That  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of 

dollars,  to  him  duly  paid,  hath  sold,  and  by  these  presents  doth  grant 
and  convey,  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  and  his  assigns,  the 
following  described  goods,  chattels,  and  property  [ here  describe  them , 
or  refer  to  them  thus,  “ as  in  the  schedule  annexed  ”J,  now  in  my  pos- 
session, at  the of aforesaid  ; together  with  the  appurte- 

nances, and  all  the  estate,  title,  and  interest  of  the  said  party  of  the  first 
part  therein.  This  grant  is  intended  as  a security  for  the  payment  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  with  interest,  on  or  before  the  expiration 
of  one  year  from  the  date  hereof  ; and  the  additional  sum  of  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty  dollars,  with  interest,  on  the day  of , iS — t 

which  payments,  if  duly  made,  will  render  this  conveyance  void. 

In  witness,  &c.  [ax  in  Bill  of  Sale  and  Chattel  Mortgage ]. 


314 


GOVERNMENT  BONDS. 


OVERNMENT  Bonds 
are  quoted  and  dealt  in 
at  the  Stock  Exchange, 
but  the  principal  trans- 
actions take  place  in  the 
offices  of  the  large  dealers, 
with  whom  parties  desiring 
to  invest  in  or  dispose  of 
bonds  may  transact  their 
business  either  in  person  or 
through  a broker.  The 
dealers  are  ordinarily  pre- 
pared to  buy  and  sell  either 
large  or  small  amounts  at 


the  current  quotations. 

This  mode  of  dealing  greatly  facilitates  transac- 
tions in  Government  bonds,  and  adds  to  their  desir- 
ability and  convenience  for  investment ; as  it  enables 
the  investor  to  purchase  the  bonds  for  immediate 
delivery,  or  to  convert  them  into  money  at  once,  and 
also  to  ascertain,  before  he  buys  or  sells,  just  what 
price  he  must  pay  or  will  receive,  instead  of  taking 
the  chances  of  an  order  to  buy  or  sell  at  the  market 
prices,  or  at  a fixed  limit  at  the  Stock  Exchange. 

The  difference  between  the  prices  at  which  the 
dealer  is  prepared  to  buy  or  sell  the  more  active 
bonds,  on  a steady  market,  is  usually  one-eighth 


of  one  per  cent.,  with  occasionally  wider  varia- 
tions. 

All  the  different  issues  of  Government  bonds  now 
outstanding  are  in  registered  form,  except  the  Fours 
and  Four-and-a-halfs,  which  are  both  coupon  and 
registered. 

Coupon  bonds,  at  times,  sell  higher  than  regis- 
tered bonds  of  the  same  issue  ; the  difference  in 
price  in  their  favor  occurring,  for  the  most  part, 
when  United  States  bonds  are  in  demand  in  Euro- 
pean markets,  and  for  the  reason  that  registered 
bonds  are  not  taken  for  the  English  and  German 
markets,  except  to  a very  limited  extent. 

When  bonds  are  not  being  sent  abroad,  and  the 
demand  is  for  home  investment  exclusively,  the  price 
of  the  registered  bonds  approximates  more  nearly  or 
becomes  equal  to,  or  a little  higher  than,  that  of  the 
coupon  bonds. 

Registered  bonds  rarely  sell  more  than  one-eighth 
of  one  per  cent,  higher  than  coupon  bonds,  for  the 
reason  that  the  latter  can  always  be  converted  into 
the  former  at  the  bare  cost  of  forwarding  them  to 
the  Treasury  Department  for  that  purpose. 

The  Currency  Sixes  derive  their  name  from  the 
fact  that  the  interest  on  them  is  made  payable  in 
“United  States  Treasury  notes  or  any  other  money 
or  currency  which  the  United  States  have,  or  shall 
declare  lawful  money  and  a legal  tender.” 

All  the  other  issues  of  bonds  derive  the  names  by 


GOVERNMENT  BONDS. 


3i5 


which  they  are  known  from  the  rates  of  interest 
which  they  bear,  or  which  they  bore  when  originally 
issued. 

All  the  issues  of  United  States  bonds  now  out- 
standing, except  the  Currency  Sixes,  are  payable  in 
coin,  either  by  the  express  terms  of  the  Acts  under 
which  they  are  issued,  or  by  the  pledge  of  the  faith 
of  the  United  States  in  the  “ Public  Credit  Act  ” of 
March  18,  1869. 

The  Currency  Sixes  having  fixed  periods  to  run 
of  from  thirteen  to  seventeen  years,  with  no  option 
on  the  part  of  the  Government  to  call  them  in  be- 
fore maturity,  are,  for  this  reason,  desirable  for  long 
investment  for  Savings  Banks,  estates,  trust  funds 
and  banking  purposes. 

The  Three-and-a-half-per-cent.  bonds,  continued 
from  Sixes  of  1881,  and  known  as  “ Continued 
Sixes,”  are  now  being  called  in  from  time  to  time, 
and  will  probably  all  be  paid  off  from  the  surplus 
revenue,  within  the  next  two  years. 

The  Three-and-a-half-per-cent.  bonds,  continued 
from  Fives  of  1881,  and  known  as  “Continued 
Fives,”  are  pretty  certain  to  remain  undisturbed  for 
several  years,  unless  the  holders  are  offered  in  the 
meantime,  by  new  legislation,  the  advantage  of  ex- 
changing them  for  bonds  having  a definite  time  to 
run,  as  an  equivalent  for  a somewhat  lower  rate  of 
interest. 

The  Four-and-a-half-per-cents  have  still  nine 
years  to  run  ; but  the  Four-per-cents,  having  twenty- 
five  years  to  run,  must  be  considered  as  the  most 
desirable  for  permanent  investment  of  any  of  the 
issues  now  outstanding,  unless  the  avoidance  of  the 
high  premium  is  desired,  in  which  case  the  Contin- 
ued Fives  will  be  most  suitable. 

COUPON  BONDS. 

Coupon  bonds,  being  payable  to  bearer,  pass  by 
delivery  without  assignment,  and  are  therefore  more 
convenient  for  sale  and  delivery  than  registered 
bonds,  which  must  be  assigned  by  the  party  in 
whose  name  they  arc  registered.  The  interest  cou- 
pons being  also  payable  to  the  bearer  upon  presen- 
tation at  any  Sub-Treasury  of  the  United  States,  the 
holder  of  coupon  bonds  may  collect  his  interest 
without  the  necessity  of  personal  identification. 

The  difficulty  of  holding  coupon  bonds  with  safety 
by  parties  not  provided  with  burglar  proof  safes  or 
vaults  of  their  own.  has  been,  to  a considerable  ex- 


tent, removed  by  the  establishment  of  “Safe  Deposit 
Companies,”  who  undertake,  for  a moderate  com- 
pensation, the  custody  of  securities,  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions  for  securing  absolute  safety. 

Coupon  bonds  may  be  converted  into  registered 
bonds  of  the  same  issue,  at  the  Treasury  Depart- 
ment in  Washington,  but  there  is  no  provision  of 
law  for  converting  registered  bonds  into  coupon 
bonds. 

Coupon  bonds  forwarded  to  the  Treasury  Depart- 
ment for  conversion  into  registered  bonds  should  be 
addressed  to  “The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
Washington,  D.  C. ; ” except  in  case  they  are  for- 
warded by  a National  Bank,  or  for  account  of  a 
National  Bank,  to  secure  deposits  or  circulation  ; in 
which  case,  if  they  are  to  secure  deposits,  they 
should  be  sent  to  “The  Treasurer  of  the  U.  S.;” 
or,  if  they  are  to  secure  circulation,  to  “ The  Comp- 
troller of  the  Currency.” 

REGISTERED  BONDS. 

Registered  bonds  are  issued  without  interest  cou- 
pons, and  are  filled  up  in  the  name  of  the  registered 
owner,  payable  to  him  or  his  assigns.  They  are  reg- 
istered on  the  books  of  the  Treasury  Department  in 
the  name  of  the  party  to  whom  they  are  filled  up, 
and  are  not  available  to  any  other  person  until  prop- 
erly assigned  or  transferred  by  the  registered  owner. 

If  registered  bonds  are  lost  or  stolen,  payment 
may  be  stopped  by  notifying  the  Treasury  Depart- 
ment at  Washington,  as  detailed  in  Chapter  VI. 

For  this  reason,  registered  bonds  afford  greater 
security  in  case  of  loss,  theft  or  destruction  than 
coupon  bonds,  and  are  therefore  preferable  for  long 
or  permanent  investment,  and  for  investors  who 
have  not  the  proper  facilities  for  the  safe  keeping  of 
coupon  bonds. 

ASSIGNMENT. 

Registered  bonds  are  transferable  on  the  books  of 
the  Treasury  Department  at  Washington,  when  for 
warded  there  with  a proper  assignment  filled  up  and 
executed  in  accordance  with  a form  printed  on 
the  back  of  the  bonds.  When  a transfer  is  made, 
the  old  bond  is  cancelled  and  a new  one  issued  in 
the  name  of  the  party  to  whom  it  has  been  trans- 
ferred. 

As  the  interest  on  registered  bonds,  as  it  becomes 
due.  is  sent  bv  check  to  the  owner,  at  his  Dost-offic/ 


GOVERNMENT  BONDS. 


316 


-*58 


address,  this  address  should  be  given  with  each 
order. 

An  executor,  administrator,  trustee,  guardian,  or 
attorney  cannot  assign  bonds  to  himself,  unless  he  is 
specially  authorized  to  do  so  by  a court  possessing 
jurisdiction  of  the  matter. 

Registered  bonds  forwarded  to  the  Treasury  De- 
partment for  transfer  should  be  addressed  to  “ The 
Register  of  the  Treasury,  Washington,  D.  C.,”  ex- 
cept in  case  they  are  forwarded  by  a National  Bank 
or  for  account  of  a National  Bank,  to  secure  de- 
posits or  circulation,  when  the  instructions  contained 
in  the  succeeding  chapter  should  be  followed. 

QUOTATIONS. 


issue  would  be  117,  the  three  months’  interest  being 
equal  to  one  per  cent. 


RATES  OF  INTEREST  AND  DENOM- 
INATIONS. 

The  interest  on  the  different  issues  of  Govern- 
ment bonds  now  in  circulation  is  payable  as  follows 
— viz.: 


Currency  Sixes 6 per  cent.,  semi-annually,  January  i and  July  i 


Continued  Sixes  of  1881..3.#  “ 
Continued  Fives  of  1S81.3X  “ 

Four-and-a-half-per-cts.4)i  “ 
Four-per-cents 4 “ 


“ “ January  rand  July  1 

, J February  1 and  May  1 
quarter.y,  1 1 

' August  1 and  Nov.  1 

„ ,,  1 March  1 and  June  1 

' Sept.  1 and  Dec.  1 
.1  „ J January  1 and  April  1 

' July  1 and  October  1 


All  Government  Bonds  are  dealt  in  and  quoted 
flat — that  is  to  say,  the  quoted  market  price  is  for 
the  bond  as  it  stands  at  the  time,  including  the  ac- 
crued interest,  except  that  after  the  closing  of  the 
transfer  books  the  registered  bonds  are  quoted  ex- 
interest — that  is  to  say,  the  interest  then  coming  due 
belongs  to  the  holder  of  the  bond  at  the  time  of  the 
closing  of  the  books,  and  does  not  go  with  the  bond 
to  the  purchaser. 

In  comparing  the  prices  of  the  coupon  and  regis- 
tered bonds  during  the  period  in  which  the  transfer 
books  remain  closed,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
during  that  time  the  quoted  price  of  the  coupon 
bonds  includes  the  accrued  interest  falling  due  on 
the  first  of  the  ensuing  month,  while  that  of  the  reg- 
istered bonds  does  not.  If  the  market  value  of  the 
registered  and  coupon  bonds  at  the  time  is  the  same, 
the  difference  in  the  quoted  prices  of  the  two  will  be 
equal  to  the  value  of  the  interest  included  in  the 
one  and  not  in  the  other.  For  example  : If,  in  the 

month  of  December,  when  the  books  are  closed  pre- 
paratory to  the  payment  of  the  interest  due  January 
1st,  the  coupon  Four-per-cents  are  quoted  at  118, 
the  equivalent  for  the  registered  bonds  of  the  same 


The  only  coupon  bonds  are  in  the  Four-  and  the 
Four-and-a-half-per-cent  loans.  They  are  in  de- 
nominations of  $50,  $100,  $500,  and  $1,000. 

There  are  registered  bonds  of  all  issues.  They  are 
in  denominations  of  $50,  $100,  $500,  $1,000,  $5,000 
and  $10,000,  except  that  of  the  Currency  Sixes 
there  are  none  of  a less  denomination  than  $1,000. 

Of  the  funded  loans,  viz.,  the  Five-per-cents 
(continued  at  3J  per  cent.),  the  Four-and-a-half-per- 
cents,  and  the  Four-per-cents,  there  are,  in  addition 
to  the  above,  registered  bonds  of  the  denomination 
of  $20,000  and  $50,000. 

It  is  not  generally  advisable  to  have  bonds  regis- 
tered in  higher  denominations  than  $10,000,  as  they 
will  not  bring  as  good  a price  in  the  market  in 
case  of  sale.  The  highest  denomination  which  is  a 
good  delivery  at  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange  is 
$10,000 

CALLED  BONDS. 

Bonds  concerning  which  the  Government  has  ex- 
ercised its  option  of  redemption,  and  given  notice 
that  they  will  cease  to  bear  interest  after  a certain 
date,  are  designated  as  “ called  bonds.” 


%r 


4 


DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  TERMS. 


S'7 


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kl Ktliz/zlil/ ‘TiiA-Wi!  ’ *JLVAiliv;  * i l» A rl L « A ♦ i I « A « i I*,*. «1  lv,«i I * A*  1 . 


^ctiona^ 


xxxxXIXxxxXxxx, lxXXxXXXXx 

iun^^ 


slM 


W' 


flip 


— 1 

f 

YY 

j; 

lit 

I 

If 

ygyg^^BANDONMENT.  The  relinquishing  to  the  under- 
writers, under  an  insurance,  of  all  the  property  saved 
from  a wreck,  in  order  to  entitle  the  insured  to  claim  for 
a total  loss. 

Abate.  To  break  down,  destroy,  or  remove  ; as,  for 
instance,  to  abate  (remove  or  put  an  end  to)  a nuisance. 
Abduction.  The  unlawful  talcing  or  detention  of  a 
Yoman  (having  property  in  possession  or  expectancy)  against 
her  will,  with  the  intention  of  procuring  her  marriage  or  de- 
filement. Also  the  unlawful  taking  of  an  unmarried  girl,  un- 
der the  age  ot  sixteen  years,  out  of  the  possession,  and 
against  the  will  of,  the  father,  or  other  person  having  the  lawful  care  of 
her,  although  done  without  force  or  corrupt  motives.  The  former  is  a 
felony,  and  the  latter  a misdemeanor. 

Abettor.  A person  who  encourages  or  excites  another  to  commit  an 
offence  punishable  by  law. 

Abeyance.  The  fee  simple  of  lands  is  in  abeyance  when  there  is  no 
person  in  being  in  whom  it  can  vest,  so  that  it  is  in  a state  of  expectancy 
or  waiting  until  a proper  person  shall  appear,  or  the  right  thereto  is 
determined.  The  same  applies  to  dignities  or  offices. 

Abjuration  (oath  of).  An  oath  disclaiming  any  right  in  the  pre- 
tender to  the  British  throne,  and  also  the  jurisdiction  and  authority  ol 
the  pope  or  any  other  foreign  prince  within  this  realm. 

Abortion.  The  offence  of  procuring  the  miscarriage  ot  a woman 
quick  with  child. 

Abstract  of  Title.  An  epitome  of  the  deeds  and  documents  consti- 
tuting the  evidence  of  title  to  an  estate. 

Acceptance.  The  act  by  which  a person  on  whom  a bill  of  exchange 
is  drawn  undertakes  to  pay  it  at  maturity.  The  bill  of  exchange  itself  is 
sometimes  called,  in  common  parlance,  an  acceptance. 

Accessory.  A person  concerned  in  a felonious  offence,  although  not 
the  actual  perpetrator,  nor  present  at  its  performance.  He  may  be 
accessory  cither  before  or  after  the  fact. 

Accommodation  Bill.  A bill  of  exchange  accepted  without  value, 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  money  thereon  by  discount. 

Account  Stated.  An  account  closed  or  balanced. 


Acknowledgment  by  a Married  Woman.  A ceremony  gone  through 
bv  a married  woman  to  enable  her  to  convey  her  interest  in  land,  and 
which  has  been  substituted  for  the  old  process  of  a fine. 

Action.  The  method  of  demanding  the  enforcement  of  a legal 
right,  and  procuring  redress  for  a civil  injury  in  the  courts  of  common 
jaw. 


Act  of  Parliament.  See  Statutes. 

Acts  of  Bankruptcy  are  numerous — such  as  keeping  out  of  the  way 
to  avoid  a creditor,  etc. 

Addition.  The  title,  degree,  profession,  or  business,  and  also  the 
place  of  abode  of  a person. 

Adjudication.  In  England,  the  act  of  giving  judgment,  as,  for  in- 
stance, when  a bankruptcy  judge  finds  a party  bankrupt,  it  is  called  the 
Adjudication.  In  Scotland  it  is  applied  to  the  law  whereby  a creditor 
attaches  the  property  of  his  debtor,  and  has  different  significations 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  property  attached. 

Administrator.  He  that  has  the  goods  of  a person  dying  without  a 
will  committed  to  his  care,  for  the  purpose  of  legal  distribution.  The 
nearest  of  kin  is  entitled  to  administration. 

Admiralty  (Court  of),  has  cognizance  of  all  civil  (but  not  now,  as  It 
had  formerly,  of  criminal)  matters,  arising  on  the  high  seas,  or  on  those 
parts  of  the  coast  which  are  not  within  the  limits  of  an  English  county. 
— Aiso  of  prize  cases.  Criminal  matters  are  triable  before  the  ordinary 
assize  courts  of  the  nearest  English  county. 

Ad  Valorem.  Stamp  duties,  the  amount  of  which  is  regulated  ac- 
cording to  the  value  of  the  property,  etc.,  are  so  termed. 

Advowson.  The  right  of  presentation  to  an  ecclesiastical  benefice. 
He  who  possesses  this  right  is  styled  the  patron.  Advowsons  are  of 
three  kinds,  presentative,  collative,  or  donative. 

Affidavit.  A written  statement  upon  oath.  It  must  be  sworn  before 
a person  authorized  to  administer  oaths ; who  that  is,  depends  upon 
what  the  affidavit  relates  to.  The  same  officer  is  not  usually  empow. 
ered  to  administer  oaths  in  all  the  courts. 

Affinity.  Relation  by  marriage  between  the  husband  or  wife  and 
the  blood  relations  of  either ; but  not  between  the  husband  and  wife 
themselves. 

Affirmation.  A solemn  declaration  in  lieu  of  an  oath. 

A Fortiori.  By  so  much  stronger  reason. 

Agent.  A person  appointed  to  do  an  act  for  another.  The  act  when 
performed  is,  in  law,  the  act  of  the  principal ; the  maxim  being  “ qul 
facit  peralium  facit  per  se.” 

Agistment.  Where  cattle  are  taken  in  to  pasture;  from  agiser,  1.  e., 
levant  and  couchant. 

Alderman.  Literally,  an  elder  man.  In  London  the  aldermen  are 
magistrates  chosen  for  life. 

Alibi.  Elsewhere.  A defence  by  which  it  is  proved  that  the  accused 
was  not  at  the  place  where  the  offence  was  committed  at  the  time  of  its 
commission. 


3 1 


DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  TERMS. 


Alien.  One  born  In  a foreign  country  out  of  the  allegiance  of  the 
queen. 

To  Aliene.  To  convey  or  dispose  of  property  to  another. 

Alimony.  An  allowance  made  by  a husband  to  his  wife  when  living 
apart  from  her. 

Aliunde.  Elsewhere,  besides,  &c. 

Allegations.  The  pleadings  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Courts  are  so 
termed. 

Allegiance.  The  obedience  which  every  subject  owes  to  his  prince 
or  liege  lord. 

Allocation.  An  allowance  made  on  an  account  in  the  Exchequer. 

Allocatur.  The  certificate  by  which  a taxing  master  certifies  the 
amount  at  which  he  has  taxed  a bill  of  costs. 

Allodial  (contradistinguished  from  feudal),  is  where  lands  are  held 
free,  i.  e.  without  being  subject  to  any  fine,  rent,  or  service. 

Amicus  Curiae.  A counsel  (or  by-stander),  who  informs  the  judge 
on  a point  of  law,  on  which  he  is  doubtful  or  mistaken. 

Ancestor.  The  law  distinguishes  between  ancestor  and  prede- 
cessor ; the  former  is  applied  to  individuals,  the  latter  to  corporations. 

Ancient  Demesne.  A tenure  of  lands  partaking  of  the  properties 
both  of  copyhold  and  freehold. 

Apparator.  A messenger  that  serves  the  process  of  the  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Court. 

Appeal.  The  removal  of  a cause  from  an  inferior  into  a superior 
court,  for  the  purpose  of  impeaching  the  judgment  of  the  inferior 
court. 

Appearance  to  Action.  The  first  formal  step  by  a defendant  in  an 
action  or  suit.  It  is  a notice  that  he  intends  to  defend. 

Appellant.  The  person  appealing  to  a superior  from  the  decision  of 
an  inferior  court. 

Appanage.  The  portion  of  the  younger  children  of  continental 
princes. 

Appointment.  A formal  execution  of  some  power  or  authority  ; as, 
for  instance,  a power  to  dispose  of  property  amongst  a certain  class,  as 
children  or  grandchildren. 

Appraiser.  A person  who  values  personal  chattels. 

Appropriation.  The  appropriation  of  a payment  means  the  ap- 
plying of  it  to  the  discharge  of  a particular  debt,  where  the  creditor  to 
whom  it  is  made  has  more  than  one  debt  due  from  the  same  debtor. 

Approver.  A person  guilty  of  an  indictable  offence,  who,  to  obtain 
pardon  for  himself,  makes  a full  confession,  and  is  admitted  to  give 
evidence  against  his  accomplices. 

Arbitration.  An  extrajudicial  method  of  settling  matters  in  differ- 
ence by  referring  them  to  the  arbitrament  or  determination  of  persons 
appointed  by  the  disputants,  and  termed  arbitrators. 

Arches  Court.  A court  of  appeal  from  all  inferior  Ecclesiastical 
Courts  within  the  province  of  Canterbury,  England. 

Arraignment.  A term  of  criminal  procedure.  A prisoner,  after  hav- 
ing had  the  indictment  read  over  to  him,  is  commanded  to  state  wheth- 
er or  not  he  is  guilty.  This  proceeding  is  termed  the  arrraignment. 

Arrest.  A legal  seizure,  capture,  or  taking  of  a man’s  person  which 
is  effected  by  corporeal  touching,  or  something  equivalent  thereto.  In 
civil  cases  a man  can  only  be  arrested  under  legal  process.  The  officer 
cannot  break  open  a man’s  outer  door  for  the  purpose  of  arresting  him  ; 
nor  can  arrest  on  a civil  process  be  effected  on  a Sunday,  except  after 
an  escape. 

Arrest  of  Judgment.  Where  the  court  stays  a judgment,  after  a ver- 
dict, on  some  question  of  law. 

Arson.  Felonious  houseburning. 

Articled  Clerk.  A student  bound  by  deed  to  serve  an  attorney  pre- 
paratory to  his  own  admission  to  practice. 

Articles  of  the  Peace.  A complaint  against  a person  to  compel  him 
to  find  sureties  to  keep  the  peace. 

Assault  and  Battery.  An  attempt  or  offer,  with  force  and  violence, 
to  do  a corporal  hurt  to  another  is  an  assault ; an  injury  actually  done 
vO  the  person  of  another  in  an  angry,  revengeful,  or  insolent  manner, 
be  it  ever  so  small,  is  a battery. 

Assets.  Property,  whether  real  or  personal,  in  the  hands  of  an  exec- 
utor, &c.,  for  the  purpose  of  satisfying  debts. 

Assignee.  A person  to  whom  any  real  or  personal  property  is  trans- 
ferred by  the  act  of  law,  as  an  executor,  an  assignee  of  a bankrupt,  &c., 
or  by  the  act  of  party,  as  a purchaser  of  a lease. 


Assignment.  A transfer  of  any  kind  of  property  from  one  person  to 
another. 

Assumpsit.  A verbal  or  parol  promise  expressed  or  implied,  spring- 
ing out  of  a simple  contract.  The  law  always  implies  a promise  to  do 
that  which  a party  is  legally  bound  to  perform.  An  action  of  assump- 
sit or  promise  is  the  remedy  for  breach  of  a parol  as  distinguished  from 
a written  contract. 

Assurance.  The  securing  the  payment  of  a sum  of  money  or  other 
benefit  on  the  happening  of  a certain  event,  as,  for  instance,  the  death 
of  a person.  This  is  the  term  now  usually  applied  to  life  contingencies, 
as  contradistinguished  from  fires,  losses  at  sea,  &c.,as  to  which  the 
term  insurance  is  still  used. 

Attachment.  A process  of  the  Courts  of  Law  and  Equity  for  com- 
pelling by  arrest  the  performance  of  an  act,  which  a party  is  already  in 
contempt- for  not  performing.  Also  an  ancient  remedy  open  to  credi- 
tors in  London,  and  some  other  cities,  to  attach  the  money  or  goods  of 
their  debtor  in  the  hands  of  a third  party  within  the  city. 

Attorney.  A person  appointed  by  another  by  letter  or  power  of  at- 
torney to  do  anything  for  him  in  his  absence. 

Attorney-at-Law.  An  officer  of  the  superior  courts  of  law,  legally 
authorized  to  transact  the  business  of  other  persons — termed  his  clients 
— in  those  courts. 

Attornment.  An  acknowledgment  by  one  person  that  he  holds  lands, 
or  is  the  tenant,  of  another,  thereby  creating  between  them  the  relation 
of  landlord  and  tenant. 

Autre  Droit.  When  a person  holds  an  estate  not  in  his  own  right, 
but  in  right  of  another. 

Autre  Vie.  For  the  life  of  another. 

Average.  A contribution  to  a general  loss.  When,  for  the  safety  of 
a ship  in  distress,  any  destruction  of  property  is  incurred,  all  persons 
having  goods  on  board  contribute  ratably  to  the  loss ; this  is  called 
average. 

Award.  The  judgment  or  decision  of  an  arbitrator. 

Backing  a Warrant.  The  indorsing  by  a justice  of  the  peace  of  the 
county  where  a warrant  (which  has  been  granted  by  the  justice  of  the 
peace  of  another  county)  is  about  to  be  executed,  and  is  a necessary  act 
to  be  done  before  a person  can  be  apprehended  in  a county  different  to 
that  in  which  the  warrant  was  issued. 

Bail.  The  sureties  for  the  reappearance  of  a person  released  from 
custody. 

Bail-Bond.  A document  under  seal,  by  which  a person  becomes  bail. 

Bailee.  An  individual  intrusted  with  the  custody  of  goods  ; for  in- 
tance,  a carrier. 

Bailiff.  There  are  various  kinds  of  bailiffs  ; the  most  common  being 
those  appointed  by  the  sheriff,  commonly  called  sheriff’s  officer. 

Bailment.  A delivery  of  a thing  in  trust  for  some  special  object  of 
purpose. 

Bailor.  The  person  who  makes  a bailment,  or  delivers  goods  to  a 
bailee. 

Banc,  or  Banco  (sittings  in).  The  sittings  of  the  judges  of  the  su- 
perior Courts  of  Common  Law. 

Banker.  A person  who  holds  the  money  of  another,  and  disposes  of 
it  as  the  other  from  time  to  time  directs. 

Bank  Note.  A promise  by  a banker  to  pay  a specified  sum  to  the 
holder. 

Bankrupt.  A trader  who  is  indebted  in  a certain  amount,  and  has 
committed  an  act  of  bankruptcy.  See  Acts  of  Bankruptcy. 

Bargain  and  Sale.  A form  of  conveyance  ; but  rarely  now  used. 

Baron  and  Feme.  The  old  legal  style  of  husband  and  wife. 

Barratry.  Any  act  of  the  master  or  crew  of  a ship  which  is  of  a crim 
inal  or  fraudulent  nature,  tending  to  the  prejudice  of  the  owners. 

Barristers.  A body  of  men  qualified  by  admission  in  one  of  the  Inns 
of  Court  to  plead  as  advocates  ; such  admission  is  termed,  being  “ called 
to  the  bar.” 

Base  Fee.  A freehold  estate  of  inheritance,  liable  to  be  determined 
on  the  happening  of  a certain  event. 

Battel.  A trial  by  combat,  formerly  allowed  by  the  law,  by  which 
the  innocence  or  guilt  of  a party  was  decided. 

Battery.  See  Assault  and  Battery. 

Bencher.  A Senior  of  the  Inns  of  Court. 

Benefice.  An  ecclesiastical  living. 


DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  TERMS. 


r 


Benefit  of  Clergy.  Certain  privileges  formerly  enjoyed  by  the 
tlergy  alone  ; afterwards  a privilege  claimed  by  all  criminals  who 
could  read,  but  now  abolished. 

Bequest.  A testamentary  disposition  of  personal  estate. 

Bigamy.  The  criminal  offence  of  a married  man  or  woman  pretend- 
ing to  marry  again,  his  wife  or  her  husband  (as  the  case  may  be)  being 
still  alive. 

Bill.  The  term  applied  to  an  intended  statute  when  passing  through 
Congress,  prior  to  its  becoming  law. 

Bill  in  Chancery.  A printed  statement  of  the  plaintiff’s  case  in  the 
form  of  a petition  to  the  Lord  Chancellor,  praying  for  redress.  It  is 
the  first  step  in  a suit. 

Bill  of  Exceptions.  A mode  of  appealing  from  the  decision  of  a 
judge  on  a point  of  law. 

Bill  of  Exchange.  A written  order  for  payment  of  money  by  one 
person  (called  the  drawer)  upon  another  (termed  the  drawee).  When 
the  drawee  has  undertaken  to  pay  the  bill,  which  he  does  by  writing 
his  name  across  it,  he  is  termed  the  acceptor.  Bills  of  exchange  are  ne- 
gotiable, i.  e.  they  confer  on  the  holder  the  right  of  suing  upon  it, 
which  he  could  not  do  in  the  case  of  a mere  ordinary  contract,  for  the 
want  of  that  privity  which  the  law  in  ordinary  cases  requires  between 
the  parties  to  a contract.  The  law  as  to  bills  of  exchange  is  governed 
by  the  law  Merchant.  See  Law  Merchant. 

Bill  of  Lading.  A memorandum  or  receipt  signed  by  the  master  of  a 
ship,  acknowledging  the  shipment  of  goods,  which  are  usually  made 
deliverable  to  the  consignee,  or  his  order.  One  part  of  the  bill  of  lading 
is  sent  to  the  consignee  by  post.  By  indorsing  the  bill  of  lading  the 
property  in  the  goods  is  passed  to  the  indorsee,  and  so  from  hand  to 
hand.  The  bill  of  lading,  properly  indorsed,  forms,  in  fact,  the  title  to 
the  goods,  and  without  the  production  of  which  the  captain  would  not 
deliver  the  goods. 

Bill  of  Sale.  An  assignment  of  goods  and  chattels,  by  writing  ; gen- 
enerally,  but  not  necessarily,  under  hand  and  seal. 

Bona  Fide.  With  good  faith. 

Bond.  A written  obligation,  under  seal.  If  for  the  payment  of  a 
sum  of  money  upon  or  after  the  death  of  a person,  it  is  then  termed  a 
post-obit  bond.  The  person  making  a bond  is  called  the  obligor,  and 
he  to  whom  it  is  given,  the  obligee. 

Borough.  A town  having  now,  or  having  formerly  had,  corporate 
rights. 

Borough-English.  A tenure  by  which  the  youngest  son  inherits 
from  the  father. 

Bottomry.  The  borrowing  of  money  by  the  master  on  the  bottom  or 
hull  of  a ship  ; to  be  paid  with  interest,  if  the  ship  return  in  safety,  but 
otherwise  to  be  lost  or  forfeited. 

Breach  of  Covenant.  The  doing  of  an  act  which  a party  has  cove- 
nanted not  to  do,  or  the  neglecting  to  do  that  which  he  has  covenanted 
to  perform. 

Breach  of  the  Peace.  An  act  by  which  the  public  repose  is  dis- 
turbed, and  the  safety  of  the  community,  more  or  less,  endangered. 

Breach  of  Promise.  The  doing,  or  abstaining  from  doing,  something 
contrary  to  an  undertaking  or  contract. 

Breach  of  Trust.  A neglect  of  duty  by  a trustee,  or  person  standing 
in  a fiduciary  relation,  in  violation  of  his  trust. 

Bribery.  The  giving  or  receiving  any  reward  for  corrupt  pur- 
poses. 

Brief.  An  abridgment  of  a client’s  case,  for  the  instruction  of  coun- 
sel on  a trial,  or  hearing  in  court. 

Broker.  An  agent  employed  to  buy  or  sell  goods;  a sort  of  middle- 
man between  vendor  and  purchaser.  He  is  not,  like  a factor,  intrusted 
with  the  possession  of  the  articles  he  vends. 

Brokerage.  The  commission  paid  to  a broker. 

Burgage  Tenure.  A tenure  whereby  houses  or  lands  are  held  in  cer- 
tain ancient  boroughs. 

Burgesses  includes  all  the  inhabitants  of  a borough. 

Burglary.  The  offence  of  entering  a dwelling-house,  in  the  night, 
with  intent  to  commit  felony. 

Bursar.  The  treasurer  of  a college.  In  Scotland  it  is  nearly  syn- 
onymous with  sizar  in  the  English  universities. 

By-Law.  A private  law  made  by  those  duly  authorized  by  charter, 
custom,  or  prescription  ; but  such  by-law  must  be  consonant  to  the  pub- 
lic laws  laws  and  statutes,  and  for  the  common  benefit. 

k 


Canon  Law.  A collection  of  ecclesiastical  constitutions,  definitions, 
and  rules,  derived  from  the  ancient  councils,  the  writings  of  the  fath- 
ers, ordinances  of  popes,  etc.  At  the  Reformation  it  was  enacted  that 
a review  should  be  had  of  the  Canon  Law  ; but  that,  until  such  review, 
the  existing  law  should  continue  in  force,  except  as  far  as  the  same 
should  be  repugnant  to  the  law  of  the  land  or  the  Royal  Prerogatives — 
this  still  remains  the  state  of  the  law,  such  review  never  having  been 
made.  The  canons  of  1603,  having  been  made  by  the  clergy,  and  con- 
firmed by  the  king,  James  I.,  alone,  but  not  by  Parliament,  do  not 
bind  the  laity. 

Capias.  A writ  authorizing  the  arrest  of  a defendant  in  a suit.  It  is 
issued,  either  after  judgment,  or  when  it  is  satisfactorily  shown  that 
the  defendant  is  about  to  leave  the  realm  before  trial. 

Capias  ad  Satisfaciendum,  or  Ca-sa.  The  writ  of  capias  when  is- 
sued after  judgment : so  termed,  because  the  defendant  is  taken  to 
satisfy  the  plaintiff’s  demands. 

Caption.  The  act  of  arresting  a man.  See  Arrest. 

Carrier.  A person  whose  business  it  is  to  carry  goods,  (or  the  proper 
delivery  and  safety  of  which  he  is  legally  responsible. 

Casus  Omissus.  Where  anything  is  omitted,  or  not  provided  against 
by  a statute,  &c. 

Caveat.  A proceeding  to  prevent  an  act  being  done,  such  as  the 
granting  of  administration,  without  notice  to  the  party  entering  the 
caveat. 

Caveat  Emptor.  Let  the  purchaser  beware.  It  signifies  that  a ven- 
dor is  not  bound  to  answer  for  the  goodness  of  his  wares,  unless  he 
expressly  warrants  them. 

Certiorari.  A writ  for  the  removal  of  a cause  from  an  inferior  to  a 
superior  court.  This  writ  always  lies,  unless  where  expressly  taken 
away  by  statute,  and  herein  it  differs  from  an  appeal,  which  can  never 
be  had  unless  expressly  given. 

Cestui  que  Trust.  He  who  is  the  real  and  beneficial  owner  of  prop- 
erty held  in  trust. 

Cestui  que  Vie.  The  person  for  whose  life  lands  are  held.  See. 
Tenant  pur  autre  vie. 

Challenge.  An  exception  taken  by  a prisoner  against  one  or  more 
jurors,  who,  when  challenged,  are  set  aside,  if  the  challenge  be  al- 
lowed, and  new  ones  put  in  their  places. 

Chambers.  A lawyer’s  apartments. 

Champerty.  The  offence  of  unlawfully  maintaining  a suit  in  con- 
sideration of  a bargain  for  a part  of  the  thing  in  dispute,  or  some  profit 
out  of  it. 

Chancellor.  An  officer  of  the  highest  dignity  and  authority  in  various 
departments. 

Chance  Medley.  The  accidental  killing  of  any  one,  without  malice 
prepense. 

Chancery.  The  highest  court  of  judicature  next  to  the  Parliament, 
and  of  very  ancient  institution.  The  Court  of  Chancery  is  called  a 
Court  of  Equity,  because  it  was  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  proceed- 
ing by  the  rules  of  equity  and  conscience,  and  of  moderating  the  rigor 
of  the  common  law  ; equity  being  the  correction  of  that  wherein  the 
law,  by  reason  of  its  universality,  is  deficient. — Yet  the  Court  of  Chan- 
cery is  not  intended  to  act  in  opposition  to,  but  in  assistance  of,  the 
common  law,  supplying  its  deficiencies,  not  contradicting  its  rules  ; no 
judgment  of  law  being  reversible  by  a degree  in  Chancery. 

Charter.  A royal  grant  or  privilege,  granted  to  corporations,  com- 
panies, etc. 

Charter-Party.  An  instrument  between  merchants  and  owners  or 
masters  of  ships,  containing  the  particulars  of  the  contract  for  the  hire 
of  the  ship.  It  is  in  fact  a mercantile  lease  of  the  ship. 

Chattels.  There  arc  two  kinds,  chattels  real  and  chattels  personal ; 
the  former  are  leasehold  property,  and  the  latter  personal  goods  oi 
chattels,  as  furniture  or  money. 

Chose.  A thing.  Chose-en-action  is  a thing  of  which  a man  has 
not  the  possession,  and  which  he  can  only  claim  by  action,  as,  for  in. 
stance,  a debt  owing  to  him  by  another. 

Church  Rates.  Rates  assessed  by  the  parishioners,  in  vestry  assem- 
bled, for  the  repair  of  the  parish  church.  It  is  now  definitely  settled 
that,  if  the  majority  vote  against  the  rate,  it  may  be  resisted  with  im- 
punity. 

Churchwardens.  Officers  annually  chosen  to  superintend  the  churcn. 
churchyard,  and  such  things  as  belong  thereto. 


32° 


DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  TERMS. 


Citation.  The  first  step  in  an  ecclesiastical  cause,  analogous  to  the 
writ  of  summons  in  an  action. 

Civil  Law.  The  Roman  law  is  comprised  in  the  institutes, code,  and 
digest  of  the  Emperor  Justinian. 

Clerk.  The  strict  definition  of  the  word  “ clerk  ” is  a person  in  holy 
orders,  but  it  is  now  generally  applied  to  any  person  whose  chief  occu- 
pation is  writing. 

Client.  Anciently,  a Roman  citizen,  taken  under  the  protection  of 
some  great  man,  who  was  styled  his  patron.  The  term  is  now  applied 
to  a party  who  employs  a solicitor  or  counsel  in  any  legal  proceeding. 

Close.  An  enclosed  piece  of  ground. 

Code.  A collection  or  system  of  laws,  as  the  Code  Napoleon. 

Codicil.  A supplement  to  a will.  See  Will. 

Cognovit  Actionem.  An  instrument  by  which  a defendant  ac- 
knowledges the  plaintiff's  cause,  and  suffers  judgment  to  be  entered 
against  him  without  trial. 

Collateral  Descent.  That  which  descends  from  a side  branch  of  a 
family  ; as  from  an  uncle  or  a nephew. 

Collative.  An  advowson  vested  in  the  bishop.  He  cannot  present 
to  himself,  but  he  confers  the  benefice  on  his  nominee  by  collation. 

Commendam.  A beneficed  clergyman,  when  promoted  to  a bishop- 
ric, vacates  his  benefice  by  the  promotion,  but  the  crown  might  for- 
merly, by  special  grant,  have  given  him  power  to  retain  his  benefice, 
and  when  this  was  done,  he  was  said  to  hold  it  in  commendam.  Grants 
in  commendam  are  now  abolished. 

Commission.  The  warrant,  or  letters-patent,  authorizing  any  in- 
quiry judicial  or  otherwise  ; as  the  commission  of  the  judges,  the  com- 
mission of  the  peace,  etc. 

Commitment.  The  sending  a person  who  has  been  guilty  of  any 
crime  to  prison,  by  warrant  or  order. 

Committee.  Persons  to  whom  the  consideration  of  any  matter  is  re- 
ferred ; as  a Committee  of  the  House  of  Congress. 

Common  (Rights  of).  These  are  of  four  sorts : viz.,  pasture,  pis- 
cary, estovers,  and  turbary.  Common  of  pasture  is  the  right  of 
feeding  one’s  cattle  on  the  land  of  another  ; piscary,  that  of  fishing  in 
waters  belonging  to  another  ; estovers,  the  right  of  taking  wood  from 
another’s  estate,  for  household  use  and  implements  in  husbandry  ; and 
turbary,  the  right  of  digging  turf  upon  another's  ground. 

Common  Law.  The  law  of  England  is  composed  of  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment or  statutes,  and  the  custom  of  the  realm.  The  latter  consisting  of 
those  rules  or  maxims,  which  have  obtained  by  common  consent  an  im- 
memorial usage.  The  former  are  designated  the  lex  scripta,  or  stat- 
ute law  ; the  latter  the  lex  non  scripta,  or  common  law.  This  term  is 
also  applied  to  the  superior  courts  of  Westminster,  which  are  called 
Courts  of  Common  Law,  as  distinguished  from  the  Court  of  Chancery, 
which  is  a Court  of  Equity. 

Commonalty.  In  London  one  of  the  component  parts  of  the  Livery 
Companies,  which  consist  of  the  master,  wardens,  and  commonalty. 

Commutation  of  Tithes.  The  term  applied  to  the  conversion  of  the 
tithes  in  England  into  a fixed  rent  charge. 

Complainant.  One  who  complains  of  the  act  of  another  in  a court 
of  justice,  more  commonly  called  plaintiff. 

Compounding  Offences.  Entering  into  an  agreement  not  to  prose- 
cute an  offender,  for  any  consideration  received  or  to  be  received,  con- 
stitutes a crime,  for  which  the  offender  may  be  indicted. 

Compounding  with  Creditors.  An  agreement  by  which  creditors 
take  a portion  of  their  claims  in  discharge  of  the  whole. 

Conditions  of  Sale.  The  terms  upon  which  a vendor  undertakes  to 
sell  to  a purchaser. 

Confirmation.  A deed  by  which  a voidable  estate  in  land  is  made 
perfect. 

Congd  d’£lire.  The  license  of  the  crown  to  a dean  and  chapter  to 
choose  a bishop  ; a mere  form  to  be  gone  through,  as  they  can  only  ac- 
cept or  reject  the  candidate  nominated  by  the  crown. 

Conjugal  Rights.  Those  rights  of  husband  and  wife  which  spring 
out  of  their  relationship. 

Consanguinity.  Relationship  by  blood,  in  contradistinction  to  affin- 
ity, which  is  a relationship  by  marriage. 

Conservator.  A standing  arbitrator,  appointed  to  compose  and  ad- 
just differences  that  may  arise  between  parties,  etc. 

Consideration.  The  price  or  motive  of  a contract,  without  which  a 
simple  contract  is  void.  In  technical  language,  it  may  be  defined  as 


“ some  detriment  to  the  plaintiff  sustained  for  the  sake  or  at  the  instance 
of  the  defendant,  or  some  benefit  to  the  defendant  moving  from  the 
plaintiff.” 

Consignee.  A person  to  whom  goods  are  delivered  either  as  pur- 
chaser, or  more  generally  for  sale  on  commission. 

Consignor.  The  person  by  whose  act  or  directions  goods  are  deliv- 
ered to  the  consignee. 

Consignment.  The  act  of  making  over,  or  delivering,  goods  to  an- 
other. 

Conspiracy.  A combination  of  two  or  more  persons  to  carry  into 
effect  an  unlawful  purpose. 

Constructive  Trust.  A trust  founded  in  what  the  law  deems  to  be 
the  presumed,  as  contradistinguished  from  the  expressed,  intention  of 
its  creator. 

Consul.  An  officer  appointed  by  government  to  reside  abroad  and 
watch  over  the  interests  of  our  countrymen,  who  may  happen  to  reside 
in  or  be  passing  through  the  place  where  the  consul  is  located. 

Contempt.  Adisobedience  to  the  rules,  orders,  or  process  of  a court, 
which  has  power  to  punish  such  offence,  which  it  does  by  imprison- 
ment. 

Contingent  Remainders.  Estates  which  cannot  become  vested 
until  the  happening  of  some  uncertain  event. 

Contract.  A covenant  or  agreement  between  two  or  more  persons 
with  a lawful  consideration. 

Contribution.  Where  one  surety  or  joint  contractor  has  been  obliged 
to  satisfy  the  whole  demand,  he  may  obtain  contribution  from  his  fellow- 
surety  or  contractor. 

Contributory.  One  liable  to  contribute  to  the  liquidation  of  the  lia- 
bilities of  a joint-stock  company,  under  the  Winding-up  Acts. 

Conveyance.  A deed  which  passes  or  conveys  land  from  one  person 
to  another. 

Conveyancers.  Persons  who  devote  themselves  to  the  preparation 
of  formal  documents  concerning  property. 

Convict.  He  that  is  found  guilty  of  an  offence  by  the  verdict  of  a 
jury. 

Coparceners.  Such  as  have  equal  shares  in  the  inheritance  of  their 
ancestors ; as,  where  a man  dies  intestate,  having  two  daughters,  his 
heiresses,  they  take  his  freehold  lands  as  coparceners. 

Copyhold.  Land  held  by  a copy  of  the  court  rolls  of  a manor. 

Copyright.  The  exclusive  right  which  the  law  allows  an  author  of 
printing  and  publishing  his  own  original  work  for  a prescribed  period, 
viz.,  the  term  of  his  natural  life,  and  seven  years  afterwards ; and  if 
such  seven  years  expire  before  forty-two  years  from  the  time  of  the 
first  publication,  then  for  such  forty-two  years. 

Coram  non  Judice.  When  a judge  in  a court  of  law  exceeds  his 
jurisdiction  in  a cause,  it  is  said  to  be  coram  non  judice. 

Coroner.  An  officer  whose  duty  it  is  to  inquire  into  the  cause  by 
which  any  person  came  to  a sudden  or  violent  death,  which  must  be 
done,  before  him  and  the  jury  assembled  for  the  purpose,  upon  view  of 
the  body. 

Costs.  The  expenses  incurred  in  the  prosecution  or  defence  of  legal 
proceedings,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds,  those  between  party  and 
party,  and  those  between  attorney  and  client. 

Counsel.  See  “ Barrister  at  Law,”  who  is  usually  termed  counsel  or 
counsellor. 

Count,  in  common-law  pleadings,  is  a section  of  a declaration. 

County  Court.  Local  courts  established  throughout  the  country. 

Court  Baron.  A court  incident  to  every  manor,  held  by  the  steward, 
in  which  surrenders  and  admittances  of  the  manor  lands  are  passed,  and 
other  matters  relating  thereto  transacted. 

Court  Christian.  The  Ecclesiastical  Courts  are  so  called,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  civil  courts. 

Covenant.  An  agreement  under  seal. 

Coverture.  The  state  of  a married  woman  as  being  under  the  protec- 
tion and  influence  of  her  husband  or  baron.  She  is  called  a feme  covert. 

Crassa  Negligentia.  Gross  neglect. 

Crim.  Con.,  or  Criminal  Conversation.  Illicit  conversation  with  a 
married  woman,  for  which  the  party  is  liable  to  an  action  for  damages. 

Cross-examination.  The  interrogation  of  a witness  by  or  on  behalf 
of  the  party  against  whom  the  evidence  is  given. 

Curia  Advisare  Vult.  When  the  court  takes  time  to  consider  its 
-udgment. 


DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  TERMS. 


321 


Cursitors.  Officers  of  the  Court  of  Chancery  who  make  out  all  orig- 
inal writs. 

Curtesy  of  England.  An  estate  which  a husband  has  for  his  life  in 
his  wife’s  fee  simple,  or  fee  tail  estates  after  her  death.  The  wife  must 
have  been  actually  seised  of  such  estates,  and  have  had  issue  born  alive. 

Custodia  Legis.  In  the  custody  of  the  law. 

Custom.  A law,  not  written,  established  by  long  use,  and  the  con- 
sent ot  our  ancestors  : if  it  be  universal,  it  is  common  law  ; if  particular, 
it  is  then  properly  custom. 

Customs.  Duties  levied  on  commodities  exported  and  imported. 

Custos  Rotulorum.  The  officer  who  has  the  custody  of  the  rolls  or 
records  of  a county. 

Cy  pr£s  (as  near  to).  An  equitable  doctrine  applied  in  certain  cases, 
where  the  court  cannot  adhere  strictly  to  the  terms  of  an  instrument, 
but  carries  it  into  effect  cy  pr^s,  or  as  near  to  the  object  as  it  can. 

Damages.  The  amount  of  money  awarded  by  a jury,  to  be  paid  by 
a defendant  to  a plaintiff,  as  a compensation  for  the  injury  of  which  the 
latter  complains. 

Damnum  absque  injuria.  Any  act  done  by  one  which  may  cause 
loss  to  another  without  doing  him  a legal  injury. 

De  bene  esse.  To  do  a thing  de  bene  esse  is  to  accept  or  allow  it 
for  the  present  as  good,  until  it  comes  to  be  more  fully  examined,  and 
then  to  stand  or  fall  according  to  its  merits. 

Debenture.  A written  instrument  of  the  nature  of  a bond  or  bill  for 
a certain  sum  of  money. 

De  bonis  non.  When  an  administrator  dies,  the  right  does  not  de- 
scend to  his  own  representative,  but  a fresh  grant  of  administration 
must  be  obtained  of  the  goods  remaining  unadministered,  and  which  is 
called  an  administration  de  bonis  non. 

Declaration,  in  an  action  at  law,  signifies  the  plaintiff’s  statement  of 
his  cause  of  action. 

Declaration  of  Trust.  A written  or  verbal  expression  or  statement 
by  which  a person  acknowledges  himself  to  be  a trustee  for  another. 
If  relating  to  lands,  it  must  be  in  writing. 

Decree.  The  judgment  of  a Court  of  Equity. 

De  die  in  diem.  From  dayto  day. 

Deed.  A writing  sealed  and  delivered  by  the  parties  to  it. 

De  facto.  A thing  actually  done  or  existing. 

Default  (Judgment  by).  If  a defendant  omits  to  appear  or  plead  to 
an  action,  within  the  time  allowed,  the  plaintiff  can  sign  judgment  by 
default. 

Defaulter.  A person  who  neglects  to  perform  an  act  required  to  be 
done. 

Defeasance.  A collateral  deed  made  at  the  same  time  with  some 
other  deed,  and  containing  certain  conditions  which  may  defeat  or  ren- 
der null  and  void  the  provisions  of  such  other  deed. 

Defendant.  The  party  against  whom  an  action  or  suit  is  brought. 

Del  credere.  The  additional  commission  paid  to  a factor  who  guar- 
antees the  payment  of  the  purchase-money  of  goods  sold  by  him. 

Demesne.  Lands  which  formerly  the  lord  kept  in  his  own  hands, 
being  next  to  his  mansion. 

Demise.  A word  used  in  conveyances  of  estates  for  terms  of  years. 

Demurrage.  A compensation  or  allowance  for  detaining  a ship  be- 
yond the  usual  or  specified  time. 

Demurrer.  A mode  of  raising  a point  of  law,  upon  the  fact’s  stated 
in  the  pleadings,  assuming  them  to  be  true. 

Denizen.  An  alien  who,  on  obtaining  letters  patent,  was  enabled  to 
purchase  and  devise  land. 

Deodand,  was  anything,  as  a horse  or  a carriage,  which  by  accident 
caused  the  death  of  a human  being,  and  thereby  became  forfeited. 

Deposition.  The  testimony  of  a witness  taken  down  in  writing  and 
signed  by  him. 

Descent.  One  of  the  modes  of  acquiring  a title  to  real  property. 

De  son  tort,  of  his  own  wrong.  A term  applied  to  a party  who  as- 
sumes to  act  as  the  executor  of  a deceased  party  without  auy  legal  au- 

thority. 

Detainer.  A writ  whereby  a person  may  be  detained  in  custody. 

Detinue.  The  form  of  action  to  recover  possession  of  goods  and 
chattels  wrongfully  withheld. 

Devise.  The  giving  away  of  lands  or  other  real  estate  by  will. 

Disability.  A legal  incapacity  to  do  an  act. 


Disclaimer.  A renunciation  by  an  executor  or  trustee  of  the  office 
imposed  upon  him,  also  a mode  of  defence  in  equity,  etc. 

Discovert.  A term  applied  to  a widow  or  unmarried  woman. 

Disfranchise.  To  take  away  from  certain  places  or  persons  any 
privilege,  freedom,  or  liberty. 

Disseisin.  A wrongful  invasion  of  the  possession  of  another,  and 
turning  him  out  from  the  occupation  of  his  lands,  either  by  force  01 
surprise. 

Distress.  The  distraining  or  taking  the  effects  of  a tenant,  in  order 
to  satisfy  the  rent  due  to  his  landlord. 

Distringas  (on  Stock).  A writ  which  stops  the  transfer  of  stock  by 
the  party  in  whose  name  it  stands,  and  can  be  obtained  at  the  instance 
of  any  party  beneficially  interested  in  the  stock. 

Divorce.  The  legal  separation  of  husband  and  wife.  In  England 
there  are  two  kinds  of  divorce,  the  one  absolute,  the  other  what  is  now 
called  a Judicial  Separation.  See  the  recent  Statute  20  & 21  Vic.  cap.  85, 
which  takes  away  the  jurisdiction,  in  matrimonial  matters,  from  the  Ec- 
clesiastical Courts,  and  vests  the  same  in  a New  Court,  which  consists 
of  the  “ Judge  Ordinary,”  and  the  Full  Court,  the  latter  only  having 
power  to  grant  an  absolute  divorce.  By  this  Act  a judicial  separation 
(which  does  not  enable  the  parties  to  marry  again)  may  be  obtained  by 
husband  or  wife,  for  (1.)  Adultery,  (2.)  Cruelty,  or  (3.)  Desertion  with 
out  cause  for  two  years.  As  to  an  Absolute  Divorce,  a difference  takes 
place  if  it  be  the  wife,  instead  of  the  husband,  applying  for  it ; thus,  a 
husband  can  obtain  an  absolute  divorce  against  his  wife  on  the  ground 
of  adultery,  but  an  absolute  divorce  by  a wife  against  her  husband  can 
only  be  obtained  if  the  husband  has  been  guilty  of  (1)  incestuous  adul- 
tery, or  (2)  of  bigamy  with  adultery,  or  (3)  of  rape,  or  sodomy,  or  besti- 
ality, or  (4)  of  adultery  coupled  with  cruelty,  or  (5)  of  adultery  coupled 
with  desertion,  without  reasonable  cause,  for  two  years. 

Doctors  of  Civil  Law.  A degree  (D.C.  L.),  granted  by  our  Univer- 
sities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  to  such  of  its  members  as  are  learned 
in  the  civil  law. 

Doctors  Commons.  A college  of  civilians  in  London,  near  St. 
Paul’s  Cathedral,  where  also  the  ecclesiastical  and  admiralty  courts  are 
held  ; but  by  the  recent  statute  abolishing  the  probate  and  matrimonia' 
jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  power  is  given  to  the  doctors  to 
dissolve  this  college. 

Doli  Capax.  Capable  of  committing  a crime. 

Doli  Incapax.  Incapable  of  committing  a crime. 

Domicile.  The  domicile  of  a person  is  where  he  has  his  permanent 
home.  There  are  three  sorts  of  domiciles — by  birth,  by  choice,  and  by 
operation  of  law. 

Domitae  Naturae,  tame  by  nature.  A term  applied  to  animals  of  a 
naturally  tame  disposition,  as  sheep,  etc. 

Donatio  Mortis  Causa.  A gift  of  chattels  made  by  a person  in  a 
dying  state,  to  become  absolute  only  in  the  event  of  his  death. 

Donative.  A benefice  given  by  the  patron  direct  to  the  clerk  by 
deed,  without  either  presentation  to,  or  induction  by,  the  bishop. 

Doomsday-Book.  An  ancient  work  compiled  in  the  time  of  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror,  consisting  of  two  volumes,  which  contains  the  de- 
tails of  a great  survey  of  the  kingdom.  These  volumes  are  now  pre. 
served  in  the  Exchequer. 

Dower.  A widow  is  entitled,  at  the  death  of  her  husband,  to  a life- 
interest  in  a third  part  of  the  estates  of  inheritance  of  which  her  hus- 
band was  seised,  and  did  not  dispose  of  by  deed  or  will. 

Drawer.  See  Bill  of  Exchange. 

Duces  Tecum.  A clause  added  to  a subpoena  requiring  the  wit- 
ness to  bring  with  him,  and  produce  at  the  trial,  certain  documents  in 
his  possession. 

Durante  Bene  Placito.  During  pleasure. 

Durante  Minore  2Etate.  During  minority. 

Durante  Viduitate.  During  widowhood. 

Durante  Vita.  During  life. 

Duress.  Anything  done  under  compulsion  and  through  unavoidable 
necessity. 

Easement.  A convenience  which  one  has  in  or  over  the  lands  of 
another,  as  a way  or  a water  course. 

Easter  Term.  One  of  the  four  law  terms,  commencing  on  the  15th 
April  and  ending  the  8th  May  in  each  year. 

Ecclesiastical  Courts.  Arches  Court.  The  jurisdiction  of  these 


322 


DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  TERMS, 


courts  is  now  confined  to  church  matters,  they  having  been  shorn  of 
that  which  constituted  nine-tenths  of  their  business,  viz.  the  jurisdic- 
tion in  testamentary  and  matrimonial  matters. 

Effluxion  of  Time.  The  expiration  of  a term  in  its  natural  course 
as  contradistinguished  to  its  determination  by  act  of  the  parties. 

Ejectment.  An  action  at  law  to  recover  the  possession  of  lands. 

Elegit.  A writ  of  execution  under  which  all  the  debtor’s  lands  may 
be  seized  or  extended,  and  held  by  the  judgment  creditor  until  his 
judgment  is  satisfied. 

Embezzlement.  The  act  of  appropriating  that  which  is  received  in 
trust  for  another,  which  is  a criminal  offence. 

Emblements.  The  growing  crops  which  are  annually  produced  by 
the  labor  of  the  cultivator.  They  are  deemed  personal  property,  and 
pass  as  such  to  the  executors,  and  not  to  the  heir. 

Enfeoff  (to).  The  act  of  conveying  an  estate  of  freehold  by  deed  of 
feoffment. 

Enfranchisement.  The  admittance  of  a person  into  a society  or 
body-politic.  Enfranchisement  of  copyholds  is  a conversion  of  copy- 
holds  into  freehold  tenure. 

Engrossing.  A style  of  writing,  not  now  generally  used  for  deeds, 
but  still  used  for  the  probates  of  wills. 

Enrolment.  The  registering  of  deeds  as  required  by  certain  stat- 
utes; as,  for  instance,  deeds  conveying  lands  to  charitable  uses. 

Entail.  That  inheritance  whereof  a man  is  seized  to  him  and  the 
heirs  of  his  body.  Tail-General  is  where  lands  and  tenements  are  given 
to  one,  and  the  heirs  of  his  body  generally.  Tenant  in  tail-special  is 
where  the  gift  is  restrained  to  certain  heirs  of  the  donee’s  body  as  male 
or  female.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a perpetual  entail  by  the  law  of 
England.  The  way  in  which  property  is  tied  up  in  families  is  by  re- 
peated settlements.  If  in  any  one  generation  the  usual  settlement 
(which  of  course  is  the  act  of  the  parties  and  not  of  the  law)  should  not 
be  executed,  the  entailed  property  would  be  free.  The  property  settled 
by  the  nation  on  Marlborough  and  Wellington  were,  by  special  Act  of 
Parliament,  vested  in  their  heirs  for  ever,  thus  in  fact  creating  what 
the  common  law  would  not  permit,  a perpetual  entail. 

Equitable  Estate.  The  beneficial  interest  of  a cestui  que  trust,  the 
legal  ownership  being  in  a trustee. 

Equitable  Mortgage.  The  most  familiar  instance  is  the  deposit 
(either  v/ilh  or  without  a memorandum,  although  it  is  better  to  have 
one)  of  the  title  deeds  of  an  estate  by  way  of  security,  which  consti- 
tutes an  equitable  mortgage  without  the  execution  of  any  formal  mort- 
gage deed. 

Equity  of  Redemption.  The  right  which  equity  gives  to  a mort- 
gager of  redeeming  his  estate  after  the  appointed  time  for  payment 
has  passed,  and  which  right  can  only  be  barred  by  a foreclosure. 

Error.  A writ  of  error  is  a commission  to  judges  of  a superior 
court,  by  which  they  are  authorized  to  examine  the  record,  upon  which 
a judgment  was  given  in  an  inferior  court,  and  to  affirm,  reverse,  or 
vary  the  same,  according  to  law. 

Escheat.  Is  where  lands,  for  want  of  heirs,  or  from  forfeiture,  es- 
cheat or  fall  back  to  the  sovereign  or  lord  of  the  fee  as  the  original 
grantor. 

Escrow.  A deed  delivered  to  a 3d  person  conditionally  until  some- 
thing is  done  by  the  grantor.  Until  the  condition  has  been  performed 
the  deed  has  no  legal  effect. 

Estate.  The  interest  which  a person  has  in  lands,  or  other  prop- 
erty. 

Estoppel.  Where  a man  is  precluded  in  lav/  from  alleging  or  deny- 
ing a fact  in  consequence  of  his  own  previous  act.  allegation,  or  denial 
to  the  contrary. 

Estreat.  Where  a recognizance  becomes  forfeited  by  any  of  its 
conditions  being  broken,  it  is  estreated ; that  is,  extracted  from  the 
record,  and  sent  up  to  the  Exchequer,  whence  a process  will  issue  to  re- 
cover the  penalty. 

Evidence.  Proof,  either  written  or  unwritten,  of  the  facts  in  issue 
in  any  legal  proceeding. 

Exchange  of  Lands.  A mutual  grant  of  lands  ; the  one  in  consider- 
ation of  the  other. 

Excise.  A tax  or  impost  charge  by  government  on  certain  commo- 
dities. 

Excommunication.  A punishment  inflicted  by  the  sentence  of  an 
Ecclesiastical  Court  debarring  the  offender  from  the  sacraments,  etc. 


Execution.  The  act  of  putting  the  sentence  of  the  law  into  force. 

Executor.  One  appointed  by  a person’s  last  will  to  administer  his 
personal  estate. 

Executor  de  son  tort.  A stranger  who  takes  upon  himself  to  act  as 
executor  without  any  authority. 

Exhibits.  Documents,  etc.,  produced  in  evidence,  and  marked  for 
the  purpose  of  identification. 

Exigent.  A writ  used  in  the  process  of  outlawry. 

Ex-officio.  Anything  done  by  virtue  of  an  office.  An  information 
filed  by  the  Attorney-general,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  is  called  an  Ex- 
officio  Information. 

Ex-parte.  A statement  is  called  Ex-parte  where  only  one  of  the 
parties  gives  an  account  of  a transaction,  in  which  two  or  more  are 
concerned. 

Ex-post-facto.  An  cx-post-facto  law,  is  a law  made  purposely  to 
restrain  or  punish  an  offence  already  committed. 

Extra-judicial.  Any  act  done  by  a judge  beyond  his  authority,  or 
any  opinion  expressed  by  him  not  strictly  pertinent  to  the  matter  in 
issue  before  him. 

Extra-parochial.  Places  which  are  out  of  the  bounds  or  limits  of  a 
parish  ; and,  therefore,  exempt  from  parish  rates  and  duties. 

Eyre  (Justices  in).  The  word  eyre,  or  eire,  is  French,  and  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  iter , a' journey.  Thus,  the  term  Justices  in  Eyre  sig- 
nifies the  itinerant  court  of  justices,  or  those  who  journey  from  place  to 
place  to  hold  assizes. 

Factor.  An  agent  intrusted  with  the  possession  of  goods  for  sale 
belonging  to  his  principal.  A broker,  on  the  other  hand,  has  not  the 
custody  of  the  goods  of  his  principal.  See  Broker. 

Faculty.  A privilege  or  dispensation  granted  by  an  Ecclesiastica, 
Court  in  certain  cases. 

False  pretenses.  The  criminal  offence  of  obtaining  any  chattel, 
money,  or  valuable  security  by  means  of  a false  pretence  ; it  is  punish- 
able by  transportation,  fine,  or  imprisonment. 

False  return.  An  incorrect  account,  given  by  a sheriff,  of  his  do- 
ings under  a writ  of  execution,  for  which  he  is  liable  to  an  action. 

Falsi  crimen.  A fraudulent  concealment  of  the  truth. 

Fealty.  The  duty  due  to  a lord  from  his  tenant,  pursuant  to  the  oath 
taken  at  his  admittance. 

Fee-simple.  That  estate  or  interest  in  lands  which  a person  holds 
to  him  and  his  heirs  for  ever.  During  his  life  he  possesses  over  it  a per- 
fectly free  and  unrestrained  power  of  disposition,  and,  on  his  death 
without  having  alienated  it  by  deed  or  will,  it  descends  to  his  heirs, 
both  lineal  and  collateral,  male  and  female,  according  to  an  established 
order  of  descent. 

Felo-de-se.  One  who  commits  self-murder. 

Felony.  Formerly  defined  as  comprising  “ all  capital  crimes  below 
treason.”  It  may  now  more  accurately  be  defined  as  comprising  all 
crimes  occasioning  a forfeiture  of  lands  or  goods,  or  both. 

Feme-covert.  A married  woman.  See  Coverture. 

Feme-sole.  An  unmarried  woman. 

Feoffment.  A mode  of  conveyance  of  lands  in  fee,  accompanied  by 
certain  solemnities.  It  is  rarely,  if  ever,  now  used. 

Ferze  naturze.  Animals  that  are  of  a wild  nature,  such  as  foxes, 
hares,  wild  fowl,  etc.,  in  opposition  to  tame  and  domesticated  ani- 
mals. 

Fiat.  An  order  or  warrant  for  a thing  to  be  done  or  executed. 

Fieri  Facias.  A writ'  of  execution,  by  which  the  sheriff  is  com- 
manded to  levy  the  debt  and  damages  of  the  goods  and  chattels  of  the 
defendant. 

Finding.  A finder  of  goods  may  appropriate  them  to  his  own  use  if 
he  really  believes  when  he  takes  them  that  the  owner  cannot  be  found  ; 
bat  if  a jury  should  say  that  the  finder  appropriated  the  goods,  not 
having  (or  that  he  could  reasonably  be  supposed  not  to  have  had)  such 
belief  at  the  time  of  appropriation,  it  amounts  to  a theft,  and  can  be 
punished  criminally. 

Finding  a Bill.  The  grand  jury  either  find  cr  ignore  the  bills 
against  prisoners  ; if  they  find  a true  bill,  the  case  goes  into  court,  and 
is  tried. 

Fire  bote.  The  wood  which  a tenant  of  lands  is  legally  entitled  to 
take  for  the  purpose  of  making  his  fires.  If  he  takes  too  much  he  com- 
mits waste,  and  is  liable  to  an  action. 


DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  TERMS. 


32i 


Fire  oolicy.  An  instrument  by  which  an  insurane  ccompany  guar- 
antees to  a person,  who  has  insured  his  property,  the  payment  of  a sum 
of  money  if  it  is  injured  or  destroyed  by  fire. 

First-fruits  and  tenths.  Certain  revenues  arising  to  the  Crown 
from  ecclesiastical  livings ; which  now  form  the  fund  called  Queen 
Anne’s  Bounty,  for  the  augmentation  of  poor  livings. 

Fixtures.  This  term  is  generally  used  to  denote  those  personal 
chattels  which  though  annexed  to  the  freehold  of  demised  premises,  a 
tenant  is  nevertheless  entitled  to  remove.  They  consist  of  trade  fix- 
tures, and  of  those  put  up  for  the  ornament  or  convenience  of  the 
premises. 

Foreclosure.  The  barring  the  equity  of  redemption  on  mortgages. 

Foreign  Bill  of  Exchange.  A bill  drawn  by  a person  abroad  and 
accepted  in  the  United  States,  or  vice  versa. 

Forfeiting  recognizances.  When  a person  who  has  entered  into 
recognizances,  fails  to  comply  with  their  conditions,  the  same  are  for- 
feited or  estreated. 

Forfeiture.  A punishment  consequent  upon  the  commission  of  cer- 
tain crimal  offences  or  illegal  acts. 

Forgery.  The  crime  of  counterfeiting  a signature,  seal,  or  mark  ; 
or  the  fraudulent  alteration  of  a writing  to  the  prejudice  of  another. 

Franchise.  A royal  privilege  to  which  a subject  is  entitled — as  a 
fair,  a market,  a free  warren,  a park. 

Fraud.  A dishonest  and  illegal  artifice  by  which  undue  advantage 
is  taken  of  another,  or  by  which  the  interests  of  that  other  are  unjustly 
prejudiced.  Fraud  strikes  at  the  root  of  every  transaction,  and  vitiates 
every  contract,  whether  by  record,  deed,  or  otherwise. 

Free  Bench.  Is  that  estate  or  interest  to  which  a woman  is  by  vir- 
tue of  a special  custom,  entitled  for  life  in  the  one  third  part  of  the 
copyholds  of  her  husband  of  which  he  died  possessed,  and  is  analogous 
to  “ dower  ” in  freeholds. 

Freehold.  Lands  held  in  fee-simple,  fee-tail,  or  at  least  for  life. 

Freight.  The  remuneration  due  to  the  owner  of  a ship  for  the  con- 
veyance of  goods  or  merchandise,  on  which  he  has  a lien  for  the 
freight. 

Funded  Debt.  The  public  debt  of  this  country,  consisting  of  an  im- 
mense sum  which,  from  time  to  time,  has  been  lent  to  government  by 
individuals,  and  which  they  or  their  assigns  receive  interest  for,  out  of 
the  taxes. 

Further  assurance.  The  name  given  to  a covenant  in  a conveyance 
whereby  the  grantor  undertakes  to  do  any  further  act  which  may  be  re- 
quired for  perfecting  the  grantee’s  estate. 

Future  estates.  Estates  not  in  possession,  but  in  expectancy,  as  a 
remai  nder. 

Garnishee.  The  party  in  whose  hands  money,  due  to  a defendant, 
is  attached. 

General  issue.  A form  of  plea  in  common  law  actions  ; so  called 
because  the  issue  that  it  tenders  goes  to  the  whole  cause  of  action. 

Gift.  A voluntary  conveyance  or  gift  of  lands  or  goods.  If  of  the 
former,  it  is  liable  to  be  defeated  in  the  life-time  of  the  grantor,  by  his 
conveying  the  same  lands  to  a purchaser,  for  a valuable  consideration, 
even  though  with  notice  of  the  prior  gift. 

Glebe.  The  name  given  to  lands  annexed  to  an  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fice. 

Grace,  days  of.  The  name  given  to  the  days  of  indulgence  allowed 
to  the  acceptor  of  a bill  of  exchange  after  it  becomes  due  The  number 
of  such  days  varies  in  different  countries.  In  some,  as  in  France,  they 
are  abolished  altogether.  In  England  three  days  are  allowed,  so  that 
a bill  at  a month  drawn  on  the  ist  of  one  month,  will  become  due  on  the 
4th  of  the  next. 

Grand  Jury.  The  jury  to  whom  all  bills  of  indictment  are  referred 
in  the  first  instance.  It  is  the  duty  of  this  jury  to  interrogate  the  wit- 
nesses for  the  prosecution,  and  ascertain  whether  or  not  a prima  facie 
case  is  made  out  against  the  prisoner;  if  so,  they  find  a true  bill,  and 
he  takes  his  trial,  if  not,  they  ignore  the  bill,  and  he  is  discharged. 

Grant.  A mode  of  conveyance,  formerly  applicable  only  to  incor- 
poreal hereditaments,  reversions,  etc. ; but  its  significance  has  been  ex- 
tended by  a recent  statute,  and  it  is  now  the  instrument  most  usually 
employed  in  the  conveyance  of  land. 

Guaranty.  An  engagement  to  be  responsible  for  the  debts  or  duties 
of  a third  person. 


Habeas  Corpus.  A Writ  of  Right  for  those  who  are  grieved  by  il 
legal  imprisonment.  The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  is  next  in  importance  to 
Magna  Charta  ; for,  so  long  as  this  statute  remains,  no  subject  of  Eng- 
land can  long  be  detained  in  prison,  except  under  legal  process. 

Habendum.  One  of  the  formal  parts  of  a deed  ; its  office  is  to  limit 
or  define  the  estate  granted.  It  is  so  called  because  it  begins  with  the 
words  “ to  have,” 

Heir.  The  legal  representative  of  his  ancestor,  with  respect  to  the 
real  property  of  such  ancestor.  He  takes  all  the  real  property,  not 
otherwise  disposed  of  by  the  ancestor  in  his  life-time  or  by  his  will. 

Heir  apparent  is  one  whose  right  of  inheritance  is  certain,  and 
which  nothing  can  defeat,  provided  he  outlives  his  ancestor ; as  the 
eldest  son  or  issue.  Heir  presumptive  is  one  who  would  inherit, 
provided  his  ancestor  were  to  die  at  that  particular  time,  but  whose 
right  of  inheritance  might  be  defeated  by  some  nearer  heir  being  after- 
wards born  ; as  a brother  or  nephew,  whose  presumptive  succession 
may  be  destroyed  by  the  birth  of  a child. 

Heir  looms.  Such  personal  chattels  as  go  to  the  heir  along  with  the 
inheritance,  and  not  to  the  executor  of  the  deceased. 

Hereditaments.  All  things  which  may  be  inherited,  that  is,  which 
would  descend  to  the  heir,  if  not  disposed  of  by  deed  or  will.  Heredita- 
ments are  of  two  kinds,  corporeal  and  incorporeal. 

Heriot.  The  best  beast,  or  in  some  cases  the  best  chattel— such  as  a 
piece  of  plate — which  falls  to  the  lord  of  a manor  on  the  death  of  a ten- 
ant. It  is  regulated  by  custom,  and  in  some  manors  it  does  not  ap- 
ply at  all. 

Heritable  (and  Movable)  Rights.  These  terms  are  used  in  the 
Scotch  law  to  denote  what  in  England  is  meant  by  real  and  personal 
property  : real  property  in  England  answering  nearly  to  the  heritable 
rights  in  Scotland,  and  personal  property  to  the  movable  rights. 

Highway  rate.  A sum  of  money  levied  upon  persons  who  are  liable 
to  pay  poor  rates,  for  the  necessary  reparation  of  highways. 

Homicide.  The  crime  of  killing  any  human  being  ; of  which  there 
are  three  kinds— just  if  able.  excusable , and  felonious. 

Housebote.  The  necessary  quantity  of  wood  which  a tenant  may 
lawfully  take  for  the  reparation  and  support  of  the  demised  premises. 

Hue  and  Cry.  The  old  common  law  process  of  pursuing  felons 
“with  horn  and  voice.”  Also,  the  name  of  a paper  now  circulated 
amongst  the  police  containing  the  names  and  descriptions  of  felons. 

Hypothecate.  A term  used  for  pawning  a ship  and  goods,  or  either, 
for  necessaries,  which  a master  of  a ship  may  do  when  in  distress  at 
sea. 

Ignore.  When  the  grand  jury  reject  a bilt  of  indictment,  they  are 
said  to  ignore  it,  from  the  Latin  word  ignoramus. 

Illegal  condition.  A condition  annexed  to  anything  which  is  illegal, 
immoral,  impossible,  or  otherwise  contrary  to  law. 

Immoral  contracts.  Contracts  infringing  the  rules  of  morality 
which,  for  reasons  of  public  policy,  are  void  at  law. 

Impanelling.  Writing  in  a parchment  schedule  the  names  of  the 
jury  by  the  sheriff. 

Incorporeal  Hereditaments.  Hereditaments  of  a non-tangible 
nature,  and  consisting  of  rights  or  benefits  issuing  out  of  corporal  of 
tangible  things — as  a rent,  an  advowson,  etc. 

Incumbent.  The  present  possessor  of  an  ecclesiastical  benefice. 

Incumbrance.  A charge  or  lien  upon  property,  as  a mortgage. 

Indemnity.  A written  instrument  whereby  one  undertakes  to  free 
another  from  responsibility. 

Indenture.  A deed,  or  writing,  formerly  cut  or  indented  ; now  the 
name  usually  given  to  deeds,  although  indenting  is  no  longer  essential. 

Indictment.  A written  accusation,  of  one  or  more  persons,  ofacrime 
or  misdemeanor,  preferred  to,  and  presented  on  oath,  by  a grand  jury. 

Indorsement.  Anything  written  on  the  back  of  a deed  or  other  in- 
strument ; such  as  a bill  of  exchange. 

Induction.  The  act  of  giving  to  a clergyman  the  possession  of  his 
church. 

In  esse.  This  term  is  used  to  express  anything  that  has  a real  being, 
in  contradistinction  to  the  term  in  posse , which  implies  a thing  that  is 
not,  but  may  be 

Infant.  Every  person  is  by  the  law  styled  an  infant  till  he  has  attained 
the  age  of  twenty-one  years. 


Inheritance.  An  estate  in  lands  or  tenements  to  a man  and  his 
heirs. 


324 


DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  TERMS. 


Inhibition.  A writ  which  issues  from  a higher  Ecclesiastical  Court  to 
an  inferior  one  from  an  appeal. 

Injunction.  A prohibitory  writ  granted  by  the  Court  of  Chancery 
forbidding  certain  acts  to  be  done  under  pain  of  contempt.  It  may  be 
granted  in  urgent  cases  ex  parte , but  notice  is  sometimes  required  to  be 
given. 

Inland  Bills.  Bills  of  exchange  are  so  called,  when  the  drawer  and 
acceptor  both  reside  in  the  same  country. 

Inquest.  A meeting  of  jurors,  who  are  summoned  to  take  into  con- 
sideration certain  matters,  which  may  appear  in  evidence  before  them, 
and  to  bring  in  their  verdict  accordingly. 

Inquiry  (writ  of).  A writ  directed  to  the  sheriff,  commanding  him  to 
summon  a jury  and  assess  the  damages  in  an  action  ; as,  for  instance, 
when  the  defendant  has  suffered  judgment  by  default. 

Insolvency.  The  state  of  a person  who  is  unable  to  pay  his  debts. 

Institution.  Is  the  ceremony  by  which  a bishop  commits  the  cure  of 
souls  to  a clerk  on  his  presentation  to  a church  living. 

Insurance.  A security  or  indemnification  against  the  risk  of  loss  from 
the  happening  of  certain  events.  The  usual  kinds  are  fire  and  marine. 

Interesse  termini.  The  interest  possessed  by  a lessee  in  a lease, 
after  the  granting  thereof,  but  before  he  has  entered  upon  the  land  de- 
mised. 

Interpleader.  When  two  or  more  persons  claim  the  same  thing  of  a 
third,  the  latter  may  call  upon  them  to  interplead,  i.  e.  to  try  the  right 
to  it  between  themselves  ; he,  the  third  person,  retaining  possession  of 
the  thing  in  the  meantime  as  a kind  of  stake-holder. 

Interrogatories.  Written  questions,  to  which  the  parties  interro- 
gated are  to  give  written  answers  on  oath. 

Intestate.  A person  dying  without  a will,  or,  having  made  a will, 
without  appointing  an  executor  thereof. 

Inuendoe.  That  part  of  the  declaration,  in  actions  of  libel  and 
slander,  which  explains  the  meaning,  or  points  the  application,  of  the 
libellous  or  slanderous  matter  complained  of. 

In  Ventre  sa  Mere.  A child  not  yet  born,  but  of  which  the  mother 
is  pregnant. 

I.  O.  U.  A written  acknowledgment  of  a debt.  This  instrument  is 
regarded  in  a court  of  law  as  evidence  of  an  account  stated.  It  is  not  a 
promissory  note,  and  does  not  require  a stamp. 

Issue.  The  disputed  point  or  question  to  which  the  parties  in  an  ac- 
tion have  by  pleadings  narrowed  their  several  allegations,  and  are  hence 
said  to  Join  Issue.  If  it  be  an  issue  of  fact,  it  is  tried  by  a jury,  if  of  law, 
by  the  court — Issue  is  also  the  legal  term  for  children  or  remoter  de- 
scendants. 

Jactitation  of  Marriage.  When  one  party  boasts  or  falsely  declares 
that  he  or  she  is  married  to  another,  whereby  a common  reputation  of 
their  marriage  may  ensue. 

Jeofail.  An  oversight  in  pleading  or  other  law  proceeding.  It  is  de- 
rived from  the  French  j'ai  faille. 

Joinder  in  Action.  The  coupling  or  joining  two  parties  in  one  suit 
or  action. 

Joint-Tenants.  Persons  who  hold  lands,  etc.,  jointly  by  one  title. 
On  the  death  of  one  the  survivor  takes  the  whole. 

Jointure.  A settlement  of  lands  or  tenements  on  a woman,  to  take 
effect  after  her  husband’s  death  in  lieu  of  dower. 

Judgment.  The  sentence  of  the  law  pronounced  by  the  court  upon 
the  matter  contained  in  the  record. 

Jurat.  The  clause  written  at  the  foot  of  an  affidavit,  stating  when, 
and  before  whom,  it  was  sworn. 

Jurist.  A civil  lawyer. 

Jury.  A certain  number  of  men  sworn  to  deliver  a verdict  upon  such 
evidence  of  facts  as  shall  be  delivered  to  them,  touching  the  matter  in 
question. 

Jury  list.  The  list  kept  by  the  sheriff  of  persons  liable  to  serve  on 
juries. 

Jus.  A law,  a right. 

Jus  accrescendi.  The  term  expressive  of  the  right  of  survivorship 
among  joint  tenants. 

Jus  ad  rem.  Signifies  an  inchoate  or  imperfect  right  to  a thing,  in 
contradistinction  to  Jus  in  re , which  signifies  the  complete  and  perfect 
right  in  a thing. 

Jus  commune.  The  common  law. 

Jus  gentium.  The  law  of  nations. 


Justifying  Bail.  Is  the  act  of  proving  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court, 
that  the  persons  proposed  as  bail  are  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 

Kin,  or  Kindred.  A relation  either  of  consanguinity  or  affinity. 

Landlord.  A proprietor  of  lands  occupied  by  another,  which  latter 
party  is  termed  the  tenant. 

Lapse.  A forfeiture  of  the  right  of  presentation  to  a church  by  the 
neglect  of  the  patron  to  present.  The  word  is  also  applied  where  a tes- 
tamentary gift  fails  by  the  death  of  its  object  in  the  life-time  of  the 
testator. 

Larceny.  The  wrongful  and  unlawful  taking  and  carrying  away  by 
one  person  of  the  personal  goods  of  another,  with  the  felonious  inten- 
tion of  converting  them  to  his  own  use. 

Law.  This  word  signifies  generally  an  inflexible  rule  of  action.  The 
law  of  England  is  composed  of  written  laws  or  statutes,  and  unwritten 
laws,  or  the  customs  of  the  realm.  The  latter  is  also  termed  the  Com 
mon  Law. 

Law  Merchant.  Part  of  the  unwritten  or  Common  Law,  consisting 
of  particular  customs,  that  have  gradually  grown  into  the  force  of  law 
and  are  recognized  as  such  by  the  courts ; such  as  the  law  relating  to 
Bills  of  Exchange,  etc. 

Law  of  Nations.  A system  of  rules  or  principles  deduced  from  the 
law  of  nature,  and  intended  for  the  regulation  of  the  mutual  intercourse 
of  nations. 

Leading  Cases.  Cases  decided  by  the  superior  courts,  which  have 
settled  and  determined  important  points  of  law. 

Leading  Question.  A question  put  or  framed  in  such  a form  as  to 
suggest  the  answer  sought  to  be  obtained.  Such  a question  is  not 
allowed  to  be  put  to  a witness,  except  on  cross-examination. 

Lease.  A conveyance  or  demise  of  lands  or  tenements  for -life,  or 
years,  or  at  will,  but  always  for  a less  term  than  the  party  conveying  has 
in  the  premises. 

Lease  and  Release.  The  form  of  conveyance,  until  recently  com- 
monly used  for  conveying  land  ; but  alease,  commonly  called  a lease  for 
a year,  is  no  longer  necessary  ; the  release  alone  being  now  as  effectual 
as  a lease  and  release  were  formerly. 

Leasehold.  Lands  held  on  lease,  which  (however  long  the  term)  are 
considered  as  chattels  real,  and  go  to  the  next  of  kin,  and  not  to  the  heir, 
on  the  death  of  the  owner  intestate. 

Legacy.  A gift,  or  bequest  of  money,  goods  or  other  personal  prop 
erty  by  will.  The  person  to  whom  it  is  given  is  styled  the  legatee ; and, 
if  the  gift  is  of  the  residue,  after  payment  of  debts  and  legacies,  he  is 
then  styled  the  residuary  legatee. 

Le  Roi  (or  La  Reine)  le  vent.  (The  King  or  Queen  wills  it.)  The 
form  of  the  royal  assent  to  public  Bills  in  Parliament. 

Lessor  and  Lessee.  The  person  who  grants  a lease  is  called  the 
lessor,  the  party  to  whom  it  is  granted,  the  lessee,  and  the  person  to 
whom  either  of  them  assigns,  the  assignee. 

Letters  of  Administration.  The  instrument  granted  by  the  Probate 
Court  under  which  administrators  derive  their  title  to  administer  the 
goods  and  chattels  of  an  estate. 

Letters  (or  Power)  of  Attorney.  A writing,  under  seal,  empower- 
ing another  person  to  do  any  act  instead  of  the  person  granting  the  let- 
ter. It  may  be  either  general  or  special ; the  attorney  represents  his 
principal  in  the  matters  prescribed  by  the  letter  until  it  be  revoked. 

Letters  of  License.  An  instrument  whereby  creditors  grant  to  their 
debtor  time  for  the  payment  of  his  debts,  and  bind  themselves  not  to 
molest  him  until  that  time  has  expired. 

Levant  and  Couchant.  The  law  term  for  cattle  that  have  been  so 
long  in  the  grounds  of  another,  that  they  have  lain  down  and  risen  again 
to  feed. 

Levari  facias.  A Writ  of  Execution,  now  superseded  in  practice, 
except  in  the  case  of  outlawry. 

Levy.  The  seizing  of  goods  or  chattels  by  a sheriff  under  an  execu- 
tion is  called  a levy. 

Lex  loci  contractus.  The  law  of  the  place  or  country  where  the 
contract  was  made. 

Lex  mercatoria.  The  mercantile  law. 

Lex  non  scripts.  The  unwritten  or  common  law. 

Lex  scripta.  The  written  law. 

Lex  terrse.  The  law  of  the  land. 

Libel.  A malicious  defamation,  expressed  either  in  printing  or  writ- 
ing, or  by  signs,  pictures,  etc.,  tending  either  to  blacken  the  memory  of 


DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  TERMS. 


325 


one  who  is  dead,  or  the  reputation  of  one  who  is  alive,  and  thereby  ex- 
posing him  to  public  hatred,  contempt,  or  ridicule. 

Lien.  A qualified  right  which  a person  has  in  or  to  a thing  in  his 
possession,  arising  from  a claim  upon  the  owner.  Liens  are  of  two 
kinds,  particular  or  general. 

Limited  liability.  The  limitation  of  the  liability  of  shareholders  in 
a company  to  the  amount  unpaid  upon  their  shares,  introduced  by  re- 
cent Acts,  and  applicable  to  all  companies  registered  thereunder : such 
companies  are  bound  to  use  the  word  “ Limited  ” in  their  title  after  the 
word  “ Company.” 

Lineal  Descent.  That  which  goes  from  father  to  son,  from  son  to 
grandson,  and  so  on. 

Liquidated  Damages,  are  damages  the  amount  of  which  are  fixed  or 
ascertained. 

Liquidator.  A person  duly  appointed  to  wind  up  the  affairs  of  an  in- 
solvent company,  under  the  winding  up  acts. 

Lis  pendens.  A pending  suit  or  action. 

Livery  of  seisin.  A delivery  of  possession  of  lands  by  the  alienor  to 
the  alienee.  In  former  times  when  the  feoffments  were  used,  livery  of 
seisin  was  indispensably  necessary  to  complete  a gift  or  alienation  of 
lands. 

Locus  in  quo.  The  place  where  anything  is  alleged  to  be  done  in 
pleadings,  etc. 

Locus  pcenitentim — a place  of  penitence.  The  position  of  a party 
who  may  recede  from  a contract  or  bargain  which  he  is  about  to  enter 
into  or  make. 

Lords  Spiritual.  The  two  archbishops  and  twenty-four  bishops  of 
England,  with  one  Irish  archbishop  and  three  bishops — in  all  thirty. 

Lords  Temporal.  The  lay  peers  of  the  realm,  whose  number  may 
be  increased  at  the  will  of  the  sovereign. 

Lucri  causa.  For  the  cause  or  purpose  of  gain. 

Lunatic.  One  who  has  had  understanding,  but,  by  grief,  disease,  or 
other  accident,  has  lost  the  use  of  his  reason  generally,  though  he  may 
have  lucid  intervals. 

Magna  Charta.  The  great  charter  of  English  liberties,  granted  by,  or 
rather  extorted  from,  King  John,  at  Runnymede,  between  Windsor  and 
Staines,  on  the  19th  June,  1215,  and  afterwards  confirmed  by  Henry  III. 

Maihem  or  Mayhem.  The  violently  depriving  another  of  the  use  of 
such  of  his  members  as  may  render  him  less  able,  in  fighting,  either  to 
defend  himself  or  to  annoy  his  adversary. 

Mainprise.  The  surrendering  a person  into  friendly  custody,  upon 
giving  security  that  he  shall  be  forthcoming  at  the  time  and  place  re- 
quired. The  writ  of  mainprise  is  obsolete. 

Majority.  The  being  of  full  age. 

Mala  fides.  Bad  faith. 

Mala  in  se.  Wrong  in  themselves. 

Malice  prepense.  Malice  aforethought;  i.  e.  deliberate,  predeter- 
mined malice. 

Malus  animus.  A bad  or  malicious  intent. 

Mandamus.  A writ  commanding  the  completion  or  restitution  of 
some  right,  or  the  performance  of  a duty. 

Manor.  A territorial  domain,  held  partly  by  the  lord  and  partly  by 
his  tenants  ; it  must  have  continued  from  time  immemorial,  and  have 
annexed  to  it  a Court  Baron,  with  at  least  two  suitors. 

Manslaughter,  The  unlawful  killing  of  another,  but  without 
malice. 

Manumission.  The  making  a bondman  free. 

Market  overt.  Selling  goods  in  market  overt,  or  open,  has  in  many 
cases  a different  legal  effect  to  a mere  private  sale.  In  London  a sale  in 
an  open  shop  is  a sale  in  market  overt ; for  every  day,  except  Sunday,  is 
a market  there. 

Marksman.  A deponent  in  an  affidavit  who  cannot  write,  but  makes 
bis  mark. 

Marque  and  Reprisal  (Letters  of.j  Commissions  granted  to  in- 
dividuals to  fit  out  privateers  in  time  of  war  ; not  used  in  the  late  war, 
and  abandoned  by  all  the  great  powers  at  the  Congress  of  Paris,  1856. 

Master  of  the  Rolls.  An  assistant  of  the  Lord  Chancellor,  who  hears 
and  decides  the  cases  assigned  to  him,  at  his  own  Court  in  the  Rolls 
Yard.  He  holds  his  office  by  patent  for  life. 

Maturity.  Bills,  or  notes,  when  due,  arc  said  to  be  at  their  maturity. 

Maxims  in  Law.  Certain  proverbial  axioms,  which  form  part  of  the 


general  custom  or  common  law  of  the  land.  As,  “ No  man  is  bound  to 
criminate  himself.” — “ Conditions  against  law  are  void.” — “ It  is  fraud 
to  conceal  fraud,”  etc.,  etc. 

Medietas  Linguae.  A jury  whereof  one  half  are  foreigners,  and  the 
other  natives ; and  is  used  to  try  a cause  in  which  either  party  is 
a foreigner,  and  requires  that  mode  of  trial. 

Merger.  The  sinking  of  a smaller  estate  into  a greater,  whereby  the 
former  is  utterly  extinguished  and  destroyed.  It  takes  place  when  two 
estates  meet  together,  without  any  intermediate  estate  between  them, 
to  both  of  which  estates  the  same  individual  is  entitled  in  one  and  the 
same  right — as  where  a tenant  for  life  afterwards  acquires  the  fee 
simple. 

Mesne-Process.  Commonly  used  to  describe  the  first  process  in  an 
action,  as  where  a party  used  to  be  arrested  on  mesne-process,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  an  arrest  on  a final  judgment. 

Misdemeanor.  An  indictable  offense,  which,  though  criminal,  does 
not  amount  to  felony. 

Misprision.  A neglect,  oversight,  or  contempt ; as,  for  example,  mis- 
prision of  treason  is  a negligence  in  not  revealing  treason. 

Mittimus.  A writ  for  removing  of  records  from  one  court  to 
another. 

Modus.  A composition  in  lieu  of  tithes. 

Moot  point.  An  obscure  point  of  law  not  definitely  settled  ; and 
therefore  open  for  discussion. 

Mortgage.  A conveyance  of  lands  by  way  of  security,  for  the  repay- 
ment of  a sum  of  money  borrowed,  or  owing. 

Mortmain.  Lands  held  by  corporations  are  said  to  be  held  in  mort- 
main. 

Motion.  An  occasional  application  to  the  court,  to  obtain  some  rule 
or  order  in  the  progress  of  a cause. 

Municipal  Law.  That  which  pertains  solely  to  the  citizens  of  a 
particular  state,  city,  or  province. 

Muniments.  Deeds,  evidences,  and  writings  in  general. 

Murder.  Unlawfully  killing  any  person,  with  malice  aforethought, 
either  express  or  implied  by  law. 

Mutiny  Act.  An  Act  annually  passed  to  punish  mutiny  and  deser- 
tion, and  for  the  better  regulation  of  the  army. 

Naturalization.  The  making  a foreigner  a lawful  subject  of  the 
state. 

Ne  exeat  regno.  A writ  to  restrain  a person  from  leaving  the  kingdom. 

Negative  Pregnant.  A form  of  denial  which  implies  or  carries  with 
it  an  affirmative. 

Negotiable  Instruments.  Those  instruments  which  confer  on  the 
holders  the  legal  right  to  sue  for  the  money  or  property  thereby  se- 
cured, and  which  by  delivery  pass  such  money  or  property  from  man 
to  man— as  bills  of  exchange,  bills  of  lading. 

Nemine  Contradicente  (Nem.  con.).  Words  used  to  signify  the 
unanimous  consent  of  the  members  of  Parliament,  or  other  public 
body,  to  a vote  or  resolution. 

Next  friend.  The  party  in  whose  name  an  infant  or  feme-covert 
brings  an  action  or  suit. 

Nil  debet.  A common  plea  to  an  action  of  debt  when  the  money  is 
not  owing. 

Nil  dicit.  When  judgment  is  had  against  a defendant  by  default. 

Nisi  prius.  A term  applied  to  those  courts  in  which  civil  causes  are 
tried  before  a judge  and  jury. 

Nolle  Prosequi.  An  acknowledgment  by  the  plaintiff  that  he  will 
not  further  prosecute  his  suit,  as  to  the  whole  or  a part  of  the  cause  of 
action. 

Nomine  Poenae.  A penalty  agreed  to  be  paid  on  the  non-perform- 
ance of  some  specified  act. 

Non  assumpsit.  He  has  not  promised.  A plea  by  which  a defend- 
ant denies  his  liability  in  an  action  of  assumpsit. 

Non  compos  mentis.  Of  unsound  mind. 

Non  concessit.  He  did  not  grant. 

Non  constat.  It  is  not  clear  or  evident. 

Non  est  factum.  A plea  by  which  a defendant  denies  that  the  deed 
mentioned  in  the  declaration  is  his  deed. 

Non  est  inventus.  The  sheriff’s  return  to  a writ,  when  the  defend- 
ant is  not  to  be  found  in  his  county  or  bailiwick. 

Nonfeasance.  The  omitting  to  do  what  ought  to  be  done. 


320  DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  TERMS. 


Non  pros.  When  the  plaintiff  neglects  to  take  any  step  within  the 
prescribed  time,  the  defendant  may  move  for  a judgment  against  him, 
which  is  called  judgment  of  non  pros. 

Nonsuit.  A renunciation  of  a suit  by  a plaintiff,  after  which  he  may 
still  commence  another  action  for  the  same  cause,  which  he  could  not 
do  if  a verdict  goes  against  him. 

Notary-Public.  A person  whose  business  it  is  to  note  and  protest 
bills  of  exchange,  and  who  also  attests  deeds  and  writings,  to  make 
them  authentic  in  another  country. 

Nudum  pactum.  An  agreement  without  consideration,  which, 
when  not  under  seal,  is  void  in  law. 

Nuisance.  Anything  which  unlawfully  annoys  or  does  damage  to 
another.  Nuisances  may  be  either  public  or  private. 

Nuncupative  Will.  An  oral  will  before  a sufficient  number  of  wit- 
nesses, and  afterwards  reduced  to  writing— now  abolished,  except  as  to 
soldiers  and  sailors. 

Nunc  pro  tunc.  Literally,  now  for  then:  and  is  often  so  used  in 
legal  proceedings. 

Oath.  An  appeal  to  God  as  a witness  of  the  truth  of  what  is  affirmed 
or  denied  in  evidence,  in  the  presence  of  a judge,  magistrate,  or  other 
officer  authorized  to  administer  oaths. 

Obiter  dictum.  A casual  remark  or  opinion  of  a judge,  not  neces- 
sary to  or  forming  part  of  his  judgment  on  the  matter  before  him. 

Obligee.  An  individual  for  whose  benefit  an  obligation  is  entered 
into. 

Obligor.  He  who  enters  into  a bond  or  obligation. 

Official  Assignees.  Officers  of  the  Court  of  Bankruptcy,  one  of 
whom  is  allotted  to  each  Bankrupt’s  Estate.  He  acts  with  the  assign- 
ees appointed  by  the  creditors  in  the  administration  of  the  estate  ; but 
his  especial  duty  is  to  keep  the  assets  of  the  estate,  and  receive  and  pay 
all  money  on  account  of  it. 

Onus  probandi.  The  burden  of  proof.  It  is  a legal  principle  that 
the  issue  in  an  action  must  be  proved  by  the  party  who  stales  an  affirm- 
ative , not  by  the  party  who  states  a negative.  The  burden  of  proof, 
therefore,  is  on  the  former  party. 

Ostensible  partner.  A person  whose  name  appears  to  the  world  as 
a partner  in  a firm.  Although  such  a person  may  not  have  any  interest 
in  the  partnership,  he  is  liable  for  its  debts  and  engagements. 

Ouster.  The  turning  of  a person  out  of  possession  of  property. 

Outlawry.  The  act  or  process  by  which  a person  is  excluded  from, 
or  deprived  of,  the  benefit  of  the  laws,  attended  with  a forfeiture  of 
bis  goods  to  the  Crown. 

Overt  Act.  An  open  act,  capable  of  being  manifested  by  legal 
proof. 

Oyer  and  Terminer.  A commission  directed  to  the  judges  and 
others,  by  virtue  whereof  they  have  power  to  hear  and  determine 
treasons,  felonies,  etc. 

O Yes.  A corruption  of  the  French  oyez,  hear  ye!  The  term  is 
used  by  a public  crier  to  enjoin  silence  and  attention. 

Panel.  A schedule  or  slip  of  parchment,  containing  the  names  of 
such  jurors  as  have  been  returned  by  the  sheriff  to  serve  on  trials. 

Paraphernalia.  Things  to  which  a wife  is  entitled  over  and  above 
her  dower,  consisting  of  wearing  apparel  and  ornaments  suitable  to  her 
rank  and  station  in  life.  The  husband  may  (with  the  exception  of  his 
wife’s  wearing  apparel)  dispose  of  them  in  his  lifetime,  but  not  by  will. 
On  his  death  they  belong  to  the  wife  absolutely. 

Parol.  Word  of  mouth,  verbal 

Particeps  criminis.  A participator  in  a crime. 

Partition.  The  dividing  of  lands  held  by  joint  tenants,  coparceners, 
or  tenants  in  common,  into  two  distinct  portions. 

Patent  ambiguity.  A matter  of  doubt  appearing  upon  the  face  of 
an  instrument. 

Pawn.  A delivery  of  goods  and  chattels,  to  be  retained  until  a debt 
is  discharged. 

Peculiar.  A particular  parish  or  church  having  a special  jurisdic- 
tion w ithin  itself,  as  exempt  from  the  bishop’s  court. 

Penance.  An  ecclesiastical  punishment,  varied  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  offense,  in  which  the  penitent  is  supposed  to  make  satis- 
faction to  the  church  for  the  scandal  he  has  given  by  his  evil  example. 

Pendente  lite.  During  litigation. 


Peppercorn  Rent.  A nominal  rent. 

Perjury.  The  offense  committed  by  a person  who,  having  been 
sworn  to  tell  the  truth  in  a matter  pending  in  acourtof  justice,  willfully 
and  deliberately  takes  a false  oath. 

Perpetuity.  A rule  that  land  cannot  be  limited  beyond  a life  or 
lives  in  being  and  twenty-one  years  afterwards,  and  the  period  of  ges- 
tation, if  it  actually  exists,  is  commonly  called  the  rule  against  per- 
petuities. 

Personal  Estate,  or  Personalty.  Movable  things,  whether  alive 
or  dead,  as  distinguished  from  land,  or  immovables,  which  are  termed 
real  estate. 

Petitioning  creditor.  A creditor  who  petitions  the  Court  of  Bank- 
ruptcy to  make  his  debtor  a bankrupt. 

Pin  Money.  An  allowance  set  apart  by  the  husband  for  the  personal 
expenses  of  a wife,  i.  e , for  her  dress  and  pocket  money. 

Piscary.  The  right  or  privilege  of  fishing. 

Plaint.  Process  by  which  actions  are  commenced  in  the  County 
Court. 

Plaintiff.  The  complainant  in  an  action  or  suit. 

Plea.  The  defendant’s  answer  to  the  plaintiff’s  declaration. 

Pleader.  A lawyer,  who  draws  the  pleadings  in  actions. 

Pleadings.  The  mutual  allegations  or  statements  which  are  made 
by  the  plaintiff  and  defendant  in  an  action. 

Plene  administravit.  A plea  by  an  executor  or  administrator  that 
he  has  fully  administered. 

Plough  Bote.  The  wood  which  a tenant  is  entitled  to  take  for  the 
necessary  reparation  of  his  ploughs,  carts,  etc. 

Posse  Comitatus.  The  power  of  the  county.  This  includes  the  aid 
and  attendance  of  all  men,  except  ecclesiastics  and  inferior  persons, 
above  the  age  of  fifteen,  within  the  county  , which  force  maybe  used 
in  cases  of  riot  or  rebellion,  or  where  any  resistance  is  made  to  the  exe- 
cution of  justice. 

Postea  The  verdict  of  the  jury  drawn  up  in  due  form,  and  entered 
on  the  back  of  the  record. 

Pound  breach.  The  indictable  offense  of  breaking  open  a pound 
for  the  purpose  of  taking  cattle  therefrom. 

Praecipe.  An  abstract  of  a writ  left  with  the  officer  at  the  time  of 
issuing  it. 

Praemium  Pudicitiae.  A bond  or  consideration  given  to  a previously 
virtuous  woman,  by  the  person  who  has  seduced  her. 

Pre-emption.  The  right  of  first  buying. 

Prescription.  A title  acquired  by  use  and  time,  and  allowed  by 
law. 

Presentment.  The  notice  taken  by  a grand  jury  or  inquest  of  any 
offense,  etc.,  from  their  own  knowledge  or  observation. 

Primogeniture.  The  right  of  the  eldest  son  to  inherit  his  ancestor’s 
estate,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  younger  son,  where  the  ancestor  has  died 
intestate. 

Privilege.  An  exemption  from  the  general  rules  of  law.  It  is  of  two 
kinds— real,  attaching  to  any  place,  or  personal,  attaching  to  persons, 
as  ambassadors,  etc. 

Probate.  The  copy  of  a will  made  out  on  parchment  with  a certifi- 
cate of  its  having  been  proved. 

Process.  A general  term  applied  to  formal  judicial  proceedings. 

Procheim  Amy.  Next  friend  (which  see). 

Prohibition.  A writ  issuing  out  of  the  superior  courts  directing  the 
judge  of  an  inferior  court  not  to  proceed  fu  her  in  a suit. 

Promissory  Note.  A written  promise  by  which  one  person  engages 
or  promises  to  pay  a certain  sum  of  money  to  another. 

Pro  Rata.  In  proportion. 

Protest.  On  bills  of  exchange.  A protest  means  the  solemn  decla- 
ration of  a public  notary  of  the  dishonor  of  a bill. 

Provisional  Assignee.  An  officer  of  the  Insolvent  Debtor’s  Court, 
in  whom  the  estate  of  an  insolvent  vests. 

Proviso.  A condition  inserted  in  a deed,  on  the  performance 
whereof  the  validity  of  the  deed  frequently  depends. 

Puisne.  Younger,  junior.  The  judges  and  barons  of  the  superior 
courts,  except  the  chiefs,  are  called  puisne  judges  and  puisne  barons. 

Quamdiu  se  bene  gesserit.  A clause  expressing  that  the  party  to 
whom  an  office  is  granted  shall  hold  the  same  so  long  as  he  properly 
conducts  himself. 


r 


DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  TERMS. 


327 


Quantum  Meruit.  So  much  as  he  has  deserved. 

Quantum  Valebat.  So  much  as  it  is  worth. 

Quarantine,  signifies  40  days.  It  is  applied  to  the  period  which  per- 
sons coming  from  infected  countries  are  obliged  to  wait  on  board  ship 
before  they  are  allowed  to  land.  But  in  law  it  more  strictly  applies  to 
the  similar  period  during  which  a widow,  entitled  to  dower,  is  per- 
mitted to  remain  in  her  husband’s  capital  mansion  after  his  death, 
whilst  she  awaits  the  assignment  of  her  dower. 

Quare  impedit.  The  form  of  action  now  adopted  to  try  a disputed 
title  to  an  advowson. 

Quarto  die  post.  The  fourth  day  after  the  term. 

Quash.  To  annul  or  cancel. 

Quasi  Contract.  An  implied  contract. 

Queen's  Bench.  The  supreme  Court  of  Common  Law  in  the  king- 
dom, consisting  of  a chief  justice  and  four  puisne  judges.  In  this 
Court  the  sovereign  used  formerly  to  sit  in  person  ; hence  its  title. 

Queen’s  Counsel.  The  appointment  of  Queen’s  Counsel  does  not 
confer  any  emolument  from  the  Crown,  but  is  regarded  as  a mark  of 
distinction.  The  Queen’s  Counsel  wear  silk  gowns  (the  other  barristers 
wearing  stuff  ones)  and  are  entitled  to  precedence  in  Court. 

Queen’s  Evidence.  An  accomplice  in  the  commission  of  a crime, 
who  gives  evidence  in  the  hope  of  receiving  a pardon  for  himself. 

Quid  pro  quo.  Giving  one  thing  for  another,  being  the  mutual  con- 
sideration in  contracts. 

Quietus.  Freed  or  acquitted  A term  used  principally  in  proceed- 
ings on  the  revenue  side  of  the  Exchequer. 

Qui  tam.  Actions  brought  by  common  informers,  and  vulgarly 
called  “ qui  tam  ” actions;  because  in  the  form  in  which  they  are  con- 
ceived, the  prosecutor  declares  that  he  prosecutes  “as  well  for  our 
sovereign  lord  the  king  as  for  himself  tam  pro  Domino  Rege  quam 
pro  seipso. 

Quit  rent.  A small  rent  payable  by  the  tenants  of  manors,  and  which 
entitle  them  to  be  quit  and  free  of  all  other  services. 

Quo  Minus.  A common  writ  formerly  issued  against  a defendant  on 
the  plea  side  of  the  Court  of  Exchequer,  founded  upon  a presumption  or 
fiction  of  law  that  the  plaintiff  was  the  less  able  to  pay  the  Crown  on 
account  of  the  defendant  being  his  debtor.  It  was  the  writ  which  gave 
the  Court  jurisdiction  in  matters  not  relating  to  the  Revenue,  but  now 
the  Court  of  Exchequer  has  coordinate  jurisdiction  with  the  other  supe- 
rior courts,  without  the  necessity  of  any  longer  resorting  to  a fiction  for 
the  purpose  of  founding  it. 

Quo  warranto.  An  ancient  writ  still  in  use,  directed  against  any 
person  or  corporation,  who  usurp  any  office,  franchise,  or  liberty,  call- 
ing upon  them  to  show  by  what  authority  they  support  their  claim. 

Rack  rent.  A rent  of  the  full  annual  value  of  the  land,  out  of  which 
it  issues. 

Rape.  The  carnal  knowledge  of  a female,  who  is  above  the  age  of 
ten  years,  against  her  will  ; or  of  a girl  under  the  age  of  ten  years, 
although  with  her  permission. 

Readers.  The  lecturers  appointed  by  the  Inns  of  Court  are  so 
termed. 

Real  estate,  or  Realty,  is  the  term  applied  to  land,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  personalty. 

Rebutter.  The  answer  of  the  defendant  to  the  surrejoinder  of  the 
plaintiff. 

Recaption.  The  taking  a second  distress  during  the  pendency  of  a 
replevin  on  a former  distress. 

Recital.  The  formal  statement  of  some  matter  of  fact  in  any  deed  or 
writing.  It  usually  commences  with  the  formal  word  “ Whereas.” 

Recognizance.  An  obligation  of  record  which  a man  enters  into, 
with  condition  to  do  some  particular  act ; as,  to  appear  at  the  assizes, 
to  keep  the  peace,  to  pay  a debt,  or  the  like. 

Record.  An  authentic  testimony,  in  writing,  contained  in  rolls  of 
parchment,  and  preserved  in  a court  of  record. 

Rector.  He  who  has  the  spiritual  care  or  charge  of  a parish. 

Recusant.  Used  in  old  statutes  for  one  who  separates  from  the 
church  as  established  by  law. 

Red  Book.  An  ancient  record  in  the  Exchequer,  in  which  arc  reg- 
istered those  who  held  lands  per  baroniam  in  the  time  of  Henry  II. 

Redendum.  The  clause  in  a lease  by  which  the  rent  is  reserved.  It 
I usually  begins  with  the  words  “ yielding  and  paying.” 


Re-entry,  proviso  for.  A stipulation  in  a lease  that,  on  non-payment 
of  rent  or  non-performance  of  the  covenants,  the  lcasor  may  reenter. 

Reference.  The  submitting  of  any  cause  or  matter  to  arbitration. 

Refresher.  A further  fee  to  counsel,  where  the  cause  goes  over  from 
one  term  or  sitting  to  another. 

Register.  A book  wherein  things  are  registered  for  preservation. 

Registrars.  Officers  having  custody  of  a Registry,  such  as  the  reg 
istrars  of  births,  marriages,  and  deaths. 

Rejoinder.  The  answer  of  a defendant  in  an  action  to  the  plaintiff’s 
replication. 

Release.  A form  of  conveyance.  Also,  an  acquittance  under  seal 
of  a debt  or  other  obligation. 

Remainder.  A vested  or  contingent  estate  or  interest  in  land,  lim- 
ited to  take  effect  and  come  into  possession  on  the  determination  of  a 
prior  estate  created  at  the  same  time. 

Remanet.  A term  used  when  a cause  set  down  for  trial  at  a partic- 
ular assize  or  sittings  is  postponed. 

Rent.  The  annual  return  made  by  the  tenant  to  his  landlord,  which 
may  be  either  money,  labor,  or  provisions 

Replevin.  An  action  to  try  the  validity  of  a distress.  The  things 
distrained  are  re-delivered  to  the  tenant  on  security  or  pledges  given 
by  him  to  try  the  right. 

Replication.  The  plaintiff’s  answer  to  the  defendant’s  plea  or  an- 
swer. 

Representative  Peers.  The  peers  elected  from  their  own  bodies 
to  represent  Scotland  and  Ireland  in  the  House  of  Lords,  being  16  for 
the  former,  and  28  for  the  latter. 

Reprieve.  A suspension  of  the  execution  of  sentence  of  death  on  a 
criminal. 

Rescue.  A resistance  against  lawful  authority,  as,  for  instance,  the 
violently  taking  away  a man  who  is  under  legal  arrest. 

Residuary  devisee.  The  person  to  whom  a testator  devises  the  re- 
mainder of  his  lands,  not  otherwise  disposed  of. 

Residuary  legatee.  A legatee  to  whom  is  bequeathed  the  residue  or 
remainder  of  a testator’s  personal  estate,  after  payment  of  all  legacies, 
claims,  and  demands. 

Residue,  or  Residuary  Estate.  The  portion  of  a testator’s  estate 
not  specifically  disposed  of. 

Res  integra.  An  entire  thing. 

Rest.  A pause  in  an  account  between  a debtor  and  creditor,  in 
striking  periodical  balances. 

Retainer.  A fee  given  to  counsel  to  secure  his  services.  It  may  be 
either  general  or  special  The  former  secures  the  services  of  the  coun- 
sel to  the  party  giving  it  in  all  matters  ; the  latter  only  in  one  cause  or 
matter.  The  fee  in  the  former  cause  is  5 guineas,  in  the  latter  1 guinea. 

Return  of  a Writ.  The  certificate  of  the  sheriff  made  to  the  court 
of  what  he  has  done  towards  the  execution  of  any  writ  directed  to 
mm. 

Reversal.  The  making  a judgment  void,  in  consequence  of  some 
error  in  the  same. 

Reversion.  The  residue  of  an  estate  left  in  the  grantor,  and  return- 
ing to  him  or  his  heirs,  after  the  grant  is  determined. 

Rider.  A kind  of  schedule  or  writing,  annexed  to  a document,  which 
cannot  well  be  incorporated  in  the  body  of  it. 

Roll.  A schedule  or  sheet  of  parchment,  on  which  legal  proceedings 
are  entered. 

Rule.  An  order  made  by  the  court  at  the  instance  of  one  of  the  par- 
ties in  an  action.  It  may  either  be  a rule  absolute,  or  merely  a rule 
nisi  or  to  show  cause. 

Rules  of  Court.  The  rules  framed  by  the  judges  for  regulating  the 
practice  of  the  different  Courts  of  Law. 

Sacrilege.  A desecration  of  anything  that  is  holy. 

Salvage.  An  allowance  made  for  saving  ships  or  goods  from  ene- 
mies, or  wreck,  or  loss  at  sea. 

Scandal.  Rumor  calculated  to  injure  one’s  reputation. 

Schedule.  A list  or  inventory  of  things. 

Scienter.  Knowingly. 

Scire  Facias.  A judicial  writ  founded  on  matter  of  record,  and  is 
used  for  various  purposes,  as,  for  instance,  to  enforce  against  a share- 
holder a judgment  against  a Joint  Stock  Company  which  it  is  unable  to 
satisfy. 


328 


DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  TERMS. 


Scrivener.  One  intrusted  with  other  men’s  monies  to  put  out  for 
them,  and  for  which  he  charges  a commission,  or  bonus. 

Security  for  Costs.  When  the  plaintiff  resides  out  of  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Court,  the  defendant  may  require  him  to  give  security  for  costs. 

Secus.  Otherwise. 

Se  Defendendo.  A plea  for  a party  charged  with  the  death  of 
another  person,  who  alleges  that  he  was  driven  to  do  what  he  did  in 
his  own  defense. 

Seisin.  Possession  of  a freehold  estate.  Seisin  in  deed  is  when  ac- 
tual possession  is  obtained.  Seisin  in  law  is  a right  to  lands  of  which 
actual  possession  has  not  been  obtained. 

Separate  estate.  Real  or  personal  property  settled  upon  a married 
woman,  and  which  she  may  dispose  of  as  if  she  were  a single  woman. 

Sequestration,  is  used  in  several  cases  ; but  most  frequently  as  sig- 
nifying an  execution  for  debt  against  a beneficed  clergyman,  in  which 
case  the  debt  is  satisfied  out  of  the  tithes  and  other  profits  of  the  bene- 
fice. In  Scotland  a Sequestration  is  nearly  equivalent  to  our  term 
“ Bankruptcy.” 

Set-off.  A mode  of  defense,  whereby  a defendant  sets  up  a demand 
ef  his  own  to  counterbalance  the  plaintiff’s  claim  either  wholly  or  in  part. 

Similiter.  A set  form  of  words  in  an  action  by  which  one  party  sig- 
nifies his  acceptance  of  the  issue  tendered  by  his  opponent. 

Simony.  The  corrupt  presentation  of  any  one  to  an  ecclesiastical 
benefice,  for  money,  gift,  or  reward. 

Simple  Contract.  An  agreement  entered  into  verbally  or  by  writing 
not  under  seal. 

Slander.  The  malicious  defamation  of  a man  by  word  of  mouth, 
analogous  to  libel,  which  is  slander  by  writing. 

Socage.  The  tenure  by  which  most  freehold  lands  in  England  are 
held  which  consists  in  the  performance  of  some  certain  and  determi- 
nate service,  usually  of  a nominal  nature,  as  distinguished  from  the  old 
feudal  services,  which  were  generally  at  the  will  of  the  lord. 

Son  assault  demesne.  A plea  in  an  action  for  an  assault  that  the 
defendant  did  the  act  complained  of  in  his  own  defense. 

Special  Case.  A mode  of  raising  a point  of  law  for  the  opinion  of 
the  court  on  an  agreed  written  statement  of  the  facts. 

Special  Jury,  is  a jury  composed  of  individuals  above  the  rank  of 
ordinary  freeholders  Either  party  in  an  action  may  apply  for,  and 
obtain,  a special  jury. 

Special  pleading.  When  the  pleadings  in  an  action  are  not  in  the 
ordinary  form,  but  are  of  a more  complex  character,  they  are  termed 
special  pleadings. 

Specific  performance.  A remedy  in  equity,  to  compel  the  perform- 
ance of  a contract  according  to  its  terms,  instead  of  proceeding  at  law 
to  recover  damages  merely. 

Statutes.  The  written  laws  of  the  kingdom  (see  Common  Law)  are 
of  two  kinds,  public  or  private  ; the  former  applies  to  all  statutes 
which  affect  the  public  generally,  and  of  which  the  judges  take  cogni- 
zance without  being  specially  pleaded.  The  latter  relates  to  the  private 
rights  of  individual  bodies,  as,  for  instance,  the  various  acts  for  the 
Management  of  Railway  and  other  Companies  are  private  acts. 

Stirpes.  Taking  property  by  representation  is  called  succession  per 
stirpes,  as  contradistinguished  from  per  capita,  which  signifies  taking 
it  by  one’s  own  right. 

Stoppage  in  transitu.  Goods  sold  on  credit  to  a person,  since  be- 
come insolvent  or  bankrupt,  may  be  seized  by  the  vendor  at  any  time 
before  their  actual  and  complete  delivery  to  the  vendee.  This  seizure 
is  called  stoppage  in  transitu  ; it  is  often  a nice  and  difficult  question 
to  determine  when  the  transit  has  ended  and  the  purchaser’s  possession 
begun 

Subornation  of  perjury.  The  offense  of  procuring  another  to  take 
a false  oath. 

Subpoena.  A writ  used  for  the  purpose  of  compelling  witnesses  to 
attend  and  give  evidence. 

Sufferance,  a tenant  at,  is  a person  who  acquired  the  possession  of 
lands  by  right,  and  holds  over  after  his  right  is  determined. 

Suit.  Proceedings  in  Equity  are  usually  termed  suits,  as  distinguished 
from  the  proceedings  at  common  law,  which  are  termed  actions. 

Summons,  writ  of.  The  process  used  for  the  commencement  of  all 
actions  in  the  courts  of  law. 

Supersedeas.  A command  to  stay  some  ordinary  proceedings  at 
law,  on  good  cause  shown. 


Surrejoinder.  An  answer  to  the  rejoinder  of  the  defendant  in  ac 
tion. 

Syngraph.  A deed  or  bond  under  hand  and  seal  of  all  the  parties. 

Tail,  or  Fee-tail.  See  Entail. 

Tenancy.  The  holding  of  property  under  tenure. 

Tenant.  One  who  holds  lands  of  another  as  a tenant  for  life,  fol 
years,  in  tail,  etc.;  it  is  a word  extensively  used  in  legal  phraseology. 

Tender.  A legal  tender  is  an  unconditional  offer  to  pay  a debt, 
which,  if  refused,  may  be  afterwards  pleaded  in  bar  to  an  action. 

Tenement.  Property  held  by  a tenant;  it  comprises  lands,  houses, 
and  every  species  of  real  property  which  may  be  holden. 

Tenure.  The  system  of  holding  lands  in  subordination  to  some  su- 
periors. 

Termer.  A tenant  who  holds  lands  fora  fixed  and  ascertained  pe- 
riod of  time. 

Testamentary  Guardian.  A person  appointed  by  a father  in  his 
will  to  be  the  guardian  of  his  child. 

Testator  or  Testatrix.  The  maker  of  a will. 

Teste.  The  clause  at  the  bottom  of  a writ  beginning  with  the  word 
“witness”  is  so  called. 

Theft  bote.  When  a party,  who  has  been  robbed,  and  knowing  the 
felon,  takes  his  goods  again  or  receives  other  amends  upon  agreement 
not  to  prosecute. 

Tithes.  The  tenth  part  of  the  increase  yearly  arising  from  the 
profits  of  lands,  etc.  Tithes  are  in  this  country  now  commuted  into  a 
fixed  rent  charge,  which  is  charged  upon  the  land,  and  not  upon  the  per. 
son. 

Tithing.  A portion  of  a hundred.  Tithing-man  was  formerly  an 
officer  of  some  importance  ; in  the  present  day,  however,  he  is  a mere 
constable. 

Title.  The  evidence  of  the  right  which  a person  has  to  the  posses- 
sion of  property. 

Traverse.  A plea  which  denies  the  truth  of  some  part  of  the  plain- 
tiff’s declaration  in  an  action. 

Treasure  Trove.  Any  money,  etc.,  founa  .lidden  under  the  earth, 
the  owner  thereof  being  unknown. 

Trespass.  Any  wrong  or  damage  which  is  done  by  one  man  to 
another,  whether  it  relates  to  his  person  or  property,  but  it  usually  sig- 
nifies a wrongful  entry  on  another’s  premises. 

Trial.  The  formal  method  of  examining  and  adjudicating  upon  a 
question  of  fact  in  a court  of  law. 

Trover.  The  form  of  action  used  to  try  a disputed  question  of  prop- 
erty in  goods  or  chattels,  in  which  the  plaintiff  can  only  recover  their 
estimated  value,  and  not  the  goods  or  chattels  themselves. 

True  bill.  The  words  indorsed  upon  an  indictment  by  a grand  jury, 
when  satisfied  that  the  charge  against  the  offender  is  made  out. 

T rust.  A trust  exists  where  a party,  called  the  cestuique-trust,  has  a 
right  in  equity  to  the  beneficial  enjoyment  of  property,  the  legal  owner- 
ship of  which  is  vested  in  another,  who  is  hence  called  a trustee. 

Umpire.  A third  person  chosen  to  decide  a matter  in  dispute  left  to 
arbitration,  in  case  the  arbitrators  should  not  agree. 

Under-lease.  A lease  granted  by  one  who  is  himself  only  a lessee  of 
the  premises  under-let. 

Under-lessee.  The  person  to  whom  an  under-lease  is  granted. 

Unliquidated  damages.  Damages  not  fixed  or  ascertained,  and 
which  require  therefore  to  be  estimated  by  a jury. 

Use.  A right  to  the  beneficial  enjoyment  of  land  nominally  vested 
in  another. 

Usury.  The  extortion  of  unlawful  gain  ; the  taking  more  for  the  use 
of  money  than  is  allowed  by  law  ; but  the  usury  laws  in  this  country 
are  now  abolished,  any  rate  of  interest  therefore  may  now  be  lawfully 
taken. 

Value  received.  The  words  usually,  but  unnecessarily,  appearing 
in  bills  of  exchange  and  promissory  notes. 

Venditioni  exponas.  A writ  directed  to  the  sheriff,  commanding 
him  to  sell  goods  which  he  has  taken  possession  of  under  a writ  of  fieri 
facias,  and  which  remain  in  his  hands  unsold. 

Vendor  and  Vendee.  A vendor  is  the  person  who  sells  and  a vendee 
the  person  who  buys,  anything. 


DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  TERMS. 


329 


Venue.  The  county  in  which  an  action  at  iaw  is  intended  to  be  tried. 

Verdict.  A verdict  is  the  unanimous  judgment  or  opinion  of  the 
jury  on  the  issue  of  fact  submitted  to  them. 

Vi  et  Armis  (with  force  and  arms).  Words  used  in  indictments,  to 
express  the  charge  of  a forcible  and  violent  committing  of  any  crime  or 
trespass. 

Viva  voce.  By  word  of  mouth. 

Voir  dire.  An  examination  of  a witness  to  test  his  competency  is 
termed  an  “ examination  in  the  voir  dire.” 

Voluntary  Conveyance,  or  Settlement.  A conveyance  or  settle- 
ment made  without  any  valuable  consideration. 

Voucher.  A receipt  or  discharge. 

Waifs.  Stolen  goods  which  the  thief  has  thrown  away  or  left  be- 
hind him. 

Ward.  An  infant  under  the  guidance  and  protection  of  a guardian. 

Ward  of  Court.  An  infant  with  reference  to  whose  property  a suit 
has  been  instituted  in  Chancery.  A ward  ought  not  to  marry  without 
leave  of  the  court.  Any  person  marrying  a ward  without  such  leave  is 
guilty  of  a contempt  of  court,  and  can  be  punished  by  imprisonment. 

Warrant.  An  authority  or  precept  from  a justice,  commanding  the 
apprehension  of  an  offender,  or  a search  to  be  made  for  stolen  goods. 


Warrant  of  Attorney.  An  authority  given  by  any  one  to  an  attor- 
ney-at-law, to  appear  and  plead  for  him  ; or  to  suffer  judgment  to  pass 
against  him,  by  confessing  the  action. 

Warranty,  as  applied  to  goods  and  chattels,  may  be  either  expressed 
or  implied  ; the  implied  warianty  only  extends  to  the  title  of  the  vendor. 
If  that  proves  deficient,  the  purchaser  may  demand  satisfaction  from 
the  seller. 

Watercourse,  right  of.  A right  to  an  uninterrupted  flow  of  water. 

Way,  right  of.  The  right  of  going  over  another  man’s  ground. 

Will.  A will  is  the  legal  written  declaration  of  a man’s  intentions  of 
what  he  wills  to  be  performed  after  his  death  with  reference  to  the 
disposition  of  his  property.  It  must  be  in  writing  signed  by  the  testa- 
tor and  attested  by  two  witnesses,  who  must  not  only  be  present  and 
see  the  testator  sign,  but  must  themselves  subscribe  the  will  as  wit- 
nesses in  the  presence  of  the  testator  and  of  each  other.  Without  these 
formalities  the  will  is  invalid.  A codicil  Is  a kind  of  addendum  or  sup- 
plement to  a will.  Its  execution  and  attestation  must  be  attended  with 
the  same  formalities  as  the  will  itself. 

Will,  estate  at.  An  estate  in  lands  held  at  the  will  of  the  landlord 
and  tenant,  and  determinable  at  the  pleasure  of  either  party.  Suchq 
holding  is  very  rare  now,  the  law  generally  construes  undefined  hold- 
ings into  tenancies  from  year  to  year. 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES, 


* 

1 33° 


A CALENDAR 


For  ascertaining  Any  Day  of  the  Week  for  any  given  time  within  Two  Hundred 


Years  from  the  introduction  of  the  Few  Style , 


1 75 2TT  t°  1952  inclusive. 


YEARS 

■753 

TO 

1952 

1 

X3 

O 

u* 

Mar. 

a 

< 

rt 

s 

<u 

c 

p 

P 

bi 

P 

< 

Sept. 

0 

Nov. 

. 

u 

0 

Q 

M 

CO 

hi 

44 

0 

M 

n 

0 

hi 

a 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

" 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

1761 

1767 

1778 

1789  1795 

1801 

1807 

1818 

l829!l835 

1846 

1857  1863 

1874 

1885 

1891 

4 

7 

7 

3 

5 

I 

3 

6 

2 

4 

7 

2 

19' 

3 

1914 

19=5 

I93I 

1942 

1762 

1777 

1779 

1790 

1802 

1813 

I819 

1830 

I84I 

I 

847 

1858 

1869 

1875 

1886 

1897 

5 

1 

I 

4 

6 

2 

4 

7 

3 

5 

I 

3 

I9°9 

19x5 

1926 

1937 

1943 

1737 

1763 

1774 

1784 

1791 

1881 

1803 

1814 

1824 

1831 

1842 

1853 

1859 

1870 

1887 

1898 

6 

2 

2 

5 

7 

3 

5 

1 

4 

6 

2 

4 

I9IO 

1921 

1927 

1938 

1949 

1754 

1765 

1771 

I782 

T793 

1799 

1805 

1811 

l822 

1833 

1839 

1850 

l86l 

1867 

1878 

I889 

1895 

2 

5 

5 

I 

3 

6 

1 

4 

7 

2 

5 

7 

1901 

1907 

1918 

1929 

1935 

1946 

I-SS 

1766 

T777 

1783 

1794 

1800 

1806 

1817 

i8."3 

1834 

1845 

1851 

l862 

1873 

1879 

1890 

3 

6 

6 

2 

4 

7 

2 

5 

1 

3 

6 

1 

19  02 

1913 

1919  1930 

041 

*947 

1718 

1769 

1771 

I786 

097 

6 

1809 

1815 

1826 

‘837 

1843 

1854 

I865 

1871 

1882 

1893 

x899 

7 

3 

3 

6 

1 

4 

2 

s 

7 

3 

s 

1905 

I9II 

1922 

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039 

1950 

»7.S3 

»759 

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I78l 

1787 

1 

798 

* 

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1810 

1821 

l827 

1838 

1849 

1855 

1866 

1877 

1883 

1894 

1900 

1 

4 

4 

7 

2 

s 

7 

3 

6 

1 

4 

6 

1906 

19171 x923 

*934 

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l 

■95i 

29 

1764 

1792 

1804 

1832 

i860 

1888 

1928 

7 

3 

4 

7 

2 

5 

7 

3 

6 

1 

4 

6 

1768 

1796 

l8o8 

1836 

1864 

1892 

1904 

1932 

5 

1 

2 

5 

7 

3 

5 

1 

4 

6 

2 

4 

I772 

lSl2 

I84O 

1868 

1896 

1908 

936 

3 

6 

7 

3 

5 

1 

3 

6 

2 

4 

7 

2 

1776 

l8l6 

1S44 

1872 

• • 

1912 

1940 

1 

4 

s 

I 

3 

6 

1 

4 

7 

2 

5 

7 

1780 

1820 

I848 

1876 

1916 

1944 

6 

2 

3 

6 

1 

4 

6 

2 

5 

7 

3 

5 

*756 

1784 

1824 

l852 

1880 

1920 

948 

4 

7 

1 

4 

6 

2 

4 

7 

3 

5 

1 

3 

1760 

I788 

1828 

1856 

1884 

1924 

1952 

2 

5 

6 

2 

4 

7 

2 

5 

1 

3 

6 

1 

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■H-e-S’g  c|  =1  S^I'S-S  Sf  S-gl-S-S  £ g 

5 1 g §-g|2a|  g 15  J.-Ssl  g Plls  11  p|2 35  g 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


35» 


A TABLE  OF  THE  KINGS  AND  QUEENS  OF  ENGLAND. 


Name. 

SAXONS  AND  DANES. 

Accession. 

Died. 

Age. 

Reigned. 

First  King  of  all  England 

827 

837 

839 

858 

Ethelwulf  

Son  of  Egbert 

— 

x9 

8,8  1 

1 Ethelbert 

Second  son  of  Ethelwulf 

8^8  f 

866 

— 

8 

Third  son  of  Ethelwulf 

866 

87I 



Fourth  son  of  Ethelwulf 

871 

52 

46 

30 

24 

x5 

6 

Son  of  Alfred 

Eldest  son  of  Edward 

Brother  of  Athelstan 

946 

955 

23 

Edred ■ 

Brother  of  Edmund 

946 

9 

Son  of  Edmund . 

958 

Second  son  of  Edmund 

958 

31 

l7 

x7 

Son  of  Edgar 

Half-brother  of  Edward 

37 

Edmund  Ironside  

Eldest  son  of  Ethelred 

1016 

IOl6 

28 

T^T7 

-0_  - 

40 

18 

Son  of  Canute 

5 

Tolo 

Son  of  Ethelred  II  

to66 

64 

24 

Brother-in-law  of  Edward 

1066 

1066 

THE  HOUSE  OF  NORMANDY. 

1066 

1087 

IIOO 

lx35 

1087 

IIOO 

60 

Third  son  of  William  I 

13 

35 

>9 

Youngest  son  of  William  I 

67 

49 

Stephen j 

Third  son  of  Stephen,  Count  of  Blois,  by  Adela,  fourth  daughter  ( 
of  William  I f 

1154 

THE  HOUSE  OF  PLANTAGENET. 

Son  of  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  by  Matilda,  only  daughter  of  Henry  I. 
Eldest  surviving  son  of  Henry  II 

1189 

1199 

1216 

1272 

x307 

1327 

56 

42 

5X 

65 

67 

43 

T T ^ 1 

I189 
xx99 
1216 
1272 
13  °7 

Sixth  and  youngest  son  of  Henry  II 

x7 

56 

35 

20 

Eldest  son  of  Henry  III 

Edward  II 

Eldest  surviving  son  of  Edward  I 

Eldest  son  of  Edward  II 

x327 

x377 

x377 

Dep.  1399 

6- 

50 

22 

33 

THE  HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER. 

Henry  IV 

Son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  fourth  son  of  Edward  III 

1399 

1413 

46 

34 

x4 

Eldest  ion  of  Henry  IV 

Only  soi  of  Henry  V.  (Died  1471) 

Dep.  1461 

THE  HOUSE  OF  YORK. 

( 

His  grandfather  was  Richard,  son  of  Edmund,  fifth  son  of  Ed-  ) 

Edward  IV ! 

ward  III.;  and  his  grandmother,  Anne,  was  great-grand-  V 
daughter  of  Lionel,  third  son  of  Edward  III ) 

1461 

1483 

4X 

22 

Eldest  son  of  Edward  IV 

1483 

1483 

1483 

1485 

12 

0 

Younger  brother  of  Edward  IV 

33 

THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR. 

1 

Son  of  Edmund,  eldest  son  of  Owen  Tudor,  by  Katharine,  widow  ) 

Henry  VII J, 

of  Henry  V.;  his  mother,  Margaret  Beaufort,  was  great- > 
granddaughter  of  John  of  Gaunt ) 

1485 

*5°9 

52 

24 

HENRY  VIII 

Only  surviving  son  of  Henry  VII 

* r-„~ 

_ 

38 

6 

Son  of  Henry  Vi  II.  by  lane  Seymour 

x547 

*553 

x558 

x553 

x558 

1603 

16 

Daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  by  Katherine  of  Arragon 

69 

THE  HOUSE  OF  STUART. 

James  I -j 

Son  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  granddaughter  of  James  IV.  and  [ 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  VII ) 

1603 

1625 

5» 

22 

1625 

1640 

1653 

1658 

1649 

48 

( 

Commonwealth  declared  May  19 

Oliver  Cromwell.  Lord  Protector.  

1658 

Res.  1659 

Richard  Cromwell,  Lord  Protector 

- 

- 

THE  HOUSE  OF  STUART— RESTORED. 

Charlp.s  II  

1685 

Dep.  1688 
Dec.  1701 

2, 

James  II  

1685 

William  III 1 

(Interregnum,  Dec.  n,  1688— Feb.  13,  1680  ) 

Son  of  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  by  Mary,  daughter  of ) 

68 

5' 

>3 

I 

and  ..  \ 

Charles  1 > 

1689-^ 

Eldest  daughter  of  James  II ) 

1694 

32 

0 

Anne 

Second  daughter  of  James  II 

1702 

X7X4 

49 

12 

THE  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER. 

Georce  I -j 

Son  of  Elector  of  Hanover,  by  Sophia,  daughter  of  Elizabeth,  1 
daughter  of  James  I . . . ) 

1714 

1727 

67 

I 

George  II  

X727 

1760 

1760 

77 

82 

33 

George  III  

George  IV 

1830 

x837 

WHOM 

68 

William  IV 

1830 

1837 

72 

jOL>  PRESE1 

7 

Victoria 

Daughter  of  Edward,  fourth  son  of  George  III 

IVE. 

MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  SCOTLAND  FROM  A.D.  1057  TO  THE  UNION  OF  THE  CROWNS. 


Names. 

Malcolm  (Ceanmohr) 

Donald  (Bane).  

Duncan . 

Donald  (Bane)  rest  . . 

Edgar 

Alexander  1 

David  I 

Malcolm  (Maiden). . . 
William  (The  Lion).. 
Alexander  II 


Began  to  reign. 

1057,  Apr. 

1092,  Nov. 

1094,  May. 

1095,  Nov. 

. . . . . 1097,  Sept. 

1107,  Jan.  8 

1124,  Apr.  27 

1153.  May  24 

1165,  Dec.  9 

1214,  Dec.  4 


Names. 

Alexander  III 

Margaret 

John  (Balliol) 

Robert  I.  (Bruce). . . 

David  II 

Robert  II.  (Stewart) 

Robert  III 

James  I 

James  II 

James  III 


Began  to  reign. 

1240,  July  8 

. . . .1286,  Mar.  19 

1292,  Nov.  17 

1306,  Mar.  27 

1329,  June  7 

....  1371,  Feb.  22 

1390,  Apr.  12 

1406,  Apr.  4 

1437.  Feb.  20 

1460,  Aug.  3 


Names.  Began  to  reign. 

James  IV 1488,  June  11 

James  V 1513,  Sept.  9 

Mary  ....  1542,  Dec.  16 

Francis  and  Mary 1558.  Apr.  24 

Mary 1560,  Dec.  5 

Henry  and  Mary 1565,  July  29 

Mary 1567,  Feb.  10 

James  VI 1567,  July  29 

(Ascended  the  throne  of  England  as  jamesl., 
March  24th,  1603.) 


WELSH  SOVEREIGNS  OR  PRINCES— A.D.  840  to  A.D.  1282. 


Roderic  the  Great 840 

Anarawd,  son  of  Roderic 877 

Howel  Dda,  the  Good 943 

Jefan  and  Jago 948 

Howel  ap  Jefan,  the  Bad 972 

Cadwallon,  his  brother 984 

Meredith  ap  Owen  ao  Howel  Dha 985 

'd  wal  ap  Meyric  ap  Edwal  Voel 992 


Llewelyn  ap  Sitsylht 1015 

Iago  ap  Idwal  ap  Meyric 1023 

. Griffith  ap  Llewelyn  ap  Sitsylht.  Killed  1039 

Bleddyn 1063 

Trahaern  ap  Caradoc 1073 

Griffith  ap  Cynan 1079 

Owain  Gwynedd 1136 

David  ap  Owain  Gwynedd 1169 


Llewelyn  the  Great 1194 

David  ap  Llewelyn 1240 

Llewel/n  ap  Griffith,  last  Prince,  1246; 

slain 1282 

Edward  of  Carnarvon,  afterwards  King 

Edward  II.  of  England  ; born 1284 

Created  Prince  of  Wales 1301 


FRENCH  DYNASTIES  AND  SOVEREIGNS. 


The  Merovingians. 

Clovis,  “The  Hairy,”  King  of  the  Salic  Franks 428 

Childeric  III.,  last  of  the  race 737 

The  Carlovingians. 

Pdpin,  “The  Short,”  son  of  Charles  Martel 752 

Charlemagne,  The  Great,  Emperor  of  the  West 768 

Louis  V.,  “ The  Indolent,”  last  of  the  race 986 

The  Capets. 

Hugh  Capet,  “ The  Great,” 987 

Louis  IX.,  “ St.  Louis” 1226 

Charles  IV.,  “ The  Handsome” 1322 

The  House  of  Valois. 

Philip  VI.  de  Valois,  “ The  Fortunate  ” 1328 

Henry  III.,  last  of  the  race 1574 

The  House  of  Bourbon. 

Henry  IV.,  “ The  Great,”  King  of  iNavarre 1589 

Louis  XIII.,  “ The  Just  ” K 1610 

Louis  XIV.,  “The  Great,”  Dieudonnd 1643 

Louis  XV.,  “ The  Well-beloved  ” 1715 

Louis  XVI.  (guillotined  January  21,  1793) 1774 

Louis  XVII.  (never  reigned) 1793 

The  First  Repitblic. 

The  National  Convention  first  sat September  21,  1792 

The  Directory  nominated November  1,  1795 


The  Consulate. 

Bonaparte,  Cambacdrfes,  and  Lebrun December  24,  1799 

Bonaparte,  Consul  for  10  years May  6,  1802 

Bonaparte,  Consul  for  Life August  2,  1802 

The  Empire. 

Napoleon  I.  decreed  Emperor May'  18,  1804 

Napoleon  II.  (never  reigned)  died July  22,  1832 

The  Restoration. 

Louis  XVIII.  re-entered  Paris May  3,  1814 

Charles  X.  (deposed  July  30,  1830,  died  November  6,  1836) 1824 

Heir-expectant,  Henry,  Comte  de  Chambord September  29,  182c 

The  House  of  Orleans. 

Lou'S  Philippe,  King  of  the  French 1830 

(Abdicated  February  24,  1848,  died  August  26,  1850.) 

Heir-expectant,  Comte  de  Paris,  born August  24,  1838 

The  Second  Republic. 

Provisional  Government  formed February  22,  1840 

Louis  Napoleon  elected  President December  ia,  1848 

The  Second  Empire. 

Napoleon  III.  elected  Emperor November  2?  1852 

(Deposed  September  4,  1870,  died  January  9,  1873.) 

Third  Republic. 

Committee  of  Public  Defence September  4,  1870 

L.  A.  Thiers  elected  President August  31  1871 

Marshal  MacMahon  elected  President May  24,  1873 

Jules  Gr^vy  elected  President January  30,  1879 


PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 


Declaration  of  Independence July  4,  1776 

General  Washington  first  President 1789  and  1793 

John  Adams 1797 

Thomas  Jefferson 1801  and  1805 

James  Madison 1809  and  1813 

James  Monroe 1817  and  1821 

John  Quincy  Adams 1825 

General  Andrew  Jackson 1829  and  1833 

Martin  Van  Buren 1837 

General  William  Henry  Harrison  (died  April  4) 1841 

John  Tyler  (elected  as  Vice-President) 1841 


James  Knox  Polk 

General  Zachary  Taylor  (died  July  9,  1850)  . .. 
Millard  Fillmore  (elected  as  Vice-President).. 

General  Franklin  Pierce 

James  Buchanan 

Abraham  Lincoln  (assassinated  April  14,  1865) 
Andrew  Johnson  (elected  as  Vice-President) . . 

General  Ulysses  S.  Grant 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes 

James  A.  Garfield 

Chester  A.  Arthur 


Population  in  1776,  including  slaves,  2,614,300.  Population  in  1880,  all  free,  48,632,218. 


1845 

'849 

1850 

1853 

1857 

1861  and  1865 

1865 

1869  and  1873 

1877 

1881 

1881 


THE  BRITISH  HOUSE  OF  COMMONS 


Consists  at  present  of — Liberals,  344  ; 

The  English  House  of  Commons,  at  the  time  of  the  Union  with  Scot- 
and,  in  1707,  consisted  of  513  members;  45  were  then  added  for  Scot- 
and,  and  in  1801,  100  for  Ireland,  making  the  total  of  658.  This  total 
number  was  preserved  by  the  first  Reform  Act  (1832),  as  well  as  by  the 
recent  one  (30  and  31,  Viet.  cap.  102),  but  in  each  case  the  apportion- 
ment was  altered,  and  it  now  stands— England  and  Wales,  493  mem- 
bers; Scotland,  60;  and  Ireland,  105.  By  the  Reform  Act  of  1867,  11 


Conservatives,  236  ; Home  Rulers,  60. 

English  boroughs  were  totally  disfranchised,  and  23  others  lost  r mem- 
ber each  ; but  25  seats  were  bestowed  on  new  boroughs  and  universi- 
ties, and  28  on  counties.  Four  boroughs,  with  6 seats,  have  since 
been  disfranchised  for  corrupt  practices,  viz.,  Beverley,  Bridgewater, 
Sligo,  and  Cashel,  and,  in  eight  others,  representing  12  seats,  the 
writs  are  suspended,  making  the  present  number  of  sitting  members 
640. 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


3 33 


UNITED  STATES  INTERNAL  REVENUE  TAXES. 


Ale,  per  bbl.  of  31  gallons $1  00 

Banks  and  bankers,  on  average  amount  of  deposits, 

each  month 1-24  of  1 per  ct. 

Banks,  savings,  and  savings  institutions,  having  no 
capital  stock  and  making  no  profit  on  deposits,  are 
exempt  from  tax  on  so  much  of  their  deposits  as 
is  invested  in  United  States  securities,  and  on  all 
sums  not  exceeding  $1,000  in  the  name  of  one  person. 

Banks  and  bankers,  on  capital,  beyond  the  average 
amount  invested  in  United  States  bonds,  each 
month 1-24  of  1 per  ct. 

Banks  and  bankers,  on  average  amount  of  circulation, 

each  month 1-24  of  1 per  ct. 

Banks,  on  average  amount  of  circulation,  beyond  90 
per  cent,  of  the  capital,  an  additional  tax  each 
month 1-6  of  1 per  ct. 

Banks,  persons,  firms,  associations,  etc.,  on  amount  of 
notes  of  any  person,  firm,  association  (other  than  a 
national  banking  association),  corporation,  State 
bank,  or  State  banking  association,  town,  city,  or 
municipal  corporation,  used  and  paid  out  as  circula- 
tion  10  per  ct. 

Banks,  persons,  firms,  associations  (other  than  national 
bank  associations),  and  every  corporation,  State 
bank,  or  State  bankiitg  association,  on  the  amount 
of  their  own  notes  used  for  circulation  and  paid  out 


by  them 10  per  ct. 

Beer,  per  bbl.  of  31  gallons $r  00 

Brandy,  per  gallon 90 

Brewers,  manufacturing  500  bbls.  or  more,  annually..  100  00 

manufacturing  less  than  500  bbls.  annually.  . . 50  00 

Cigars,  manufacturers  of,  special  tax 10  00 

Cigars  of  all  descriptions,  made  of  tobacco  or  any  sub- 
stitute, per  1,000.  . 6 00 

Cigarettes,  not  weighing  more  than  3 lbs.  per  1,000, 

per  1,000 1 75 

Cigarettes,  weight  exceeding  3 lbs.  per  1,000,  per  1,000.  6 00 

Cigars  or  cigarettes,  imported,  in  addition  to  import 
duty,  to  pay  same  as  above. 

Liquors,  fermented,  per  bbl 1 00 

Liquors,  distilled,  per  gallon 90 

Liquor  dealers  (wholesale),  special  tax 100  00 

Malt  liquor  dealers  (wholesale) 50  00 

Liquor  dealers  (retail),  special  tax 25  00 

Malt  liquor  dealers  (retail) 20  00 

Manufacturers  of  stills 50  00 

Manufacturers  of  stills,  for  each  still  or  worm  made.  . 20  00 

Rectifiers,  special  tax  less  than  500  bbls.,  $100  ; above 

500  bbls 200  00 

Snuff,  or  snuff  flour,  manufactured  of  tobacco,  or  any 

substitute,  per  lb 16 

Spirits,  distilled,  per  proof  gallon 90 

Stamps,  for  distilled  spirits  for  export,  wholesale  liquor 
dealers,  special  bonded  warehouse,  distillery  ware- 
house, and  rectified  spirits each  10 

Tobacco,  all  kinds,  per  lb 16 

Tobacco,  dealers  in 5 00 

Tobacco,  manufacturers  of 10  00 

Tobacco,  dealers  in  leaf,  wholesale 25  00 

Tobacco,  dealers  in  leaf,  retail 500  00 

Tobacco,  dealers  in  lgaf,  for  sales  in  excess  of  $1,000, 

per  dollar  of  excess 50 

Tobacco  peddlers,  traveling  with  more  than  two  horses, 

mules,  etc 50  00 

Tobacco  peddlers,  traveling  with  two  horses,  mules,  or 

other  animals 25  00 

Tobacco  peddlers,  traveling  with  one  horse,  mule,  or 

other  animal 15  00 

Tobacco  peddlers,  traveling  on  foot,  or  by  public  con- 
veyance  10  00 

Tobacco,  snuff,  and  cigars  for  export,  stamps  for,  each  10 


Whiskey,  per  proof  gallon go 

Wines  and  champagne  (imitation),  not  made  from 
grapes  grown  in  the  United  States,  and  liquors  not 
made  from  grapes,  currants,  rhubarb,  or  berries 
grown  in  the  United  States,  but  rectified  or  mixed 
with  distilled  spirits,  or  by  infusion  of  any  matter  in 
spirits,  to  be  sold  as  wine  or  a substitute,  per  dozen 
bottles  of  more  than  a pint  and  not  more  than  a quart  $2  40 


Imitation  wines,  containing  not  more  than  one  pint, 

per  dozen  bottles I 20 

Stamp  Taxes. 

Bank  check,  draft,  or  order  for  the  payment  of  any 
sum  of  money  whatsoever,  drawn  upon  any  bank, 
banker,  or  trust  company ' 2 cents. 

Playing  cards,  each  pack 5 cents 


Medicines,  Preparations,  Cosmetics,  etc. 

Every  packet,  box,  bottle,  pot,  vial,  or  other  inclosure, 
containing  any  pills,  powders,  tinctures,  troches,  or 
lozenges,  syrups,  cordials,  bitters,  anodynes,  tonics, 
plasters,  liniment,  salves,  ointments,  pastes,  drops, 
waters,  essences,  spirits,  oils,  or  other  preparations 
or  compositions  whatsoever,  made  and  sold,  or  re- 
moved for  consumption  and  sale,  by  any  person  or 
persons  whatever,  wherein  the  person  making  or 
preparing  the  same  has,  or  claims  to  have,  any  pri- 
vate formula  or  occult  secret  or  art  for  the  making 
or  preparing  the  same,  or  has,  or  claims  to  have, 
any  exclusive  right  or  title  to  the  making  or  prepar- 
ing the  same,  or  which  are  prepared,  uttered,  vended 
or  exposed  for  sale  under  any  letters  patent,  or  held 
out  or  recommended  to  the  public  by  the  makers, 
venders,  or  proprietors  thereof  as  proprietary  medi- 
cines, or  as  remedies  or  specifics,  and  for  every 
packet,  box,  bottle,  pot,  vial,  or  other  inclosure,  con- 
taining any  essence,  extract,  toilet  water,  cosmetic, 
hair  oil,  pomade,  hair  dressing,  hair  restorative,  hair 
dye,  tooth  wash,  dentifrice,  tooth  paste,  aromatic 
cachous,  or  any  similar  articles,  by  whatsoever  name 
the  same  have  been,  now  are,  or  may  hereafter  be 
called,  known,  or  distinguished,  used  or  applied,  or 
to  be  used  or  applied  as  perfumes  or  applications  to 
the  hair,  mouth,  or  skin,  made,  prepared,  and  sold 
or  removed  for  consumption  and  sale  in  the  U.  S.,  as 
follows  ; where  such  packet,  box,  bottle,  vial,  or 
other  inclosure,  and  contents,  shall  not  exceed, 
at  retail  price  or  value,  the  sum  of  twenty-five  cents.  I cent. 

Exceeding  twenty-five,  and  not  exceeding  fifty  cents.  .2  cents. 

Exceeding  fifty,  and  not  exceeding  seventy-five  cents. .3  cents. 

Exceeding  seventy-five  cents,  and  not  exceeding  one 

dollar 4 cents. 

Exceeding  one  dollar,  for  every  additional  fifty  cents 

or  fractional  part  thereof,  an  additional 2 cent* 

Matches,  Wax  Tapers,  and  Cigar  Lights. 

Friction  matches,  or  lucifer  matches,  or  other  articles 
made  in  part  of  wood,  and  used  for  like  purposes, 
in  parcels  or  packages  containing  100  matches  or 
less,  for  each  parcel  or  package 1 ^nt. 

Packages  containing  more  than  100,  and  not  more  than 
200  matches \ cents, 

And  for  every  additional  100  matches,  or  fractional 

part  thereof T tent. 

Wax  tapers,  double  the  rate  upon  friction  or  lucifer 
matches. 

Cigar  lights,  made  in  part  of  wood,  wax,  glass,  paper, 
or  other  materials,  in  parcels  or  packages  containing 


25  lights  or  less  in  each  parcel  or  package cent. 

Parcels  or  packages  containing  more  than  25,  and  no 

more  than  50  lights 2 cents 

For  every  additional  25  lights  or  fractional  part  of  tlw  t 

number .1  cent 


334 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


STYLES  OF  ENGLISH  ARCHITECTURE. 


Name. 

Prevailed. 

Norman 

1066  to  1154 

Transition 

1154  to  1189 

Early  English 

1189  to  1272 

Transition 

1272  to  1307 

Decorated 

1307  to  1377 

Transition 

1377  to  '4°7 

Perpendicular 

1399  to  1547 

Tudor  or  Elizabethan 

1550  to  1600 

Jacobean 

1603  to  1641 

Characteristics. 


Round-headed  doorways  and  windows,  heavy  pillars,  and  zigzag  ornaments.  (Example,  Nave, 
Rochester  Cathedral.) 

Same,  but  with  pointed  windows.  (Example,  Choir,  Canterbury  Cathedral.) 

Narrow-pointed  windows,  lancet  shaped  ; clustered  pillars.  (Example,  Presbytery  at  the  east 
end  of  Lincoln  Cathedral ; Choir,  Westminster  Abbey.) 

Tracery  introduced  into  windows.  (Example,  east  end  of  Lincoln  Cathedral.) 

Geometrical  tracery  in  windows,  enriched  doorways,  beautifully  arranged  mouldings.  (Ex- 
ample, Lady  Chapel,  Ely.) 

Lines  less  flowing.  (Example,  Choir,  York  Minster.) 

Upright  lines  of  mouldings  in  windows,  doorways  often  a combination  of  square  heads  with 
pointed  arches.  (Example,  King’s  College  Chapel,  Cambridge.) 

A debased  species  of  Perpendicular,  mostly  employed  in  domestic  architecture.  (Examples, 
Thornbury  Castle,  Gloucestershire;  Compton  Winyate  House,  Warwickshire.) 

An  admixture  of  Classical  with  all  kinds  of  Gothic  or  Pointed.  (Example,  Longleat  House, 
Wiltshire.) 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 


In  the  following  brief  table  an  abstract  is  given  (approximately)  of 
the  area,  population,  revenue,  public  debt, and  commerce  of  the  British 
Empire.  The  figures  given  are  near  enough  for  tile  purpose,  although 


it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  precise  amounts  cannot  be  procured.  The 
table,  short  as  it  is,  presents  a result  unparalleled  in  this  world’s  his- 
tory. 


NAME  OF  COUNTRY. 

AREA  IN  SQUARE 
MILES. 

POPULATION. 

REVENUE. 

PUBLIC  DEBT. 

IMPORTS  AND 
EXPORTS. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 

Indian  Possessions,  etc 

Other  Eastern  Possessions 

Australasia 

North  America 

Guiana,  etc 

Africa 

West  Indies,  etc 

European  Possessions 

Various  Settlements 

Totals 

I2T , 1 1 5 
Ii558,254 
30,000 
31*7313*0 
3,620,500 

100.000 

270.000 
12,707 

120 

96,171 

34,500,000 

246,000,000 

3,500,000 

2,700,000 

4,000,000 

200,000 

1,500,000 

1,250,000 

160,000 

200,000 

^83,000,000 

60,000,000 

2,600,000 

18,000,000 

5,000,000 

375.000 
3,500,000 
1,500,000 

250.000 

550.000 

^783,000,000 

150,000,000 

1,800,000 

68,000,000 

30,000,000 

500,000 

9,000,000 

1,400,000 

320,000 

650,000 

^612,000,000 

105,000,00® 

39.000. 000 

94.000. 000 

35.000. 000 

5.000. 000 

13.000. 000 

10.000. 000 

2.000. 000 
2,000,000 

8,982,177 

294,010,000 

^'74.775,000 

^1,044,670,000 

^917,000,000 

THE  FIRST  DAY 

Readers  of  Parish  Registers  and  other  ancient  documents  are  some- 
times puzzled  by  the  dates,  and  especially  by  the  apparent  discrepan- 
cies in  the  time  when  the  year  commenced.  It  began  ; — 

7th  to  14th  Centuries,  at  Christmas. 

12  Century,  by  the  Church,  on  March  25. 

14th  Century,  by  Civilians,  same  time. 

In  1752  the  New  Style  was  introduced,  and  1753  commenced  on  the 


OF  THE  YEAR. 

1st  of  January.  Previous  to  this  two  dates  were  used,  one  for  the  civil 
year,  and  the  other  for  the  historical  ; the  former  commenced  March 
25,  and  the  latter  January  1 ; thus  we  find  the  same  event  with  two 
dates,  e.  g-.,  Feb.  20,  1681-2.  Another  change  was  made  in  the  calendar 
by  the  same  Act,  24  Geo.  II.  c.  23  ; the  day  after  September  2d  was 
accounted  the  fourteenth,  hence  the  difference  between  Old  and  New 
Michaelmas  and  other  days. 


GENERAL  COUNCILS. 


Jerusalem Against  Judaizers 

Arles Against  the  Donatists 

*Nice First  (Ecumenical  Council 

Constantinople Arian 

Rome Athanasian 

Sardis Against  Arius 

* Constantinople Second  (Ecumenical 

* Ephesus Third  do 

*Chalcedon Fourth  do 

* Constantinople Fifth  do 

* Constantinople Sixth  do 

Nice Seventh  do 

Constantinople Eighth  do 

Rome First  Lateran 


A.D. 

5* 

Rome 

3*4 

Rome 

325 

Rome 

337 

Lyons 

342 

Lyons 

347 
3s  1 

Vienne 

43* 

Pisa 

45* 

Constance 

553 

Basle 

681 

Rome 

787 

Trent 

870 

Rome 

1123 

.Second  Lateran 

Third  do 

Fourth  do  

Emperor  Frederick  deposed 

Temporary  reunion  of  Greek  and  Latin 

Churches t 

Fifteenth  (Ecumenical 

Popes  elected  and  deposed 

Huss  condemned  to  be  burnt 

Eighteenth  (Ecumenical 


Fifth  Lateran 1512  to 

Nineteenth  (Ecumenical 1545  to 

Last  (Ecumenical 


A.D. 

1139 

1197 

1215 

1243 

1274 

1312 

1409 

1414 

l43l 

ISU 

1563 

187a 


* Only  the  six  thus  marked  were  indisputably  General  or  (Ecumenical. 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


DEBTS,  REVENUES,  EXPENDITURES,  AND  COMMERCE  OF  NATIONS. 


Countries. 

Fiscal 
Y EAR. 

Public  Debt. 

Revenue. 

Expenditures. 

Imports.1 

Exports.* 

Dollars . 

Dollars . 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

Argentine  Republic 

1880 

57,°68,979 

19.594.305 

17,270,516 

44,660,204 

66,497,423 

Australia 

1879 

462,760,515 

79.637.54° 

93.225.5*5 

236,893,913 

206,140,785 

Austria-Hungary 

l88l 

I,582,?22,008 

57>922,954 

6l,092,OO9 

302,000,000 

329,995,000 

Austria  proper 

l88l 

204,308.213 

204,827,997 

231.556,152 

(In  Austria- 

Hungary. 

Hungary  proper 

1881 

500,665,178 

l32.207.358 

•53.59°.°48 

(In  Austria- 

Hungary. 

Belgium 

1880 

351,967,293 

54,501,284 

55.763. 710 

452,265,000 

428,149,065 

Bolivia 

1879 

30,000,000 

2,929,574 

4,500,504 

5,000,000 

5,647,000 

Brazil 

1880 

407.716,027 

57-423.412 

59,762,289 

81,752,900 

102,029,250 

Canada 

1880 

199»I25*323 

23,307,406 

24,8sO,634 

86,489,747 

87,911,458 

Ceylon 

1880 

6,650,000 

7.374.335 

7,343,9*5 

25,i97.i75 

24,804,690 

Chili 

1879 

77.654-238 

27,693,087 

24.777.36o 

22,740,000 

6,620,226 

China 

1878 

64,500,000 

121,482,000 

121,475,000 

70,804,027 

67,172,179 

Colombia 

1879 

19,971,219 

4,910,000 

8,634,571 

10,787,634 

13.711,511 

Denmark 

1880 

46,798,190 

»2. 756,571 

11,251,561 

53.744,31° 

42,576,810 

Ecuador 

1879 

18,350,400 

1,853,600 

2,688,000 

7,596,264 

8,634.33* 

Egypt 

1879 

41  1,820,700 

42,097,105 

41.544,35° 

32,749,664 

64,916,017 

France  

1881 

4,700,860,700 

552.496,163 

547,241,755 

981,509,400 

680,129,800 

Germany 

l88l 

88,385,022 

148,239,138 

147,695,846 

973,200,000 

705,375,000 

Prussia 

1881 

477,210,581 

12^,439,802 

228,267,605 

(In  German 

Empire. 

Other  German  States 

1880 

792.858,492 

121,306,304 

116,032,115 

(In  German 

Empire. 

Great  Britain 

1881 

3,843.518.460 

420,207,440 

415,509,620 

2,056,147,825 

1, 432, 072.33° 

Greece  

1880 

58,572.730 

8,759,000 

18,765,000 

29,101,400 

47,992,000 

Hawaii  2 

1880 

388,900 

1,780,080 

2,196.000 

3.673,000 

4,968,000 

India,  British 

1879 

754.979.810 

375,998,010 

315,826,780 

224,286,715 

324,598.705 

Italy 

1880 

2,042,000,000 

286,904,471 

283,340,500 

244.548,042 

225,128,904 

Japan 

1880 

363,721.776 

59.933.507 

59,204,609 

32,631,000 

28,364,000 

Mexico 

1880 

144,953.785 

17,811,125 

23,128,218 

29,962,407 

31,659.151 

Netherlands 

1881 

376,008,  SOO 

42,044,240 

49.786,774 

338,680,000 

232,680,000 

Norway 

1881 

24,705,000 

13.454.670 

u.937.34° 

40.715,976 

29,359,53° 

Paraguay 

1879 

12,098,417 

216,599 

270,031 

956,000 

1,046,700 

Persia 

1876 

No  debt. 

8,216,000 

8,131,000 

7,500,000 

4,500,000 

Peril 

1879 

254,000,000 

38,900,000 

54,600,000 

27,000,000 

45,000,000 

Portugal 

1880 

387.659,575 

30,794,012 

34,478.143 

34,046,000 

20,502,000 

Roumania 

1881 

114,210,075 

24,152.940 

24. 164.876 

51,057,200 

43,782,000 

Russia 

1880 

2,081,417.032 

435.548,352 

469,121,794 

395,466,667 

418,466,667 

Servia 

1880 

20,248,090 

5,125,216 

5,127,108 

5,244,100 

7,002,975 

Spain 

1880 

2.5°4.57i.684 

163,347,097 

156,529,840 

88,660,000 

100,980,000 

Sweden 

1881 

62,196,184 

20,503,260 

20,098,260 

62,139,340 

50,264,280 

Switzerland 

1880 

6,120,780 

8.502,901 

8,020,764 

Not  given. 

Not  given. 

Turkey 

1880 

1,289,565,000 

62,681,608 

57,390,803 

107,500,000 

qq.  2 50.000 

United  States * 

1881 

2,018,869,698 

360,782,292 

260,712,887 

753,240,125 

921,784,193 

Uruguay 

1879 

47,861,042 

8.936.714 

10,090,260 

18,328,225 

19,752,201 

Venezuela 

1880 

67.309.99° 

4,680,000 

4,448,000 

14,800,000 

11,300,000 

Total  debts 

26,979,  170,506 

1.  Including  merchandise,  specie,  and  bullion. 

2.  Including  New  South  Wales,  New  Zealand,  Queensland,  South  Australia,  Tasmania,  Victoria,  and  Western  Australia, 


THE  NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Countries. 

No.  OF 
Vessels. 

No.  OF 
Men. 

Cost  of 
Navy. 

$550,439 

4,633.669 

68 

6,369 

10 

4.984 

5,898,132 

Chili...! ' 

1.468 

56 

*.383.940 

258 

86 

48.283 

*5.815 

58,800 

652 

32,267.498 

238 

18 

51, 607^75 
1,056,536 

Countries. 


No.  OF 
Vessels. 


Italy 

Japan  

Mexico 

Netherlands. . 

Norway 

Peru 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Turkey 

United  States. 
Venezuela. . . . 


67 

27 

4 

122 

123 

l8 

44 

10 

389 

’39 

*3* 

78 

*39 

4 


No.  of  Cost  of 
Men.  Navv. 


16.140 

5.55t 


$9,227,137 

3,015,000 


5,9*4 

4.342 


4,849,776 

448.632 


3.569 

539 

3°.*94 

15,179 

5.9*5 

23,000 

11,115 

200 


1,607,41  I 


19,268,755 

6,429,163 

1,424,25a  « 

2,8l6,OOa 
15,686,671 


NAVY  YARDS  OF  THE 

r.  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

2.  Charlestown  Navy  Yard,  Boston.  Mass. 

3.  Gosport  Navy  Yard,  near  Norfolk,  Va. 

4.  Kittery  Navy  Yard,  opposite  Portsmouth,  N.  II. 

5.  League  Island  Navy  Yard,  7 miles  below  Philadelphia. 


UNITED  STATES. 

6.  Marc  Island  Navy  Yard,  near  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

7.  New  London  Naval  Station  (unfinished),  Now  London,  Conn. 

8.  Pensacola  Navy  Yard,  Pensacola,  Fla. 

9.  Washington  City  Navy  Yard,  Washington,  D.  C. 


ss- 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES, 


*3° 


Washington,  D.  C 1200  m. 

Athens,  Greece 6 43  p.  m. 

Auckland,  New  Zealand 4 51  a.  m. 

Augusta,  Me  12  29  p.  m. 

Austin,  Texas 1037  a.m. 

Batavia,  Java 12  15  a.  m. 

Bombay,  India 10  oop.m. 

Boston,  Mass. . 12  24  p.  m. 

Berlin,  Prussia 601  p.  m 

Calcutta,  India. .. . 1101  p.  m. 

Canton,  China 12  41  a.  m. 

Charleston,  S.  C 11  49  a.  m. 

Chicago,  111  11  18  a.  m. 

Constantinople,  Turkey 7 04  p.  m. 

Copenhagen,  Denmark  5 58  p.  m. 


VARIATIONS  IN  TIME. 


I Denver,  Col  10  07  a.  m. 

Dublin,  Ireland 4 43  p.  m. 

Gibraltar,  Spam  451p.m. 

Glasgow,  Scotland 4 51  p.  m. 

Halifax,  Nova  Scotia  1254  p.m. 

Harrisburg,  Pa 12  01  p.  m. 

Lima,  Peru.  ..  1200  m 

London,  England 5 07  p.  m. 

Madrid,  Spain 4 53  p.  m. 

Mecca,  Arabia 7 49  p.  m. 

Mexico,  Mexico 1027  a.m. 

New  Orleans,  La.  1108  a.  m. 

New  York,  N.  Y 12  12  p.  m. 

Olympia,  Washington  Ter 8 57  a.  m. 

Omaha,  Neb 10  44  a.  m. 


Paris,  France 5 42  p. 

Pekin,  China 1254  a. 

Philadelphia,  Pa 12  13  p. 

Pittsburg,  Pa  1148  a. 

Rio  Janeiro,  Brazil 2 16  p. 

Rome,  Italy 5 58  p. 

St.  Louis,  Mo 11  07  a 

St.  Petersburg,  Russia 7 09  p. 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 9 40  a. 

San  Francisco,  Cal 8 58  a. 

Tallahassee,  Fla 1130  a. 

Toronto,  Canada 11  51  a. 

Valparaiso,  Chili 12  21  p. 

Yeddo,  Japan 2 27  a. 


THE  ENGLISH  MILE  COMPARED  WITH  OTHER  EUROPEAN  MEASURES. 


ENGLISH 

STATUTE 

MILE. 

ENGLISH 

GEOG. 

MILE. 

FRENCH 

KILO 

METRE. 

GERMAN 

GEOG. 

MILE. 

RUSSIAN 

VERST. 

AUSTRIAN 

MILE. 

DUTCH 

URE. 

NOR- 

WEGIAN 

MILE. 

SWEDISH 

MILE. 

DANISH 

MILE. 

SWISS 

STUNDE. 

English  Statute  Mile 

I OOO 

1-153 

1 .609 

0.217 

I.508 

0.212 

O.289 

O.  I42 

0. 151 

O.213 

°-335 

English  Geographical  Mile... 

1-153 

I .OOO 

to 

CO 

O.25O 

1-738 

0.245 

0-333 

0. 164 

O.169 

O.246 

0.386 

Kilometre 

0.621 

O.54O 

I .OOO 

0.135 

0-937 

O.I32 

O 180 

O.088 

O.O94 

° - 133 

0.208 

German  Geographical  Mile  .. 

4.6lO 

4.OOO 

7.420 

I .OOO 

6.953 

0 978 

1-333 

0.657 

O.694 

0 985 

1-543 

Russian  Verst. . 

O.663 

0-575 

I .067 

O.I44 

I .OOO 

O.  I4I 

0. 192 

O.094 

0.100 

O.I42 

0.222 

Austrian  Mile 

4-7I4 

4.089 

7-586 

1.022 

7.112 

1.000 

1-363 

O.672 

0.710 

I.006 

1-578 

Dutch  Ure 

3-458 

3.000 

5-565 

O.75O 

5-215 

o-734 

I .OOO 

o-493 

0.520 

0.733 

1. 157 

Norwegian  Mile 

7.021 

6.091 

I I . 299 

1-523 

IO.589 

1.489 

2.035 

I. OOO 

I 057 

1.499 

2-350 

Swedish  Mile 

6.644 

5-764 

IO.692 

I. 441 

IO.OI9 

1.409 

1 .921 

0.948 

1 .000 

1. 419 

2.224 

Danish  Mile 

4.682 

4 .062 

7-536 

I .Ol6 

7.078 

0-994 

1-354 

0.667 

0.705 

I .OOO 

1-567 

Swiss  Stunde 

2.987 

2.592 

4.808 

O.648 

4-5°5 

0.634 

O.864 

0-425 

0.449 

O.638 

1 .000 

LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 

A TABLE  SHOWING  THE  NUMBER  OF  MILES  IN  A DEGREE  OF  LONGITUDE  AT  EACH  DEGREE  OF  LATITUDE. 


LAT. 

MILES. 

LAT. 

MILES. 

LAT. 

MILES. 

LAT. 

MILES. 

LAT. 

MILES. 

LAT. 

MILES. 

LAT. 

MILES. 

LAT. 

MILES. 

LAT. 

MILES 

i° 

60 

n° 

58.9 

21° 

56.0 

3t° 

51-4 

4i° 

45-3 

5t° 

37-8 

6i° 

29.I 

71° 

19-5 

81° 

9-4 

2 

60 

12 

58.7 

22 

55-6 

S® 

50.9 

42 

44-6 

52 

36.9 

62 

28.2 

72 

18.5 

82 

8-4 

3 

59-9 

13 

58-5 

23 

55-2 

33 

50-3 

43 

43-9 

53 

36-1 

63 

27.2 

73 

17-5 

83 

7-3 

4 

59-9 

14 

58.2 

24 

54-8 

34 

49-7 

44 

43-2 

54 

35-3 

64 

26.3 

74 

16.5 

84 

6-3 

5 

59-8 

15 

58.0 

25 

54-4 

35 

49-1 

45 

42.4 

55 

34  4 

65 

25-4 

75 

15  5 

85 

5-2 

6 

59-7 

l6 

57-7 

26 

53-9 

36 

48.5 

46 

41.7 

56 

33-6 

66 

24-4 

76 

14-5 

86 

4.2 

7 

59-6 

17 

57-4 

27 

53-5 

37 

47-9 

47 

40.9 

57 

32.7 

67 

23-4 

77 

I3-5 

87 

3-1 

8 

59-4 

18 

57-r 

28 

53-o 

38 

47-3 

48 

40.1 

58 

31  -8 

68 

22.5 

78 

12.5 

88 

2.1 

9 

59-3 

19 

567 

29 

52-5 

39 

46.6 

49 

39-4 

59 

3°-9 

69 

21.5 

79 

11. 4 

89 

1.0 

lO 

59 -1 

20 

56.4 

3° 

52.0 

40 

46.0 

5° 

38.6 

60 

30.0 

70 

20.5 

80 

1 

10.4 

90 

0.0 

MISCELLANEOUS  ENGLISH  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


Measures  of  Length. 


In.  Ft.  Kr.  Pis.  Ch.  Fs. 

A Palm 3 

A Hand 4 

Foot 12 

Yard  36  3 

Rod,  pole  or  perch 198  z6%  5% 

Chain ...  792  66  22  4 

Furlong 7.920  660  220  40  10 

Mile 63,360  5,280  1,760  320  80  8 


Particular  Measures  of  Length. 


12  lines  1 inch. 

3 inches  1 palm. 

4 inches  1 hand. 

A cubit  18  inches. 

A pace,  military,  2 feet  6 inches. 
A pace,  geometrical,  5 feet. 


A fathom  6 feet. 

A cable’s  length  240  yards. 

A degree  6qX  miles  = 60  nautical 
knots  or  geographical  miles. 

A league  3 miles. 


Square  or  Surface  Measure. 


In.  Ft.  Yds.  Pis.  Ch.  R. 

Square  foot 144  1 

Square  yard 1,296  9 1 

Rod,  pole,  or  perch 39,204  272%  30^  1 

Square  chain 627,264  4,356  484  16  1 

Rood 1,568,160  10,800  1,210  40  2 }4  1 

Acre 6,272,640  43,560  4,840  160  10  4 


A square  mile  contains  640  acres,  2,560  roods,  6,400  chains,  102,400  rods, 
poles,  or  perches,  or  3,097,600  square  yards. 


Apothecaries’  Weights  and  Measures  by  which  Medicines  are 
Compounded. 


20  Grains = 1 Scruple  3 = 20  grs. 

3 Sciuples - 1 Drachm  3 = 60  “ 

8 Drachms = 1 Ounce  3 = 480  “ 

12  Ounces = 1 Pound  fi)  = 5760  “ 

Drugs  arc  purchased  by  Avoirdupois  Weight. 


Fluid  Measure. 

60  Minims  IT], = 1 Fluid  Drachm 

8 Drachms = 1 Ounce 

20  Ounces = 1 Pint 

8 pints = 1 Gallon  .... 


Ala  rked 

f 3 
f 1 

o 

ga*. 


Particular  Weights. 


A Stone,  Horseman’s  weight 

A Firkin  of  Butter 

A Firkin  of  Soft  Soap 

A Barrel  of  Raisins 

A Barrel  (or  pack)  of  Soft  Soap 

A Fodder  of  Lead,  London  and  Hull 

“ “ Derby 

“ “ Newcastle 


14  lbs. 

56  “ 

64  “ 

112  “ 

256  “ 

19 X cwt 

22%  “ 

21#  “ 


A Sack— Potatoes,  168  lbs.;  Coals,  224  lbs.;  Flour,  280  ibs. 


d S'  S'  BBSS  S S'  S S S S S 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


337 


MISCELLANEOUS  ENGLISH  WEIGHTS  AND  ME ASURES-Continued. 


Measures  of  Time. 


60  Seconds = i Minute. 

60  Minutes = i Hour. 

24  Hours  = 1 Day. 

7 Days = 1 Week. 

28  Days = 1 Lunar  Month. 

28,  29,  30,  or  31  Days = 1 Calendar  Month. 

12  Calendar  Months = 1 Year. 

365  Days = 1 Common  Year. 

366  Days  = 1 Leap  Year. 

Angular  Measure. 

60  Seconds = 1 Minute. 

60  Minutes = 1 Degree. 

30  Degrees = 1 Sign. 

90  Degrees = 1 Quadrant. 

4 Quadrants,  or  360° = 1 Circumference,  or  Great  Circle. 


Cubic  or  Solid  Measure. 


1728  Cubic  Inches 

27  Cubic  Feet 

40  Do.  of  Rough,  or 

50  Do.  of  Hewn  Timber 
42  Cubic  Feet  of  Timber 

108  Cubic  Feet 

128  Cubic  Feet 

40  Cubic  Feet 


= 1 Cubic  Foot. 

= 1 Cubic  Yard. 

= 1 Ton  or  Load. 

= 1 Shipping  Ton. 
= 1 Stack  of  Wood. 
= 1 Cord  of  Wood. 
1 Ton  Shipping. 


Liquid  Measure.  Gals  q(s  Pts_ 

Four  Gills,  one  Pint . . 1 

Buart 1 2 

allon 1 4 8 

Firkin  or  Quarter  Barrel 9 36  72 

Kilderkin  or  Half  Barrel 18  72  144 

Barrel 36  144  288 

Hogshead  of  Ale  (ijtf  barrel) 54  2:6  432 

Puncheon  72  288  576 

Butt  of  Ale  (3  barrels) 108  432  864 


Practically,  the  only  measures  in  use  are  gallons  and  quarts,  the 
others  are  merely  nominal ; e.  g.,  the  hogshead  of  54  gallons,  old  7uea- 
sure,  contains  but  52  gallons,  1 quart,  1 pint,  and  3.55  gills  imperial 
measure,  and  of  wine  six  nominal  quart  bottles  go  to  the  gallon.  Of 
imported  wines  the  following  are  the  usual  measurements  : 


Pipe  of  Port  or  Masdeu = 115  Gallons. 

“ Teneriffe = 109  “ 


Pipe  of  Ma-sala 

“ Madeira  and  Cape 

Butt  of  Lisbon  and  Bucellas 

“ Sherry  and  Tent 

Aum  of  Hock  and  Rhenish 

Hogshead  of  Claret 

Dry  or  Corn  Measure. 
4 Quarts 

2 Gallons 

4 Pecks  

3 Bushels  (four  of  corn) 

12  Sacks 

8 Bushels,  or  two  sacks 

5 Quarters 


= 93  Gallons 

= ?2  “ 

= “7 
= 108  “ 

= 30  “ 

= 46  “ 


= 1 Gallon. 

= 1 Peck. 

= 1 Bushel. 

= 1 Sack. 

= 1 Chaldron. 
= 1 Quarter. 
= 1 Load. 


Measures  of  Weight. — Avoirdupois. 


27K  Grains = 1 Drachm  = 27 % ) 

16  Drachms = 1 Ounce  = 437)6  >-  Grains. 

16  Ounces  = 1 Pound  = 7000  } 

8 Pounds = 1 Stone  of  Butcher’s  Meat. 

14  Pounds = 1 Ordinary  Stone. 

28  Pounds = 1 Quarter  (qr.). 

4 Quarters = 1 Hundredweight  (cwt.). 

20  Cwt = 1 Ton. 


This  weight  is  used  in  almost  all  commercial  transactions,  and  com- 
mon dealings. 

Troy  Weight. 


3*/e  Grains = 1 Carat. 

24  Grains = 1 Pennyweight. 

20  Pennyweights = 1 Ounce 480  grs. 

12  Ounces = 1 Pound 5770  “ 


Hay  and  Straw. 

Truss  of  Straw,  36Tb. 

Truss  of  Old  Hay.  56H). 

Truss  of  New  Hay.  6oK>. 

Load,  36  Trusses  = Straw,  11  cwt.  2 qrs.  8fi>.;  Old  Hay,  18  cwt.;  New 
Hay,  19  cwt.  1 qr.  4H). 

WooL-  cwt.  qr.  Id. 

7 Pounds = 1 Clove 007 

2 Cloves = 1 Stone o o 14 

2 Stones = 1 Tod o 1 o 

6)6  Tods = 1 Wey 1 2 14 

12  Sacks = 1 Last 39  o o 


FRENCH  METRICAL  SYSTEM  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


The  Metrical  System  is  based  upon  the  length  of  the  fourth  part  of  a 
terrestrial  meridian.  The  ten-millionth  part  of  this  arc  was  chosen  as  the 
unit  of  measures  of  length,  and  called  Metre.  The  cube  of  the  tenth 
part  of  the  metre  was  adopted  as  the  unit  of  capacity, and  denominated 
Litre.  The  weight  of  a litre  of  distilled  water  at  its  greatest  density 


was  called  Kilogramme , of  which  the  thousandth  part,  or  Gramme,  was 
adopted  as  the  unit  of  weight.  The  multiples  of  these  proceeding  in 
decimal  progression  are  distinguished  by  the  employment  of  the  pre- 
fixes deca , hoc  to,  kilo,  and  myna,  from  the  Greek,  and  the  subdivisions 
by  deci,  centi , and  milli , from  the  Latin  : — 


Millimetre. . . 
Centimetre. . 
Decimetre. . . 

Metre 

Decametre  . . 
Hectometre 


equal  to 


Measures  of  Length  (unit  Metre). 
Inches.  Feet. 


Yards. 


EQUAL  TO 

Millilitre,  or  cubic  centimetre  . 

Centilitre,  10  cubic  do 

Decilitre,  100  cubic  do 

Litre,  or  cubic  Decimetre 

Decalitre,  or  Centistere. 
Hectolitre,  or  Decistere 


0.06103 


Kilolitre,  or  St6re,  or  cubic  metre 61027.05152 

Myrialitre,  or  D6castere 610270.51519 


0.000035 


0.00176 


EQUAL  TO 

Milligramme 0.01543 

Centigramme 0.15432 

Decigramme 1.54323 

Gramme '5- 43235 

Decagramme 154.32349 

Hectogramme 1543.23488 

Kilogramme 1543234880 

Myriagramme  154323.48800 


0.61027  •*  0.000353  ••  0.01761 

6.10271  ..  0.003532  ..  0.17608 

61.02705  ..  0.035317  ..  1.76077 

610.27052  ..  0.353166  17.60773 

6102.70515  ..  3-531658  ..  176.07734 

35.316581  ..  1760.77341 

353.165807  ..  17607.73414  ■ 

Measures  of  Weight  (unit  Gramme). 

Grains.  Troy  Oz.  Avoirdupois  lb. 


0.000032 

0.000322 

0.003215 

O.O32I5I 

0.321507 

3.215073 

32.150727 

32I.5O7267 


0.0000022 

0.0000220 

0.0002205 

0.0022046 

O.O22O462 

O.220462I 

2.2046213 

22.O462I26 


Square,  or  Measures  of  Surface  (unit  Are), 
equal  TO  Sq.  Feet.  Sq.  Yards.  Sq.  Perches . 

Centiare,  or  square  mfetre 10  764299  ..  1.196033  ..  0.0395383 

Are,  or  100  square  metres 1076.429934  ..  119.603326  ..  3.9538290 

Hectare,  or  10,000  square  metres 107642.993419  ..  11960.332602  ..  395  3828959 


Fathoms. 


0-03937 

0.003281 

0.0010936 

0.0005468 

0-39371 

0.032809 

0.0109363  .. 

0.0054682 

3.93708 

0.328090 

0.1093633 

0.0546816 

39  37079 

3 . 280989 

1.0936331 

0.5468165 

393-70790 

32 . 809892 

m.9363306 

5.4681653 

3937.07000 

328.089917 

109.3033056 

54  6816528 

39370.79000 

3280.899167 

1093-6330556 

546.8165278 

393707.90000 

32808.991667 

10936.3305556 

5468.1652778 

Cubic,  or  Measures  of  Capacity  (unit  Litre).  . 
Cubic  Inches.  Cubic  Feet.  Pints. 

Gallons. 

0.0002201 
0.0022010 
0.0220097 
o 2200967 
2.2009668 
22.0096677 
220.0966767 
2200.9667675 

Cwt.  = 1 12  lb. 
0.0000000 
0.0000002 
0.0000020 
0.0000197 
0.0001968 
0.0019684 
0.0196841 
o.  1968412 

Sq.  Roods. 
. 0.0009885 

. 0.0988457 

■ 9 8845724 


Miles. 
0.0000c 06 
0.0000062 
0.0000621 
0.0006214 
0.0062138 
0.0621382 
0.6213824 
6.2138243 

Bushels. 
0.0000275 
0.0002751 
0.0027512 
0.0275121 
0.2751208 
2.7512085 
27.5120846 
275.1208459 

Tons  = 20  cwt. 
0.0000000 
0.0000000 
0.0000001 
0.0000010 
0.0000098 
0.0000984 
0.0009842 
0.0098421 

Sq.  Acres. 
0.0002471 
0.0247114 
2.4711431 


Metres  into 
yards. 

Kilometres  to  miles 
and  yards. 

Litres  into  galls, 
and  quarts. 

Hectolitres  into 
quarts  and  bushels. 

Kilogrammes  into  cwts., 
qrs.,  lbs.,  oz. 

Hectares  into 
acres,  r.,  p. 

I 

1.094 

I 

0 

1094 

I 

O 

0.880 

I 

0 

2.751 

1 

0 

0 

2 

3% 

1 

2 

I 

35 

2 

2.187 

2 

1 

427 

2 

O 

1.761 

2 

0 

5 502 

2 

0 

0 

4 

6 X 

2 

4 

3 

3i 

3 

3.281 

3 

1 

1521 

3 

O • 

2.641 

3 

I 

0.254 

3 

0 

0 

6 

9% 

3 

7 

1 

26 

4 

4-374 

4 

2 

85s 

4 

O 

3.521 

4 

I 

3.005 

4 

0 

0 

8 

13 

4 

9 

3 

22 

5 

5-468 

5 

3 

188 

5 

0.402 

5 

I 

5-756 

5 

0 

0 

11 

© % 

5 

12 

1 

*7 

6 

6.562 

6 

3 

1282 

6 

I 

1.282 

6 

2 

0.507 

6 

0 

0 

13 

ZX 

6 

14 

3 

12 

7 

7-655 

7 

4 

615 

7 

I 

2.163 

7 

2 

3.258 

7 

0 

0 

*5 

7 

7 

17 

1 

8 

8 

8.749 

8 

4 

1709 

8 

I 

3-°43 

8 

2 

6.010 

8 

0 

0 

17 

*oJf 

8 

*9 

3 

3 

9 

9.843 

9 

5 

1043 

9 

I 

3-923 

9 

3 

0.761 

9 

0 

0 

19 

*3X 

9 

22 

0 

38 

IO 

10.936 

10 

6 

376 

IO 

2 

0.804 

IO 

3 

3-512 

10 

0 

0 

22 

0% 

10 

24 

2 

34 

20 

21.873 

20 

12 

753 

20 

4 

I.608 

20 

6 

7.024 

20 

0 

1 

16 

20 

49 

1 

28 

3° 

32 . 8og 

30 

18 

1129 

3° 

6 

2.412 

3° 

10 

2.536 

3° 

0 

2 

10 

2X 

30 

74 

0 

21 

40 

43-745 

40 

24 

1505 

40 

8 

3-2*5 

40 

13 

6.048 

40 

0 

3 

4 

3 

40 

98 

3 

*5 

S° 

54.682 

5° 

31 

122 

50 

11 

O.OI9 

5° 

17 

1.560 

50 

0 

3 

26 

3% 

50 

*23 

2 

9 

60 

65.618 

60 

37 

498 

60 

13 

0.823 

60 

20 

5.072 

60 

1 

0 

20 

4 % 

60 

I48 

1 

3 

70 

76.554 

70 

43 

874 

70 

15 

1.627 

70 

24 

0.585 

70 

1 

1 

14 

zH 

7° 

172 

3 

37 

80 

87.401 

80 

49 

1251 

80 

17 

2-43* 

80 

27 

4.097 

80 

1 

2 

8 

6 

80 

197 

2 

38 

90 

98.427 

90 

55 

1627 

90 

19 

3-235 

90 

3° 

7.609 

90 

1 

3 

2 

6>$ 

90 

222 

1 

24 

IOO 

109.363 

100 

62 

243 

IOO 

22 

0.039 

IOO 

34 

3.121 

IOO 

1 

3 

24 

7 

IOO 

247 

0 

l8 

200 

218.727 

200 

124 

487 

200 

44 

O.O77 

200 

68 

6.242 

200 

3 

3 

20 

15 

200 

494 

0 

37 

3°° 

328.090 

3°° 

186 

730 

300 

66 

O.Il6 

300 

103 

1 . 362 

300 

5 

3 

*7 

6 

3°° 

74* 

1 

*5 

400 

437-453 

400 

248 

973 

400 

88 

0.155 

400 

*37 

4.483 

400 

7 

3 

*3 

14 

400 

988 

1 

33 

500 

546.3l6 

5°° 

310 

1217 

500 

no 

0.193 

500 

171 

7.604 

500 

9 

3 

10 

5 

500 

1235 

2 

II 

FOREIGN  WEIGHTS 

FRANCE. 

I.  Measure  of  Length. 


i Myriamfctre = 10000  Metres. 

i Kilometre = 1000  Metres. 

i Decametre = io  Metres. 

i M6tre = The  10,000,000  part  of  the  quarter  of  the  merid- 

ian of  the  earth. 

1 Decimetre = i-ioth  of  a metre. 

1 Centimetre = i-iooth  of  a mfetre. 

1 Milimetre = i-ioooth  of  a metre. 

II.  Measure  of  Surface. 

1 Hectare = 100  Ares. 

1 Are = 100  Square  mitres. 

1 Centiare = 1 Square  mitre. 

III.  Measure  of  Solidity. 

1 Stere = 1 Cubic  mitre. 

1 Decistere = i-ioth  of  a stere. 

IV.  Measure  of  Capacity. 

1 Kilolitre..  = 1 Cubic  mitre. 

1 Hectolitre = 10  Decalitres. 

1 Decalitre = 10  Litres. 

1 Litre = t Cubic  decimetre. 

i Decilitre = i-ioth  of  a litre. 

V.  Measure  of  Weight. 

1 Millia = 1000  Kilogrammes,  and  is  the  weight  of  a ton 

of  sea-water. 

1 Quintal = 100  Kilogrammes. 

1 Kilogramme = Weight  of  a cubic  decimetre  of  water,  at  the 

temperature  of  40  above  melting  ice,  or 
about  40°  Fahrenheit. 

1 Hectogramme = 100  Grammes. 

1 Decagramme = 10  Grammes. 

1 Gramme = i-ioooth  of  a kilogramme. 

1 Decigramme = i-ioth  of  a gramme. 

These  measures  may  be  compared  with  the  English  measures  by 
means  of  the  following  table  : 

1 Mitre  = 39.38  English  inches,  nearly. 

1 Are = 3.9  English  perches,  nearly. 

1 Stere = 35.32  English  cubic  feet. 

1 Litre = 1.76  English  pints. 

1 Gramme = 15.44  English  grains. 


BELGIUM. 

The  metrical  system  is  used  here  ; but  the  kilogramme  is  termed  a 
livre  ; the  litre,  alitron  ; and  the  metre,  an  aune. 

NETHERLANDS. 

Here,  also,  the  metrical  system  has  been  adopted  ; but  Flemish  names 
are  employed  instead  of  those  used  in  France. 


AND  MEASURES. 

LOMBARDO- VENETIAN  KINGDOM. 

The  metrical  system,  with  Italian  names  substituted  for  most  of  the 
original  terms,  is  used  officially  • but  the  old  measures  are  also  used. 
See  Venice. 

AUSTRIA. 

The  ell  = 30.6  inches.  The  joch  = 1 acre  1.75  rood.  The  metzen  = 
1-7  bushel.  The  eimer  = 12.4  gallons.  The  pfund  = 1-2  pound.  Gold 
and  silver  are  weighed  by  the  mark  of  Vienna,  which  = 4333  grains. 

BASLE. 

100  pounds  = 108.6  pounds  avoirdupois.  The  ohm  = 10.7  gallons. 
The  sack  = 3.6  bushels.  The  large  and  small  ells  = 46.4  and  21.4 
inches  respectively. 

BAVARIA. 

The  long  and  short  ells  = 24  and  23.3  inches  respectively.  The  schaff 
of  8 metzen  = 5.6  bushels.  The  muid  of  48  mass  = 15  gallons.  100 
pounds  heavy  and  light  weight  = 108.3  and  104.2  pounds  avoirdupois 
respectively.  The  mark  of  Augsburg  = 3643  grains. 

BREMEN. 

The  foot  or  half-ell  = 11.4  inches.  The  ohm  = 31.5  gallons.  The 
last  = 10.2  quarters.  100  pounds  = 109.9  pounds  avoirdupois. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE. 

The  centner,  or  100  pounds  Dutch  weight  = 108.9  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. The  leager  of  15  ankers  = 126.5  gallons.  The  muid  of  schepels 
==  3 bushels.  The  ell  of  27  Rhynland  inches  = 27.8  inches. 

CHINA. 

The  chang  of  10  chih  = 4 yards,  nearly.  The  shing  = 1 pint.  10  ho 
= 1 shing  ; 10  shing  = 1 tow  ; 10  tow  = 1 hwuh,  cr  120  catties.  The 
catty  = 1.33  pound  avoirdupois.  16  taels  = 1 catty;  100  catties  = 1 
pecul.  Liquids  are  sold  by  weight ; but  the  English  gallon  is  used  in 
trading  with  foreigners. 

DENMARK. 

The  foot  = 12.3  inches.  100  ells  = 68.6  yards.  The  viertel  = 1.7 
gallon,  too  tonnen  = 47.8  quarters.  The  pound  = 1 . 1 pound  avoirdu- 
pois. The  pound  for  gold  and  siver  weighs  7266  grains. 

EAST  INDIES. 

Bengal. — The  Factory  maund  = 74.66  pounds  avoirdupois.  10  bazar 
maunds  = n Factory  maunds.  16  chittacks  = 1 seer ; 40  seers  = 1 
maund.  The  guz  of  2 cubits  = 1 yard. 

Bombay. — The  maund  = 28  pounds  avoirdupois.  40  seers  = 1 maund; 
20  maunds  = 1 candy.  The  candy  = 24.5  bushels. 

Madras. — The  maund  = 25  pounds  avoirdupois.  4opollams  = 1 vi ; 
8 vis  = 1 maund,  mauns  = 1 candy.  The  covid  = 18.6  inches.  The 
gars  of  80  parahs  = 16.875  quarters,  and  weighs  8400  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. 


4 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


39 


EGYPT. 

The  Turkish  pike  = 27  inches.  The  ardeb  of  24  Cairo  rubbie  = 6 
quarters.  The  cantar  = 100  pounds  avoirdupois.  216  drams  or  144  meti- 
cals = 1 rottole  ; too  rottoli  or  36  okes  = 1 cantar. 

FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAINE. 

The  ell  = 21.2  inches.  The  foot  = 11.2  inches.  The  matter  = 3 
bushels,  nearly.  The  viertel  = 1.6  gallon,  nearly.  The  pound,  light 
and  heavy  weight,  = 1.03  and  1.1  pound  avoirdupois.  The  Zoll-cent- 
ner  = no. 2 pounds  avoirdupois.  The  Cologne  mark,  used  for  gold  and 
silver,  weighs  3609  grains. 

GENEVA. 

The  ell  = 45  inches.  The  acre  = 1 acre  1.1  rood.  The  coupe,  or 
sack  = 2.1  bushels.  The  setier  = rogations.  The  heavy  pound  = 1.2 
pound  avoirdupois  ; the  light  pound  i-6th  less.  The  mark  weighs  3785 
grains. 

GENOA. 

The  braccio  of  2.5  palmi  = 22.9  inches.  The  mina  = 3.3  bushels. 
The  barile  = 16.3  gallons.  The  pound  = 0.7  pound  avoirdupois.  1.5 
pound  = 1 rottole.  The  pound  sottile,  for  gold  and  silver,  weighs 
4891.5  grains. 

GREECE. 

The  Venetian  measures  of  length  are  used,  the  braccio  being  called  a 
piche.  too  kila  = 11.4  quarters.  The  cantaro  of  40  okes  = 112  pounds 
avoirdupois. 

HAMBURG. 

The  foot  = 11. 3 inches,  nearly.  100  ells  = 62.6  yards.  Thescheffel  = 

1 acre  6 perches.  The  last  = 1.09  last.  The  viertel  = 1.6  gallon.  The 
pound  = 1.06  pound  avoirdupois.  For  the  Cologne  mark,  see  Frank- 
fort. 2 marks  = 1 pound  troy. 

LUBECK. 

The  ell  =22.9  inches.  The  last  = n quarters.  The  viertel  = 1.6 
gallon.  The  pound  = 1.07  pound  avoirdupois,  nearly. 

MALTA. 

The  palme  = 10.25  inches:  3.5  palmi  = 1 yard  ; 8 palmi  = 1 canna. 
The  salma  = 7.8  bushels.  The  caffiso  = 4.5  gallons.  The  barile  = 
9-33  gallons.  64  rottoli  = 1 hundredweight.  The  cantaro  = 175 
pounds  avoirdupois. 

MAURITIUS. 

Besides  the  English  weights  and  measures,  those  of  France  before 
the  late  alteration  arc  used.  The  aune  = 1.3  yard.  The  velte  =1.7 
gallon.  The  poid  de  marc  = 1.08  pound  avoirdupois. 

NAPLES. 

The  canna  = 83.2  inches.  The  moggia  = 3 roods  12  perches.  The 
tomolo  = 1.4  bushel.  The  barile  =9.1  gallons.  The  cantaro  grosso 
and  piccolo  = 196.5  and  106  pounds  avoirdupois,  respectively.  The 
pound  used  in  weighing  gold  and  silver  contains  4950  grains. 

PORTUGAL. 

The  covado  = 25.8  inches.  The  almude  = 3.6  gallons.  The  pound 
5=  1. 01  pound  avoirdupois. 

PRUSSIA. 

The  ell  = 26.5  inches.  The  morgen  = 2 roods  21  perches.  The 
scheffcl  = 1.5  bushel.  The  eimcr  = 15. 1 gallons.  The  pound  = 1.03 
pound  avoirdupois.  The  mark  of  Cologne  is  used  for  gold  and  silver. 

ROME. 

The  cannaof  8 palmi  = 2.2  yards.  The  canna  of  10  palma  = 88  inches, 
nearly.  The  rubbio  =8.1  bushels.  The  boccale  = 0.4  gallon.  The 
pound  = 0.7  pound  avoirdupois. 

RUSSIA. 

The  arshine  = 28  inches.  The  foot  = 13.75  inches.  The  dessetnia  =• 

2 acres  2.8  roods.  The  tschetwert  = 5.7  bushels.  The  wedro  = 2.7 
gallons.  The  pound  = 0.9  pound  avoirdupois.  The  pood  =36  pounds 
avoirdupois. 

St.  GALLEN. 

The  ells  for  silks  and  woolens  = 31.5  and  24.25  inches,  respectively. 
The  mutt  01  4 viertels  = 2.09  bushels.  Theeimer  = 11.25  gallons.  The 
pound,  light  and  heavy  weight  = 1.03  and  1.3  pound  avoirdupois,  re- 
spectively. 

SAXONY. 

The  foot  = 11. 1 inches.  The  acre  = 1 acre  1.5  rood,  nearly.  The 
eimer,  at  Dresden,  = 14.9  gallons;  at  Leipsic  = 16.8  gallons.  The 
wispel,  at  Dresden  = 69.9  bushels;  at  Leipsic  = 91.7  bushels.  The 
pound  = 1.03  pound  avoirdupois. 


SICILY. 

The  canna  = 76.5  inches.  The  salma  = 7.6  bushels.  The  barre.  = 
8 gallons,  nearly.  The  pound  of  12  ounces  = 0.7  pound  avoirdupo  s, 
The  cantaro  = 175  pounds  avoirdupois 

SMYRNA. 

The  pike  = 27  inches.  The  kiliow  = 11.3  gallons.  The  rottolo  =» 
1.2  pound  avoirdupois. 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  measures  are  most  generally  employed. 
The  use  of  the  English  measures  prevails  in  some  parts. 

SPAIN. 

The  vara,  or  ell  = 33.3  inches.  The  fanegada  = 1 acre  21  perches. 
The  arroba  = 3.5  gallons.  The  fanega  = 1.5  bushel.  The  pound  = 

1. 01  pound  avoirdupois. 

SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 

The  ell  =23.3  inches.  The  tunneland  = 1 acre  1 rood,  nearly.  The 
tunnu  = 0.6  quarter.  The  kann  = 0.6  gallon.  The  pound  = 0.9  pound 
avoirdupois. 

TURKEY. 

The  pike  = 26.25  inches.  The  kiliow  = 0.9  bushel.  The  almud  ^2 

1. 1 gallon.  The  oke  = 2.8  pounds  avoirdupois.  The  rottolo  =13 
pound  avoirdupois. 

TUSCANY. 

The  braccio  22  23  inches,  nearly.  The  saccata  = 1 acre  0.9  rood.  The 
sacche  = 2 bushels.  The  fiasche  = 4 pints.  The  pound  = 12  ounces 
avoirdupois. 

VENICE. 

Besides  the  metrical  system,  the  following  measures  are  used:  The 
braccio,  for  woolens  = 26.6  inches  ; for  silks  = 24.8  inches.  The  stajo 
= 2.2  bushels.  The  secchia  = 2.4  gallons.  The  pound  sottile  = 0.2 
pound  avoirdupois,  nearly  ; grosso  = 1.05  pound  avoirdupois. 

REDUCTION  OF  FRENCH,  PARIS,  ENGLISH, 
AND  RHENISH  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH, 
USED  BY  SCIENTIFIC  WRITERS,  TO  THE 
SCALE  OF  EACH. 


TOISES,  REDUCED  TO  ENGLISH  AND  RHENISH  LENGTHS. 


TOISES. 

METRES. 

ENGLISH  FEET. 

RHENISH  FEET. 

I 

I.94904 

6-39459 

6.21002 

2 

3.89807 

I2.78918 

I2.42004 

3 

5-847“ 

19.18377 

18.63006 

4 

7-796i5 

25-57837 

24.84008 

5 

9-745i8 

31.97296 

3I.050IO 

6 

11.69422 

38.36755 

37.26012 

7 

I3.64326 

44.76214 

43-47014 

8 

15.59229 

51- 15673 

49.68016 

9 

17-54I33 

57-55I32 

55.89017 

IO 

I9*49°37 

63.94592 

62.IOOI9 

IOO 

194.90366 

639-45916 

621.OO194 

IOOO 

!949. 03659 

6394.59160 

62IO.9194I 

METRES,  REDUCED  TO  PARIS,  ENGLISH,  AND  RHENISH 
LENGTHS. 


METRES. 

TOISES. 

ft. 

PARIS. 

in.  lines. 

ENGLISH. 

feet  & inches. 

RHENISH  FT 

I 

0.51307 

3 

0 

II.296 

3 

3.3708 

3.18620 

2 

I.02615 

6 

1 

10.592 

6 

6.74x6 

6.37240 

3 

1.53922 

9 

2 

9.888 

9 

10. 1124 

9.55860 

4 

2.05230 

12 

3 

9D84 

13 

1.4832 

12.74480 

5 

2.56537 

x5 

4 

8.480 

x6 

4.8539 

15.93100 

6 

3.07844 

18 

5 

7.776 

19 

8.2247 

19. II720 

7 

3-59T52 

21 

6 

7.072 

22 

“•5955 

22.303AO 

8 

4.10459 

24 

7 

6.368 

26 

2 . 9663 

25.489OO 

9 

4.61767 

27 

8 

5.664 

29 

6.3371 

28.67580 

10 

5.i3074 

30 

9 

4.960 

32 

9.7079 

31 .86200 

100 

5I-3°47x 

307 

IO 

1.600 

328 

1.0790 

318.62000 

1000 

513.07407 

3078 

5 

4.000 

3280 

10.7900 

3186. 19996 

I 340 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


A TABLE  OF  THE  SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  OF 
BODIES. 

BAROMETER,  30  INCHES  ; FAHRENHEIT’S  THERMOMETER,  6o°. 


(From  the  Works  of  Drs.  Thompson,  Young,  and  Ure.) 


Platinum 

Gold 

Quicksilver 

Lead 

Silver 

Copper 

Brass 

Steel 

Iron  (cast) 

Tin 

Glass  (crystal).. . 

Granite 

Marble  (Parian). 

Flint 

Brick 


22.069 

IQ.  160 
I3-568 
11-352 


o . 070 
8.396 

7-833 

7.645 

7.32° 
3- 150 
3.00° 
2.838 
2.570 
2.000 


Nitre 

Ivory 

Brimstone 

Coal 

Boxwood 

Sea  Water 

Common  Water. 
Oak  (English) . . , 

Walnut 

Cedar 

Elm 

Willow 

Fir 

Poplar 

Cork 


1.900 
1.825 
1. 810 
1.250 
1.030 
1.026 
1 .000 


.760 

.671 

.613 


.600 

.585 

.550 

.383 

.240 


Note. — The  several  sorts  of  wood  are  supposed  to  be  dry. 


THE  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  Army  of  the  United  States  consists  of  the  following  forces  in 
officers  and  men  : 


Ten  calvary  regiments 

Five  artillery  regiments 

Twenty-five  infantry  regiments 

Engineer  battalion,  recruiting  parties,  ordnance 
department,  hospital  service,  Indian  scouts, 
West  Point,  Signal  detachment,  and  general 
service 


Total 


Officers. 

Enlisted 

men. 

434 

6,882 

283 

2.403 

881 

10,530 

55i 

3,78i 

I H9 

23,596 

For  convenience,  and  to  fix  responsibility,  the  country  is  divided  into 
three  military  divisions,  each  witn  several  departments,  as  tollows  : 

1.  Military  division  of  the  Missouri,  commanded  by  Lieut. -General 
Philip  H.  Sheridan,  head-quarters  Chicago  ; comprehends  the  depart- 
ments of  the  Missouri  (General  John  Pope)  ; Texas  (General  C.  C. 
Auger) ; Dakota  (General  A.  H.  Terry),  and  the  Platte  (General  George 
Crook).  There  are  eight  regiments  ot  cavalry  and  eighteen  of  infantry 
in  this  division. 

2 Military  division  of  the  Atlantic,  commanded  by  Major-General 
Winfield  S.  Hancock,  head-quarters  New  York.  Includes  department 
of  the  East  (General  Hancock)  ; department  of  the  South  (Colonel  H.  J. 
Hunt,  Newport  Barracks,  Ky.)  There  is  also  the  department  of  West 
Point,  commanded  by  Brig. -General  O.  O.  Howard.  This  division  in- 
cludes four  regiments  of  artillery  and  three  of  infantry. 

3.  Military  division  of  the  Pacific,  commanded  by  Major-General 
Irvin  McDowell,  head -quarters  San  Francisco.  Includes  departments 
of  California  (General  McDowell) ; the  Columbia  (General  Nelson  A. 
Miles);  Arizona  (General  O.  B.  Willcox),  comprises  one  regiment  of  ar- 
tillery, two  of  cavalry,  and  four  of  infantry. 

The  maximum  military  force  allowed  under  existing  laws  is  2,155  com- 
missioned officers  and  25,000  enlisted  men.  The  report  of  the  General 
of  the  Army  exhibits  the  actual  number  in  service  as  2,149  officers  and 
23,596  enlisted  men,  October  25,  1881  The  following  table  exhibits  the 
number  in  each  rank  of  the  army  : 

Colonels,  66  ; lieutenant-colonels,  85  ; majors,  244  ; captains,  607  ; ad- 
jutants, 40;  regimental  quarter-masters,  39;  first  lieutenants,  567; 
second  lieutenants,  446  ; chaplains,  34  ; store-keepers,  21  ; total,  2,149. 
The  enlisted  men  embrace  38  sergeant-majors,  40  quarter-master  ser- 
geants, 638  musicians,  *15  trumpeters,  9 saddler  sergeants,  114  ordnance 
sergeants,  181  hospital  stewards,  148  commissary  sergeants,  420  first 
sergeants,  1,999  sergeants,  1,575  corporals,  219  farriers,  64  artificers,  115 
saddlers,  55  wagoners,  and  17,162  privates  ; total  22,992.  Besides  these 
there  are  employed  in  the  Signal  Corps  495  non-commissioned  officers 
and  privates  ; Military  Academy,  8 professors,  172  cadets,  191  enlisted 
men  ; total,  371. 

The  number  of  retired  army  officers  is  397  ; number  of  privates  dis- 
charged during  the  fiscal  year  1881,  6,564  ; number  died  during  same 
period,  248  ; number  deserted,  2,361  ; number  enlisted  and  reenlisted. 

5.769- 


TOTAL  COTTON  PRODUCTION  AND  AVERAGE  PRODUCT  PER  ACRE. 

From  the  Tables  of  the  Tenth  Census,  1880 — (Crop  year,  1879.) 


States,  in  Order  of  Production. 

POPULATION. 

COTTON  PRODUCTION. 

Total. 

White. 

Colored. 

Acres. 

Bales. 

I 

Mississippi 

1,131,592 

479,37i 

652,221 

2,093,330 

955,808 

2 

Georgia 

I,542,l8o 

816,906 

725,274 

2,617,138 

814,441 

3 

Texas. . 

1,592,574 

I,1 97, 499 

395,076 

2,173,732 

803,642 

4 

Alabama 

1,262,505 

662,185 

600,320 

2,330,086 

699,654 

5 

Arkansas 

802,525 

591.531 

210,994 

1,042,976 

608,256 

6 

South  Carolina 

995,577 

39^195 

604,472 

1,364,249 

522,548 

7 

Louisiana 

939,946 

454,954 

484,992 

864,787 

508,569 

8 

North  Carolina 

*,399,75° 

867,242 

532,508 

893,153 

389,598 

9 

Tennessee 

1,542,463 

1,139,120 

403,343 

722,569 

330,644 

IO 

Florida 

269,493 

142,605 

126,888 

245,595 

54,997 

II 

Missouri 

2,168,804 

2,023,568 

145,236 

32,711 

x9,733 

13 

Virginia  j 

1,512,565 

880,858 

631,707 

24,000 

11,000 

r4 

Kentucky 

1,648,690 

I,377,179 

271,511 

2,667 

1,367 

Total 

16,808,644 

11,024,123 

5,784,541 

1 4, 44  x, 993 

5,737,257 

AVERAGE  PRODUCT  PER  ACRE,  IN  POUNDS. 

TOTAL  IN  TONS. 

Fraction  of 
bale  (475  lbs.) 

Seed 

Cotton. 

Lint. 

Cotton 

Seed. 

Lint. 

Cotton  Seed. 

Mississippi 

0.46 

64I 

217 

434 

227,004 

454,009 

Georgia 

0.31 

444 

I48 

296 

193,43° 

386,859 

Texas 

0.37 

528 

I76 

352 

190,865 

381,730 

Alabama 

0.30 

429 

*43 

286 

l66,l68 

332,336 

Arkansas 

0.58 

83x 

277 

554 

144,461 

288,922 

South  Carolina 

0.38 

546 

182 

364 

124,105 

248,210 

Louisiana 

°-59 

837 

279 

558 

120,785 

241 ,57° 

North  Carolina 

o.44 

621 

207 

4X4 

92,53° 

185,059 

Tennessee 

0.46 

651 

217 

434 

78,528 

157,056 

Florida 

0.22 

3-8 

106 

212 

13,062 

26,124 

Missouri 

0.60 

861 

287 

574 

4,687 

6,373 

Indian  Territory 

°.49 

693 

231 

462 

4,°37 

8,075 

Virginia 

0.46 

654 

218 

436 

2,612 

5,225 

Kentucky 

°.5X 

729 

243 

486 

325 

0 

't 

1 

Total 

0.40 

567 

189 

378 

>,362,599 

2,725,197 

MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


34i 


HISTORICAL  AND  STATISTICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 

SHOWING  THE  AREA  OF  EACH  IN  SQUARE  MILES  AND  IN  ACRES  ; THE  DATE  OF  ORGANIZATION  OF  TERRITORIES  ; DATE  Cif 
ADMISSION  OF  NEW  STATES  INTO  THE  UNION,  WITH  THE  STATUTORY  REFERENCES  FOR  EACH. 


From  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  the  Genera]  Land  Office  with  Corrections. 


The  areas  are  from  the  Census  report  of  1880. 


The  Thirteen  Original  States. 


New  Hampshire 
Massachusetts. . . 

Rhode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina. . 
South  Carolina. . 
Georgia 


Ratified  the  Constitution 


June 

21  , 

1788. 

Feb. 

6, 

I788 

May 

29, 

1790 

Jan. 

9* 

1788 

July 

26, 

1788 

Dec. 

18, 

1787 

Dec. 

12, 

1787 

Dec 

7* 

1787 

April 

28, 

1788 

June 

25s 

1788 

Nov. 

21, 

1789 

May 

23s 

1788 

Jan. 

2, 

7788 

Area  of  the  Original  States. 


In  Square  Miles. 


In  Acres. 


9-3°5 
8.3  >5 

1,250 

4-99° 

49U70 

7.815 

45,215 

2,050 

12,210 

42,45° 

52,250 

30,570 

59*475 


5,955,200 

5.321.600 
800,000 

3.193.600 

31.468.800 

5.001.600 
28,937,600 

1,312,000 

7,814,400 

27.168.000 

33.440.000 

19.564.800 

38.064.000 


States  Admitted, 

Act  Organizing  Terri- 
tory. 

United 

States 

Statutes. 

Act  Admitting 
State. 

United 

States 

Statutes. 

Admission 
Took  Effect. 

Area  of 

Admitted  States 
and  Territories. 

O 

> 

ci 

bjo 

A* 

O 

> 

6 

bo 

Jt 

04 

In 

Square 

Miles. 

In  Acres. 

Out  of  Virginia  . . 

Feb. 

I une 

Out  of  N.  H.&  N.Y. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Out  of  N.  Carolina. 

June 

lune 

1,  I796 

42.050 

26,912,000 

Ordinance  1787 

April 

Nov. 

29,  1802 

Louisiana 

March  3,  1805 

2 

331 

April 

8,  1812 

2 

701 

Apr. 

30,  l8l2 

48,720 

31,180,800 

Indiana 

May  7,  1800 

2 

58 

Dec. 

11,  1816 

3 

399 

Dec. 

II,  l8l6 

36-35° 

23,264,000 

Mississippi 

April  7,  1798 

1 

549 

Dec. 

10,  1817 

3 

472 

Dec. 

IO,  l8l7 

46,810 

29,Q58,400 

Illinois 

February  3,  1809 

2 

5’4 

Dec. 

3,  1818 

3 

5j6 

Dec. 

3,  1818 

56,650 

36,256,000 

Alabama 

March  3,  1817 

3 

37i 

Dec. 

14,  1819 

3 

608 

Dec. 

14,  1819 

52.250 

33,440,000 

Out  of  Mass 

Mar. 

Mar. 

Missouri 

June  4,  1812 

2 

743 

Mar. 

2,  1821 

3 

645 

Aug. 

10,  1821 

69.415 

44,425,600 

Arkansas 

March  2,  1819 

*3 

493 

June 

15,  1836 

5 

5° 

June 

15,  1836 

53-85° 

34,464,000 

Michigan 

January  xi,  1805 

2 

709 

Jan. 

26,  1837 

5 

T44 

Jan. 

26,  1837 

58-9*5 

37.705,600 

Florida 

Marcii  30,  1822 

3 

654 

Mar. 

3.  Ig45 

5 

742 

Mar. 

3.  1845 

58,680 

37*555*200 

Iowa 

June  12,  1838 

5 

235 

Mar. 

3.  '845 

5 

742 

Dec. 

28,  1846 

56.025 

35.856.000 

Dec. 

Wisconsin 

April  20,  1836 

5 

10 

Mar. 

3.  l847 

9 

178 

May 

29,  1848 

56,040 

35.865,600 

Sept. 

158.360 

101,350,400 

Minnesota 

March  3,  1849 

9 

403 

May 

4,  1858 

11 

285 

May 

11.  1858 

83.365 

53.353-6°° 

Oregon . 

August  14,  1848 

9 

323 

Feb. 

14,  1859 

11 

383 

Feb. 

14,  1859 

96,030 

6l.459.2OO 

Kansas 

May  30,  1854 

10 

277 

Jan. 

29,  1861 

12 

126 

Ian. 

29,  l86l 

82,080 

52,531.200 

West  Virginia 

Out  of  Virginia  . . 

Dec 

31,  1862 

12 

633 

June 

19,  I863 

24,780 

15.859,200 

Nevada 

March  2,  1861 

12 

209 

Mar. 

21,  1864 

13 

3° 

Oct. 

31,  1864 

110,700 

70,848.000 

Nebraska  

May  30,  1854 

10 

277 

Feb. 

9,  1867 

14 

39i 

Mar. 

I,  I867 

76,855 

49,187,000 

Colorado 

February  28,  1861 

12 

172 

Mar. 

3.  1875 

j8 

474 

Aug. 

I,  I876 

i°3-925 

66,512,000 

UNITED  STATES  MONEY. 

United  States  money  is  the  legal  currency  of  the  United  States.  Its 
denominations  are  shown  in  the  following 

TABLE. 

10  mills  are  t cent,  marked  c. 

10  cents  “ 1 dime,  “ d. 

10  dimes  “ 1 dollar,  “ $. 

10  dollars  “ 1 eagle,  “ E. 

coins. 

Coins  are  pieces  of  metal  converted  into  money  by  legal  stamping. 
The  Coins  of  the  United  States  are  of  gold,  silver,  nickel,  and 
bronze,  as  follows : 


COLD. 


value  $20 


Haif-eagle, 

value  $5 

Three  dollars 

“ 3 

Quarter-eagle, 

“ 2^ 

Dollar. 

X 

SILVER. 

Dollar, 

value  $1.00 

Half-dollar, 

5° 

Quarter-dollar, 

25 

Twenty  cents, 

u 20 

Dime, 

41  .10 

Also,  a Trade  Dollar  for  purposes  of  foreign  trade. 

NICKEL. 

Five  cents,  value  5 c. 

Three  cents,  “ 3 c. 


Double-eagle, 

Eagle, 


so 


Cent 


BRONZE. 


value 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


342 


The  weight  of  the  gold  dollar  is  25  8/10  grains,  and  of  the  other  gold 
coins  in  proportion  ; the  weight  of  the  silver  half-dollar  is  12)4  grams, 
or  192  9/10  grains,  nearly,  and  of  the  smaller  silver  coins  in  proportion  ; 
the  weight  of  the  dollar  is  412)6  grains,  and  of  the  trade  dollar  420 
grains  ; and  of  the  nickel  five  cent,  5 grams,  or  77  16/ 100  grains. 

The  Standard  of  the  gold  coins  of  the  United  States  is  9 parts  pure 
metal  and  1 part  silver  and  copper  , of  the  silver  coins  9 parts  pure 
metal  and  1 part  copper  ; of  the  nickel  coins,  25  parts  pure  metal  and  75 
parts  copper  ; and  of  the  bronze  coin , 95  parts  copper  and  5 parts  zinc 
and  tin. 

The  dollar  mark,  $,  may  be  considered  as  the  letter  U written  upon 
an  S.,  denoting  U.  S , the  initials  of  United  States. 

NOTATION  AND  NUMERATION. 

The  Dollar  is  the  unit  of  United  States  money. 

In  accounts,  eagles  are  written  as  tens  of  dollars,  and  indicated  by 
the  dollar  mark  ($)  ; and  they  are  usually  read  as  a number  of  dollars. 
Thus : 

5 eagles  are  written  $50,  and  read  fifty  dollars. 

Dimes  are  written  as  tenths , cents  as  hundredths , and  mills  as 
thousandths  of  a dollar,  and  separated  from  dollars  by  the  decimal 
point  ( . ).  Dimes  are  usually  read  as  a number  of  cents,  and  mills  are 
sometimes  read  as  a part  of  a cent.  Thus : 

3 eagles,  3 dollars,  3 dimes,  3 cents,  and  3 mills,  are  written, 

$33-333< 


and  read  thirty-three  dollars,  thirty-three  cents,  and  three  mills ; and, 
4 eagles,  2 dimes,  and  5 mills  may  be  written, 

$40.20>£, 

and  read  forty  dollars,  twenty  and  one  half  cents. 

PRODUCTION  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER  IN  THE 


UNITED  STATES. 

According  to  the  Mint  Reports  of  1874  and  1881. 


Year. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Year. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

1848 

$10,030,000 

$50,000 

.1865 

$51,225,000 

$11,250,000 

1849 

40,000,000 

50,000 

1866 

53,500,000 

I I ,c 00,000 

I85O 

53,^00,0  0 

50,000 

18-7 

51,725,000 

13,500,000 

1851 

55  v 000, 000 

50,000 

1868 

48,000,000 

12,000,000 

1852 

60,000,000 

50,000 

i86g 

4Qs50°sOOO 

13,000,000 

1853 

65,000,000 

50,000 

1870 

50,000,000 

16,000,000 

1854 

60,000,000 

50,000 

1871 

4.3,500,000 

22,000,000 

1855 

55,000,000 

50,000 

1872 

36,000,000 

25,750,000 

1856 

55,000,000 

50,000 

1873 

36,000,000 

35,750,000 

1857 

5 s ,000,000 

50,000 

*1874 

33,4Qo  Q02 

37,3=4,594 

1858 

50,000,000 

50,000 

1875 

33,467,856 

31,727,560 

1859 

50,000,000 

100,000 

1876 

3Q,Q2Q,i66 

38,783,016 

i860 

46,000,000 

150,000 

1877 

46.897,390 

3Q, 70.3,57  3 

1861 

4 5,000,000 

2,000,'  00 

1878 

51,206,360 

45,281,385 

1862 

3Q,2  30,eoo 

4 500,000 

1879 

38,899,858 

40,812,132 

1S63 

40,003,003 

8,503,000 

1880 

36,000,000 

30,200,000 

1S64 

46,100,000 

1 1 ,000,000 

1881 

36,500,000 

42,100,000 

Total,  1848-1881. 

1 »557ii4ij532 

501,072,260 

Total  Gold  and  Silver,  $2,058,213,792. 


TABLE  SHOWING  VARIATIONS  OF  TIME,  DISTANCES  FROM  NEW  YORK  CITY,  HOURS 
BY  RAILWAY,  AND  PASSENGER  FARES  FROM  NEW  YORK  TO  THE  PRINCIPAL 
PLACES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Names  of  Cities. 

Time  when 
it  is  12  noon 
at  N.  Y. 

Distance 
by  rail 
from  N.Y. 

Mail 

time 

from  N.Y. 

R.  R. 

fares 
from  N.Y 

miles. 

hours. 

$ cts. 

Albany,  N.  Y 

12  01  p.  m. 

'45 

4 IS 

3- 10 

Atlanta,  Ga  

11  18  a.  m. 

881 

52 15 

25.5° 

Auburn,  N.  Y 

11  50  a.  m. 

319 

9 30 

6.58 

Baltimore,  Md 

it  50  a.  m. 

188 

6 

6.20 

Bangor,  Me 

12  21  p.  m. 

478 

19  40 

12.00 

Boston.  Mass 

12  12  p.  m. 

233 

8 

6.00 

Bridgeport,  Conn 

12  03  p.  m. 

59 

2 

'•30 

Brooklyn,  N Y 

12  00  m. 

2 

X 

.02 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

11  40  a m. 

424 

14 

9.25 

Burlington,  Iowa 

10  51  a.  m. 

1120 

47 

27.25 

Burlington,  Vt  

12  03  p.  m. 

302 

11 

8.00 

Charleston,  S.  C 

11  36  a.  m. 

804 

33 

24.00 

Chicago,  111 

11  05  a.  m. 

913 

35 

20.00 

Cincinnati,  O 

11  18  a.  m. 

758 

28 

18.00 

Cleveland.  O 

11  29  a.  m. 

585 

20 

13.00 

Columbus.  O 

11  24  a.  m. 

639 

22 

16.25 

Concord,  N.  H 

12  10  p.  m. 

274 

10  30 

7.15 

Council  Eluffs,  Iowa 

10  34  a.  m. 

1389 

56 

35.50 

Davenport,  Iowa 

10  53  a.  m. 

IO96 

41  40 

26.00 

Dayton,  G 

11  19  a.m. 

709 

25 

17.50 

Denver,  Col  

9 57  a.  m. 

I982 

92 

59.75 

Des  Moines.  Iowa 

10  42  a m 

I27O 

51  10 

31.20 

Detroit,  Mich 

it  24  a.  m. 

776 

24 

15.00 

Dubuque.  Iowa 

10  54  a m. 

1103 

43 

26.60 

Easton,  Pa 

11  55  a.  m. 

76 

2 30 

2.2s 

Elmira.  N Y 

11  49  a.  m 

27S 

22  30 

725 

Evansville,  Ind . . 

11  07  a.  m. 

995 

36  25 

25.00 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 

11  15  a.  m. 

765 

29 

'6.75 

Galveston,  Tex , 

10  37  a.  m. 

1789 

97  3° 

49.25 

Harrisburg.  Pa 

11  49  a.  m. 

183 

5 10 

5-5° 

Hartford,  Conn 

12  05  p.  m. 

"3 

3 45 

2.65 

Indianapolis,  Ind 

11  12  p.  m 

826 

3° 

19.00 

Kansas  City,  Mo 

10  37  a.  m 

1343 

60 

32.75 

Keokuk,  Iowa 

10  50  a.  m. 

1128 

48 

26.25 

Leavenworth  Kan 

10  37  a.  m. 

1369 

62 

32 . 75 

Little  Rock,  Ark  

10  47  a m. 

I4II 

54  20 

42.85 

Louisville.  Ky 

11  14  a.  m. 

868 

35 

22.00 

Lowell,  Mass 

12  10  p.  m. 

245 

9 

7.00 

Memphis,  Tenn 

10  55  a m. 

1245 

50 

32.00 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

11  05  a.  m. 

998 

40 

23.00 

Mobile,  Ala 

11  04  a.  m. 

1236 

5= 

40.75 

Names  of  Cities. 


Montgomeiw;  Ala 
Nashville,  Tenn. . , 

Newark,  N.  J 

Newburgh,  N.  Y 

Newburyport,  Mass... 

New  Haven,  Conn 

New  Orleans,  La 

Newport,  R.  I 

Norfolk.  Va 

Northampton,  Mass... 

Norwich,  Conn 

Ogdensburg,  N.  Y 

Omaha,  Neb 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Pittsburg,  Pa 

Pittsfield,  Mass 

Portland,  Me 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y... 

Providence,  R.  I 

Richmond,  Va 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

Sacramento,  Cal 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah, 
San  Antonio,  Tex.... 
San  Francisco,  Cal... 

Savannah,  Ga 

Springfield,  111 

Springfield,  Mass 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 

Terre  Haute,  Ind 

Toledo,  O 

Trenton,  N.  J 

Troy,  N.  Y 

Utica.  N.  Y 

Vicksburg.  Miss 

Washington.  D C 

Wheeling,  W.  Va.... 

Wilmington,  Del 

Worcester,  Mass 


Time  when 
it  is  12  noon 
at  N.  Y. 

Distance 
by  rail 
from  N.Y. 

Mail 

time 

from  N.Y. 

R.  R. 
fares 

from  N.Y. 

miles. 

hours. 

$ cts. 

11  10  a.  m. 

1056 

45 

32.90 

11  09  a.  m. 

'°53 

43 

29.45 

11  59  a.  m. 

IO 

3° 

.20 

12  00  m. 

63 

2 35 

'■45 

12  12  p.  m. 

270 

9 20 

7.00 

12  04  p.  m. 

77 

2 45 

'•75 

10  56  a.  m. 

'377 

58 

42.75 

12  11  p m. 

185 

10 

2.00 

11  51  a.  m. 

372 

18 

8.50 

12  05  p.  m. 

156 

6 

3-65 

12  07  p.  m. 

140 

5 "5 

2.00 

11  54  a.  m. 

374 

14  30 

9.60 

10  32  a.  m. 

1406 

56  20 

36.00 

11  55  a.  m. 

89 

2 

2.50 

11  36  a m. 

445 

15 

12.50 

12  02  p.  m. 

161 

6 

3-5° 

12  15  p.  m. 

341 

14 

9.00 

12  00  m. 

76 

3 

I.46 

12  10  p.  m. 

189 

6 30 

5-00 

11  46  a.  m. 

343 

'3 

12.85 

11  43  a.  m. 

374 

IO 

7.70 

8 50  a.  m. 

3183 

146  15 

I36.OO 

1©  55  a.  m. 

1066 

38 

24.25 

10  44  a.  m. 

1322 

54 

3'-35 

0 28  a.  m. 

2476 

120 

"5,50 

10  23  a.  m. 

1952 

104 

67.05 

8 46  a.  m. 

3273 

151 

I36.OO 

11  3_j  a.  m. 

919 

39 

25.OO 

10  58  a.  m. 

1032 

42  30 

24.OO 

12  05  p.  m. 

'39 

4 3° 

3-30 

11  51  a.  m. 

293 

8 30 

6.06 

11  07  a.  m. 

899 

32 

21.25 

11  22  a.  m. 

706 

24 

16.25 

11  54  a.  m. 

58 

' 3° 

1-75 

11  58  a.  m. 

151 

4 20 

3*  '5 

11  56  a.  m. 

240 

7 3° 

5.00 

10  53  a.  m. 

1287 

63  30 

39-25 

•i  48  a.  m. 

228 

8 

7*50 

11  33  a.  m. 

511 

21 

'4.25 

ii  54  a.  m. 

n8 

3 

3.10 

12  10  p.  m. 

103 

7 '5 

4.6s 

Note.— The  mail  time  and  passenger  fares  are  to  be  taken  as  approximate. 


I 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


343 


EXECUTIVE  OFFICERS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FROM  1789  TO  1882. 


Date. 


President. 


Vice-President. 


April  30,  1789,  to  March  4,  1793. . . George  Washington,  Va 

March  4, 1793,  to  March  4,  1797  ..  George  Washington,  Va 


John  Adams,  Massachusetts 

John  Adams,  Massachusetts 


March  4,  1797,  to  March  4,  1801.. 


John  Adams,  Massachusetts. 


Thomas  Jefferson,  Virginia. 


March  4,  1801,  to  March  4,  1805.. 
March  4,  1805,  to  March  4,  1809.. 
March  4,  1809,  to  March  4,  1813.. 


Thomas  Jefferson,  Virginia. 
Thomas  Jefferson,  Virginia. 
James  Madison,  Virginia 


March  4,  1813,  to  March  4,  1817.. 


James  Madison,  Virginia 


March  4,  1817,  to  March  4,  1821.. 


James  Monroe,  Virginia, 


Aaron  Burr,  New  York 

George  Clinton,  New  York 

*George  Clinton,  New  York  . . . 
tWm.  H.  Crawford,  Georgia. . . 
*Elbridge  Gerry,  Massachusetts 
tjohn  Gaillord,  South  Carolina. 
Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  New  York 


March  4,  1821,  to  March  4,  1825.. 
March  4,  1825,  to  March  4,  1829.. 
March  4,  1829,  to  March  4,  1833.. 


James  Monroe,  Virginia 

John  Q.  Adams,  Mass 

Andrew  Jackson,  Tennessee. 


Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  New  York 
John  C.  Calhoun,  S.  Carolina... 
John  C.  Calhoun,  S.  Carolina... 


March  4,  1833,  to  March  4,  1837.. 


Andrew  Jackson,  Tennessee. 


Martin  Van  Buren,  New  York.. 


March  4,  1837,  to  March  4,  1841.. 
March  4,  1841,  to  April  4,  1841.. 


Martin  Van  Buren,  N.  Y Richard  M.  Johnson,  Kentucky 

Wm.  H.  Harrison,  Ohio John  Tyler,  Virginia 


April 


4,  1841,  to  March  4,  1845.. 


John  Tyler,  Virginia 


tSamuel  L.  Southard,  N.  Jersey 
tWillie  P.  Mangum,  N.  Car. . . . 


March  4,  1845, to  March  4,  1849.. 
March  5,  1849,  t°  July  9,  1850.. 
July  9,  1850,  to  March  4,  1853.. 


James  K.  Polk,  Tennessee. . . 
Zachary  Taylor,  Louisiana. 
Millard  Fillmore,  N.  Y 


Geo.  M.  Dallas,  Pennsylvania.. 

Millard  Fillmore,  New  York 

tWilliam  R.  King,  Alabama  . . . 


March  4,  1853,  to  March  4,  1857.. 


Franklin  Pierce,  N.  H 


March  4,  1857,  to  March  4,  1861 . . 


James  Buchanan,  Penn 


*William  R.  King,  Alabama. . . 

+D.  R.  Atchinson 

. Bright 

C.  Breckenbridge,  Ky 


tj.  D 
John 


March  4,  1861,  to  March  4,  1865.. 
March  4,  1865,  to  April  15,  1865.. 
April  15,  1865,  to  MWch  4,  1869. . 


Abraham  Lincoln,  Illinois... 
Abraham  Lincoln,  Illinois... 
Andrew  Johnson,  Tenn 


Hannibal  Hamblin,  Maine 

Andrew  Johnson,  Tennesee 

tLafayette  S.  Foster,  Conn 

tBenjamin  F.  Wade,  Ohio 


March  4,  1869,  to  March  4,  1873. . 


Ulysses  S.  Grant,  Illinois. .. 


Schuyler  Colfax,  Indiana 


March  4,  1873,  to  March  4,  1877.  ■ 

March  5,  1877,  to  March  4,  1881.. 
March  4,  1881,  to  Sept.  19,  1881.. 
Sept.  19,  1881,  to 


Ulysses  S.  Grant,  Illinois. . . 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  Ohio 

James  A.  Garfield,  Ohio 

Chester  A.  Arthur,  N.  Y. . . 


*Henry  M.  Wilson,  Mass 

tThos.  W.  Ferry,  Mich 

Wm.  A.  Wheeler,  New  York. . . 
Chester  A.  Arthur,  New  York. . 
tThos.  F.  Bayard,  Delaware... 
tDavid  Davis,  Illinois 

*Died. 

tPresident  pro  tent  of  the  Senate . 


Secretary  of  State. 


Thomas  Jefferson,  Virginia,  September  26,  1789. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  reappointed. 

Edmund  Randolph,  Virginia,  January  2,  1794. 

Timothy  Pickering,  Pennsylvania,  Dec.  10,  1795 
Timothy  Pickering,  reappointed. 

John  Marshall,  Virginia,  May  13,  1800. 

James  Madison,  Virginia,  March  5,  1801. 

James  Madison,  reappointed. 

Robert  Smith,  Maryland,  March  6,  1809. 

James  Monroe,  Virginia,  April  2,  1811. 

James  Monroe,  reappointed. 

John  Q.  Adams,  Massachusetts,  March  5,  1817. 

John  Q.  Adams,  reappointed. 

Henry  Clay,  Kentucky,  March  7,  1825. 

Martin  Van  Buren,  New  York,  March  6,  1829. 
Edward  Livingston,  Louisiana,  May  24,  1831. 
Louis  McLane,  Delaware,  May  29,  1833. 
tohn  Forsyth,  Georgia,  June  27,  1834. 

John  Forsyth,  reappointed. 

Daniel  Webster,  Massachusetts,  March  5,  1841. 

Hugh  S.  Legare,  South  Carolina,  May  9,  1843. 
Abel  P.  Upshur,  Virginia,  July  24,  1843. 

John  Nelson,  Maryland,  (act)  February  29,  1844. 
John  C.  Calhoun,  South  Carolina,  March  6,  1844. 

James  Buchanan,  Pennsylvania,  March  6,  1845. 

John  M.  Clayton,  Delaware,  March,  7,  1849. 

Daniel  Webster,  Massachusetts,  July  22,  1850. 

Edward  Everett.  Massachusetts,  Dec.  6,  1852. 
Wm.  L.  Marcy,  New  York,  March  7,  1853. 


Lewis  Cass,  Michigan,  March  6,  '857. 

Jeremiah  S.  Black,  Pennsylvania,  Dec.  17,  i860. 
William  H Seward,  New  York,  March  5,  1861. 
William  H.  Seward,  reappointed. 

William  H.  Seward,  continued. 


E.  B.  Washburne,  Illinois,  March  5,  1869. 
Hamilton  Fish,  New  York,  March  n,  1869. 
Hamilton  Fish,  reappointed. 

Wm.  M.  Evarts,  New  York,  March  12,  1877. 
Tames  G.  Blaine,  Maine,  March  5,  1881. 

T.  F.  Frelinghuysen,  New  Jersey,  Dec.  12,  1881. 


DATE  OF  BIRTH  AND  DEATH  OF  PRESIDENTS. 


Born.  Died. 

Washington Feb.  22,  1732  Dec.  14,  1799 

J.  Adams Oct.  19,  1735  July  4,  1.826 

Jefferson April  2,  1743  July  4,  1826 

Madison Mar.  16,  1751  June  28,  1836 

Monroe April  28,  1758  July  4,  1831 

I.  Q.  Adams July  11,  1767  Feb.  23,  1848 

Jackson Mar.  15,  1767  June  8,  1845 

Van  Buren Dec.  5,  1782  July  24,  1862 

Harrison Feb.  9,  1773  April  4,  1841 

Tyler Mar.  29,  1790  Jan.  17,  1862 


Bom. 

Died. 

Polk 

June 

U\ 

00 

>0 

Taylor 

July 

9,  1850 

Fillmore 

March 

8,  1874 

Pierce 

Nov.  23,  1804 

Oct. 

8,  1869 

Buchanan 

June 

1 1868 

Lincoln 

April 

’5.  ‘865 

Johnson 

July 

CO 

0 

00 

Cn 

Grant 

Hayes 

Garfield 

Sept. 

19,  l88l 

MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


I 


EXECUTIVE  OFFICERS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FROM  1789  TO  1882.— Continued. 


Secretary  of  Treasury. 


Secretary  of  War. 


Alex.  Hamilton,  New  York,  September  12,  1789. 

Alex.  Hamilton,  reappointed. 

Oliver  Wolcott,  Connecticut,  Feb.  2,  1795 

Oliver  Wolcott,  reappointed 

Samuel  Dexter,  Massachusetts,  Jan.  1,  i8ot 

Samuel  Dexter,  reappointed 

Albert  Gallatin,  Pennsylvania,  May  14,  1801 

Albert  Gallatin,  reappointed 

Albert  Gallatin,  reappointed 

G.  W.  Campbell,  Tennesee,  February  9,  1814 

Alex.  J.  Dallas,  Pennsylvania,  Oct.  6,  1814 

W.  H.  Crawford,  Georgia,  October,  22,  1816 

W.  H.  Crawford,  continued 

W.  H.  Crawford,  reappointed, 


Henry  Knox,  Massachusetts,  Sept.  12.  1789 

Henry  Knox,  continued 

Tim.  Pickering,  Pennsylvania,  Jan.  2,  1795 

James  McHenry,  Maryland,  Jan.  27,  1796 

James  McHenry,  continued 

Samuel  Dexter,  Massachusetts,  May  13,  1800 

Roger  Griswold,  Connecticut,  Feb.  3,  1801 

Hy.  Dearborn,  Massachusetts,  March  5,  1801 

Henry  Dearborn,  reappointed  

Wm.  Eustis,  Massachusetts,  March  7,  1809 

John  Armstrong,  New  York,  January  13,  1813... 
James  Monroe,  Virginia,  September  27,  1814.  .. 

Wm.  H.  Crawford,  Georgia,  August  1,  1815 

George  Graham,  Virginia,  April  7,  1817 

John  C.  Calhoun,  South  Carolina,  Oct.  8,  1817... 
John  C.  Calhoun,  reappointed 


Richard  Rush,  Pennsylvania,  March  7,  1825 

S.  D.  Ingham,  Pennsylvania,  March  6,  1829 

Louis  McLane,  Delaware,  August  8,  1831 

Wm.  J.  Duane,  Pennsylvania,  May  29,  1833 

Roger  B.  Taney,  Marylannd,  Sept.  23,  1833 

L.  Woodbury,  New  Hampshire,  June  27,  1834. .. 
Levi  Woodbury,  reappointed 


James  Barbour,  Virginia.  March  7,  1825 

P.  B.  Porter,  New  York,  May  26,  1828 

J.  H.  Eaton,  Tennessee,  March  9,  1829 

Lewis  Cass,  Michigan,  August  1,  1831 

Lewis  Cass,  reappointed 

B.  F.  Butler,  March  3.  1837,  acting 

J.  R.  Poinsett,  South  Carolina,  March  6,  1837 


Thos.  Ewing,  Ohio,  March  5,  1841 

W.  Forward,  Pennsylvania,  September  13,  1841 . 

John  C.  Spencer,  New  York,  March  3,  1843 

George  M.  Bibb,  Kentucky,  June  15,  1844 

R.  J.  Walker,  Mississippi,  March  6,  1845 


John  Bell,  Tennessee,  March  5,  1841 

John  McLean,  Ohio,  September  13, 1841 

J.  C.  Spencer,  New  York,  October  12,  1841 

JamesM.  Porter,  Pennsylvania,  March  8,  1843... 
Wm.  Wilkins,  Pennsylvania,  February  T5,  1844.. 
Wm.  L.  Marcy,  New  York,  March  6,  1845 


W.  M.  Meredith,  Pennsylvania,  March  8,  1849  .. 

Thos.  Corwin,  Ohio,  July  23,  1850 

James  Guthrie,  Kentucky,  March  7,  1853 

Howell  Cobb,  Georgia,  March  6,  1857 

Philip  H.  Thomas,  Maryland,  Dec.  12,  i860 

John  A.  Dix,  New  York,  January  it,  1 85 i 

Salmon  P.  Chase,  Ohio,  March  s,  1861 

W.  P.  Fessenden,  Maine,  July  1,  1864 

H.  McCulloch,  Indiana,  March  7,  1865 

Hugh  McCulloch,  continued  


G.  S.  Boutwell,  Massachusetts,  March  n,  1869.. 


William  A.  Richardson,  Mass.,  March  17,  1873  .. 

B.  H.  Bristow,  Kentucky,  June  2,  1874 

Lot  M.  Morrill,  Maine,  June  21,  1876 

John  Sherman,  Ohio,  March  8,  1877 

Wm.  Windom,  Minnesota,  March  5,  1881 

Chas.  J.  Folger,  New  York,  October  27,  1881 


Reverdy  Johnson  fact  ),  March  8, 1849 

G.  W.  Crawford,  Georgia,  March  8, 1849 

Winfield  Scott  (ad  int ),  July  23,  1850 

C.  M.  Conrad,  Louisiana,  August  15, 1850 

Jeff  Davis,  Mississippi,  March  7,  1853 

John  B.  Floydj^ Virginia,  March  6,  1857 

Joseph  Holt,  Kentucky,  January  18,  1861 

Simon  Cameron,  Pennsylvania,  March  5,  1861... 
E.  M.  Stanton,  Pennsylvania,  January  15,  1862.. 

Edwin  M.  Stanton,  reappointed 

E.  M.  Stanton,  suspended  August  12,  1867 

U.  S.  Grant  ( ad  int),  August  12,  1867 

E.  M.  Stanton,  reinstated  January  14,  1868 

J.  M.  Schofield,  May  28,  1868 

I.  A.  Rawlins.  Illinois,  March  11,  1869 

Wm.  T.  Sherman  (ad  int),  September  9,  1869 

Wm.  W.  Belknap,  Iowa,  October  25,  1869 

Wm  W.  Belknap,  reappointed 

G.  M.  Robeson  (act.).  March  2,  1876 

Alfonzo  Taft,  Ohio.  March  8,  1876 .-... 

J.  D.  Cameron,  Pennsylvania,  May  22,  1876 

G.  W.  McCrary,  Iowa,  March  12,  1877 

Alex.  Ramsey,  Minnesota,  December  10,  1879 

R.  T.  Lincoln,  Illinois,  March  5,  1881 


I 


Secretary  of  the  Navy. 


The  War  Department  had  charge  of  Naval  Af- 
fairs until  April,  1798. 

*Geo.  Cabot.  Massachusetts,  May  3, 1798. 

Benj.  Stoddert,  Maryland,  May  21,  1798. 

Benj.  Stoddert,  reappointed. 


Benj.  Stoddert,  reappointed. 

Robert  Smith,  Maryland,  July  15,  1801. 

J.  Crowninshield,  Massachusetts,  May  3,  1803. 
Paul  Hamilton,  South  Carolina,  March  7,  1809. 
Wm.  Jones,  Pennsylvania,  Jan.  12,  1813. 

B.,W.  Crowninshield,  Massachusetts,  Dec.  19,  ’14. 

B.  W.  Crowninshield,  reappointed. 

S.  Thompson,  New  York,  November  9,  1818 

J.  Rogers,  Massachusetts.  Sept.  1,  1823,  acting. 

S.  L.  Southard,  New  Jersey,  September  16,  1823. 
S.  L.  Southard,  reappointed. 

John  Branch,  North  Carolina,  March  9,  1829. 

L.  Woodbury,  New  Hampshire,  May  23,  1831- 

M.  Dickerson,  New  Jersey,  June  30, 1834. 


Mahlon  Dickerson,  reappointed. 

J.  K.  Paulding,  New  York.  June  25,  1838. 

G.  E.  Badger,  North  Carolina,  March  5,  1841. 

A.  P.  Upshur,  Virginia,  Sept.  13, 1841. 

D.  Henshaw,  Massachusetts,  July  24,  1843. 

T.  W.  Gilmer,  Virginia,  February  15.  1844. 

John  Y.  Mason,  Virginia,  March  14,  1844. 

Geo.  Bancroft,  Massachusetts.  March  10,  1845. 

J.  Y.  Mason.  Virginia,  September  9,  1846. 

Wm.  B.  Preston,  Virginia,  March  8, 1849. 

Wm.  A.  Graham,  North  Carolina,  July  22,  1850. 
J.  P.  Kennedy,  Maryland,  July  22,  1852. 

James  C.  Dobbin,  North  Carolina,  March  7,  1853. 
Isaac  Toucey,  Connecticut,  March  6,  1857. 


Gideon  Welles,  Connecticut,  March  5,  1861. 

Gideon  Welles,  reappointed. 

Gideon  Welles,  continued. 


Adolph  E.  Borie,  Pennsylvania,  March  5, 1869. 
G.  M.  Robeson,  New  Jersey,  June  25,  1869. 

Geo.  M.  Robeson,  reappointed. 


R.  W.  Thompson,  Indiana,  March  12,  1877. 
Nathan  Goff,  West  Virginia,  Jan.  10,  1881. 
Wm.  H.  Hunt,  Louisiana,  March  5,  1881. 


♦Declined. 


POPULATION  OF  EUROPEAN  CAPITALS. 


London  (Great  Britain) 3,250,000 

Paris  (France) 1,825,000 

Constantinople  (Turkey) 1,075,000 

Vienna  (Austria) 833,000 

Berlin  (Prussia) 825,000 

St.  Petersburg  (Russia) 667,000 

Madrid  (Spain) t 332,000 

Brussels  (Belgium) 314,000 

Rome  (Italy) 244,000 

Lisbon  (Portugal) 224,000 

Copenhagan  (Denmark) 181,000 

Dresden  (Saxony) 177,000 

Munich  (Bavaria) 169,000 

Stockholm  (Sweden  and  Norway) 136,000 

Stuttgart  (Wurtemberg) 91,000 

The  Hague  (Netherlands) 90,000 

Brunswick  (Brunswick) 58,000 

Athens  (Greece)  41,000 

Darmstadt  (Hessen-Darmstadt) 39,000 


Carlsruhe  (Baden) 36,000 

Berne  (Switzerland) 36,000 

Schwerin  (Mecklenburg-Schwerin) 26,000 

Gotha  (Saxe-Coburg-Gotha) 20,000 

Altenburg  (Saxe-Altenburg) 20,000 

Weimar  (Saxe-Weimar) 16,000 

Dessau  (Anhalt) 16,000 

Grettz  (Reuss-Greitz) 11,000 

Oldenburg  (Oldenburg) 8,000 

Neu-Strelitz  (Mecklenburg-Strelitz) 7,°°° 

Meiningen  (Saxe-Meiningen) 7,000 

Rudolstadt  (Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt) 6,000 

Sondershausen  (Schwarzburg-Sondershausen) 6,000 

Schleitz  (Reuss-Schleitz) 5, 000 

Buckeburg  (Lippe-Schaumburg 4,000 

Arolsen  (Waldeck) 2,000 

Monaco  (Monaco) 1,900 

Lichtenstein  (Lichtenstein) 1,000 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


?4  5 


THE  COPYRIGHT  LAWS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Every  applicant  for  a copyright  must  state  distinctly  the  name  and 
residence  of  the  claimant,  and  whether  the  right  is  claimed  as  author, 
designer,  or  proprietor.  No  affidavit  or  formal  application  is  required. 

A printed  copy  of  the  title  ol  the  book,  map,  chart,  dramatic  or 
musical  composition,  engraving,  cut,  print,  or  photograph , or  a descrip- 
tion of  the  painting,  drawing,  chromo,  statue,  statuary,  or  model  or 
design  for  a work  of  the  fine  arts,  for  which  copyright  is  desired,  must 
be  sent  by  mail  or  otherwise,  prepaid,  addressed  “Librarian  of  Con- 
gress, Washington,  D.  C.”  This  must  be  done  before  publication  of 
the  book  or  other  article. 

A fee  of  ' ;o  cents,  for  recording  the  title  of  each  book  or  other  article, 
must  be  inclosed  with  the  title  as  above,  and  50  cents  in  addition  (one 
dollar  in  all)  for  each  certificate  of  copyright  under  seal  of  the  Librarian 
of  Congress,  which  will  be  transmitted  by  return  mail. 

Within  ten  days  after  publication  of  each  book  or  other  article,  two 
complete  copies  must  be  sent  prepaid,  to  perfect  the  copyright,  with 
the  address,  “ Librarian  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Without  the  deposit  of  copies  above  required  the  copyright  is  void, 
and  a penalty  of  §25  is  incurred. 

No  copyright  is  valid  unless  notice  is  given  by  inserting  in  every 
copy  published  1 

“ Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress , in  the  yeat , by  , in 

the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington  ; ” or,  at  the  op- 
tion of  the  person  entering  the  copyright,  the  words:  “ Copyright  < 18—, 
by  . 

The  law  imposes  a penalty  of  $100  upon  any  person  who  has  not  ob- 


tained copyright  who  shall  insert  the  notice  “ Entered  according  to  act 
of  Congress ,”  or  “ Copyright ,”  or  words  of  the  same  import,  in  or  upon 
any  book  or  other  article. 

Each  copyright  secures  the  exclusive  right  of  publishing  the  book  or 
article  copyrighted  for  the  term  of  twenty-eight  years.  Six  months  be- 
fore the  end  of  that  time  the  author  or  designer,  or  his  widow  or  chil- 
dren, may  secure  a renewal  for  the  further  term  of  fourteen  years,  mak- 
ing forty-two  years  in  all. 

Any  copyright  is  assignable  in  law  by  any  instrument  of  writing,  but 
such  assignment  must  be  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Con- 
gress within  sixty  days  from  its  date.  The  fee  for  this  record  and  cer- 
tificate is  one  dollar. 

A copy  of  the  record  (or  duplicate  certificate)  of  any  copyright  entry 
will  be  furnished,  under  seal,  at  the  rate  of  50  cents. 

Copyrights  cannot  be  granted  upon  Trade-marks,  nor  upon  Labels 
intended  to  be  used  with  any  article  of  manufacture.  If  protection  for 
such  prints  or  labels  is  desired,  application  must  be  made  to  the  Patent 
Office,  where  they  are  registered  at  a fee  of  $6  for  labels  and  $25  for 
trade-marks. 

Note. — By  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  ren- 
dered November  17,  1870,  the  trade-mark  law  of  July  8,  1870,  by  which 
Trade-marks  were  for  the  first  time  recognized  and  protected  by  act  of 
Congress,  was  declared  unconstitutional.  The  registry  of  Trade-marks 
at  the  Patent  office  is,  however,  continued  to  such  as  seek  the  benefit  of 
a record  without  regard  to  the  ultimate  validity  of  the  right. 


PRINCIPAL  CEREAL  PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


States  and  Territories. 


Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut  

Dakota 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York ...  

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Viginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


Total  United  States 


INDIAN  CORN. 

WHEAT. 

OATS. 

BARLEY. 

RYE. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

25,451,278 

1,529,657 

3,039,639 

5,281 

28,402 

34,746 

136,427 

564 

239»°5I 

22,387 

24,156,417 

1,269,730 

2,219,822 

*1952 
I2, 579i56i 

',993,325 

29,0X7,707 

341, 271 

640,900 

l8l,68l 

19,465 

455,968 

1,425,014 

107,116 

1,880,421 

38,742 

1,009,706 

12,286 

370,733 

2,000,864 

2,830,289 

2,217,132 

378*5°8 

277,424 

24,359 

3,894,264 

1,175,272 

523 

5,953 

29i75° 

6,402 

7,44° 

468,112 

3,704 

3,174,234 

422 

210 

2,965 

23,202,018 

3*x59*77x 

5,548,743 

18,662 

IOI,7l6 

16,408 

540,589 

462,236 

274,750 

4,341 

3,121,785 

325,792,481 

51,110,502 

63,189,200 

1.229,523 

115,482,300 

47,284,853 

15,599,518 

382,83s 

3°3*io5 

1,518,605 

275,024,247 

31,154,205 

50,610,591 

4,022,588 

■05,729,325 

I7»324,I4I 

8,180,385 

300,273 

413,181 

668,050 

72,852,263 

11,356,113 

4,580,738 

486,326 

9,906,189 

5,034 

229,840 

1,0x3 

26,398 

960,633 

665,714 

2,265,575 

242,185 

15,968,533 

8,004,864 

1,794,872 

645,159 

6,097 

288,067 

1,797,593 

32,461,452 

15,768 

80,128 

213,716 

35,532,543 

18,190,793 

1,204,316 

2,972,965 

294,918 

14,831,741 

34,601,030 

23,382,158 

2x5,245 

21,340,800 

218,890 

1,959,620 

20,670,958 

348 

5,134 

535,426 

202,485,723 

24,966,627 

123,031 

5,649 

469,688 

900,915 

39,970 

43° 

65,450,135 

13,847,007 

6,555,875 

1,744,686 

424,348 

12,891 

69,298 

186,860 

5X3*47° 

1,350,248 

169,316 

1,017,620 

77,877 

34,638 

11,150,705 

633,786 

x*9°x*739 

706,641 

3,710,573 

4,091 

949,064 

156,527 

50,053 

240 

25,875,480 

11,587,766 

37,575,506 

7,792,062 

2,634,690 

28,019,839 

3,397,393 

3,838,068 

2,421 

285,160 

111,877,124 

46,014,869 

28,664,505 

1.707,129 

389,221 

126,862 

7,480,010 

4,385,65° 

920,977 

13,305 

45,821,531 

372,967 

19,462,405 

33,841,439 

438,100 

3.683,621 

240 

159,339 

17,783 

12*997 

11,767,099 

962,358 

2i7I5i5°5 

16,257 

27,049 

62,764,429 

7,331,353 

4,722,190 

4,893,359 

30,0x9 

156,419 

29, 0^5,172 
163,342 

2,567,760 

72,786 

25,399 

1,169,199 

4 18,082 

217,140 

267,625 

9,605 

2,014,271 

337,257 

3,742,282 

7X*733 

29,106,661 

7,822,504 

5,333,181 

14,223 

324*43x 

39,183 

14,090,609 

1,921,322 

1,571,706 
x.  908, 50  5 

566,537 

7**24 

4,001,711 

24,884,689 

4,674 

9*74° 

113,181 

2,298,5x3 

78 

34 ,23°, 579 

32,905,320 

22,512 

5,043,118 

1,754,861,535 

459.479, 5°5 

407,858,999 

44*”3*495 

■9,831,595 

BUCKWHEAT. 


Bushels. 


363 


548 

22,307 

IIO 

137,563 

2,521 

5,857 


402 


178,859 

89,707 

166,895 

24,421 

9,942 


382,701 
136,667 
67, 1 17 
413,062 
4i,756 


57,64° 

437 

17,562 


94,090 

460,414 


4,461,200 

44,668 

280,229 

6,2x5 

3,593,326 

1,254 


33,434 

535 


356,618 

136,004 

2,498 

285,298 

299,107 


■'.817,327 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


ESTIMATE  OF  VALUES  OF  FOREIGN  COINS. 

As  proclaimed  by  the  Director  of  the  Mint,  January  2,  1882. 


Country. 

Monetary  Unit. 

Standard. 

Value  in 
U.  S.  money 

Standard  Coin. 

$ .40,6 

Franc 

Gold  and  silver 

5,  10  and  20  francs. 
Boliviano. 

Boliviano 

Silver 

Milreis  of  1000  reis 

Gold 

British  Possessions  in  N.  A.. 
Chili  

Dollar 

Gold 

Peso 

(jold  and  silver 

1 .OO 

Condor,  doubloon  and  escudo. 
1/10,  and  1 doubloon. 

10  and  20  crowns. 

Peso. 

Peso  

Gold  and  silver 

Crown 

Gold 

Peso  

Silver 

.82,3 

Piaster 

Gold 

Franc 

Gold  and  silver. . 

5,  10,  and  20  francs. 

sovereign  and  sovereign. 

5,  10,  25,  50  and  100  drachmas. 
5,  10  and  20  marks. 
i,’a,  5 and  10  gourdes. 

Pound  sterling 

Gold 

4.86,6^ 

Drachma 

Gold  and  silver 

Mark 

Hayti  .. 

Gourde 

Gold  and  silver 

Rupee  of  16  annas 

Lira 

5,  10,  20,  50  and  100  lire. 

1,  2,  5,  10  and  20  yen,  gold  and  silver  yen 

.88,7 

Liberia 

Dollar  

Gold 

Mexico 

.89,4 

.40,2 

.26,8 

.82,3 

Peso  or  dollar,  5,  10,  25  and  50  centavo. 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Gold  

Peru . 

Sol 

Sol. 

Portugal 

Gold  

Russia 

.65,8 

M,  and  i rouble. 

Sandwich  Islands 

Gold * 

Spain 

• J9i3 
.26,8 

• J9i3 

• 74i3 

• °4i4 

5,  10,  20,  50  and  100  pesetas. 
10  and  20  crowns. 

Sweden 

Gold 

Switzerland 

5,  10  and  20  francs. 

Tripoli 

Turkey 

Gold 

25,  50,  100,  250  and  500  piasters. 

U.  S.  of  Colombia 

Venezuela 

•l9.3 

5,  10,  20,  50  and  100  Bolivar. 

COMPARISON  OF  THE  FAHRENHEIT,  CENTIGRADE,  AND  REAUMUR  THERMOMETERS. 


Fahrenheit. 

Centigrade. 

Reaumur. 

Fahrenheit. 

Centigrade. 

Reaumur. 

° 

O 

0 

O 

O 

0 

212  water  boils. 

IOO. 

80. 

60 

15-55 

12.44 

200 

93-33 

74.66 

5° 

10. 

8. 

180 

82.22 

65-77 

40 

4-44 

3-55 

160 

71. II 

56.88 

32  water  freezes.  0. 

0. 

140 

60. 

48. 

20 

- 6.66 

- 5 33 

120 

48.88 

39-Ji 

10 

— T2.22 

— 9.77 

100 

37-77 

30.22 

0 

- I7.77 

— 14.2a 

88 

26.66 

21-33 

A PERPETUAL  CALENDAR. 

for  2000  years  after  Christ,  Old  Style,  and  from  1500  To  2000  A.  D.,  New  Style. 
TABLE  I.— DOMINICAL  LETTERS. 


Vears  in  excess  of  Years  in  excess  of 


Hundreds. 

Old  Style  - 

New  Style. 

^1  -f*- 

8 880 

IOO 

800 

1500 

Centuries. 

200  300 

900  1000 

1600  1700 

j8oo 

400 
II  OO 
l800 

1500 

1900 

500 

1200 

I9OO 

1600 

2000 

600 

1300 

2000 

Hundreds. 
Old  Style. 

New  Style. 

8 880 

Centuries. 

100  200  300 

800  900  1000 

1500  1600  1700 

1800 

400 

IIOO 

i8co 

1500 

1900 

500 

1200 

1900 

l600 

2000 

6CX] 

I3°C 

2000 

O 

New  Style. 

c 

E 

G 

A 

14 

42 

70  98 

G 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

O 

28 

56 

84 

DC 

ED 

FE 

GF 

AF 

BA 

CB 

15 

4 3 

71  99 

F 

G 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

I 

29 

57 

85 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

A 

16 

44 

72 

ED 

FE 

GF 

AG 

BA 

CB 

Dt 

2 

3° 

58 

86 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

17 

45 

73 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

A 

B 

3 

3i 

59 

87 

G 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

18 

46 

74 

3 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

A 

4 

32 

60 

88 

FE 

GF 

AG 

BA 

CB 

DC 

ED 

19 

47 

75 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

5 

33 

61 

89 

D 

E 

F 

G 

A 

B 

C 

20 

48 

76 

GF 

AC 

BA 

CB 

DC 

ED 

FE 

6 

34 

62 

9° 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

A 

B 

21 

49 

77 

E 

F 

G 

A 

B 

C 

D 

7 

^>5 

63 

91 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

A 

22 

5° 

78 

D 

E 

F 

G 

A 

B 

C 

8 

36 

64 

92 

AG 

BA 

CB 

DC 

ED 

FE 

GF 

23 

51 

79 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

A 

B 

9 

37 

6s 

93 

F 

G 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

24 

52 

80 

BA 

CB 

DC 

ED 

FE 

GF 

AG 

10 

38 

66 

94 

E 

F 

G 

A 

B 

C 

D 

25 

53 

81 

G 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

11 

39 

67 

95 

D 

E 

F 

G 

A 

B 

C 

26 

54 

82 

F 

G 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

12 

40 

68 

96 

CB 

DC 

ED 

FE 

GF 

AG 

BA 

27 

55 

83 

E 

F 

G 

A 

B 

C 

D 

13 

41 

69 

97 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


34  t 


A PERPETUAL  CALENDAR— Continued. 


TABLE  11. 

DAYS  OF  THE  MONTHS. 


February,  March,  Dominical  Letters. 


January,  October. 

November. 

April, 

July. 

May. 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F G 

1 

8 

x5 

22 

29 

5 

12 

x9 

26 

2 

9 

1 6 

23  30 

7 

x4 

21 

28 

Su. 

Sa. 

F. 

Th. 

W. 

Tu.  M 

2 

9 

16 

2J 

3° 

6 

x3 

20 

27 

3 

10 

1 7 

24  3X 

I 

8 

15 

22 

29 

M 

Su. 

Sa. 

F. 

Th. 

W.  Tu. 

3 

10 

x7 

24 

3' 

7 

14 

21 

28 

4 

11 

18 

25 

2 

9 

16 

25 

3° 

Tu. 

M. 

Su. 

Sa. 

F. 

Th.  W. 

4 

iz 

18 

25 

I 

8 

x5 

22 

29 

5 

12 

x9 

26 

3 

10 

17 

24 

3X 

W. 

Tu. 

M. 

Su. 

Sa. 

F.  Th. 

5 

12 

x9 

26 

2 

9 

16 

23 

30 

6 

x3 

20 

27 

4 

1 1 

18 

25 

Th. 

W. 

Tu. 

M. 

Su. 

Sa.  F. 

6 

13 

20 

27 

3 

10 

x7 

24 

31 

7 

x4 

21 

28 

5 

12 

x9 

26 

F. 

Th. 

W. 

Tu. 

M. 

Su  Sa. 

; 

14 

21 

28 

4 

11 

18 

25 

1 8 

x5 

22 

29 

6 

x3 

20 

27 

Sa. 

F. 

Th. 

W. 

Tu. 

M.  Su. 

DAYS  OF  THE  MONTHS. 


4 

June. 
11  18 

25 

August. 

6 13  20 

27 

September,  December. 
3 10  17  24  31 

A 

Su. 

B 

Sa. 

Dominical  I 
C D 

F.  Th. 

-etreri 

E 

W. 

F 

Tu. 

G 

M. 

5 

12 

x9 

26 

7 

x4 

21 

28 

4 

1 1 

18 

25 

M. 

Su. 

Sa. 

F. 

Th. 

W. 

Tu. 

6 

x3 

20 

27 

1 

8 

x5 

22 

29 

5 

12 

19 

26 

Tu. 

M. 

Su. 

Sa. 

F. 

Th. 

W. 

7 

x4 

21 

28 

2 

9 

16 

23 

3° 

6 

x3 

20 

27 

W. 

Tu. 

M. 

Su. 

Sa. 

F. 

Th. 

1 8 

rt> 

22 

29 

3 

10 

W 

24 

31 

7 

*4 

21 

28 

Th. 

W. 

Tu. 

M 

Su.  Sa. 

F. 

2 9 

16 

23 

3° 

4 

1 1 

18 

25 

1 8 

XS 

22 

29 

F. 

Th. 

W.  Tu. 

M. 

Su . 

Sa. 

3 10 

x7 

24 

5 

12 

■9 

26 

2 9 

16 

23 

3° 

Sa. 

F. 

Th.  W. 

Tu. 

M. 

Su. 

Rule. — Find  the  Dominical  Letter  for  the  year,  in  the  First  Table  ; and  note,  that  in  Leap  Years  there  are  two  Dominical  Letters,  the  tirst  for 
January  and  February,  the  second  for  the  other  months  ; then  in  this  Second  Table,  the  days  of  the  week  under  the  Dominical  Letter  will  be  those 
for  the  required  year. 

N.  B — New  Stylt  commenced  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  generally  in  1582  ; but  was  not  adopted  in  England  till  1752.  Old  Style  is  still  used 
in  Russia. 


UNITED  STATES  POSTAL  TABLE. 


Kates  on  all  Available  A/atter  between  Points  in  the  United  States. 


LETTERS.  Each  X oz. 

Mail  letters 3 cents. 

Drop  letters  at  letter  carrier  offices  2 “ 

Drop  letters  at  NON-letter  carrier  offices  ...  . 1 cent. 

Drawings,  plans,  designs,  and  all  matter  sealed  against  inspection,  3 
cents  Tor  each  yt  oz.  or  fraction  oz. 

Registered  letters  10  cents  in  addition  to  the  proper  postage. 


NEWSPAPERS, 

BOOKS,  MERCHANDISE,  SEEDS,  ETC. 

Newspapers  and  periodicals  to  regular  subscribers,  weekly  or  oftener, 
2 cents  a lb. 

Transient  newspapers,  1 cent  each  2 oz. 

Third  Class  Matter  —Books  (printed  and  blank),  circulars,  other 
printed  matter,  proof  sheets,  corrected  proof  sheets  and  manuscript 
copy  accompanying  the  same,  valentines,  heliotypes,  chromos,  post- 
ers, lithographs,  stereoscopic  views,  photographs,  printed  blanks, 
business  cards,  tags  and  tickets,  1 cent  each  2 oz. 

Newspapers  (except  weekly  to  subscribers),  circulars  and  periodicals, 
not  2 oz  in  weight  deposited  in  letter  carrier  offices  for  local  de- 
livery, 1 cent  each. 

Fourth  Class  Matter — Printed  envelopes  in  quantity,  blank  bills, 
letter  heads,  blank  cards,  flexible  patterns,  plain  envelopes  and  letter 
paper,  sample  cards,  merchandise,  models,  sample  ores,  metals,  miner- 
als, seeds,  bulbs,  cuttings,  roots,  not  exceeding  4 lbs  in  weight,  1 cent 
each  oz.  or  fraction  of  oz. 

Patterns  and  samples  to  Canada,  10  cents  prepaid  for  each  8 oz  or  frac- 
tion. 

First,  third  and  fourth  class  matter  may  be  registered  at  10  cents  each 
package  in  addition  to  the  regular  postage. 

All  matter  not  prepaid  at  letter  rates  must  be  so  wrapped  that  it  can  be 
examined  without  destroying  the  wrapper,  and  can  name  contents, 
from  whom,  and  address,  and  nothing  more  A business  card  may  be 
printed,  impressed  or  pasted  on  the  wrappers  Liquids,  poisons,  ex- 
plosives, and  other  dangerous  matters  arc  excluded 


Not  exc.  News- 

Letters.  y oz.  papers. 

Cents.  Cents. 

China — Amoy,  Canton,  Chee  Foo,  Hong  Kong,  Shanghai, 

via  San  Francisco *5  x 

China,  via  England  and  Brindisi *13  4 

Cuba  . ....  *5 

Denmark *5 

France  and  Colonies *5 

Germany ..  ...  *5 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland  ..  *5 

Holland  . . . *5 

India,  British,  via  Brindisi *5 

India,  French  and  Portuguese  Colonies. *5 

Italy  *5 

Japan  and  Trisum-po,  Corea,  via  San  Francisco  *5 

Liberia,  via  Southampton *5 

Mexico.  *5 

Natal,  British  mail  ..*15  4 

New  Zealand,  via  San  Francisco *12  2 

" “ *'  Brindisi.  . . *15  3 

Norway  and  Sweden *5  1 

Portugal  *5  1 

Russia  . . *5  j 

Sandwich  Islands,  via  San  Francisco 6 4 

Shanghai,  via  San  Francisco 5 2 

Spain  *5  1 

Switzerland ...  *5  1 

Turkey— Europe  and  Asia *5  1 

Venezuela...  *5  1 

West  Indies,  direct  . 5 2 

“ “ via  St  Thomas . 13  4 

The  asterisk  (*)  indicates  that  the  postage  maybe  prepaid  or  not,  at 
the  option  of  the  sender  of  the  letter. 

International  postal  cards,  price  2 cents,  may  be  sent  to  any  of  the 
above-mentioned  countries  where  the  postage  is  designated  as  5 cents. 


POSTAGE  TO  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES 

Not  exc.  News- 

Letters.  x oz.  papers. 

Cents.  Cents. 


Africa,  west  coast,  British  possessions 

Africa,  west  coast,  except  Liberia,  British,  French,  Span- 
ish, and  Portuguese  possessions .15 

Aspinwall  . . *5 

New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  Queensland,  via  San  Fran- 
cisco   ,2 

Australia,  except  above  places,  via  San  Francisco  5 

Austria *5 

Belgium . ....  .....  *5 

Bermuda,  via  New  York . . . . . *s 

Brazil . *5 

Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  etc  .............  3 

Newfoundland  

Cape  Goo„  Hope,  British  mail [ j ” *15 

Bolivia,  via  Aspinwall . 17 

Chili.  Ecuador,  and  Peru 


MONEY  ORDERS. 

No  fractions  of  cents  allowed  in  any  money  order. 

Rates  on  Money  Orders  in  the  United  States  : Not  exceeding  $13,  ten 
cents  • over  $75  to  $40,  fifteen  cents  ; over  $30  to  $40,  twenty  cents  ; 
over  .$40  to  $50,  twenty-five  cents. 

Money  Orders  to  Great  Britain  or  Ireland:  Not  exceeding  $ro, 

twenty-five  cents  ; over  $ 0 to  $20,  fifty  cents  ; over  $2010830,  seventy 
cents  ; over  $30  to  $40,  eighty-five  cents  ; over  $40  to  $50.  one  dollar. 

Money  Orders  to  German  Empire,  France,  Italy,  Canada,  and  Algeria: 
Not  exceeding  $10,  fifteen  cents  ; over  $10  to  $20,  thirty  cents  ; over 
$20  to  $30,  forty-five  cents  ; over  $30  to  $40,  sixty  cents  ; over  $40  to 
$50.  seventy-five  cents 

Money  Orders  to  Switzerland : Not  exceeding  $10,  twenty -five  cents ; 
over  $10  to  $20,  fifty  cents  ; over  $20  to  $30,  seventy-five  cents  ; over 
$30  to  $40,  one  dollar  ; over  $40  to  $50,  one  dollar  and  twenty-five 
cents. 

Money  Orders  can  be  made  payable  in  Denmark,  Sweden  an  ‘ Norway, 
Netherlands  and  Luxemburg,  through  Germany,  at  German  rates. 
In  Belgium,  Austria  and  Hungary,  through  Switzerland,  at  Swiss 
rates. 


54» 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES 


TABLES  SHOWING  THE  HEIGHT  OF  THE  MOUNTAINS,  AND  THE  LENGTH  OF  THE  CHIEF 

RIVERS  OF  THE  GLOBE. 

PRINCIPAL  MOUNTAINS. 


Name. 


Aconcagua 

Ararat  

Ben  Nevis 

Cervin  or  Materhorn 

Chimborazo.. 

Cotopaxi 

Dhawalagiri 

El-burz  (Caucasus) 

Etna 

Everest 

F inster-aar-horn 

Grimsel  Pass 

Hekla 

Illimani 

Jungfrau 

Kunchinjinga 

Macgillicuddy’s  Reeks 
Mount  Blanc  


Country. 

Height.  J 

Name. 

Country. 

1^,'17*5 

Ecuador 

Russian  America 

Switzerland  

Switzerland 

Ditto 

Wales  

13,781 

Ireland  

Italy . * . . . ..  .. 

Piedmont  

15.744 

Height. 


10,994 

13,284 

16,814 

11,852 

11,426 

17.773 

22,350 

7U73 

17,900 

3,166 

6,578 

5,022 

3’57x 

21,286 

9077 

12,236 

3.932 


PRINCIPAL  RIVERS. 


River. 


Amazon . . 
Amoor  . . 
Columbia 
Danube 
Dnieper. . 
Douro  . . . 
Elbe  


Euphrates 

Fraser 

Ganges  

Hoang-ho  

Indus  .......  . 

Lawrence,  St 

Lena 

Loire  

Mississippi.  ... 

Niger 

Nile  

Obi  

Ohio 

Orinoco  

Parana  

Platte 

Po  

Potomac  

Rhine 

Rhone  

Scheldt  

Seine  

Senegal 

Shannon 

Susquehanna. . . 

Tagus 

Thames 

Tigris  

Vistula 

Volga 

fang-tze-kiang 
Venesei 


Mouth. 


Course. 


Length  in 
English  Miles. 


Arctic  Sea  

Bay  of  Biscay 

Atlantic  Ocean 

Mediterranean  Sea 

'Arctic  Ocean 

Siberia  

3.900 
2,300 

75° 

1,760 

1,140 

400 

670 

1.900 
600 

1,55° 

2,625 

1,630 

2,340 

2.500 
545 

4.000 

2.000 

3.000 
2,55° 
1,188 
1,480 

1.500 
2,13° 

410 

410 

810 

460 

170 

425 

95° 

200 

620 

550 

215 

1.000 
640 

2,03s 

2,990 

2.900 


DIMENSIONS  OF  AMERICAN  LAKES. 


Name. 

Length. 

Miles. 

Width. 

Miles. 

Depth. 

Feet. 

Elevation 
Ab’ve  the  Sea. 
Feet. 

Ontario 

180 

40 

500 

231 

Erie  

270 

80 

200 

565I 

Huron 

250 

100 

900 

618 

Michigan 

400 

5° 

unknown. 

618 

Superior 

480 

iog 

900 

64I 

DISTANCES  SOUND  MAY  BE  HEARD. 

Human  voice 150  yards 

Rifle 5,3oo  “ 

Military  band 5*200  44 

Cannon s.^ooo 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


349 


REDUCTION  OF  THE  SCALE  OF  THE  ENG- 
LISH BAROMETER  TO  FRENCH  MILLI- 


METRES. 


Barometer,  English. 

Barometer,  English. 

Barometer,  English. 

1 

Inch,  ioths  Millim’tr’s 

Inch,  ioths 

Millim’tres. 

Inch,  ioths 

Millim’tres 

24  0 

609.59 

27  4 

695.95 

20  0 

703.82 

1 

612.I3 

5 

698.49 

1 

706.07 

2 

614.67 

6 

7OI .03 

2 

708.33 

3 

617.21 

7 

703-57 

3 

7IO«  59 

4 

619.75 

8 

706  II 

4 

712.84 

5 

622.29 

„ 9 

7O8 . 65 

5 

715 10 

6 

624 . 83 

28  O 

711  '9 

6 

7U-36 

7 

627.37 

I 

713-73 

7 

7l9.6l 

8 

629.91 

2 

7l6.27 

8 

721.83 

9 

632-45 

3 

718.81 

9 

724.12 

25  O 

634-99 

4 

721 -35 

IO 

726.38 

I 

637-53 

5 

723.89 

II 

728.63 

2 

640 . 07 

6 

726.43 

27  O 

730.89 

3 

642.61 

7 

728.97 

I 

733-45 

4 

645-15 

8 

731-51 

2 

735-4° 

s 

647.69 

9 

734-05 

3 

737-66 

6 

650.23 

29  0 

736.59 

4 

739-91 

7 

652.77 

1 

739-13 

5 

742.17 

8 

655-31 

2 

741.67 

6 

744-42 

9 

657-85 

3 

744-21 

7 

746.68 

26  0 

660.39 

4 

746.75 

8 

748.94 

1 

662. Q3 

5 

749.29 

9 

751. !9 

2 

665.47 

6 

751.83 

IO 

753-45 

3 

668.01 

7 

754  37 

II 

755.70 

4 

670.55 

8 

756-91 

28  O 

757-96 

5 

673.09 

9 

759-45 

I 

760.22 

6 

675.03 

30  O 

761  99 

2 

76247 

7 

678.17 

I 

764-53 

3 

764-73 

8 

680.71 

2 

767.07 

4 

766.98 

9 

683.25 

3 

769.61 

5 

769.24 

2~  O 

685.79 

4 

772.15 

6 

77U49 

I 

688.33 

5 

774.69 

7 

773  75 

2 

690.87 

6 

777  23 

8 

776.01 

3 

69341 

7 

779-77 

9 

77^.26 

TEMPERATURES  OF  IMPORTANT  PLACES 
IN  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Name  of  Place. 

Latitude. 

Mean 

Summer 

Temper- 

ature. 

Mean 

Winter 

Temper- 

ature. 

Annual 

Temper- 

ature. 

O 

/ 

0 

° 

O 

London 

N. 

51 

3° 

63 

39  yi 

51 

Dublin  

53 

23 

60 

40 

50 

Edinburgh 

44 

55 

57 

57 

38 

47 

Paris 

44 

48 

5° 

64 

38 

51 

Vienna 

48 

12 

69 

32 

51 

Berlin 

44 

52 

3l 

64 

31 

48 

Copenhagen 

44 

55 

41 

62 

3! 

46 

Stockholm. 

59 

21 

60 

26 

43 

St.  Petersburg 

it 

59 

56 

61 

18 

39 

Moscow 

55 

45 

64 

15 

40 

Naples 

40 

52 

75 

48 

62 

Rome 

44 

4i 

54 

74 

47 

61 

Madrid 

it 

40 

25 

76 

43 

59 

Constantinople 

4r 

0 

7r 

41 

56 

Jerusalem 

31 

47 

74 

50 

62 

Calcutta 

22 

33 

80 

72 

82 

Bombay 

it 

18 

56 

83 

77 

81 

Pekin 

39 

54 

75 

28 

53 

Canton 

23 

8 

82 

54 

69 

Hobart  Town 

S. 

42 

53 

63 

42 

52 

Auckland 

14 

36 

51 

67 

51 

59 

Cairo 

N. 

3° 

2 

85 

58 

72 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

S. 

34 

II 

74 

58 

66 

New  York 

N. 

40 

49 

7! 

3° 

51 

New  Orleans 

29 

57 

82 

55 

69 

Rio  Janeiro 

S. 

22 

54 

79 

68 

73 

Quebec 

N. 

46 

49 

68 

*4 

4i 

Toronto 

‘k 

43 

40 

65 

25 

45 

Melbourne 

S. 

37 

42 

65 

48 

57 

Sydney 

33 

5r 

74 

55 

65 

Jamaica 

N. 

18 

0 

81 

76 

78 

Warsaw 

52 

*3 

63k 

24X 

44 

LEADING  AGRICULTURAL  CROPS  IN  EUROPE. 


Countries. 


1.  Austria  

2.  Baden 

3.  Bavaria 

4.  Belgium 

5-  Denmark 

6.  Finland 

7.  France  

8.  Great  Britain 

9.  Ireland 

10.  Greece 

11.  Hesse- Darmstadt 

12.  Holland  

13.  Hungary 

14.  Italy 

15.  Norway 

16.  Portugal 

17.  Prussia 

18.  Roumania 

19.  Russia 

20.  Saxe  Altenburg  . 

21.  Saxe-Weimar 

22.  Saxony 

23.  Scrvia 

24.  Spain 

25.  Sweden 

26.  Switzerland 

27.  Turkey 

28.  Wlirtemberg 


Date  of 
Sta- 
tistics. 

Total  Area. 

Land  under 
Tillage. 

Wheat. 

Rye. 

Barley. 

Oats. 

Potatoes. 

Average 
yield  of 
Wheat 
per  acre. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

Bushels. 

187I 

74,180,173 

22,273,312 

1,498,969 

35,945,699 

74,407.428 

46.234,017 

91,486,937 

178,429,626 

*5  6 

1873 

3.774,358 

4,347,248 

1,263,478 

3,343,164 

17,501,814 

3- '88, 777 

20,433,600 

59,778,270 

16  9 

1873 

19,360,648 

7,666,407 

21,626,587 

24,550,562 

25.897, 9'4 

29  2 

1873 

7,278,872 

9,448,691 

93.3714255 

3,926,704 

24,682,369 

•3.367,39s 

3,565,090 

*', 777, 248 

27.564,583 

4,852,980 

60,803,441 

27  9 

187I 

1870 

3.434.925 

1,931,659 

53,922 

9,024,840 

4,994,880 

14,625,690 
7 ,005 ,000 

*9  5 

17  8 

1873 

13°*733, 581 

64,984,190 

237,998,066 

58,971,844 

53, '63, 763 

192,677,482 

374,216,236 

'7  ' 

1873 

57.623,333 

18,317,276 

5,283,928 

104,512,35^ 

1,779,426 

91,513,013 

8,385,154 

123,248,640 

86,201,261 

29  9 

1873 

20,811,357 

11,766,143 

3,871,032 

178,510 

57V58,502 

'24,4^9,304 

23 

1867 

5,102,894 

123,009 

2,059,506 

200,028 

18,390 

'3  5 

1873 

2,072,512 

1,043,620 

278,138 

2,259,660 

3,179,908 

4,699,546 

2,729,146 

11,1X6,821 

15,251,505 

39  0 

1873 

8,123,200 

2,437,033 

5,238,650 

8,137,443 

5.', 3°9, 455 

24  8 

1873 

1873 

1865 

80,027,559 

64,080,565 

78,663,021 

22,5C>8,508 

27,966,121 

1,570,631 

4,55*,400 

107,381,080 

5,684,696 

8,740,887 

6,240,450 

13,321,218 

1,985,663 

41,374,609 

9,633,196 

568,449 

126,520,764 

29,696,724 

18,847,584 

3,785,041 

12  6 
23  3 

13  2 

1877 

85,788.437 

73.73', 406 

'73.485,733 

86,742,609 

227,434,922 

569,720,471 

17  6 

1873 

187O 

29,893,638 
1,268  890,822 

8,656,770 

221,714,919 

6*6,954,569 

124,255,047 

8,449,464 

590,746,010 

380,292 

326,906,518 

13  8 

1873 

326,558 

190,579 

425,019 

1,175,846 

886,818 

'.9°3,39° 

2,671,353 

28  7 

1873 

880,700 

498,665 

792,6ll 

',757, '36 

1,989,665 

2,538,874 

5,26l,894 

17  2 

1873 

l868 

1857 

1872 

3,704,070 

10,762,876 

125,223,666 

110,629,417 

X,863,a 328 

6,257,567 

4,086,720 

”7,563,372 

2,455,429 

510,840 

25.5",7'5 

15,985,9*6 

3,065,040 

58,471,962 

12,574079 

3,969,845 

510,840 

3‘, 945,5'6 

4*i3°4i494 

6,356,016 

44.704,176 

27 
16  X 

1868 

1868 

*873 

10,234,802 

89,957,183 

4,803,571 

2,093,593 

2,145,528 

40,867,200 

7i274,»35 

8,684,680 

I0,2l6,800 

1,638,485 

1,430,352 

25,542,000 

5,358,653 

5i2' 2,736 
3,065,040 
9,269,232 

19,850,584 

16  6 

1877 

2,l84,000,CKX) 

200,000,000 

364,194,186 

21,170,100 

34,441,400 

406,394,000 

170,092,000 

'3  5 

United  States. 


350 


MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES. 


DURATION  OF  LIFE. 

The  following  Table  has  been  Constructed  by  Dr.  Farr,  F.  R.  S. 


Number  of  Persons  Alive  at  Com- 
mencement of  Year. 


V 

tuO 

<: 

No. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total 

Deaths  each 

Year. 

0 

1,000,000 

5”,74S 

488.255 

149,493 

1 

850,507 

428,026 

422,48l 

53,68  j 

2 

796,827 

400,505 

396,322 

28,238 

3 

768,589 

386,290 

382,299 

18,456 

4 

750,133 

377*077 

373,056 

13,315 

5 

736,818 

370,358 

366,460 

9,899 

6 

726,919 

305,325 

361,594 

7,768 

7 

7I9*I5I 

361,372 

357,779 

6,559 

8 

712,592 

358,062 

354,530 

5,458 

9 

7°7,  '34 

355,328 

351,806 

4,625 

10 

702,509 

353.031 

349,478 

4,028 

11 

698,481 

351,048 

347,433 

3,637 

12 

694,844 

349i272 

345,572 

3*43i 

13 

691,413 

347,606 

343,807 

3,382 

14 

688,031 

345,969 

342,062 

3,468 

13 

684,563 

344,290 

340,273 

3.669 

16 

680,894 

342,509 

338,385 

3,957 

17 

67<5,937 

340,581 

336,356 

4*3X7 

18 

672,620 

338,469 

334,i5i 

4,720 

19 

667,900 

336,149 

33i,75i 

5*x50 

20 

662,750 

333,6o8 

329,142 

5,583 

21 

657,167 

330,844 

326,323 

5,668 

22 

651,499 

328,043 

323,456 

5,748 

23 

645,751 

325,207 

320,544 

5,820 

24 

639,931 

322,339 

317,592 

5,886 

25 

634,045 

3*9*442 

3'4,6o3 

5,950 

26 

628,095 

316,516 

3H,579 

6,009 

27 

622,086 

313,562 

308,524 

6,065 

28 

6l6,02I 

310,  s8 1 

305,440 

6,121 

29 

609,900 

307,572 

302,328 

6,176 

30 

603,724 

304,534 

299,190 

6,231 

31 

597,493 

301,466 

296,027 

6,287 

32 

591,206 

298,366 

292,840 

6,343 

33 

584,863 

295,232 

289,631 

6,404 

34 

578,459 

292,061 

286,398 

6,466 

35 

571,993 

288.850 

283,143 

6,533 

39 

565,460 

285,596 

279,864 

6,601 

Number  of  Persons  Alive  at  Com- 
mencement of  Year. 


aJ 

bo 

< 

No. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total 

Deaths  each 
Year. 

37 

558,859 

282,296 

276,563 

6,678 

38 

552,181 

278.944 

273*237 

6,756 

39 

545,425 

275.538 

269,887 

6,841 

40 

538,584 

272,073 

266,511 

6*93* 

4X 

531,653 

268,544 

263,109 

7,027 

42 

524,626 

264,948 

259.678 

7,127 

43 

517.499 

261,280 

256,219 

7,236 

44 

510,263 

257.534 

252,729 

7,348 

45 

502,915 

253,708 

249,207 

7,467 

46 

495.448 

249,796 

245,652 

7,592 

47 

487,856 

245*795 

242,061 

7,722 

48 

480,134 

241,700 

238,434 

7,857 

49 

472,277 

237,508 

234.769 

7*997 

50 

464,280 

233,2l6 

231,064 

8,141 

5i 

456,139 

228,821 

227,318 

8,414 

52 

447*725 

224,195 

223.530 

8,590 

5-3 

439,135 

219.437 

219,698 

8,761 

54 

430.374 

214*552 

215,822 

9.259 

55 

421,115 

209,539 

211.576 

9,583 

56 

411-532 

2"4*395 

207,137 

9,909 

57 

401,623 

199,114 

202,509 

10,245 

5« 

391,378 

193,636 

197,692 

10,593 

59 

380,785 

188,102 

192,683 

10,958 

60 

369,827 

182,350 

187.477 

11,338 

61 

358,489 

176,421 

182,068 

11.737 

62 

346,752 

170,303 

176,449 

12,149 

63 

334,603 

l63,98Q 

170,614 

12*57* 

64 

322,031 

*57*474 

164.557 

13,002 

65 

30Q,02Q 

150,754 

158,275 

*3*430 

66 

295  599 

143,833 

151,766 

13,846 

67 

281,753 

136,718 

*45*035 

14,244 

68 

267,500 

129,421 

138,088 

14,607 

69 

252,902 

121,963 

130,939 

i4*925 

7° 

237*977 

U4,370 

123,607 

15,184 

71 

222,793 

106,675 

116,118 

15,369 

72 

207,424 

98,919 

*08,505 

15,468 

Number-  of  Persons  alive  at  Com. 
mencement  of  year. 


0* 

4? 

No. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total 

Deaths  each 
Year. 

73 

191,956 

9***49 

100,807 

15,469 

74 

176,487 

83,416 

93,071 

15,363 

75 

l6l,I24 

75,777 

85,347 

15,136 

76 

145.988 

68,294 

77,694 

14,789 

77 

*3***99 

61,026 

54,036 

70,173 

*4*3*9 

78 

116,880 

62,844 

13*726 

79 

103,154 

47,381 

55.773 

*3,021 

80 

90.133 

4i*H5 

49,Ol8 

12,214 

81 

77,919 

35.283 

42,636 

11,320 

10,358 

82 

66,599 

29,922 

36,677 

83 

56,241 

25 ,060 

31,181 

9*352 

84 

46,8^9 

20,711 

26,178 

8,324 

85 

38,565 

16,877 

21,688 

7*300 

86 

31.265 

13,549 

17,716 

6,298 

87 

24.967 

10,709 

14,258 

5-346 

88 

19,621 

8,325 

11,296 

4*459 

89 

15,162 

6,360 

8,802 

3,653 

90 

11,509 

4*770 

6,739 

2,933 

91 

8,576 

3*5*o 

5,066 

2,310 

92 

6,266 

2*53* 

3*735 

1,781 

93 

4,48s 

1,787 

2,698 

1*343 

94 

3**42 

**234 

1,908 

989 

95 

2,153 

833 

1,320 

7*3 

96 

i*44o 

548 

892 

500 

97 

940 

352 

588 

342 

98 

598 

220 

378 

228 

99 

370 

134 

236 

147 

IOO 

223 

79 

*44 

92 

101 

131 

46 

85 

57 

102 

74 

25 

49 

33 

103 

4* 

*4 

27 

*9 

IO4 

22 

7 

*5 

10 

105 

12 

4 

8 

6 

106 

6 

2 

4 

3 

IO7 

3 

1 

2 

2 

I08 

1 

1 

I 

Note.— The  rate  of  mortality  of  males  of  all  ages  is  i in  39.91,  and  of  females,  1 in  41.85. 

EXPECTATION  OF  LIFE  AT  THE  FOLLOWING  AGES. 

Calculated  in  Years  and  Hundredths.  By  Dr.  Farr,  F.  R.  S. 


Age. 

Male. 

Female. 

Age. 

Male. 

Female. 

Age 

Male. 

Female. 

Age. 

Male. 

Female. 

Age. 

Male. 

Female. 

O 

39-91 

41-85 

20 

39-48 

40.29 

40 

26.06 

27  34 

60 

*3-53 

*4-34 

80 

4-93 

5.26 

I 

46.65 

47-31 

21 

38.80 

39-63 

4* 

25  39 

26.69 

6l 

I2.96 

1375 

81 

4.66 

4.98 

2 

48  83 

49.40 

22 

3813 

38.98 

42 

24.73 

26.03 

62 

12.41 

13.17 

82 

4-4* 

4-7* 

3 

49.61 

50.20 

23 

37-46 

38.33 

43 

24.07 

25-38 

63 

ir. 87 

12.60 

83 

4.17 

4-45 

4 

49  81 

5°-43 

24 

3° -79 

37.68 

44 

23.4* 

24.72 

64 

11.34 

12.05 

84 

3-95 

4.21 

5 

49-7* 

50.33 

25 

36.12 

37.04 

45 

22.76 

24  06 

65 

10.82 

11. 5* 

85 

3-73 

3-98 

6 

49-39 

50.00 

26 

35-44 

36-39 

46 

22.11 

23.40 

66 

10.32 

10.98 

86 

3-53 

3-76 

7 

48.92 

49-53 

27 

34-77 

35-75 

47 

21.46 

22.74 

67 

9-83 

10.47 

87 

3-34 

3-56 

8 

48.37 

48.98 

28 

34-io 

35-  *0 

43 

20.82 

22.08 

68 

9.36 

9-97 

88 

3 '6 

3-36 

9 

47-74 

48.3S 

29 

33.43 

34  46 

49 

20.  17 

21.42 

69 

8.9O 

9.48 

89 

3.00 

3-18 

10 

47 -°5 

47-67 

30 

32.76 

33-8i 

50 

19-54 

20.75 

70 

8-45 

9.02 

90 

2.84 

3.01 

11 

46.31 

46.95 

3* 

32.09 

33*7 

51 

18.90 

20.09 

7i 

8.03 

8.57 

91 

2.69 

2.85 

12 

45-54 

46.20 

32 

3**42 

32-53 

52 

18.28 

19.42 

72 

7.62 

8.13 

92 

2-55 

2.70 

13 

44-76 

45.44 

33 

30.74 

31-88 

53 

17-67 

18  75 

73 

7.22 

7.71 

93 

2.41 

2-55 

14 

43-97 

44.66 

34 

30.07 

31.23 

54 

17.06 

18.08 

74 

6.85 

7 3' 

94 

2,29 

2.42 

*5 

43.18 

43.90 

35 

29.40 

3°-59 

55 

16.45 

*7-43 

75 

6.49 

6-93 

95 

2.17 

2.29 

16 

42.40 

43-  *4 

36 

28.73 

29.94 

56 

I5.86 

16. 79 

76 

6. IS 

6.56 

96 

2.06 

2.17 

17 

41.64 

42.40 

37 

28.06 

2Q.29 

57 

15.26 

i6.I7 

77 

582 

6 21 

97 

i-95 

2.06 

18 

40.90 

41.67 

38 

27-39 

28.64 

58 

14.68 

JS-55 

78 

5-5* 

5 88 

98 

1-85 

I.96 

19 

40.17 

40.97 

39 

26.72 

27.99 

59 

I4.IO 

14.94 

79 

5.21 

5 56 

99 

I.76 

1.86 

- 

100 

t .68 

1.76 

4, 


The  mean  lifetime  of  boys  at  birth  is  39.91  years,  and  of  girls,  41-85. 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


iMERICA  was 
known  to  the  an-  r492- 
cient  Northmen  as  early 
as  the  tenth  century,  but 
its  true  discovery  dates 
from  the  voyage  of  Colum- 
bus, in  1492. 

Christopher  Columbus,  a 
native  of  Genoa,  having  en- 
listed the  assistance  of  Isa- 
bella of  Spain,  sailed  from 
the  port  of  Palos,  on  the 
third  day  of  August,  1492, 
on  his  voyage  of  discovery, 
with  a fleet  of  three  ves- 
sels, and  a crew  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  men, 
and  landed  on  the  island  of  San  Salvador  on  the 
twelfth  of  October  of  that  year. 

1493. — Having  returned  to  Spain,  where  he  gave 
an  account  of  his  discoveries  to  their  majesties, 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  Columbus  sailed  on  the 
twenty-fifth  of  September,  1493,  on  his  second  voyage, 
in  which  he  discovered  more  of  the  West  India  Islands. 

1497. — Sebastian  Cabot,  who  claims  with  Colum- 
bus to  have  been  the  first  discoverer  of  the  Western 
Continent,  was  a son  of  John  Cabot,  a Venetian,  and 
a native  of  Bristol.  He  sailed  in  the  spring  of  1497, 
in  search  of  the  northwest  passage  to  India,  and  dis- 
covered land,  which  he  called  Prima  Vista,  or  New- 
foundland, after  which  he  sailed  along  the  coast  of 


America  as  far  as  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  then  re- 
turned to  England. 

1498.  — On  the  thirteenth  day  of  May,  1498,  Co- 
lumbus set  out  on  his  third  voyage  from  the  Bay  of 
St.  Lucas,  and,  after  sighting  some  new  islands,  on 
the  first  of  August  he  discovered  the  continent,  but 
imagining  it  to  be  an  island,  he  termed  it  Isla  Santa. 

1499.  — Americus  Vespucius,  or  Vespucci,  from 
whom  the  Western  Continent  derives  its  name,  was 
a native  of  Florence,  and  made  four  voyages  to  the 
New  World  from  1499  to  1503.  After  returning  to 
Spain  he  was  appointed  by  King  Ferdinand  to  draw 
sea  charts  descriptive  of  the  New  World,  from  which 
circumstance  the  continent  became  known  as  America. 

1512.  — Ponce  de  Leon,  a native  of  Spain,  dis- 
covered Florida  on  Easter  Sunday  ( Pascua  Florida , 
in  Spanish),  April  6,  1512. 

1513.  — On  September  29,  1513,  Balboa,  a Span- 
iard, crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  and  discovered 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  He  took  possession  of  all  the 
lands  it  might  touch  in  the  name  of  the  Spanish  crown. 

1524. — Francis  I.,  of  France,  ambitious  of  the 
glory  of  Charles  V.,  supplied  Verazzano,  a noble 
Florentine,  with  four  vessels  to  prosecute  discoveries 
in  America.  After  a severe  voyage  he  came  upon  a 
coast  supposed  to  be  North  Carolina.  Sailing  north 
he  entered  a spacious  bay  receiving  a noble  river — 
the  Hudson — and  following  the  coast  he  reached 
Martha’s  Vineyard  and  Boston.  Proceeding  further, 
first  west  and  then  north,  he  skirted  Nova  Scotia, 


352  A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


discovered  Cape  Breton  Island,  and  finally  reached 
the  land  discovered  by  the  Cabots,  Newfoundland 
and  Labrador. 

1535. — Jacques  Cartier,  the  discoverer  of  Canada, 
sailed  from  the  port  of  St.  Malo,  France,  and  as- 
cended the  river  St.  Lawrence  in  1535,  as  far  as  the 
site  of  the  present  city  of  Montreal. 

1538. — The  career  of  Hernando  de  Soto  is  one 
of  the  most  adventurous  episodes  in  the  history  of 
American  discovery.  He  accompanied  Pizarro  to 
America,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  severe 
battle  that  took  place  between  his  chief  and  Alma- 
gro.  Having  returned  to  Spain,  he  was  created 
Captain-General  of  Cuba  and  Florida,  and  sailed  in 
command  of  a brilliant  armament  from  San  Lucar 
de  Barrameda,  April  6th,  1538,  to  undertake  the 
conquest  of  Florida.  He  arrived  at  Cuba  on  the  1st 
of  May,  sailed  from  Havana  May  12,  1539,  arrived 
at  Espiritu  Santo,  Florida,  on  the  25th,  and  took 
formal  possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  of  the 
Spanish  Emperor.  After  being  harassed  by  the 
Indians,  he  continued  his  route  to  the  dominions  of 
the  caique  Tuscaloosa,  which  comprised  part  of 
Alabama  and  Mississippi.  Here  he  fought  a dis- 
astrous battle  on  the  site  of  the  city  of  Mobile,  and 
on  the  1st  of  April,  1541,  he  came  in  sight  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  which  he  crossed.  In  the  spring 
of  1542  De  Soto  returned  to  the  Mississippi,  where, 
after  untold  trials  and  disappointments,  he  suc- 
cumbed to  fever  and  fatigue.  His  body  was  sunk 
in  the  river,  lest  the  Indians  should  desecrate  it. 

1542. — Cabrillo  made  the  first  voyage  along  the 
Pacific  coast,  sailing  as  far  north  as  the  boundaries 
of  Oregon. 

1562.— Admiral  Coligni,  one  of  the  Huguenot  lead- 
ers in  France,  conceived  the  design  of  establishing 
a trans-atlantic  settlement  for  the  purpose  of  afford- 
ing an  asylum  to  his  Protestant  brethren,  and  fitted 
out  two  vessels  in  1562,  which  he  placed  under 
command  of  John  Ribault,  of  Dieppe,  a seaman  of 
experience.  The  discoverers  landed  in  Carolina, 
but  the  settlement  did  not  prove  successful. 

1564. — In  1564  Coligni  fitted  out  three  vessels, 
which  he  placed  under  the  command  of  Laudonniere, 
an  officer  who  had  accompanied  Ribault,  which  at- 
tempt, however,  was  no  more  successful  than  the 
first.  In  1565  Ribault  was  sent  with  several  ships 
to  supersede  Laudonniere,  bringing  with  him  large 
supplies,  which  induced  the  colonists  to  remain. 


1565. — Melendez,  a Spanish  explorer,  landed  in 
Florida  in  1565,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  a col- 
ony. It  was  named  St.  Augustine,  and  is  the  oldest 
town  in  the  United  States. 

1576. — Frobisher,  an  English  navigator,  tried  to 
find  a northwest  passage,  entered  Baffin  Bay,  and 
twice  endeavored  to  found  a colony  in  Labrador, 
but  was  unsuccessful. 

1578. — Sir  Francis  Drake,  a famous  English  cap- 
tain, from  1578  to  ’80  sailed  through  the  Straits  of 
Magellan  and  along  the  Pacific  coast  as  far  as  Ore- 
gon, wintered  in  San  Francisco  harbor,  and  circum- 
navigated the  globe. 

1582. — In  1582  New  Mexico  was  explored  and 
named  by  the  Spaniard  Espejo,  who  founded  Santa 
F6,  the  second  oldest  city  in  the  United  States. 

1584. — Sir  Walter  Raleigh  is  distinguished  for 
having  projected  and  established  permanent  British 
settlements  in  America.  In  April,  1584,  he  fitted 
out  two  ships,  fully  equipped  and  provisioned,  under 
the  command  of  Captain  Philip  Amadas  and  Arthur 
Barlow.  Having  arrived  on  the  American  coast, 
they  entered  into  trade  with  the  natives,  and  after  a 
hasty  examination  of  the  country,  returned  to  Eng- 
land, where  they  arrived  in  September.  The  coun- 
try which  they  discovered  was  named  Virginia,  by 
order  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  allusion  to  her  unmar- 
ried state  of  life.  Sir  Walter  soon  fitted  out  another 
fleet  for  America,  under  the  command  of  Sir  Rich- 
ard Grenville,  Mr.  Ralph  Lane  having  been  appoint- 
ed Chief  Governor  of  the  colony.  The  Governor 
returned  to  England  for  supplies  shortly  afterward. 
Raleigh  dispatched  another  colony  under  John 
White,  who  was  appointed  Governor.  Governor 
White  returned  to  England,  and  when  he  came 
back,  three  years  later,  he  found  that  the  entire 
colony  had  perished.  It  is  asserted  by  Camden  that 
tobacco  was  now  for  the  first  time  introduced  into 
England,  and  the  potato  into  Ireland,  from  America. 

1605.  — De  Monts,  a native  of  France,  received  a 
grant  of  all  the  land  lying  between  the  fortieth  and 
forty-sixth  parallels  of  latitude.  The  tract  was  termed 
Acadia.  With  Champlain,  he  founded  Port  Royal, 
the  first  permanent  French  possession  in  America. 

1606.  — James  I.  of  England  granted  the  London 
Company  a colony  in  Virginia  in  1606.  The  expedi- 
tion reached  America  in  1607,  and,  ascending  the 
James  River,  chose  for  their  colony  a spot  which 
they  called  Jamestown.  The  colonists  and  their 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


posterity  were  declared  English  subjects,  though 
they  were  invested  with  no  political  rights.  The 
colonists  suffered  many  severe  hardships,  and  were 
saved  from  destruction  mainly  through  the  energy 
and  sagacity  of  Captain  John  Smith,  who  had  been 
installed  as  president.  This  was  the  first  perma- 
nent English  settlement  in  America. 

1608. — The  first  permanent  French  settlement  in 
Canada  was  established  by  Samuel  de  Champlain, 
who  founded  the  city  of  Quebec  in  1608.  In  the 
following  year  he  discovered  the  beautiful  lake  which 
bears  his  name.  He  has  been  justly  termed  “ The 
Father  of  New  France,”  as  the  French  possessions 
in  America  were  named. 

1609-10. — In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  the  Dutch  and  English  directed  their  atten- 
tion to  the  discovery  of  a northwest  passage  to  In- 
dia. After  the  failure  of  several  navigators  in  this 
endeavor,  it  was  resumed  by  Henry  Hudson,  a navi- 
gator in  the  Dutch  service.  Not  succeeding,  he 
proceeded  to  explore  the  American  coast,  and  sailed 
up  the  river  that  now  bears  his  name. 

In  1610  he  was  sent  by  a Dutch  company  on 
another  voyage,  when  he  explored  the  great  bay  to 
which  his  name  is  attached. 

In  virtue  of  Hudson’s  voyage,  the  Dutch  claimed 
the  country  from  the  Delaware  River  to  Cape  Cod, 
and  in  1610  several  stations  were  formed  on  the 
Island  of  Manhattan,  the  name  then  given  to  New 
York.  In  1613,  a settlement  was  founded.  The 
country  was  called  New  Netherlands,  and  a cluster 
of  cottages,  where  New  York  now  stands,  was  named 
New  Amsterdam. 

1619. — The  “ first  legislative  body  that  ever  as- 
sembled in  America”  was  called  at  Jamestown  by 
Governor  Yeardly,  July  30,  1619.  Its  laws  were 
ratified  by  the  company  in  England,  but  possessed 
no  binding  force  unless  subsequently  ratified  by  the 
colonial  assembly.  These  privileges  were  in  1621 
embodied  in  a written  constitution,  “ the  first  of  its 
kind  in  America.” 

1619.  — Slavery  was  introduced  into  the  United 
States  in  1619,  by  the  captain  of  a Dutch  trading 
vessel,  who  bought  twenty  negroes  which  he  sold  to 
the  tobacco  planters.  Their  labor  being  found  prof- 
itable, a traffic  in  slaves  soon  sprung  up. 

1620.  — After  various  abortive  attempts  to  colonize 
New  England,  a tide  of  population  poured  into  it 
from  an  unexpected  quarter.  The  “ Pilgrim  Fa- 


thers ” — Puritans  who  had  fled  from  England  to 
Holland  to  escape  the  persecution  of  the  established 
church — sailed  for  America  in  September,  1620,  and 
arrived  on  the  9th  of  November,  in  view  of  Cape 
Cod.  They  settled  on  a spot  which  they  named 
New  Plymouth.  After  suffering  untold  privations, 
which  reduced  their  numbers  in  the  spring  of  1621 
to  fifty  or  sixty  persons,  they  persevered,  and  in  the 
spring  of  1624  they  counted  one  hundred  and  eighty. 
Their  numbers  were  increased  in  1629,  and  in  1630, 
fifteen  hundred  settlers  having  arrived  from  England 
in  the  latter  year.  They  soon  became  involved  in 
war  with  the  Indians,  which  checked  the  progress  of 
the  colony,  but  the  natives  were  finally  subdued  and  dis- 
persed. In  1 692,  Plymouth  was  united  with  Massachu- 
setts Bay  Colony,  under  the  name  of  Massachusetts. 

1622. — On  the  22d  of  March,  1622,  occurred  the  In- 
dian Massacre  of  Virginia,  when  over  three  hundred 
men,  women  and  children  fell  victims  in  a single  day. 

1630. — The  first  house  erected  in  Boston,  under 
Governor  Winthrop,  in  July,  1630. 

Connecticut  was  settled  at  Windsor,  Hartford 
and  Wethersfield,  in  1633-6. 

1633. — Sir  George  Calvert,  Secretary  of  State 
under  James  I.,  obtained  from  King  Charles  I.  a 
large  grant  of  land  in  America,  which  was  named 
Maryland,  in  honor  of  Queen  Henrietta  Maria.  Sir 
George,  now  created  Lord  Baltimore,  died  before 
the  completion  of  the  charter,  and  the  establishment 
of  the  colony  devolved  accordingly  on  his  son  Cecil. 
The  first  emigrants,  consisting  of  about  two  hundred 
persons,  arrived  in  1633.  The  colonists  acted  justly 
toward  the  natives,  and  the  Maryland  government 
was  distinguished  for  proclaiming  religious  toleration 
to  all.  The  Protestants  having  obtained  a majority, 
deprived  Catholics  of  their  rights,  and  declared 
them  outside  the  protection  of  the  law.  In  1691, 
Lord  Baltimore  was  deprived  of  his  proprietary  rights, 
and  Maryland  became  a royal  province.  In  1715, 
under  the  fourth  Lord  Baltimore,  the  government 
was  recovered  and  religious  toleration  was  restored. 

1636. — Rhode  Island  was  settled  at  Providence 
in  1636,  by  Roger  Williams,  who  stamped  upon 
the  colonies  the  idea  of  religious  toleration.  In 
1647,  a set  of  laws  guaranteeing  freedom  of  worship 
were  enacted — “ the  first  legal  declaration  of  liberty 
of  conscience  ever  adopted  in  Europe  or  America.” 

1638. — The  first  permanent  settlement  in  Dela- 
ware was  made  in  1638  by  the  Swedes,  on  a tract 


* 

^ 354  A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


lying  near  Wilmington.  The  settlement  was  subse- 
quently conquered  by  the  Dutch,  and  later  still 
yielded  to  the  English  power. 

1643. — In  I(H3  took  place  the  Union  of  the  Col- 
onies, Massachusetts  Bay,  New  Haven  and  Con- 
necticut, for  the  purpose  of  common  defense  against 
the  Indians,  and  the  encroachment  of  the  French 
and  Dutch  settlers. 

1646. — In  1646  Peter  Stuyvesant  was  appointed 
Governor  of  the  New  Netherlands,  which  colony 
continued  to  thrive  under  his  just  and  humane  rule 
till  its  conquest  by  the  English  in  1664. 

1660. — In  1660,  the  British  Parliament  enforced 
the  Navigation  Act,  whereby  the  commerce  of  the 
colony  of  Virginia  should  be  carried  on  in  English 
vessels,  and  their  tobacco  shipped  to  England. 

1663.  — In  1 663  Charles  II.  granted  a vast  tract 
of  land  south  of  Virginia  to  Lord  Clarendon  and 
other  noblemen,  which  was  termed  Carolina  in  honor 
of  the  king.  Two  settlements  were  established, 
Albemarle  Colony  and  Carteret  Colony  (1670).  The 
two  colonies  separated  in  1729. 

1664.  — In  August,  1664,  Sir  Robert  Nichols,  who 
had  been  sent  out  by  Charles  II.  to  effect  the  con- 
quest of  the  Dutch  possessions  in  America,  arrived 
before  New  Amsterdam,  having  landed  a portion  of 
his  troops  on  Long  Island.  The  Governor,  Peter 
Stuyvesant,  was  unable  to  offer  any  effective  resist- 
ance, and  the  colony  passed  into  the  possession  of 
the  English. 

1673. — The  Jesuit  Missionaries  were  the  explorers 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Father  Marquette,  in 
1673,  floated  in  a birch-bark  canoe  down  the  Wis- 
consin to  the  Mississippi,  which  he  descended  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Arkansas. 

La  Salle,  another  Jesuit  missionary,  in  1682,  made 
his  way  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  named  the  coun- 
try bordering  on  the  gulf  Louisiana,  in  honor  of 
Louis  XIV.,  King  of  France. 

1682. — The  first  settlement  in  Pennsylvania  was 
established  by  William  Penn,  an  English  Quaker,  in 
1682.  In  the  following  year  he  purchased  land  of 
the  Swedes,  and  laid  out  on  it  the  city  of  Philadel- 
phia. He  entered  into  a friendly  treaty  with  the 
Indians,  and  the  colony  flourished  apace.  After  his 
death,  in  1718,  his  heirs  ruled  the  colony  until  1779, 
when  their  claims  were  bought  out  by  the  State  for 
the  sum  of  half  a million  dollars. 

1689-1697. — King  William’s  War. — In  conse- 


quence of  the  war  between  England  and  France,  in 
Europe,  hostilities  between  their  colonies  broke  out 
in  America.  The  savage  tribes  took  part  on  both 
sides.  The  war  lasted  eight  years,  during  which 
time  several  horrible  massacres  and  barbarities  took 
place. 

1692. — In  1692,  the  mania  known  as  the  Salem 
witchcraft  broke  out,  and  not  till  forty-five  people 
had  been  tortured  and  twenty  hung  was  it  abated. 

1702. — Queen  Anne’s  War. — In  this  year,  Eng- 
land having  declared  war  against  France  and  Spain, 
the  colonies  took  up  the  contest.  Hostilities  con- 
tinued for  eleven  years,  during  which  period  sev- 
eral fruitless  expeditions  and  horrible  massacres  took 
place.  Peace  was  ratified  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht. 

1733. — Georgia  Founded. — The  last  of  the  thir- 
teen colonies  was  planned  in  1732,  and  settled  the 
following  year  by  James  Oglethorpe,  an  English  offi- 
cer, who  received  a tract  of  land  from  George  II., 
which  he  termed  Georgia,  in  honor  of  the  donor. 
Georgia  became  a royal  colony  in  1752. 

1744. — King  George’s  War. — France  and  Eng- 
land being  once  more  at  war,  the  colonies  entered 
into  hostilities  also.  The  war  lasted  four  years  and 
was  concluded  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1 754— 1 763. — During  this  period  the  French  and 
Indian  war  raged,  having  originated  in  the  English 
and  French  laying  claim  to  the  territory  west  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains.  Peace  was  signed  at  Paris 
in  1763,  whereby  the  English  acquired  all  the  terri- 
tory stretching  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico. 

1765. — The  Stamp  Act,  which  ordered  that 
stamps  purchased  from  the  British  Government 
should  be  placed  on  all  legal  documents,  pamphlets, 
newspapers,  etc.,  was  passed  in  1765.  Resistance 
to  the  measure  was  threatened  on  all  sides.  Depu- 
ties from  nine  of  the  colonies  assembled  at  New 
York  and  drew  up  a Declaration  of  Rights  and  a 
petition  to  the  King  and  Parliament.  The  Act  was 
repealed  in  1766,  but  the  right  to  tax  the  colonies 
was  still  asserted. 

1768. — In  this  year  the  “ Mutiny  Act  ” was  passed, 
whereby  soldiers  were  quartered  on  the  inhabitants 
oi  the  colonies,  without  the  consent  of  the  latter. 

1770. — On  March  5,  1770,  occurred  the  “Boston 
Massacre. ” This  was  a fight  between  the  soldiers 
sent  by  General  Gage  to  quell  the  incipient  resist- 
ance of  the  Bostonians  to  the  “ Mutiny  Act,”  and 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


355 


the  citizens.  Two  of  the  latter  were  killed  and 
three  wounded. 

1773.  — On  December  16,  1773,  the  climax  of  re- 
sistance to  the  principle  of  taxation  without  repre- 
sentation was  reached  by  the  colonists,  who,  dis- 
guised as  Indians,  boarded  the  vessels  in  Boston 
harbor  and  cast  three  hundred  and  forty-two  chests 
of  tea  into  the  water. 

1774.  — The  first  Continental  Congress  met  in 
Philadelphia,  September  5,  1775.  All  the  colonies, 
with  the  exception  of  Georgia,  sent  delegates  thither. 
The  Congress,  by  its  resolutions,  virtually  raised  the 
standard  of  rebellion,  and  arrayed  the  colonies 
against  the  mother  country. 

1775.  — The  battle  of  Lexington,  the  first  of  the 
Revolution,  was  fought  on  April  19,  of  this  year. 
Seven  Americans  were  killed.  The  British  were  as- 
sailed on  all  sides  by  the  surrounding  inhabitants, 
and  before  their  retreat  to  Boston  was  completed 
they  had  lost  three  hundred  men. 

1775. — Bunker  Hill,  the  first  regular  battle  of  the 
Revolution,  was  fought  June  17,  1775,  and  resulted 
in  a victory  for  the  Americans,  though  they  were 
forced  to  retire  in  the  end,  owing  to  the  exhaustion 
of  their  ammunition.  On  this  day  General  Warren  fell. 

1775. — Capture  of  Ticonderoga,  May  10,  by 
Ethan  Allen  and  Benedict  Arnold.  By  this  surprise 
large  stores  of  cannon  and  ammunition  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Americans. 

1775. — On  the  10th  of  May,  1775,  the  second 
Continental  Congress  met  at  Philadelphia.  It  voted 
to  raise  twenty  thousand  men,  and  on  the  15th  of 
June  unanimously  elected  George  Washington  com- 
mander-in-chief. 

1775.  — Invasion  of  Canada. — In  September,  1775, 
Canada  was  invaded  by  the  American  forces  under 
General  Schuyler.  General  Schuyler,  being  taken 
ill,  left  the  command  in  the  hands  of  General  Mont- 
gomery, who  prosecuted  the  enterprise.  He  laid 
seige  to  Quebec,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  31st  of 
December,  endeavored  to  carry  it  by  assault.  He 
fell  at  the  first  fire.  The  assault  was  unsuccessful, 
and  the  Americans  soon  after  retreated  from 
Canada. 

1 7 76.  — Evacuation  of  Boston. — The  evacuation 
of  Boston  by  the  British  troops,  under  General 
Howe,  took  place  on  the  17th  of  March,  1776.  On 
the  following  day  Washington  entered  the  city  amid 
general  rejoicing. 


1776. — June  28.  Attack  on  Fort  Moultrie  by  an 
English  fleet.  The  fleet  was  driven  off  in  a badly 
shattered  condition.  Great  rejoicing  among  the 
colonists,  as  this  was  their  first  encounter  with  the 
English  navy. 

1776. — Declaration  of  Independence. — On  July 
4th,  1776,  the  report  of  the  committee  appointed  to 
draw  up  a Declaration  of  Independence  was  adopted. 
This  Declaration  was  signed  by  each  of  the  mem- 
bers of  Congress,  and  by  it  the  thirteen  colonies  cast 
off  their  allegiance  to  Great  Britain  and  declared 
themselves  an  independent  people. 

1776. — Battle  of  Long  Island. — On  the  27th  of 
August,  the  British  Army,  thirty  thousand  strong, 
under  the  command  of  Howe  and  Clinton,  engaged 
the  Americans,  who  numbered  about  nine  thousand 
men,  commanded  by  General  Putnam,  in  Brooklyn, 
L.  I.  The  Americans  were  defeated  with  a loss  of 
two  thousand  men. 

1776. — November  16. — Fort  Washington  captured 
by  the  Hessians,  after  a stubborn  defense. 

1776.  — Battle  of  Trenton. — After  the  battle  of 
Long  Island,  Washington  retreated  into  New  Jersey, 
to  prevent  the  British  from  capturing  Philadelphia. 
On  Dec.  25,  it  being  Christmas  night,  Washington 
surmised  that  the  Hessians  were  not  expecting  an  at- 
tack, and  falling  upon  them  in  the  midst  of  a plunging 
storm,  surprised  them  in  the  height  of  their  revelry, 
slew  their  leader,  Rail,  killed  a thousand  of  their 
number,  and  effected  his  retreat  back  to  camp  with  a 
loss  of  four  men,  two  killed  and  two  frozen.  This  de- 
feat of  the  enemy  produced  a marked  effect  through- 
out the  colony. 

1 7 7 7 . — January  3.  Battle  of  Princeton. — In  this 
battle  Washington  inflicted  a serious  defeat  on  the 
British  troops.  The  Americans  suffered  severely 
also,  losing  one  General,  two  Colonels,  one  Major 
and  three  Captains,  killed.  In  this  battle  Colonel 
Monroe,  who  afterward  l|ecame  President  of  the 
United  States,  bore  a conspicuous  part. 

1777.  — Battle  of  Brandywine. — On  September  11 
the  Americans,  who  had  taken  up  a position  at 
Chad’s  Ford,  on  the  Brandywine,  were  attacked  si- 
multaneously in  front  and  rear  by  the  British,  and 
after  performing  prodigies  of  valor,  were  defeated. 
Philadelphia,  in  consequence,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  enemy. 

1777. — Battle  of  Germantown,  Oct.  4. 

1 7 7 7. — Battles  of  Saratoga. — On  September  ig, 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


r 


^50 


and  October  7,  of  this  year,  were  fought  the  battles 
of  Saratoga  between  the  forces  of  Generals  Gates  and 
Burgoyne.  The  latter  was  defeated  on  the  17th, 
and  forced  to  capitulate,  surrendering  an  army  of 
nearly  six  thousand  men,  together  with  a splendid 
train  of  brass  artillery,  and  all  the  arms  and  baggage 
of  the  troops.  In  consequence  of  this  defeat,  the 
British  were  unable  to  hold  possession  of  the  forts  on 
the  lakes, and  retreated  to  Isle-aux-Noix  and  St.  J ohn’s. 

1778. — February  6,  treaty  with  France  signed  at 
Paris.  The  chief  articles  of  the  treaty  were,  that  if 
Britain,  in  consequence  of  the  alliance,  should  be- 
gin hostilities  against  France,  both  countries  should 
mutually  assist  each  other,  that  the  independence  of 
America  should  be  maintained,  that  if  France  should 
conquer  any  of  the  British  West  India  Islands  they 
should  be  deemed  her  property,  that  the  contracting 
parties  should  not  lay  down  their  arms  till  the  inde- 
pendence of  America  was  formally  acknowledged, 
and  that  neither  of  them  should  conclude  peace 
without  the  consent  of  the  other. 

1778. — Battle  of  Monmouth,  June  28. 

1778.  — The  Wyoming  Massacre. — On  the  1st  of 
July,  1778,  a band  of  fifteen  hundred  men,  composed 
of  Indians  and  Tories,  under  the  command  of 
Colonel  John  Butler,  burst  into  the  settlement  of 
Wyoming  in  the  Susquehanna  Valley.  The  able- 
bodied  men  being  for  the  most  part  in  the  field  with 
the  patriot  army,  there  remained  none  save  the  old 
men  and  boys  to  make  a defense.  They  were 
quickly  defeated,  and,  with  the  women  and  children, 
were  tomahawked  or  burned  in  the  flames,  after 
enduring  the  most  savage  tortures.  The  entire 
settlement  was  destroyed,  and  those  who  escaped  the 
hatchet  and  the  flames  forced  to  fly  into  the  depths 
of  the  wilderness. 

1 7 79.  — Capture  of  Stony  Point. — About  midnight 
on  the  15th  of  July,  General  Wayne,  with  a force  of 
only  eight  hundred  men,  performed  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  exploits  of  the  war,  in  the  capture  of  Stony 
Point.  After  encountering  unexpected  difficulties, 
General  Wayne  surprised  the  garrison  and  compelled 
them  to  surrender.  The  military  stores  in  the  fort 
were  considerable. 

1 7 79. — On  the  2 2d  of  August  General  Sullivan 
led  an  expedition  into  the  Genesee  Country,  and 
on  the  29th  fought  a battle,  near  the  present  town 
of  Elmira,  with  the  Indians  and  their  Tory  allies, 
defeated  them,  and  then  laid  waste  their  towns  and 


orchards,  so  that  they  might  have  no  inducement 
again  to  settle  so  near  the  States. 

1779.  — September  23d,  capture  of  the  Serapis  by 
the  Bon  Homme  Richard,  under  Captain  Paul  Jones, 
off  the  north-east  coast  of  England. 

1780.  — Surrender  of  Charleston,  May  12,  to  Gen- 
eral Clinton,  after  a siege  of  forty  days.  I 

1780. — Battle  of  Camden. — Aug.  16,  General 
Gates  having  been  appointed  to  take  command  of 
the  troops  of  the  South,  marched  to  meet  Cornwal- 
lis near  Camden.  The  armies  encountered  one 
another  unexpectedly  ; the  American  troops  were 
demoralized,  defeated,  and  dispersed  through  the 
woods,  marshes,  and  brushwood.  By  this  disastrous 
defeat,  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  were  again  laid 
prostrate  at  the  feet  of  the  royal  army,  and  the  hope 
of  maintaining  their  independence  seemed  once  more 
to  vanish. 

1780.  — Arnold’s  Treason.  — General  Arnold, 

whose  services  at  Quebec  and  Saratoga,  were  so  con- 
spicuous, having  deemed  himself  unjustly  treated, 
entered  into  a plot  with  the  British  Major  Andre  to 
hand  over  West  Point  to  the  enemy.  Andre 
ascended  the  Hudson,  and  went  ashore  on  the 
night  of  Sept.  21st,  but  was  captured  at  Tarrytown 
on  his  return,  condemned  as  a spy,  and  hanged. 

1781.  — Battle  of  Cowpens. — General  Tarleton 
having  attacked  General  Morgan’s  forces,  Jan.  17, 
at  Cowpens,  suffered  a crushing  defeat.  Cornwallis 
set  out  on  the  news  reaching  him  to  punish  the  victors 
and  retake  the  prisoners,  but  Morgan  had  meantime 
effected  a retreat  into  Virginia,  and  after  a close 
pursuit  gained  the  fords  of  the  Dan. 

1781. — Battle  of  Guilford  House,  March  15. 

1781. — Battle  of  Eutaw  Springs,  Sept  8. 

1781. — On  the  4th  of  January,  1781,  General 
Arnold,  the  traitor,  who  had  been  dispatched  by 
Sir  Henry  Clinton  to  prosecute  the  war  in  that 
quarter,  landed  at  Westover,  25  miles  below  Rich- 
mond, with  1,600  men  and  marched  directly  toward 
the  city.  He  burned  and  destroyed  all  the  property 
in  his  line  of  march,  and  acted  with  mingled  hate  and 
brutality.  Cornwallis  soon  after  took  his  place,  and, 
after  having  destroyed  ten  million  dollars  worth  of 
property,  took  up  his  position  at  Yorktown. 

1781. — August  30,  the  combined  American  and 
French  armies  entered  Philadelphia. 

1781. — Surrender  of  Yorktown. — On  the  28th  of 
September,  1781,  the  combined  American  and 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


— 

357  7 


French  forces,  twelve  thousand  strong,  laid  siege  to 
Yorktown.  The  French  fleet  in  the  harbor  co-oper- 
ated with  the  land  forces.  After  a vain  attempt  to 
escape,  Cornwallis  capitulated  to  the  allied  forces  on 
the  19th  of  October.  Exclusive  of  seamen,  nearly 
7,000  men  surrendered.  Seventy-five  brass  and 
sixty-nine  iron  cannons,  with  a large  amount  of 
ammunition  and  military  stores,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  allies  ; while  one  frigate,  two  ships  of  twenty 
guns,  a number  of  transports  and  other  vessels,  with 
about  1,500  seamen,  surrendered  to  the  French  Ad- 
miral, Count  de  Grasse.  This  virtually  ended  the  war. 

1783. — Peace  Declared. — On  Sept.  3d,  1783,  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Paris,  acknowledging 
the  independence  of  the  United  States. 

1783. — Savannah  evacuated  by  the  British,  July 
11,  1783. 

1783. — On  November  25,  1783,  the  British  evacu- 
ated New  York,  and  an  American  detachment  under 
General  Knox  took  possession  of  the  town. 

1787. — Adoption  of  the  Constitution. — A stronger 
national  government  than  that  which  existed  being 
needed  and  desired,  a Convention  was  called  in 
Philadelphia,  Sept.  17,  1787,  to  revise  the  Articles 
of  Confederation.  Washington  was  chosen  Presi- 
dent. After  much  deliberation  an  entirely  new 
Constitution  was  adopted.  During  the  year  1788, 
nine  States,  the  number  required  to  make  it  binding, 
had  ratified  the  Constitution,  and  the  same  year 
the  government  was  organized  under  the  new  instru- 
ment, and  in  1789  it  went  into  operation. 

1789. — April  30. — Washington  inaugurated  first 
President  of  the  United  States.  He  took  the  oath 
to  uphold  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  on 
the  balcony  of  the  old  Federal  Hall,  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  which  was  then  the  temporary  capital. 

1794.  — Whiskey  Rebellion  in  Western  Pennsyl- 
vania.— The  tax  imposed  on  whiskey  to  restore  the 
nation’s  shattered  finances,  provoked  considerable 
opposition,  and  in  Pennsylvania  the  rioters  had  to  be 
subdued  by  the  militia.  No  blood  was  shed,  however. 

1795.  — Jay’s  treaty  with  England  ratified  by  the 
Senate  June  24,  1795,  after  prolonged  opposition. 

1795. — Treaty  with  Spain,  whereby  the  United 
States  secured  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  the  boundary  of  Florida  was  fixed. 

1795. — Treaty  with  Algiers  by  which  American 
captives  were  released  and  the  Mediterranean  com- 
merce was  made  f ree  to  American  vessels. 


1796. — Tennessee,  the  sixteenth  State,  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  June  1st,  1796.  Two  years 
previously  it  had  been  granted  distinct  territorial 
government. 

t 797 . — On  the  4th  of  March,  1797,  John  Adams 
was  inaugurated  second  President  of  the  United 
States.  He  was  opposed  by  Thomas  Jefferson, 
whom  he  defeated  by  two  electoral  votes. 

1799.  — Death  of  Washington. — On  the  14th  of 
December,  1799,  George  Washington  died  at  Mount 
Vernon,  his  home,  in  Virginia,  after  a brief  illness. 

1800.  — The  capitol  was  removed  to  Washington 
in  this  year. 

1801.  — Inauguration  of  Jefferson. — Thomas  Jeff- 
erson was  inaugurated  third  President  of  the  United 
States  March  4th,  1801.  He  was  the  chief  author 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  the  em- 
bodiment of  the  principles  of  Democracy. 

1801.  — War  Against  Tripoli. — The  Bashaw  ol 
Tripoli,  who  had  been  accustomed  to  receive  annual 
tribute  from  the  United  States  for  immunity  from 
his  piratical  cruisers,  declared  war  against  the  United 
States  in  this  year.  The  United  States  dispatched 
a fleet  thither  in  1803,  which  bombarded  the  city  of 
Tripoli,  and  compelled  a treaty  of  peace  in  1S05. 

1802.  — Ohio,  the  seventeenth  State,  was  admitted 
to  the  Union  November  29,  1802.  It  was  first  ex- 
plored by  the  French,  under  La  Salle,  in  the  year 
1680. 

1803.  — The  Louisiana  Purchase. — Louisiana 
Territory,  embracing  all  the  region  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  covering  an  area  of  over  a million  of 
square  miles,  was  purchased  from  France,  under  Na- 
poleon, on  the  30th  April,  1803,  for  the  sum  of  $15,- 
000,000. 

1804.  — Death  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  who  fell  in 
a duel  with  Aaron  Burr,  at  Weehawken,  New  Jersey, 
July  1 1,  1804. 

1807. — Robert  Fulton’s  steamboat,  the  Clermont, 
made  her  memorable  trip  from  New  York  to  Albany, 
on  September  14,  1807.  This  was  the  first  steam 
vessel  ever  launched. 

1807. — The  American  frigate  Chesapeake  was  fired 
into  by  the  British  frigate  Leopard  off  the  coast  of 
Virginia,  June  22,  1S07.  This  act  was  perpetrated 
in  sustainment  of  a pretension  of  the  English  to  the 
right  of  searching  American  vessels  and  impressing 
British  subjects  found  therein  into  the  English  ser- 
vice. The  immediate  result  of  this  outrage  was  an 

g 


35» 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


I 


embargo  laid  on  American  ships  by  Congress  and  the 
suspension  of  all  intercourse  with  England. 

1809.  — James  Madison  was  inaugurated  fourth 
President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1809. 

1811.  — Battle  of  Tippecanoe. — The  battle  of 
Tippecanoe  was  fought  November  7,  1811,  between 
General  Harrison  and  a confederacy  of  the  Indian 
tribes  under  Tecumseh,  a famous  chief.  The  Indi- 
ans had  been  instigated  to  this  war  by  British  emis- 
saries. The  Indians  were  defeated  and  dispersed. 

1812.  — Louisiana,  the  eighteenth  State,  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Union  April  8,  1812.  The  territory 
was  so  named  in  honor  of  Louis  XIV.,  King  of 
France. 

1812. — War  with  Great  Britain. — The  British 
Government  continued  to  seize  American  vessels 
and  impress  our  seamen.  On  the  19th  of  June, 
1812,  the  United  States  declared  war  against  Great 
Britain.  On  the  1 6th  of  May  previous  the  Ameri- 
can frigate  President  having  hailed  the  British  sloop 
Little  Belt  was  fired  upon  by  the  latter.  A fight 
ensued,  in  which  the  British  sloop  was  disabled. 
All  hope  of  a peaceful  termination  of  the  difficulty 
was  thereby  rendered  impossible. 

1812. — Canada  was  invaded  by  General  Hull  July 
12,  1812.  On  the  approach  of  the  British  and  In- 
dians he  retreated  to  Detroit,  which,  with  the  whole 
of  Michigan,  he,  in  a most  cowardly  manner,  sur- 
rendered to  the  enemy,  August  16,  with  all  its  gar- 
rison and  stores. 

1812.  — The  battle  of  Queenstown  Heights  was 
fought  October  13,  1812.  The  English  were  dis- 
lodged and  their  general,  Brock,  killed,  but  not  being 
sustained  by  the  American  militia,  who  refused  to 
cross  over  from  their  State,  the  Americans  on  the 
Canada  side  were  compelled  to  surrender,  after  a 
heroic  struggle. 

1812. — August  19,  18x2,  the  British  frigate  Guer- 
riere  was  captured,  after  a hard  fight,  by  the  United 
States  frigate  Constitution  (Old  Ironsides)  off  the 
coast  of  Massachusetts,  Captain  Hull  commanding. 

1812.  — October  13,  capture  of  the  English  brig 
Frolic , off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina,  by  the 
American  sloop  of  war  Wasp. 

1813.  — September  10,  1813,  was  made  memorable 
by  Captain  Perry’s  brilliant  victory  over  the  British 
on  Lake  Erie.  The  American  flotilla  consisted  of 
nine  vessels,  carrying  fifty-four  guns  ; that  of  the 
enemv  six  vessels  and  sixty-three  guns.  Perry’s  fa- 


mous message  after  the  battle  was  : “We  have  met 
the  enemy  and  they  are  ours.” 

1813. — The  American  frigate  Chesapeake  captured 
by  the  British  ship  Shannon , June  1,  1813. 

1813.  — Battle  of  the  Thames,  October  5.  This 
battle  was  fought  between  the  forces  of  General 
Harrison  and  the  British  under  Proctor,  and  their 
Indian  allies  under  the  famous  chief  Tecumseh.  The 
enemy  were  defeated,  Tecumseh  being  among  the 
slain.  This  victory,  in  connection  with  Perry’s 
triumphs  on  Lake  Erie,  virtually  decided  the  issue  of 
the  war. 

1814.  — Massacre  of  Fort  Minims. — This  deed 
was  perpetrated  by  the  Creek  Indians,  August  30, 
1814,  who  broke  in  upon  the  garrison  and  slew  all, 
including  women  and  children.  General  Jackson 
was  sent  with  a force  against  the  Indians,  and  fall- 
ing on  them  at  Horseshoe  Bend,  slew  six  hundred 
of  their  number  and  compelled  them  to  make  peace. 

1814. — Battle  of  Chippewa,  July  5,  gained  by  the 
Americans  under  General  Scott. 

1814. — Battle  of  Lundy’s  Lane,  July  25.  This 
battle  resulted  in  a victoiy  for  the  Americans. 

1814. — Battle  of  Lake  Champlain,  September  11, 
1814.  The  American  squadron,  under  the  command 
of  Commodore  McDonough,  almost  wholly  destroyed 
the  British  fleet  in  this  conflict.  Simultaneous  with 
this  signal  victory,  the  American  forces,  numbering 
only  fifteen  hundred  men,  repelled  the  advance  of 
General  Prevost,  the  British  commander  in  Platts- 
burg,  at  the  head  of  twelve  thousand  veterans,  who 
had  served  under  Wellington. 

1814. — Washington  captured  by  the  British,  Au- 
gust 24,  1814.  The  Capitol  was  burned,  and  the 
Congressional  Library,  together  with  several  public 
and  private  buildings,  shared  the  same  fate. 

1814.  — Treaty  of  peace  with  England,  December 
24,  1814.  The  treaty  was  signed  at  Ghent. 

1815.  — Battle  of  New  Orleans.  Though  a treaty 
of  peace  had  been  signed  on  the  24th  of  December, 
at  Ghent,  the  intelligence  had  not  yet  arrived  in 
America.  On  the  8th  of  January,  General  Packen- 
ham,  with  an  army  of  twelve  thousand  veteran 
troops,  sustained  by  a powerful  fleet,  marched  to 
the  attack  of  New  Orleans.  General  Jackson,  with 
a force  of  scarce  half  that  number,  mostly  raw  re- 
cruits, inflicted  an  overwhelming  defeat  on  the 
invaders.  General  Packenham  was  slain,  and  while 
the  British  lost  over  two  thousand  of  their  number, 


it 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


359 


the  American  loss  was  but  seven  killed  and  six 
wounded. 

1815. — In  May,  1815,  Decatur  was  sent  with  a 
squadron  to  chastise  the  Algerines,  who  had  renewed 
their  piratical  practices  during  our  war  with  Eng- 
land. He  obtained  the  liberation  of  all  the  Ameri- 
can prisoners  Held  by  the  Barbary  States,  with  com- 
plete indemnity  for  all  losses  inflicted. 

18x6. — Indiana,  the  nineteenth  State,  was  admitted 
to  the  Union  on  December  11,  1816. 

1817. — James  Munroe  inaugurated  fifth  President 
of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1817. 

1817.  — Mississippi,  the  twentieth  State,  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Union  December  10,  1817.  The 
State  derived  its  title  from  the  great  river  of  that 
name. 

1818.  — Illinois,  the  twenty-first  State,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union  December  3,  1818.  It  derives 
its  name  from  its  greatest  river,  which  signifies  “ The 
River  of  Men.” 

1819.  — Alabama,  the  twenty-second  State,  was 
admitted  to  the  Union,  December  14,  1819.  It 
derives  its  name  from  the  Indian  phrase,  signifying 
“ Here  we  rest.” 

1819.  — Florida  ceded  by  Spain  to  the  United 
States,  February  22,  1819.  The  treaty  was  not 
signed  by  the  King  of  Spain  until  October  20,  1820, 
and  the  United  States  did  not  enter  into  full  pos- 
session until  July  17,  1821. 

1820.  — The  Missouri  Compromise  passed  March 
3,  1820.  This  was  the  settlement  of  the  difficulty 
that  arose  regarding  the  question  of  slavery,  on  the 
proposal  of  admitting  Missouri  into  the  Union. 
Through  the  efforts  of  Henry  Clay,  it  was  admitted 
as  a slave  State,  under  the  compromise  that  slavery 
should  be  prohibited  in  all  the  other  territories  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  north  of  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  Missouri. 

1820.  — Maine,  the  twenty-third  State,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union,  March  15,  1820. 

1821.  — Missouri,  the  twenty-fourth  State,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union,  August  10,  1821.  It  derives 
its  name  from  its  principal  river,  which  signifies 
“ Muddy  water.” 

1824.  — Lafayette’s  visit  as  “ the  Nation’s  guest,’’ 
August  15,  1824.  He  was  received  with  the  most 
joyous  welcome  in  all  the  States. 

1825.  — John  Quincy  Adams  inaugurated  sixth 
President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1825, 


Four  candidates  being  in  the  field,  and  none  of 
them  obtaining  a majority  of  votes,  the  election 
went  to  the  House  of  Representatives. 

1826. — Thomas  Jefferson  and  John  Adams,  ex- 
Presidents,  died  July  4,  1826. 

1829. — Andrew  Jackson  inaugurated  seventh 
President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1829. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  honesty,  tenacity  of 
purpose,  and  his  thorough  American  spirit. 

1832. — Nullification  Ordinance,  passed  by  South 
Carolina  threatening  secession  from  the  Union,  in 
the  event  of  force  being  employed  to  collect  the 
revenue  at  Charleston.  A settlement  was  effected  by 
the  acceptance  of  Henry  Clay’s  “Compromise  Bill.” 

1832. — Black  Hawk  War. 

1 835 . — The  Florida  War.  A war  with  the  Semi- 
nole Indians  broke  out  this  year.  It  arose  from  a 
refusal  of  the  Indian  chief  Osceola,  to  move  west  of 
the  Mississippi,  in  accordance  with  a treaty.  He 
plotted  a wholesale  massacre  of  the  whites,  in  which 
Major  Dade  and  one  hundred  men  were  slain.  The 
Indians  retreated  to  the  everglades  of  Florida,  where 
they  were  pursued  and  defeated  by  Taylor,  at  the 
Battle  of  Okechobee,  December  25,  1837. 

1835. — Great  fire  in  New  York,  Dec.  16,  1835 
Six  hundred  stores  burned.  Loss  $18,000,000. 

1836.  — Arkansas,  the  twenty-fifth  State,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union,  June  15,  1836.  Its  name  is 
derived  from  an  extinct  Indian  tribe. 

1837.  — Michigan,  the  twenty-sixth  State,  was 
received  into  the  Union,  January  26,  1837.  The 
name  is  Indian,  signifying  “ Great  Lake.” 

1837. — Martin  Van  Buren,  the  eighth  President 
of  the  United  States,  inaugurated  March  4,  1837. 
During  his  term  of  office  a terrible  financial  crisis 
prevailed  throughout  the  country.  In  two  months 
alone  in  the  city  of  New  York  the  losses  amounted 
to  $100,000,000. 

1841. — Wm.  H.  Harrison  inaugurated  the  ninth 
President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1841.  One 
month  after,  April  4,  he  died. 

1841.  — John  Tyler,  the  Vice-President,  inaugu- 
rated tenth  President  of  the  United  States,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
April  6,  1841. 

1842. — Ashburton  treaty,  by  which  the  North- 
east boundary  between. Maine  and  New  Brunswick 
was  settled.  The  commissioners  on  each  side  were 
Lord  Ashburton  and  Daniel  Webster 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


360 


1842. — Dorr’s  Rebellion,  a difficulty  which  arose 
from  the  endeavor  to  secure  a more  liberal  Constitu- 
tion in  Rhode  Island.  This  was  secured  in  1843. 

1844.  — Anti-Rent  Rebellion  in  the  State  of  New 
York.  The  occupants  of  the  old  “patroon  ” estates 
refused  to  comply  with  the  feudal  customs  of  the 
Patroon  landlords,  and  resisted  and  killed  the  officers 
sent  to  serve  warrants  on  them.  The  disturbances 
had  to  be  quelled  by  the  militia,  and  the  allodial 
was  substituted  for  the  feudal  tenure. 

1845.  — Florida,  the  twenty-seventh  State,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union,  March  3d,  1845. 

1845. — James  K.  Polk,  inaugurated  eleventh  Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1845. 

1845. — Joe  Smith,  the  Mormon  Prophet,  killed, 
and  the  Mormons  driven  away  from  Nauvoo  City, 
111.,  by  the  mob. 

1845.  — Texas,  which  had  wrested  its  independ- 
ence from  Mexico,  and  applied  for  admission  to  the 
Union,  was  received  into  the  family  of  States,  De- 
cember 27,  1845. 

1846.  — Battle  of  Palo  Alto. — The  Texas  boundary 
having  given  rise  to  a dispute  between  the  United 
States  and  Mexico,  Gen  1 Taylor  was  ordered  to  oc- 
cupy the  disputed  territory  with  his  troops.  He 
was  attacked  by  the  Mexicans,  with  a superior  force, 
May  8,  at  Palo  Alto.  The  latter  were  defeated. 
Gen’l  Taylor  fought  the  battle  of  Resaca  de  la 
Palma , the  following  day,  and  gained  a signal  vic- 
tory. 

1846. — War  declared  against  Mexico  by  Congress, 
May  11,  1846. 

1846. — Capture  of  Monterey,  with  its  garrison  of 
ten  thousand  men,  by  Gen’l  Taylor,  with  a force  of 
six  thousand,  Sept.  24,  1846. 

1 846. — Iowa,  the  twenty-ninth  State,  was  admitted 
to  the  Union  December  28,  1846. 

1846.  — Conquest  of  New  Mexico  and  California, 
by  Captain  John  C.  Fremont,  assisted  by  Commo- 
dores Sloat  and  Stockton,  and  General  Kearney. 

1847.  — Battle  of  Buena  Vista,  fought  between  a 
portion  of  General  Taylor’s  command,  and  twenty 
thousand  Mexican  troops,  under  Santa  Anna,  Feb.  23. 
After  a desperate  struggle,  lasting  the  entire  day,  the 
American  troops,  though  vastly  outnumbered,  were 
victorious. 

1847. — Capture  of  Vera,  Cruz,  by  Gen’l  Scott, 
after  a furious  bombardment  of  four  days,  March 
29,  1847. 


1847. — Battle  of  Cerro  Gordo,  April  18,  1847. 

1847. — Battle  of  Contreras,  August  20. 

1847. — Capture  of  Chapultepec,  September  13. 

1847.  — Surrender  of  Mexico  to  the  American 
army,  September  14. 

1848.  — Treaty  of  Peace  with  Mexico,  February  2, 

1848.  By  this  treaty  the  United  States  acquired  the 
territory  stretching  south  to  the  Gila,  and  to  the 
Pacific  on  the  west. 

1848.  — Gold  was  discovered  in  California  in  Feb- 
ruary, and  soon  attracted  a tide  of  immigration  from 
Europe,  Asia,  Australia,  South  America  and  all  parts 
of  the  United  States.  Towns  and  settlements  grew 
up  as  if  by  magic.  More  than  one  hundred  thousand 
persons  flocked  to  the  mines  from  the  United  States 
within  eighteen  months  after  the  discovery  of  the 
precious  metal. 

1849.  — General  Zachary  Taylor,  the  twelfth 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  inaugurated 
March  5,  1849. 

1850.  — Death  of  President  Taylor  July  9,  1850. 

1850. — Millard  Fillmore,  the  Vice-President,  in- 
augurated thirteenth  President  of  the  United  States 
in  accordance  with  the  Constitution,  July  16,  1850. 

1850. — California,  the  thirty-first  State,  was  ad 
mitted  to  the  Union  September  9,  1850. 

1853.  — Franklin  Pierce,  the  fourteenth  President 
of  the  United  States,  inaugurated  March  4,  1853. 

1854.  — Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  passed,  May  1854. 
This  Bill  was  a virtual  nullification  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise  Bill.  It  provided  that  the  inhabitants 
of  each  Territory  should  decide  whether  the  State 
should  enter  the  Union  as  a free  or  slave  State. 

1854. — A Treaty  with  Japan  was  secured  in  May 
1854,  by  Commodore  Perry,  whereby  the  United 
States  were  granted  two  ports  of  entry  in  that 
exclusive  country. 

1857.  — James  Buchanan,  the  fifteenth  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  inaugurated  March  4, 
1857. 

1858. — Minnesota,  the  thirty-second  State,  was 
admitted  to  the  Union,  May  11,  1858.  It  derives 
its  name  from  the  Indian  word,  signifying  “ cloudy 
water.” 

1859.  — Oregon,  the  thirty-third  State,  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Union  February  14,  1859.  Its  name 
is  of  Spanish  origin. 

1860.  — Secession  of  South  Carolina. — On  the 
election  of  Abraham  Lincoln  to  the  Presidency,  the 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Southern  leaders  prepared  to  carry  out  their  threats 
of  secession  from  the  Union.  On  December  20, 
South  Carodna  withdrew,  and  was  soon  followed  by 
Mississippi,  Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Louisiana 
and  Texas.  The  act  of  secession  was  the  outcome 
of  the  question  of  State  rights  in  regard  to  slavery, 
which  had  vexed  the  country  almost  from  the  for- 
mation of  the  Union. 

1861. — Kansas,  the  thirty-fourth  State,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union  January  29,  1861.  The  name 
is  derived  from  an  Indian  term,  signifying  “smoky 
water.” 

1861. — Southern  Confederacy  Inaugurated. — On 
the  4th  of  February,  1861,  delegates  from  the  se- 
ceded States  met  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  and  formed 
a government  known  as  the  “ Confederate  States  of 
America.”  Jefferson  Davis,  formerly  a United 
States  Senator  from  Mississippi,  was  chosen  Presi- 
dent, and  Alex.  H.  Stevens,  of  Georgia,  was  chosen 
Vice-President.  All  the  national  property  and  mu- 
nitions of  war  belonging  to  the  United  States,  sit- 
uated in  the  seceded  States,  were  seized  and 
held. 

1861. — Attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  April  12,  1861. — 
The  Star  of  the  West,  an  unarmed  steamer,  bearing 
supplies  to  Major  Anderson’s  garrison  in  Fort  Sum- 
ter, had  been  fired  upon  and  driven  back  January 
9,  1861.  At  the  same  time  the  Southern  leaders  de- 
clared that  any  attempt  to  relieve  Fort  Sumter 
would  be  regarded  as  a declaration  of  war.  At 
length  Gen’l  Beauregard  opened  fire  on  the  fort  on 
the  morning  of  the  12  of  April,  and  after  a contest 
of  thirty-seven  hours  the  garrison  surrendered.  The 
garrison  numbered  only  seventy  men,  while  the  be- 
sieging force  was  seven  thousand. 

1861. —Abraham  Lincoln,  the  sixteenth  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  inaugurated  March  4, 
1861. 

1861. — Call  for  seventy-five  thousand  volun- 
teers by  President  Lincoln  to  suppress  the  rebellion, 
April  15,  1861. 

1861. — Seizure  of  Harper’s  Ferry  by  Confederate 
troops,  April  18,  1861. 

1861. — Seizure  of  the  Norfolk  Navy  Yard  by  the 
Confederates,  April  20,  1861. 

1861.  — Massachusetts  troops  attacked  in  the 
streets  of  Baltimore,  April  19,  1861.  First  blood 
shed  in  the  civil  war  on  the  anniversary  of  Con- 
cord and  Lexington. 


— % 
361  S' 

I 

I 

1861. — The  Confederate  Congress  assembled  at 
Richmond,  Va.,  July  20,  1861. 

1861.  — Battle  of  Bull  Run,  Va.,  July  21,  1861. — 

The  Federal  troops  having  driven  the  enemy  from 
the  field  after  a sharp  contest,  were  suddenly  attacked 
in  flank  and  thrown  into  a panic.  The  retreat  was 
changed  to  a rout,  arms  and  munitions  being  aban- 
doned, the  fugitives  flying  in  all  directions.  The 
effect  of  this  battle  was  to  convince  the  Northern 
people  of  the  desperate  nature  of  the  great  conflict 
that  had  just  opened.  Congress  immediately  voted 
$500,000,000  and  500,000  men  to  prosecute  the 
war. 

1862.  — Capture  of  Fort  Donelson  with  its  garri- 
son of  fifteen  thousand  men,  by  General  Grant,  Feb- 
ruary 16,  1862. 

1862. — Battle  of  Shiloh  (April  6 and  7)  1862. 

1862. — Capture  of  New  Orleans  by  Captain  Far- 
ragut,  April  25,  1862. 

1862. — Battle  of  the  Merrimae  and  Monitor , 
March  9,  1862.  This  was  the  first  battle  ever 
fought  between  turreted  iron  ships. 

1862. — Invasion  of  Maryland  by  the  Confederate 
forces  under  General  Lee,  September  5,  1862. 

1862. — Battle  of  Antietam,  September  17,  1862. 

This  was  one  of  the  bloodiest  conflicts  of  the  war, 
and  though  the  result  could  scarce  be  said  to  be  de- 
cisive, the  effect  was  a Federal  victory.  Lee  was 
forced  to  retire  across  the  Potomac,  and  Washing- 
ton was  no  longer  threatened. 

1862. — Battle  of  Fredericksburg,  December  13, 

1862  ; overwhelming  defeat  of  Union  troops  ; Fed- 
eral loss  twelve  thousand. 

1862. — While  the  civil  war  was  at  its  height,  the 
Sioux  Indians  took  to  the  war  path,  and  perpetrated 
horrible  massacres  in  Minnesota,  Iowa  and  Dakota. 
They  were  finally  routed  by  Colonel  Sibley,  and  sev- 
eral of  their  number  taken  prisoners  and  hanged. 

1862.  — Battle  of  Murfreesboro,  December  31,  and 
January  2,  1863.  This  was  one  of  the  fiercest  bat- 
tles of  the  war,  the  loss  being  stated  as  one-fourth 
of  the  number  engaged.  The  Confederates  were 
compelled  to  retreat. 

1863.  — Emancipation  Proclamation,  declaring 
freedom  to  the  slaves,  issued  by  President  Lincoln, 
January  1,  1863. 

1863. — Battle  of  Chancellorsville,  Va.,  May  2-3, 

1863. 

1863. — West  Virginia,  the  thirty-fifth  State,  was 


302 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


admitted  to  the  Union,  June  20,  1863.  This  por- 
tion of  Virginia  remained  loyal  to  the  Union  during 
the  war,  and  was  accordingly  incorporated  into  a 
separate  State. 

1863. — Battle  of  Gettysburg,  Penn.,  July  1-3,  1863. 
This  was  the  bloodiest  and  most  desperately  con- 
tested struggle  of  the  war.  The  loss  on  both  sides 
numbered  about  fifty  thousand  men.  Lee  was 
forced  to  retreat  beyond  the  Potomac,  and  a North- 
ern invasion  was  no  longer  thought  of.  The  back- 
bone of  the  rebellion  was  broken. 

1863. — Surrender  of  Vicksburg  with  37,000  pris- 
oners of  war,  July  4,  1863.  This  was  one  of  the 
most  important  events  of  the  war.  By  its  capture 
the  Confederacy  was  cut  in  two  and  the  Mississippi 
opened  to  the  Gulf. 

1863. — Battle  of  Chickamauga,  September  19-20, 

1863. 

1863.  — Battle  of  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  November 
24-25,  1863. 

1864.  — Battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5-6,  1864. 

1864. — Battle  of  Spottsylvania,  May  8-12,  1864. 

1864. — Battle  of  Cold  Harbor,  June  3,  1864. 

Twenty  minutes  after  the  battle  had  opened,  ten 
thousand  Union  soldiers  had  fallen. 

1864. — Capture  of  Atlanta,  Ga.,  by  General  Sher- 
man, September  2,  1864. 

1864. — Nevada,  the  thirty-sixth  State,  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Union,  October  31,  1864.  The 
name  is  of  Spanish  origin. 

1864.  — Battle  of  Nashville,  December  15-16,  1864. 

1865.  — Capture  of  Petersburg  and  Richmond, 
April  2-3,  1865,  by  the  forces  of  General  Grant. 

1865. — Surrender  of  General  Lee,  at  Appomatox 
Court  House,  Va.,  April  9,  1865.  This  event  brought 
the  civil  war  to  a close. 

1865. — Assassination  of  President  Lincoln,  April 
14,  1865.  This  black  deed  was  perpetrated  in  Ford’s 
Theater,  Washington,  where  the  President  occupied 
a box  during  the  performance.  It  was  the  act  of 
the  crazed  brain  of  one  who,  thinking  he  was  rid- 
ding the  country  of  a tyrant,  struck  an  almost  deadly 
blow  at  the  now  vanquished  South,  in  the  murder  of 
her  most  powerful  friend. 

1865. — Andrew  Johnson,  the  Vice-President,  inau- 
gurated seventeenth  President  of  the  United  States, 
in  accordance  with  the  Constitution,  April  15,  1865. 

1865. — The  Thirteenth  Amendment,  declaring 
the  abolition  of  slavery  adopted  as  a part  of  the 


Constitution  of  the  United  States,  December  18, 
1865. 

1867. — Nebraska,  the  thirty-seventh  State,  admit- 
ted to  the  Union,  March  1,  1867. 

1867. — Death  of  Maximilian,  so-called  Emperor 
of  Mexico,  June  19,  1867.  During  the  American 
civil  war,  Napoleon  III.  sought  to  found  an  empire 
in  Mexico,  and  established  Maximilian,  of  the  house 
of  Austria,  emperor,  with  the  aid  of  French  troops. 
This  the  Americans  regarded  as  a violation  of  the 
“Monroe  Doctrine,”  and  after  the  close  of  the  war 
they  compelled  the  French  Emperor  to  withdraw 
his  troops  from  the  neighboring  republic.  Deprived 
of  foreign  aid,  Maximilian’s  regime  was  overthrown 
by  the  Mexicans,  and  the  unfortunate  monarch  shot. 

1867.  — Purchase  of  Alaska  from  Russia  by  the 
United  States  Government  for  the  sum  of  $7,200,000 
in  gold. 

1868. — Impeachment  of  President  Johnson,  Feb- 
ruary 24,  1868.  The  order  to  impeach  the  Presi- 
dent was  made  in  consequence  of  the  latter  having 
attempted  to  remove  the  Secretary  of  War,  a pro- 
ceeding which  was  held  to  be  in  violation  of  the 
Tenure-of-Office  Bill,  which  had  some  time  previous 
been  passed  over  the  President’s  veto.  After  a pro- 
tracted trial,  President  Johnson  was  acquitted,  hav- 
ing escaped  conviction  by  one  vote. 

1868. — The  Fourteenth  Amendment,  whereby 
equal  civil  rights  were  guaranteed  to  all,  irrespective 
of  race  or  color,  was  adopted  by  Congress,  July  28, 
1868. 

1868.  — Treaty  between  China  and  the  United 
States,  whereby  valuable  commercial  privileges  were 
acquired  by  the  latter. 

1869.  — Ulysses  Simpson  Grant,  the  eighteenth 
President  of  the  United  States,  inaugurated  Ma  ch 
4,  1869. 

1869.  — Completion  of  the  great  trans-continental 
railroad  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 

1870.  — The  Fifteenth  Amendment,  whereby  the 
right  of  suffrage  is  guaranteed  to  all,  regardless  of 
race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude,  was 
formally  announced  as  part  of  the  Constitution, 
March  30,  1870. 

1870. — The  Treaty  of  Washington  ratified 
whereby  Great  Britain  was  compelled  to  pay  the 
United  States  the  sum  of  $15,500,000  in  gold,  in 
consideration  of  damages  caused  to  American  com- 
merce by  the  Alabama  and  other  Confederate  cruis- 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ers  fitted  out  in  English  ports  during  the  Civil 
War. 

1870.  — Rejection  by  Congress  of  the  proposed 
annexation  of  San  Domingo  to  the  United  States. 

1871.  — Great  fire  broke  out  in  Chicago,  Oct.  8, 
1871.  Three  thousand  acres  of  the  city  devastated, 
$200,000,000  of  property  destroyed,  and  a hundred 
thousand  people  left  homeless. 

1872.  — Great  Boston  fire,  Nov.  9.  Sixty  acres  of 
the  business  portion  of  the  city  laid  waste  and  $70,- 
000,000  of  property  destroyed. 

1873.  — Difficulties  with  the  Modoc  Indians.  After 
dispatching  troops  against  them,  Captain  Jack  and 
several  of  the  leaders  were  captured,  and  executed 
Oct.  3,  1873. 

1875.  — Colorado,  the  thirty-eighth  State,  received 
into  the  Union,  March  3,  1875. 

1876.  — Centennial  Exhibition  of  the  “arts  and 
industries  of  all  nations,”  at  Philadelphia,  opened 
May  10,  1876.  The  exhibition  lasted  six  months,  and 
had  an  average  daily  attendance  of  61,000  per- 
sons. 


1877. — War  with  the  Sioux  Indians. — The  Indian 
reservation  being  encroached  on  by  gold  prospect- 
ors, it  led  to  difficulties  which  terminated  in  compel- 
ling a dispatch  of  regular  troops  to  the  reservation. 
General  Custer  and  his  entire  command  were  slain 
in  the  conflict  which  occurred  on  the  twenty-fifth 
of  June  on  the  Little  Big  Horn  river. 

2877. — Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  the  nineteenth 
President  of  the  United  States,  inaugurated  March 
4,  1877. 

1881. — James  A.  Garfield,  the  twentieth  President 
of  the  United  States,  inaugurated  March  4,  1881. 

1881. — Assassination  of  President  Garfield  July  2, 
1881,  by  Charles  J.  Guiteau,  at  the  railroad  depot, 
Washington.  The  assassination  was  regarded  as  the 
act  of  a crazed  brain.  The  wounded  President  was 
removed  to  Long  Branch,  N.  J.,  where  he  died  on 
the  19th  of  Sept,  following. 

1881. — Gen.  Chester  A.  Arthur,  Vice-President, 
inaugurated  twenty-first  President  of  the  United 
States,  in  accordance  with  the  Constitution,  Sept. 
20,  1881. 


Bedarafien  ©f  BigM 


Whereas,  since  the  close  of  the  last  war,  the 
British  parliament  claiming  a power  of  right,  to  bind 
the  people  of  America  by  statutes  in  all  cases  what- 
soever, hath,  in  some  acts,  expressly  imposed  taxes 
on  them,  and  in  others,  under  various  pretenses,  but 
in  fact  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a revenue,  hath  im- 
posed rates  and  duties  payable  in  these  colonies,  es- 
tablished a board  of  commissioners,  with  unconsti- 
tutional powers,  and  extended  the  jurisdiction  of 
courts  of  admiralty,  not  only  for  collecting  the  said 
duties,  but  for  the  trial  of  causes  merely  arising 
within  the  body  of  a county. 

And  whereas,  in  consequence  of  other  statutes, 
judges,  who  before  held  only  estates  at  will  in  their 
offices,  have  been  made  dependent  on  the  crown 
alone  for  their  salaries,  and  standing  armies  kept  in 
times  of  peace  : And  whereas  it  has  lately  been  re- 
solved in  parliament,  that  by  force  of  a statute,  made 
in  the  thirty-fifth  year  of  the  reign  of  king  Henry 
the  Eighth,  colonists  may  be  transported  to  England, 
and  tried  there  upon  accusations  for  treasons,  and 


misprisons,  or  concealments  of  treasons  committed  in 
the  colonies,  and  by  a late  statute,  such  trials  have 
been  directed  in  cases  therein  mentioned. 

And  whereas,  in  the  last  session  of  parliament, 
three  statutes  were  made  ; one,  entitled  an  “ Act  to 
“ discontinue,  in  such  manner  and  for  such  time  as 
“ therein  mentioned,  the  landing  and  discharging, 
“ lading,  or  shipping  of  goods,  wares  and  merchan- 
“ dise,  at  the  town,  and  within  the  harbor  of  Boston, 
“ in  the  province  of  Massachusetts-Bay,  in  North 
“ America  ; ” another,  entitled  “ An  act  for  the  bet- 
“ ter  regulating  the  government  of  the  province  of 
“ Massachusetts-Bay  in  New  England  ; ’’  and  an- 
other, entitled  “ An  act  for  the  impartial  adminis- 
“ tration  of  justice,  in  the  cases  of  persons  ques- 
“ tioned  for  any  act  done  by  them  in  the  execution 
“ of  the  law,  or  for  the  suppression  of  riots  and  tu- 
“ mults,  in  the  province  of  the  Massachusetts-Bay, 
“ in  New  England  : ” and  another  statute  was  then 
made,  “ for  making  more  effectual  provision  for  the 
“ eovernment  of  the  province  of  Quebec.  &c  ” All 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


364 

which  statutes  are  impolitic,  unjust,  and  cruel,  as 
well  as  unconstitutional,  and  most  dangerous  and 
destructive  of  American  rights. 

And  whereas,  assemblies  have  been  frequently  dis- 
solved, contrary  to  the  rights  of  the  people,  when 
they  attempted  to  deliberate  on  grievances  ; and 
their  dutiful,  humble,  loyal,  and  reasonable  petitions 
to  the  crown  for  redress,  have  been  repeatedly  treated 
with  contempt  by  his  majesty’s  ministers  of  state  : 

The  good  people  of  the  several  colonies  of  New- 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts-Bay,  Rhode- Island  and 
Providence  Plantations,  Connecticut,  New-York, 
New- Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  New-Castle,  Kent  and 
Sussex,  on  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  and  South  Carolina,  justly  alarmed  at  these 
arbitrary  proceedings  of  parliament  and  administra- 
tion, have  severally  elected,  constituted,  and  ap- 
pointed deputies  to  meet,  and  sit  in  General  Con- 
gress, in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  in  order  to  obtain 
such  establishment,  as  that  their  religion,  laws,  and 
liberties  may  not  be  subverted.  Whereupon  the 
deputies  so  appointed  being  now  assembled,  in  a full 
and  free  representation  of  these  colonies,  taking  into 
their  most  serious  consideration,  the  best  means  of 
attaining  the  ends  aforesaid,  do,  in  the  first  place,  as 
Englishmen,  their  ancestors,  in  like  cases  have  usu- 
ally done,  for  affecting  and  vindicating  their  rights 
and  liberties,  DECLARE, 

That  the  inhabitants  of  the  English  colonies  in 
North- America,  by  the  immutable  laws  of  nature, 
the  principles  of  the  English  constitution,  and  the 
several  charters  or  compacts,  have  the  following 
RIGHTS  : 

Resolved , N.  C.  D .*  1.  That  they  are  entitled  to 
life,  liberty,  and  property,  and  they  have  never  ceded 
to  any  sovereign  power  whatever,  a right  to  dispose 
of  either  without  their  consent. 

Resolved , N.  C.  D.  2.  That  our  ancestors,  who 
first  settled  these  colonies,  were  at  the  time  of  their 
emigration  from  the  mother  country,  entitled  to  all 
the  rights,  liberties,  and  immunities  of  free  and 
natural-born  subjects,  within  the  realm  of  England. 

Resolved , N.  C.  D.  3.  That  by  such  emigration 
they  by  no  means  forfeited,  surrendered,  or  lost  any 
of  those  rights,  but  that  they  were,  and  their  de- 
scendants now  are,  entitled  to  the  exercise  and  en- 
joyment of  all  such  of  them,  as  their  local  and 

* An  abbreviation  for  nernine  contradicente , i.  e.,  no  one  opposing  or 
disagreeing. 




y 


other  circumstances  enable  them  to  exercise  and 
enjoy. 

Resolved \ 4.  That  the  foundation  of  English  lib- 
erty, and  of  all  free  government,  is  a right  in  the 
people  to  participate  in  their  legislative  council : and 
as  the  English  colonists  are  not  represented,  and 
from  their  local  and  other  circumstances,  cannot 
properly  be  represented  in  the  British  parliament, 
they  are  entitled  to  a free  and  exclusive  power  of 
legislation  in  their  several  provincial  legislatures, 
where  their  right  of  representation  can  alone  be  pre- 
served, in  all  cases  of  taxation  and  internal  polity, 
subject  only  to  the  negative  of  their  sovereign,  in 
such  manner  as  has  been  heretofore  used  and  accus- 
tomed. But,  from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  and  a 
regard  to  the  mutual  interest  of  both  countries, 
we  cheerfully  consent  to  the  operation  of  such  acts 
of  the  British  parliament,  as  are  bona  fide , restrained 
to  the  regulation  of  our  external  commerce,  for  the 
purpose  ol  securing  the  commercial  advantages  of 
the  whole  empire  to  the  mother  country,  and  the 
commercial  benefits  of  its  respective  members  ; ex- 
cluding every  idea  of  taxation  internal  or  external, 
for  raising  a revenue  on  the  subjects  in  America, 
without  their  consent. 

Resolved,  N.  C-  D.  5.  That  the  respective  colonies 
are  entitled  to  the  common  law  of  England,  and 
more  especially  to  the  great  and  inestimable  privi- 
lege of  being  tried  by  their  peers  of  the  vicinage, 
according  to  the  course  of  that  law. 

Resolved,  6.  That  they  are  entitled  to  the  benefit 
of  such  of  the  English  statutes,  as  existed  at  the  time 
of  their  colonization  ; and  which  they  have,  by  ex- 
perience, respectively  found  to  be  applicable  to  their 
several  local  and  other  circumstances. 

Resolved,  N.  C.  D.  7.  That  these,  his  majesty’s 
colonies,  are  likewise  entitled  to  all  the  immuni- 
ties and  privileges  granted  and  confirmed  to  them  by 
royal  charters,  or  secured  by  their  several  codes  of 
provincial  laws. 

Resolved,  N.  C.  D.  8.  That  they  have  a right 
peaceably  to  assemble,  consider  of  their  grievances, 
and  petition  the  king  ; and  that  all  prosecutions, 
prohibitory  proclamations,  and  commitments  for  the 
same,  are  illegal. 

Resolved,  N.  C.  D.  9.  That  the  keeping  a stand- 
ing army  in  these  colonies,  in  time  of  peace,  without 
the  consent  of  the  legislature  of  that  colony,  in  which 
such  army  is  kept,  is  against  law. 


4 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


36  5 


Resolvea,  N.  C.  D.  10.  It  is  indispensably  neces- 
sary to  good  government,  and  rendered  essential  by 
the  English  constitution,  that  the  constituent 
branches  of  the  legislature  be  independent  of  each 
other  ; that,  therefore,  the  exercise  of  legislative 
potfer  in  several  colonies,  by  a council  appointed, 
during  pleasure,  by  the  crown,  is  unconstitutional, 
dangerous,  and  destructive  to  the  freedom  of  Amer- 
ican legislation. 

All  and  each  of  which  the  aforesaid  deputies,  in 
behalf  of  themselves,  and  their  constituents,  do 
claim,  demand,  and  insist  on,  as  their  indubitable 
rights  and  liberties ; which  cannot  be  legally  taken 
from  them,  altered  or  abridged  by  any  power  what- 
ever, without  their  own  consent,  by  their  represen- 
tatives in  their  several  provincial  legislatures. 

In  the  course  of  our  inquiry,  we  find  many  in- 
fringements and  violations  of  the  foregoing  rights, 
which  from  an  ardent  desire,  that  harmony  and  mu- 
tual intercourse  of  affection  and  interest  may  be  re- 
stored, we  pass  over  for  the  present,  and  proceed  to 
state  such  acts  and  measures  as  have  been  adopted 
since  last  war,  which  demonstrate  a system  formed 
to  enslave  America. 

Resolved,  N.  C.  D.  That  the  following  acts  of 
parliament  are  infringements  and  violations  of  the 
rights  of  the  colonists  ; and  that  the  repeal  of  them 
is  essentially  necessary,  in  order  to  restore  harmony 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  American  colonies, 
viz. : 

The  several  acts  of  4 Geo.  III.  ch.  15,  and  ch. 
34. — 5 Geo.  III.  ch.  25. — 6 Geo.  III.  ch.  52. — 7 
Geo.  III.  ch.  41,  and  ch.  46. — 8 Geo.  III.  ch.  22, 
which  impose  duties  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a rev- 
enue in  America,  extend  the  power  of  the  admiralty 
courts  beyond  their  ancient  limits,  deprive  the 
American  subject  of  trial  by  jury,  authorize  the 
judges’  certificate  to  indemnify  the  prosecutor  from 
damages,  that  he  might  otherwise  be  liable  to,  re- 
quiring oppressive  security  from  a claimant  of  ships 
and  goods  seized,  before  he  shall  be  allowed  to  defend 
his  property,  and  are  subversive  of  American  rights. 

Also  12  Geo.  III.  ch.  24,  entitled  “An  act  for  the 


“ better  securing  his  majesty’s  dock-yards,  maga- 
“ zines,  ships,  ammunition,  and  stores,”  which  de- 
clares a new  offense  in  America,  and  deprives  the 
American  subject  of  a constitutional  trial  by  jury  of 
the  vicinage,  by  authorizing  the  trial  of  any  person, 
charged  with  the  committing  any  offence  described 
in  the  said  act,  out  of  the  realm,  to  be  indicted  and 
tried  for  the  same  in  any  shire  or  county  within  the 
realm. 

Also  the  three  acts  passed  in  the  last  session  of 
parliament,  for  stopping  the  port  and  blocking  up 
the  harbor  of  Boston,  for  altering  the  charter  and 
government  of  Massachusetts-Bay,  and  that  which  is 
entitled  “ An  act  for  the  better  administration  of  jus- 
tice,” &c. 

Also  the  act  passed  in  the  same  session  for  estab- 
lishing the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  in  the  province 
of  Quebec,  abolishing  the  equitable  system  of  Eng- 
lish laws,  and  erecting  a tyranny  there,  to  the  great 
danger  (from  so  total  a dissimilarity  of  religion,  law 
and  government),  of  the  neighboring  British  colo- 
nies, by  the  assistance  of  whose  blood  and  treasure 
the  said  country  was  conquered  from  France. 

Also,  the  act  passed  in  the  same  session,  for  the 
better  providing  suitable  quarters  for  officers  and 
soldiers  in  his  majesty’s  service,  in  North  America. 

Also,  that  the  keeping  a standing  army  in  several 
of  these  colonies,  in  time  of  peace,  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  legislature  of  that  colony,  in  which  such 
army  is  kept,  is  against  law. 

To  these  grievous  acts  and  measures,  Americans 
cannot  submit,  but  in  hopes  their  fellow-subjects  in 
Great  Britain  will,  on  a revision  of  them,  restore  us 
to  that  state,  in  which  both  countries  found  happi- 
ness and  prosperity,  we  have  for  the  present,  only 
resolved  to  pursue  the  following  peaceable  meas- 
ures : 1.  To  enter  into  a non-importation,  non-con- 
sumption, and  non-exportation  agreement  or  associ- 
ation. 2.  To  prepare  an  address  to  the  people  of 
Great  Britain,  and  a memorial  to  the  inhabitants  of 
British  America:  and  3.  To  prepare  a loyal  address 
to  his  majesty,  agreeable  to  resolutions  already  en- 
tered into. 


A Declaration  by  the  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled,  July  ^lh,  1776. 


When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes 
necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political 
bonds  which  have  connected  them  with  another,  and 
to  assume,  among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  sep- 
arate and  equal  station  to  which  the  laws  of  nature 
and  of  nature’s  God  entitle  them,  a decent  respect 
to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they  should 
declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separa- 
tion. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident — that  all 
men  are  created  equal  ; that  they  are  endowed  by 
their  Creator  with  certain  unalienable  rights  ; that 
among  these,  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of 
happiness.  That,  to  secure  these  rights,  govern- 
ments are  instituted  among  men,  deriving  their  just 
powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed ; that, 
whenever  any  form  of  government  becomes  destruc- 
tive of  these  ends,  it  is  the  right  of  the  people  to 
alter  or  abolish  it,  and  to  institute  a new  government, 
laying  its  foundations  on  such  principles,  and  organ- 
izing its  powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem 
most  likely  to  effect  their  safety  and  happiness. 
Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate  that  governments  long 
established  should  not  be  changed  for  light  and 
transient  causes  ; and,  accordingly,  all  experience 
hath  shown  that  mankind  are  more  disposed  to  suf- 
fer, while  evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  them- 
selves by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which  they  are 
accustomed.  But,  when  a long  train  of  abuses  and 
usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the  same  object, 
evinces  a design  to  reduce  them  under  absolute 
despotism,  it  is  their  right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw 
off  such  government,  and  to  provide  new  guards  for 
their  future  security.  Such  has  been  the  patient 


sufferance  of  these  colonies,  and  such  is  now  the 
necessity  which  constrains  them  to  alter  their 
former  systems  of  government.  The  history  of  the 
present  king  of  Great  Britain  is  a history  of  repeated 
injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having,  in  direct  object, 
the  establishment  of  an  absolute  tyranny  over  these 
states.  To  prove  this,  let  facts  be  submitted  to  a 
candid  world  : — 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  whole- 
some and  necessary  for  the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws  of 
immediate  and  pressing  importance,  unless  suspended 
in  their  operation  till  his  assent  should  be  obtained  ; 
and,  when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly  neglected  to 
attend  to  them. 

Pie  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the  accorm 
modation  of  large  districts  of  people,  unless  those 
people  would  relinquish  the  right  of  representation 
in  the  legislature  ; a right  inestimable  to  them,  and 
formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at 
places  unusual,  uncomfortable,  and  distant  from 
the  depository  of  their  public  records,  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into  compliance  with  his 
measures. 

He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly, 
for  opposing,  with  manly  firmness,  his  invasions  on 
the  rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a long  time  after  such  disso- 
lutions, to  cause  others  to  be  elected  ; whereby  the 
legislative  powers,  incapable  of  annihilation,  have 
returned  to  the  people  at  large  for  their  exercise  ; 
the  state  remaining,  in  the  meantime,  exposed  to  all 
the  danger  of  invasion  from  without,  and  convulsions 
within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of 

4 


A BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


367 


9- 


these  states  ; for  that  purpose,  obstructing  the  laws 
for  naturalization  of  foreigners  ; refusing  to  pass 
others  to  encourage  their  migration  hither,  and  rais- 
ing the  conditions  of  new  appropriations  of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  justice, 
by  refusing  his  assent  to  laws  for  establishing  judici- 
ary powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone, 
for  the  tenure  of  their  offices,  and  the  amount  and 
payment  of  their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a multitude  of  new  offices,  and 
sent  hither  swarms  of  officers  to  harass  our  people, 
and  eat  out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace,  standing 
armies,  without  the  consent  of  our  legislatures. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent 
of,  and  superior  to,  the  civil  power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a 
jurisdiction  foreign  to  our  constitution,  and  unac- 
knowledged by  our  laws  ; giving  his  assent  to  their 
acts  of  pretended  legislation  : 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among 
us  : 

For  protecting  them  by  a mock  trial,  from  punish- 
ment, for  any  murders  which  they  should  commit 
on  the  inhabitants  of  these  states  : 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the 
world : 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent : 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefit  of 
trial  by  jury  : 

For  transporting  us  beyond  seas  to  be  tried  for 
pretended  offenses  : 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in 
a neighboring  province,  establishing  therein  an 
arbitrary  government,  and  enlarging  its  boundaries 
so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  instru- 
ment for  introducing  the  same  absolute  rule  into 
these  colonies  : 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing  our  most 
valuable  laws,  and  altering,  fundamentally,  the  pow- 
ers of  our  governments  : 

For  suspending  our  own  legislatures,  and  declar- 
ing themselves  invested  with  power  to  legislate  for 
us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  government  here,  by  declaring 
us  out  of  his  protection,  and  waging  war  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts, 
burnt  our  towns,  and  destroyed  the  lives  of  our  people. 


He  is,  at  this  time,  transporting  large  armies  of 
foreign  mercenaries  to  complete  the  works  of  death, 
desolation,  and  tyranny,  already  begun,  with  circum- 
stances of  cruelty  and  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled  in 
the  most  barbarous  ages,  and  totally  unworthy  the 
head  of  a civilized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken  cap- 
tive on  the  high  seas,  to  bear  arms  against  their 
country,  to  become  the  executioners  of  their 
friends  and  brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves  by  their 
hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  amongst 
us,  and  has  endeavored  to  bring  on  the  inhabitants 
of  our  frontiers,  the  merciless  Indian  savages,  whose 
known  rule  of  warfare  is  an  undistinguished  destruc- 
tion of  all  ages,  sexes,  and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions,  we  have  peti- 
tioned for  redress,  in  the  most  humble  terms  ; our 
repeated  petitions  have  been  answered  only  by 
repeated  injury.  A prince,  whose  character  is  thus 
marked  by  every  act  which  may  define  a tyrant,  is 
unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  attention  to  our 
British  brethren.  We  have  warned  them,  from  time 
to  time,  of  attempts  made  by  their  legislature  to 
extend  an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction  over  us.  We 
have  reminded  them  of  the  circumstances  of  our 
emigration  and  settlement  here.  We  have  appealed 
to  their  native  justice  and  magnanimity,  and  we  have 
conjured  them,  by  the  ties  of  our  common  kindred, 
to  disavow  these  usurpations,  which  would  inevit- 
ably interrupt  our  connections  and  correspondence. 
They,  too,  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice 
and  consanguinity.  We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce 
in  the  necessity  which  denounces  our  separation, 
and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  mankind, 
enemies  in  war,  in  peace,  friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  in  general  Congress  assembled, 
appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  world  foi 
the  rectitude  of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name,  and 
by  the  authority  of  the  good  people  of  these  colonies, 
solemnly  publish  and  declare,  that  these  United 
Colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and 
independent  states  ; that  they  are  absolved  from  all 
allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political 
connection  between  them  and  the  state  of  Great 
Britain,  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved  ; and 
that,  as  free  and  independent  states,  they  have  full 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


power  to  levy  war,  conclude  peace,  contract  alliances, 
establish  commerce,  and  do  all  other  acts  and  things 
which  independent  states  may  of  right  do.  And,  for 
the  support  of  this  declaration,  with  a firm  reliance 
on  thaprotection  of  Divine  Providence,  we  mutually 
pledge  to  each  other,  our  lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our 
sacred  honor. 


The  foregoing  declaration  was,  by  order  of  Con- 
gress, engrossed,  and  signed  by  the  following  members : 

JOHN  HANCOCK. 


New  Hampshire. 

Josiah  Bartlett, 
William  Whipple, 
Matthew  Thornton. 


Massachusetts  Bay. 

Samuel  Adams, 
John  Adams, 

Robert  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridge  Gerry. 


Rhode  Island. 
Stephen  Hopkins, 
William  Ellery. 

Connecticut. 
Roger  Sherman, 
Samuel  Huntington, 
William  Williams, 
Oliver  Wolcott. 


New  York. 
William  Floyd, 
Philip  Livingston, 
Francis  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris. 


Pennsylvania. 
Robert  Morris, 
Benjamin  Rush, 
Benjamin  Franklin, 
John  Morton, 
George  Clymer, 
James  Smith, 
George  Taylor, 
James  Wilson, 
George  Ross. 


Delaware. 
Ctesar  Rodney, 
George  Read, 
Thomas  M’Kean. 


North  Carolina. 
William  Hooper 
Joseph  Hewes, 

John  Penn. 

South  Carolina. 
Edward  Rutledge, 
ThomasHeyward.jr. 
Thomas  Lynch,  jr., 
Arthur  Middleton. 


New  Jersey.  Maryland. 

Richard  Stockton,  Samuel  Chase, 

John  Witherspoon,  William  Paca, 

Francis  Hopkinson,  Thomas  Stone, 

John  Hart,  Charles  Carroll,  of 

Abraham  Clark.  Carrollton. 

Virginia. 

George  Wythe,  Georgia. 

Richard  Henry  Lee, 

Thomas  Jefferson,  Button  Gwinnett, 
Benjamin  Harrison,  Lyman  Hall, 
Thomas  Nelson,  jr. , George  Walton. 
Francis  Lightfoot 
Lee, 

Carter  Braxton. 


We  the  People  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a more 
perfect  Union,  establish  Justice,  insure  domestic  Tranquil- 
lity, provide  for  the  common  defence,  promote  the  general 
Welfare  and  secure  the  Blessings  of  Liberty  to  ourselves  and 
our  Posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution 
for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I. 

Section  i.  All  legislative  Powers  herein  granted  shall  be 
vested  in  a Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist 
of  a Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 

Section  2.  [']  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  com- 
posed of  Members  chosen  every  second  Year  by  the  People  of 
the  several  States,  and  the  Electors  in  each  State  shall  have 
the  Qualifications  requisite  for  Electors  of  the  most  numerous 
Branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

[2]  No  Person  shall  be  a Representative  who  shall  not  have 
attained  to  the  Age  of  twenty-five  Years,  and  been  seven 
Years  a Citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when 
elected,  be  an  Inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be 
chosen. 


[Note. — The  small  figures  in  brackets  are  not  in  the  original,  but 
have  been  added  subsequently,  to  mark  the  different  clauses  in  the 
section.] 


[3]  Representatives  and  direct  Taxes  shall  be  apportioned 
among  the  several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this 
Union,  according  to  their  respective  Numbers,  which  shall  be 
determined  by  adding  to  the  whole  Number  of  free  Persons, 
including  those  bound  to  Service  for  a Term  of  Years,  and  ex- 
cluding Indians  not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other  Persons. 
The  actual  Enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  Years 
after  the  first  Meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
and  within  every  subsequent  Term  of  ten  Years,  in  such  Man- 
ner as  they  shall  by  Law  direct.  The  Number  of  Represen- 
tatives shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  Thousand,  but 
each  State  shall  have  at  Least  one  Representative  ; and  until 
such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New-Hampshire 
shall  be  entitled  to  chuse  three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode- 
Island  and  Providence  Plantations  one,  Connecticut  five, 
New-York  six,  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania  eight,  Dela- 
ware one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia  ten,  North  Carolina  five, 
South  Carolina  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

[’]  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  Representation  from  any 
State,  the  Executive  Authority  thereof  shall  issue  Writs  of 
Election  to  fill  such  Vacancies. 

[6]  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  chuse  their  Speaker 
and  other  officers  ; and  shall  have  the  sole  Power  of  Impeach- 
ment. 

Section  3.  [']The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


composed  of  two  Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the 
Legislature  thereof,  for  six  Years  ; and  each  Senator  shall 
have  one  Vote. 

[J]  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  Conse- 
quence of  the  first  Election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally 
as  may  be  into  three  Classes.  The  Seats  of  the  Senators  of 
the  first  Class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  Expiration  of  the  second 
Year,  of  the  second  Class  at  the  Expiration  of  the  fourth  Year, 
and  of  the  third  class  at  the  Expiration  of  the  sixth  Year,  so  that 
one  third  may  be  chosen  every  second  Year  ; and  if  Vacancies 
happen  by  Resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the  Recess  of  the 
Legislature  of  any  State,  the  Executive  thereof  may  make 
temporary  Appointments  until  the  next  Meeting  of  the  Legis- 
lature, which  shall  then  fill  such  Vacancies. 

[3]  No  person  shall  be  a Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained 
to  the  Age  of  thirty  Years,  and  been  nine  Years  a Citizen  of 
the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  In- 
habitant of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

[4]  The  Vice  President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  Vote,  unless  they  be 
equally  divided. 

[5]  The  Senate  shall  chuse  their  other  Officers,  and  also  a 
President  pro  tempore,  in  the  Absence  of  the  Vice  President, 
or  when  he  shall  exercise  the  Office  of  President  of  the  United 
States. 

[']  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  Power  to  try  all  Impeach- 
ments. When  sitting  for  that  Purpose,  they  shall  be  on  Oath 
or  Affirmation.  When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is 
tried,  the  Chief  Justice  shall  preside  : And  no  Person  shall 

be  convicted  without  the  Concurrence  of  two  thirds  of  the 
Members  present. 

[’]  Judgment  in  Cases  of  Impeachment  shall  not  extend 
further  than  to  removal  from  Office,  and  Disqualification  to 
hold  and  enjoy  any  Office  of  honour,  Trust  or  Profit  under  the 
United  States  : but  the  Party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be 
liable  and  subject  to  Indictment,  Trial,  Judgment  and  Punish- 
ment, according  to  Law. 

Section  4.  [']  The  Times,  Places  and  Manner  of  holding 
Elections  for  Senators  and  Representatives,  shall  be  prescribed 
in  each  State  by  the  Legislature  thereof  ; but  the  Congress  may 
at  any  time  by  Law  make  or  alter  such  Regulations,  except  as 
to  the  places  of  chusing  Senators. 

[’]  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  Year, 
and  such  Meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December, 
un,ess  they  shall  by  Law  appoint  a different  Day. 

Section  5.  [']  Each  House  shall  be  the  Judge  of  the  Elec- 
tions, Returns  and  Qualifications  of  its  own  Members,  and  a 
Majority  of  each  shall  constitute  a Quorum  to  do  Business  ; 
but  a smaller  Number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may 
be  authorized  to  compel  the  Attendance  of  absent  Members, 
in  such  Manner,  and  under  such  Penalties  as  each  House  may 
provide. 

[’]  Each  House  may  determine  the  Rules  of  its  Proceed- 
ings, punish  its  Members  for  disorderly  Behaviour,  and,  with 
the  Concurrence  of  tv/o  thirds,  expel  a Member. 

[3]  Each  House  shall  keep  a Journal  of  its  Proceedings,  and 
from  time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  Parts  as 
may  in  their  Judgment  require  Secrecy  ; and  the  Yeas  and 


Nays  of  the  Members  of  either  House  on  any  question  shall, 
at  the  Desire  of  one  fifth  of  those  Present,  be  entered  on  the 
Journal. 

[4]  Neither  House,  during  the  Session  of  Congress,  shall, 
without  the  Consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three 
days,  nor  to  any  other  Place  than  that  in  which  the  two 
Houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Section  6.  [']  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  re- 
ceive a Compensation  for  their  Services,  to  be  ascertained  by 
Law,  and  paid  out  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States. 
They  shall  in  all  Cases,  except  Treason,  Felony  and  Breach  of 
the  Peace,  be  privileged  from  Arrest  during  their  Attendance 
at  the  Session  of  their  respective  Houses,  and  in  going  to  and 
returning  from  the  same  ; and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in 
either  House,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  Place. 

[2]  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  Time  for 
which  he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  Office  under 
the  Authority  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  cre- 
ated, or  the  Emoluments  whereof  have  been  encreased  during 
such  time  ; and  no  Person  holding  any  Office  under  the  United 
States,  shall  be  a Member  of  either  House  during  his  Con- 
tinuance in  Office. 

Section  7.  [']  All  Bills  for  raising  Revenue  shall  originate 
in  the  House  of  Representatives  ; but  the  Senate  may  propose 
or  concur  with  Amendments  as  on  other  Eills. 

[2]  Every  Bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  become  a Law,  be 
presented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States  ; if  he  approve 
he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  Objec- 
tions to  that  House  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who 
shall  enter  the  Objections  at  large  on  their  Journal,  and  pro- 
ceed to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  Reconsideration  two 
thirds  of  that  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the  Bill,  it  shall  be 
sent,  together  with  the  Objections,  to  the  other  House,  by 
which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by 
two  thirds  of  that  House,  it  shall  become  a Law.  But  in  all 
such  Cases  the  Votes  of  both  Houses  shall  be  determined  by 
yeas  and  Nays,  and  the  Names  of  the  Persons  voting  for  and 
against  the  Bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  Journal  of  each  House 
respectively.  If  any  Bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  Presi- 
dent within  ten  Days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have 
been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a law,  in  like  Man- 
ner as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their  Ad- 
journment prevent  its  Return,  in  which  Case  it  shall  not  be  a 
Law. 

[3]  Every  Order,  Resolution,  or  Vote  to  which  the  Concur- 
rence of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be 
necessary  (except  on  a question  of  Adjournment)  shall  be  pre- 
sented to  the  President  of  the  United  States;  and  before  the 
Same  shall  take  Effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or  being 
disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two  thirds  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  Rules 
and  Limitations  prescribed  in  the  Case  of  a Bill. 

Section.  8 The  Congress  shall  have  Power 

[']  To  lay  and  collect  Taxes,  Duties,  Imposts  and  Excises,  to 
pay  the  Debts  and  provide  for  the  common  Defence  and  gen- 
eral Welfare  of  the  United  States  ; but  all  Duties,  Imposts 
and  Excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States  ; 


37° 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


[2]  To  borrow  Money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States  ; 

[3]  To  regulate  Commerce  with  foreign  Nations,  and  among 
the  several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  Tribes  ; 

[4]  To  establish  an  uniform  Rule  of  Naturalization,  and 
uniform  Laws  on  the  subject  of  Bankruptcies  throughout  the 
United  States.- 

p]  To  coin  Money,  regulate  the  Value  thereof,  and  of  for- 
eign Coin,  and  fix  the  Standard  of  Weights  and  Measures  ; 

[r’j  To  provide  for  the  Punishment  of  counterfeiting  the 
Securities  and  current  Coin  of  the  United  States  ; 

[7]  To  establish  Post  Offices  and  post  Roads  ; 

[’]  To  promote  the  progress  of  Science  and  useful  Arts,  by 
securing  for  limited  Times  to  Authors  and  Inventors  the  ex- 
clusive Right  to  their  respective  Writings  and  Discoveries; 

[3]  To  constitute  Tribunals  inferior  to  the  supreme  Court; 

[,0]  To  define  and  punish  Piracies  and  Felonies  committed 
on  the  high  Seas,  and  Offences  against  the  Law  of  Nations  , 

["]  To  declare  War,  grant  Letters  of  Marque  and  Reprisal, 
and  make  Rules  concerning  Captures  on  Land  and  Water  ; 

[,SJ  To  raise  and  support  Armies,  but  no  Appropriation  of 
Money  to  that  Use  shall  be  for  a longer  Term  than  two 
Years  ; 

[ls]  To  provide  and  maintain  a Navy  ; 

[M]  To  make  Rules  for  the  Government  and  Regulation  of 
the  land  and  naval  Forces  ; 

[,5]  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  Militia  to  execute  the 
Laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  Insurrections  and  repel  Invasions  ; 

[l6J  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining, 
the  Militia,  and  for  governing  such  Part  of  them  as  may  be 
employed  in  the  Service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the 
States  respectively,  the  Appointment  of  the  Officers,  and  the 
Authority  of  training  the  Militia  according  to  the  Discipline 
prescribed  by  Congress  ; 

[*’]  To  exercise  exclusive  Legislation  in  all  Cases  whatso- 
ever, over  such  District  (not  exceeding  ten  Miles  square)  as 
may,  by  Cession  of  particu’ar  States,  and  the  Acceptance  of 
Congress,  become  the  Seat  of  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  exercise  like  Authority  over  all  Places  purchased 
by  the  Consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the 
Same  shall  be,  for  the  Erection  of  Forts,  Magazines,  Arsenals, 
Dock-Yards,  and  other  needful  Buildings  ; — And 

[,s]  To  make  all  Laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper 
for  carrying  into  Execution  the  foregoing  Powers,  and  all 
other  Powers  vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the  Government  of 
the  United  States,  or  in  any  Department  or  Officer  thereof. 

Section  9.  [']  The  Migration  or  Importation  of  such  Per- 
son as  any  of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to 
admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the  Congress  prior  to  the 
Year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a Tax  or 
Duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  Importation,  not  exceeding  ten 
dollars  for  each  Person. 

[2J  The  privilege  of  the  Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  shall  not  be 
suspended,  unless  when  in  Cases  of  Rebellion  or  Invasion  the 
public  Safety  may  require  it. 

[3]  No  Bill  of  Attainder  or  ex  post  facto  Law  shall  be  passed. 

[4J  No  Capitation,  or  other  direct,  Tax  shall  be  laid,  unless 
in  Proportion  to  the  Census  or  Enumeration  herein  before 
directed  to  be  taken. 


[b]  No  Tax  or  Duty  shall  be  laid  on  Articles  exported  from 
any  State. 

[6]  No  Preference  shall  be  given  by  any  Regulation  of  Com- 
merce or  Revenue  to  the  Ports  of  one  State  over  those  of 
another  : nor  shall  Vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one  State,  be 
obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  Duties  in  another. 

[']  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treasury,  but  in 
Consequence  of  Appropriations  made  by  Law ; and  a regular 
Statement  and  Account  of  the  Receipts  and  Expenditures  of 
all  public  Money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

[*■]  No  Title  of  Nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United 
States : And  no  Person  holding  any  Office  of  Profit  or  Trust 
under  them,  shall,  without  the  Consent  of  the  Congress,  ac- 
cept of  any  present,  Emolument,  Office,  or  Title  of  any  kind 
whatever,  from  any  King,  Prince,  or  foreign  State. 

Section  10.  [']  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  Treaty,  Alli- 
ance, or  Confederation  ; grant  Letters  of  Marque  and  Reprisal ; 
coin  Money  ; emit  Bills  of  Credit ; make  any  thing  but  gold 
and  silver  Coin  a Tender  in  Payment  of  Debts  ; pass  any  Bill 
of  Attainder,  ex  post  facto  Law,  or  Law  impairing  the  Obli- 
gation of  Contracts,  or  grant  any  Title  of  Nobility. 

[■]  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay 
any  Imposts  or  Duties  on  Imports  or  Exports,  except  what 
may  be  absolutely  necessary  for  executing  it’s  inspection  Laws: 
and  the  net  Produce  of  all  Duties  and  Imposts,  laid  by  any 
State  on  Imports  or  Exports,  shall  be  for  the  Use  of  the  Treas- 
ury of  the  United  States  ; and  all  such  Laws  shall  be  subject 
to  the  Revision  and  Controul  of  the  Congress. 

[3J  No  State  shall,  without  the  Consent  of  Congress,  lay  any 
Duty  of  Tonnage,  keep  Troops,  or  Ships  of  War  in  time  of 
Peace,  enter  into  any  Agreement  or  Compact  with  another 
State,  or  with  a foreign  Power,  or  engage  in  War,  unless  ac- 
tually invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  Danger  as  will  not  admit 
of  Delay. 

ARTICLE  II. 

Section  1.  [']  The  executive  Power  shall  be  vested  in  a 
President  of  the  United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his 
Office  during  the  Term  of  four  Years,  and,  together  with  the 
Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same  Term,  be  elected,  as  fol- 
lows : 

[*]  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  Legisla- 
ture thereof  may  direct,  a Number  of  Electors,  equal  to  the  whole 
Number  of  Senators  and  Representatives  to  which  the  State 
may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress  : but  no  Senator  or  Represen- 
tative, or  Person  holding  an  Office  of  Trust  or  Profit  under 
the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  Elector. 

[3]  The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and 
vote  by  Ballot  for  two  Persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not 
be  an  Inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  And 
they  shall  make  a List  of  all  the  Persons  voted  for,  and  of  the 
Number  of  Votes  for  each  ; which  List  they  shall  sign  and 
certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  Seat  of  the  Government  of 
the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate. 

The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  Presence  of  the  Sen- 
ate and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  Certificates, 
and  the  Votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  Person  having  the 
greatest  Number  of  Votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  Num- 

i 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ber  be  a Majority  of  the  whole  Number  of  Electors  appointed  ; 
and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  Majority  and 
have  an  equal  number  of  Votes,  then  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives shall  immediately  chuse  by  Ballot  one  of  them  for 
President  ; and  if  no  Person  have  a Majority,  then  from  the 
five  highest  on  the  List  the  said  House  shall  in  like  Manner 
chuse  the  President.  But  in  chusing  the  President,  the  Votes 
shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  Representation  from  each  State 
having  one  Vote  : a Quorum  for  this  Purpose  shall  consist  of 
a Member  or  Members  from  two  thirds  of  the  States,  and  a 
Majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a Choice.  In 
every  Case,  after  the  Choice  of  the  President,  the  Person  hav- 
ing the  greatest  Number  of  Votes  of  the  Electors  shall  be  the 
Vice-President.  But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more  who 
have  equal  Votes,  the  Senate  shall  chuse  from  them  by  Bal- 
lot the  Vice-President. 

[’]  The  Congress  may  determine  the  Time  of  chusing  the 
Electors,  and  the  Day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  Votes  ; 
which  Day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

[5]  No  Person  except  a natural  born  Citizen,  or  a Citizen  of 
the  United  States  at  the  time  of  the  Adoption  of  this  Consti- 
tution, shall  be  eligible  to  the  Office  of  President  ; neither 
shall  any  Person  be  eligible  to  that  Office  who  shall  not  have 
attained  to  the  Age  of  thirty  five  Years,  and  been  fourteen 
Years  a Resident  within  the  United  States. 

[c]  In  Case  of  the  Removal  of  the  President  from  Office,  or 
of  his  Death,  Resignation,  or  Inability  to  discharge  the  Powers 
and  Duties  of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the 
Vice  President,  and  the  Congress  may  by  Law  provide  for  the 
Case  of  Removal,  Death,  Resignation,  or  Inability,  both  of 
the  President  and  Vice  President,  declaring  what  Officer  shall 
then  act  as  President,  and  such  Officer  shall  act  accordingly, 
until  the  Disability  be  removed,  or  a President  shall  be 
elected. 

[7]  The  President  shall,  at  stated  Times,  receive  for  his  Ser- 
vices, a Compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  encreased  nor 
diminished  during  the  Period  for  which  he  shall  have  been 
elected;  and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that  Period  any  other 
Emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

["]  Before  he  enter  on  the  Execution  of  his  Office,  he  shall 
take  the  following  Oath  or  Affirmation  : — 

“ I do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I will  faithfully  exe- 
“ cute  the  Office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will  to 
“ the  best  of  my  Ability,  preserve,  protect  and  defend  the 
“Constitution  of  the  United  States.” 

Section  2.  [‘]  The  President  shall  be  Commander  in  Chief 
of  the  Army  and  Navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  Militia 
of  the  several  States,  when  called  into  the  actual  Service  of 
the  United  States  ; he  may  require  the  Opinion,  in  writing,  of 
the  principal  Officer  in  each  of  the  executive  Departments, 
upon  any  Subject  relating  to  the  Duties  of  their  respective 
Offices,  and  he  shall  have  Power  to  grant  Reprieves  and  Par- 
dons for  Offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in  Cases  of 
Impeachment. 

[2]  He  shall  have  Power,  by  and  with  the  Advice  and  Con- 
sent of  the  Senate,  to  make  Treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of 
the  Senators  present  concur  ; and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by 
and  with  the  Advice  and  Consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint 


Ambassadors,  other  public  Ministers  and  Consuls,  Judges  of 
the  supreme  Court,  and  all  other  Officers  of  the  United  States, 
whose  Appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for, 
and  which  shall  be  established  by  Law  : but  the  Congress  may 
by  Law  vest  the  Appointment  of  such  inferior  Officers,  as  they 
think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  Courts  of  Law,  or 
in  the  Heads  of  Departments. 

[3]  The  President  shall  have  Power  to  fill  up  all  Vacancies 
that  may  happen  during  the  Recess  of  the  Senate,  by  grant- 
ing Commissions  which  shall  expire  at  the  End  of  their  next 
Session. 

Section  3.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress 
Information  of  the  State  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to 
their  Consideration  such  Measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary 
and  expedient ; he  may,  on  extraordinary  Occasions,  convene 
both  Houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  Case  of  Disagreement 
between  them,  with  Respect  to  the  time  of  Adjournment,  he 
may  adjourn  them  to  such  Time  as  he  shall  think  proper  ; he 
shall  receive  Ambassadors  and  other  public  Ministers  ; he  shall 
take  Care  that  the  Laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  Com- 
mission all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Section  4.  The  President,  Vice  President  and  all  civil  Offi- 
cers of  the  United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  Office  on  Im- 
peachment for,  and  Conviction  of,  Treason,  Bribery,  or  other 
high  Crimes  and  Misdemeanors. 


ARTICLE  III. 

Section  1.  The  judicial  Power  of  the  United  States,  shall 
be  vested  in  one  supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  Courts 
as  the  Congress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish. 
The  Judges,  both  of  the  supreme  and  inferior  Courts,  shall 
hold  their  Offices  during  good  Behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated 
Times,  receive  for  their  Services,  a Compensation  which  shall 
not  be  diminished  during  their  Continuance  in  Office. 

Section  2.  [']  The  judicial  Power  shall  extend  to  all  Cases, 
in  Law  and  Equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  Laws 
of  the  United  States,  and  Treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 
made,  under  their  Authority  ; — to  all  Cases  affecting  Ambas- 
sadors, other  public  Ministers  and  Consuls  ; — to  all  Cases  of 
admiralty  and  maritime  Jurisdiction  ; — to  Controversies  to 
which  the  United  States  shall  be  a Party;  to  Controversies 
between  two  or  more  States  ; — between  a State  and  Citizens 
of  another  State  ; — between  Citizens  of  different  States, — be- 
tween Citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  Lands  under  Grants 
of  different  States,  and  between  a State,  or  the  Citizens 
thereof,  and  foreign  States,  Citizens  or  Subjects. 

["]  In  all  Cases  affecting  Ambassadors,  other  public  Minis- 
ters and  Consuls,  and  those  in  which  a State  shall  be  Party, 
the  supreme  Court  shall  have  original  Jurisdiction.  In  all  the 
other  Cases  before  mentioned,  the  supreme  Court  shall  have 
appellate  Jurisdiction,  both  as  to  Law  and  Fact,  with  such 
Exceptions,  and  under  such  Regulations  as  the  Congress  shall 
make. 

[3]  The  Trial  of  all  Crimes,  except  in  Cases  of  Impeach- 
ment, shall  be  by  Jury  ; and  such  Trial  shall  be  held  in  the 
State  where  the  said  Crimes  shall  have  been  committed  ; but 
when  not  committed  within  any  State,  the  Trial  shall  be  at 


372 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Such  Place  or  Places  as  the  Congress  may  by  Law  have  di- 
rected. 

Section  3.  [']  Treason  against  the  United  States,  shall 
consist  only  in  levying  War  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to 
their  Enemies,  giving  them  Aid  and  Comfort.  No  Person 
shall  be  convicted  of  Treason  unless  on  the  Testimony  of  two 
Witnesses  to  the  same  overt  Act,  or  on  Confession  in  open 
Court. 

[2]  The  Congress  shall  have  Power  to  declare  the  Punish- 
ment of  Treason,  but  no  Attainder  of  Treason  shall  work  Cor- 
ruption of  Blood,  or  Forfeiture  except  during  the  Life  of  the 
Person  attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

Section  I.  Full  Faith  and  Credit  shall  be  given  in  each 
State  to  the  public  Acts,  Records,  and  judicial  Proceedings  of 
every  other  State.  And  the  Congress  may  by  general  Laws 
prescribe  the  Manner  in  which  such  Acts,  Records  and  Pro- 
ceedings shall  be  proved,  and  the  Effect  thereof. 

Section  2.  [']  The  Citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled 
to  all  Privileges  and  Immunities  of  Citizens  in  the  several 
States. 

[*]  A Person  charged  in  any  State  with  Treason,  Felony,  or 
other  Crime,  who  shall  flee  from  Justice,  and  be  found  in 
another  State,  shall  on  Demand  of  the  executive  Authority  of 
the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed 
to  the  State  having  Jurisdiction  of  the  Crime. 

[2]  No  person  held  to  Service  or  Labour  in  one  State,  under 
the  Laws  thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  Consequence 
of  any  Law  or  Regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such 
Service  or  Labour,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  Claim  of  the 
Party  to  whom  such  Service  or  Labour  may  be  due. 

Section  3.  P]  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress 
into  this  Union  ; but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected 
within  the  Jurisdiction  of  any  other  State : nor  any  State  be 
formed  by  the  Junction  of  two  or  more  States,  or  Parts  of 
States,  without  the  consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States 
concerned  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

[’]  The  Congress  shall  have  Power  to  dispose  of  and  make 
all  needful  Rules  and  Regulations  respecting  the  Territory  or 
other  Property  belonging  to  the  United  States  ; and  nothing 
in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  Prejudice  any 
Claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

Section  4.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every 
State  in  this  Union  a Republican  Form  of  Government,  and 
shall  protect  each  of  them  against  Invasion,  and  on  Applica- 
tion of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the  Executive  (when  the  Legisla- 
ture cannot  be  convened)  against  domestic  Violence. 

ARTICLE  V. 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem 
it  necessary  shall  propose  Amendments  to  this  Constitution, 
or,  on  the  Application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two  thirds  of  the 
several  States,  shall  call  a Convention  for  proposing  Amend- 
ments, which,  in  either  Case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  Intents  and 
Purposes,  as  Part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the 
Legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  Con- 
ventions in  three  fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  Mode  I 


of  Ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress ; Provided 
that  no  Amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  Year  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  Manner  affect 
the  first  and  fourth  Clauses  in  the  Ninth  Section  of  the  first 
Article  ; and  that  no  State,  without  its  Consent,  shall  be  de- 
prived of  its  equal  Suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

[']  All  Debts  contracted  and  Engagements  entered  into, 
before  the  Adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid 
against  the  United  States  under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the 
Confederation. 

[2]  This  Constitution,  and  the  Laws  of  the  United  States 
which  shall  be  made  in  Pursuance  thereof ; and  all  Treaties 
made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the  authority  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  Law  of  the  Land  ; and 
the  Judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  any  Thing 
in  the  Constitution  or  Laws  of  any  State  to  the  Contrary  not- 
withstanding. 

[3]  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and 
the  Members  of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  execu- 
tive and  judicial  Officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the 
several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  Oath  or  Affirmation,  to  sup- 
port this  Constitution  ; but  no  religious  Test  shall  ever  be  re- 
quired as  a Qualification  to  any  Office  or  public  Trust  under 
the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

The  Ratification  of  the  Conventions  of  nine  States,  shall  be 
sufficient  for  the  Establishment  of  this  Constitution  between 
the  States  so  ratifying  the  Same. 

Done  in  Convention  by  the  Unanimous  Consent  of  the  States 
present  the  Seventeenth  Day  of  September  in  the  Year 
of  our  Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  Eighty 
seven  and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of 
America  the  Twelfth.  In  Witness  whereof  we  have 
hereunto  subscribed  our  Names, 

Go  Washington — 
Presidt  and  deputy  from  Virginia 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

John  Langdon  Nicholas  Gilman 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Nathaniel  Gorham  Rufus  King 

CONNECTICUT. 

Wm  Sami  Johnson  Roger  Sherman 

NEW  YORK. 

Alexander  Hamilton 

NEW  JERSEY. 

Wil  Livingston  David  Brearley 

Wm  Paterson  Jona  Dayton 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


B Franklin 

Thomas  Mifflin 

Robt  Morris 

Geo  Clymer 

Tho  Fitzsimons 

Jared  Ingersoll 

James  Wilson 

Gouv  Morris 

DELAWARE. 

Geo  Read 

Gunning  Bedford,  Jun’r 

John  Dickinson 
Jaco  Broom 

Richard  Bassett 

MARYLAND. 

James  M’Henry 

Dan  of  St  Thos  Jenifer 

Danl  Carroll 

VIRGINIA. 

John  Blair 

James  Madison,  Jr 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Wm  Blount 

Rich’d  Dobbs  Spaight 

Hu  Williamson 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

J Rutledge 

Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckney 

Charles  Pinckney 

Pierce  Butler 

GEORGIA. 

William  Few 

Abr  Baldwin 

Attest : 

William  Jackson,  Secretary , 

ARTICLES 

IN  ADDITION  TO,  AND  AMENDMENT  OF 
THE  CONSTITUTION 
OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

Proposed  by  Congress,  and  ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  the 
several  States , pursuant  to  the  fifth  article  of  the  original  Con- 
stitution. 

(ARTICLE  I.) 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of 
religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof  ; or  abridging 
the  freedom  of  speech,  or  of  the  press  ; or  the  right  of  the 
people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the  Government 
for  a redress  of  grievances. 

(ARTICLE  II.) 

A well  regulated  militia,  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a 
free  State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  Arms  shall 
not  be  infringed. 

hr 


(ARTICLE  III.) 

No  Soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace  be  quartered  in  any  house, 
without  the  consent  of  the  Owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a 
manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

(ARTICLE  IV.) 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons, 
houses,  papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and 
seizures  shall  not  be  violated,  and  no  Warrants  shall  issue,  but 
upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  Oath  or  affirmation,  and 
particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  per- 
sons or  things  to  be  seized. 

(ARTICLE  V.) 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a capital,  or  otherwise 
infamous  crime,  unless  on  a presentment  or  indictment  of  a 
Grand  Jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces, 
or  in  the  Militia,  when  in  actual  service  in  time  of  War  or 
public  danger ; nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same 
offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb  ; nor  shall 
be  compelled  in  any  Criminal  Case  to  be  a witness  against 
himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without 
due  process  of  law  ; nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for 
public  use,  without  just  compensation. 

(ARTICLE  VI.) 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the 
right  to  a speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the 
State  and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  com- 
mitted, which  district  shall  have  been  previously  ascertained 
by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  ac- 
cusation ; to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him  ; to 
have  Compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor, 
and  to  have  the  Assistance  of  Counsel  for  his  defence. 

(ARTICLE  VII.) 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy 
shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be 
preserved,  and  no  fact  tried  by  a jury  shall  be  otherwise  re- 
examined in  any  Court  of  the  United  States,  than  according  to 
the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

(ARTICLE  VIII.) 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  im- 
posed, nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

(ARTICLE  IX.) 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution,  of  certain  rights,  shall 
not  be  construed  to  deny  or  desparage  others  retained  by  the 
people. 

(ARTICLE  X.) 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Con- 
stitution, nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the 
States  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


(ARTICLE  XI.) 

The  Judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  con- 
strued to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or 
prosecuted  against  one  of  the  United  States  by  Citizens  of  an- 
other State,  or  by  Citizens  or  Subjects  of  any  Foreign  State. 

(ARTICLE  XII.) 

The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote 
by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice  President,  one  of  whom,  at 
least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  them- 
selves ; they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as 
President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice- 
President,  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  President  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice- 
President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which 
lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to 
the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed 
to  the  President  of  the  Senate  ; — The  President  of  the  Senate 
shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then 
be  counted  ; — The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
for  President  shall  be  President,  if  such  number  be  a ma- 
jority of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ; and  if  no 
person  have  such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the 
highest  numbers  not  exceeding  three  on  the  list  of  those  voted 
for  as  President,  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose 
immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the 
President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representa- 
tion from  each  State  having  one  vote  ; a quorum  for  this  pur- 
pose shall  consist  of  a member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of 
the  states,  and  a majority  of  all  the  states  shall  be  necessary 
to  a choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not 
choose  a President  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve 
upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following, 
then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the  President. 
— The  Person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice- 
President,  shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Electors  appointed,  and  if 
no  person  have  a majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  num- 
bers on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-President  ; a 
quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a majority  of  the  whole  num- 
ber shall  be  necessary  to  a choice.  But  no  person  constitu- 
tionally ineligible  to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible  to 
that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

(ARTICLE  XIII.) 

Section  I.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  ex- 
cept as  a punishment  for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have 
been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  United  States,  or 
any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article 
by  appropriate  legislation. 


(ARTICLE  XIV.) 

Section  1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United 
States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of 
the  United  States  and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No 
State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge  the 
privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States:  nor 
shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its 
jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

Section  2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting 
the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians 
not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the 
choice  of  electors  for  President  and  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  representatives  in  Congress,  the  executive  or 
judicial  officers  of  a State,  or  the  members  of  the  Legislature 
thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State, 
being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in  re- 
bellion or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation  shall  therein 
be  reduced  to  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male 
citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens 
twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

Section  3.  No  person  shall  be  a senator  or  representative 
in  Congress,  or  elector  of  President  or  Vice-President,  or  hold 
any  office,  civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States,  or  under 
any  State,  who,  having  previously  taken  an  oath  as  a member 
of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  U nited  States,  or  as  a member 
of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  a judicial  officer 
of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the 
same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.  But 
Congress  may,  by  a vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House,  remove 
such  disability. 

Section  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United 
States,  authorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  pay- 
ment of  pensions  and  bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  in- 
surrection or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But  neither 
the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt 
or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  eman- 
cipation of  any  slave  ; but  all  such  debts,  obligations  and 
claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Section  5.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appro- 
priate legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

(ARTICLE  XV.) 

Section  1.  The  right  of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States 
to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States, 
or  by  any  State,  on  account  of  race,  color  or  previous  condi- 
tion of  servitude. 

Section  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this 
article  by  appropriate  legislation. 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


375 


HE  ball  must  not  weigh  less  than  5 ounces,  and 
not  more  than  5^  ; and  must  measure  not  less 
than  9,  and  not  more  than  9^  inches  in  cir- 
cumference. It  must  be  composed  of  India- 
rubber  and  yarn  covered  with  leather. 

The  bat  must  be  round,  and  must  not  exceed 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  thickest  part  ; nor  42 
inches  in  length. 

3.  The  bases,  four  in  number,  must  be  securely  fast- 
ened at  the  corners  of  a square,  whose  side  is  thirty  yards. 
They  must  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  plainly  visible  to  the 
umpire,  and  must  cover  respectively  a space  equal  to  one 
square  foot.  The  first,  second,  and  third  bases  shall  be 
canvas  bags,  painted  white  and  stuffed  with  sand  or  saw- 
dust ; the  home  base  to  be  marked  by  a circular  iron  plate 
colored  white.  A similar  mark  shall  also  be  used  for  the 
pitcher’s  post. 

The  base  from  which  the  ball  is  struck  shall  be  called  the 
home  base  ; the  first  base  is  that  on  the  right  hand  of  the 
striker  ; the  second,  that  opposite  to  him  ; and  the  third, 
that  on  his  left.  Chalk  lines  must  be  drawn  from  the 
home  base  to  the  first  and  third  bases  respectively,  so  as 
to  be  plainly  visible  to  the  umpire. 

The  pitcher’s  position  shall  be  marked  by  two  lines,  four 
yards  in  length,  drawn  at  right  angles  to  a line  from 
home  to  second  base,  having  their  centers  upon  that  line 


at  two  fixed  iron  plates,  placed  at  points  fifteen  and  six- 
teen yards  respectively  from  the  home  base.  The  pitcher 
must  stand  within  these  lines,  and  must  deliver  the  ball 
as  nearly  as  possible  over  the  center  of  the  home  base,  and 
suitably  for  the  striker. 

6.  Should  the  pitcher  fail  repeatedly  to  deliver  fair  balls  to 
the  striker,  for  the  apparent  purpose  of  delaying  the  game, 
or  from  any  other  cause,  the  umpire,  after  warning  him, 
shall  call  “ One  ball  and  if  the  pitcher  persists  in  such 
action,  “ Two  ” and  “ Three  balls  when  seven  balls  shall 
have  thus  been  called,  the  striker  shall  be  entitled  to  the 
first  base, and  each  occupant  of  a base  at  the  time  shall  be 
entitled  to  the  next,  without  the  liability  to  being  put  out. 

7.  The  ball  must  be  pitched,  not  jerked  or  thrown,  to  the 
bat,  and  a “ balk  ” must  be  called  if  he  make  pretense  or 
offer  to  throw  the  ball  without  doing  so  ; or  he  be  not  in- 
side his  ground,  or  either  foot  be  off  the  ground  at  the 
moment  of  delivery. 

8.  When  three  “foul  balls”  have  been  called  the  umpire 
shall  declare  the  game  forfeited. 

9.  If  a ball  from  a stroke  of  the  bat  take  the  ground,  touch 
the  person  of  a plaveror  any  other  object,  between  home  and 
the  first  or  third  bases,  it  shall  be  considered  fair,  if  within 
the  foul  ball  lines. 

10.  A player  making  the  home  base  shall  be  entitled  to  score 
one  run. 

11.  If  three  balls  are  struck  at  and  missed,  and  the  last  one  is 
not  caught  flying,  the  striker  must  attempt  to  make  his  run. 

12.  The  striker  is  out  if  a foul  ball  be  caught  either  flying  or 
at  the  first  bound  ; or,  if  three  balls  be  struck  at  and  missed 
and  the  ball  be  caught  flying:  or,  if  the  ball  be  similarly 
caught  from  a fair  stroke  of  the  bat ; or,  if  a fair  ball  after 
being  struck,  be  held  by  a player  on  first  base  before  the 
striker  touches  that  base. 


57° 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


larly  caught  from  a fair  stroke  of  the  bat  ; or  if  a fair  ball, 
after  being  struck,  be  held  by  a player  on  first  base  before 
the  striker  touches  that  base. 

13.  Any  player  running  the  bases  is  out  if  at  any  time  he  be 
touched  by  the  ball  while  in  play  in  the  hands  of  an  ad- 
versary, unless  some  part  of  his  person  be  on  the  base. 

14.  No  ace  or  base  can  be  made  on  a foul  ball  : such  ball  shall 
be  considered  “ dead  ” and  out  of  play  until  it  shall  be 
settled  in  the  hands  of  the  pitcher.  In  such  case  players 
running  bases  must  return  to  those  they  started  from,  and 
in  so  returning  may  be  put  out  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
striker  in  making  his  first  base. 

15.  No  ace  or  base  can  be  made  when  a fair  ball  has  been 
caught  before  touching  the  ground.  In  such  cases  players 
running  bases  must  return  as  above,  subject  to  a similar 
risk  of  being  put  out.  But  after  the  ball  has  been  so 
caught,  players  may  start  to  run  their  bases  at  their  dis- 
cretion, subject  to  the  ordinary  risks  of  being  put  out. 

16.  The  strikers  must  stand  on  a line  drawn  through  the  cen- 
ter of  the  home  base,  their  feet  on  either  side  of  it,  and 
parallel  with  the  line  occupied  by  the  pitcher.  Players 
must  strike  in  regular  rotation  ; the  order  agreed  upon  at 
the  beginning  being  continued  throughout  the  match, 
from  innings  to  innings.  The  next  man  to  the  last  man 
out  in  one  innings  being  the  first  striker  in  the  succeed- 
ing. 

17.  Players  must  make  their  bases  in  the  order  of  striking,  and 
when  a fair  ball  is  struck  and  not  caught,  as  in  Rule  15, 
players  holding  bases  to  which  another  player  must  of 
necessity  run  must  vacate  them  and  make  for  the  next, 
subject  to  being  put  out  as  in  Rule  13. 

18.  Players  running  bases  must  touch  them,  and  so  far  as 
possible  keep  upon  the  direct  line  between  them.  Should 
any  player  run  more  than  three  feet  out  of  this  line  to 
avoid  the  ball  in  the  hands  of  an  adversary,  he  shall  be 
declared  out. 

19.  Any  player  who  shall  intentionally  obstruct  an  adversary 
in  catching  or  fielding  a ball  shall  be  declared  out. 

20.  If  a player  in  making  his  base  be  obstructed  by  an  adver- 
sary, he  shall  be  entitled  to  that  base,  and  cannot  be  put 
out. 

21.  If  a fieldsman  stops  the  ball  with  his  bat  or  cap,  or  takes 
it  from  the  hand  of  any  one  not  engaged  in  the  game,  no 
player  can  be  put  out  until  the  ball  shall  first  have  been 
settled  in  the  hands  of  the  pitcher. 

22.  If  two  hands  are  already  out,  no  player  running  home  at 
the  time  a ball  is  struck  can  make  an  ace  if  the  striker  is 
put  out. 

23.  The  game  shall  consist  of  nine  innings  to  each  side. 

24.  In  playing  matches,  nine  players  on  a side  shall  constitute 
a full  field. 

25.  Should  a striker  stand  at  the  bat  without  striking  at  good 
balls  repeatedly  pitched  to  him,  the  umpire,  after  warn- 
ing him,  shall  call  “One  strike,”  and,  if  he  persists  in 
such  action,  “ Two  ” and  “ Three  strikes.”  When  three 
strikes  are  called,  he  shall  be  subject  to  the  same  rule  as 
if  he  had  struck  at  three  fair  balls. 


The  Ground. — For  the  purposes  of  this  game  it  is  neces- 
sary, if  really  fine  play  be  contemplated,  to  have  a sheet  of 
turf  smooth  as  a cricket-field.  There  is,  of  course,  no  neces- 
sity for  the  ultra-smoothness  of  the  “between  wickets,”  but 
the  out-fielding  ought  to  be  at  least  as  good  in  one  as  in  the 
other.  For  men  the  field  should  be  about  two  hundred  yards 
long  by  a hundred  and  fifty  yards  broad  ; but  for  boys  a field 
of  considerably  less  dimensions  will  serve  all  reasonable  re- 
quirements. 

In  laying  out  the  ground,  which  had  better  be  done  perma- 
nently, it  is  well  to  start  with  the  home  base,  which  should  be 
marked  out  about  twenty  yards  from  one  end  of  the  field  ; 
measure  from  this  along  the  field  one  hundred  and  twenty - 
seven  feet  four  inches  for  your  second  base.  Now,  for  the 
first  and  third  attach  a cord  sixty  yards  long,  with  a knot  in 
the  middle,  to  the  rings  of  the  home  and  second  base,  stretch 
this  as  far  as  it  will  go  to  the  right  for  the  first  base,  which 
will  be  marked  by  the  knot,  and  to  the  left  for  the  third. 
Mark  also  a point  fifteen  yards  from  the  home  in  the  direction 
of  the  second  base  for  the  pitcher's  post. 

The  bases  should  be  marked  by  letting  a short  stout  post 
into  the  ground,  just  leaving  the  top  flush  with  the  surface, 
and  a stout  iron  ring  must  be  screwed  into  each  as  a point 
of  attachment  for  the  canvas  cushions  described  in  Rule  3. 

The  striker  is  left  to  follow  his  own  fancy  as  to  the  length 
of  his  bat,  and,  so  long  as  it  is  of  wood,  is  not  tied  down  by 
any  regulation.  Ash  is,  perhaps,  the  most  generally  service- 
able, but  willow  will  be,  perhaps,  preferred  by  those  who  like 
a light  bat. 

There  is  no  rule  as  to  the  manner  of  handling  of  a bat,  this 
also  being  left  to  the  individual  fancy  of  the  player. 

The  Game. — Each  player  counts  one  to  the  score  every  time 
he  completes  the  circuit  of  the  bases,  and  two  if  he  makes  an 
ace  or  rounder,  that  is,  gets  all  round  and  home  off  one  strike. 

The  Field. — The  nine  fieldsmen  are  placed  as  follows, 
their  names  indicating  theirpositions  : the  Catcher  ox  Back-stop, 
a few  yards  behind  the  striker,  to  catch  or  stop  the  ball  ; the 
Pitcher,  at  the  pitching-post,  to  serve  the  ball  ; the  Short-stop, 
about  ten  yards  behind  the  pitcher,  as  a near  field  and  general 
utility  man  inside  the  bases  ; three  Base-tenders,  one  for  each 
base,  whose  duty  it  is,  when  a runner  is  making  for  a base,  to 
stand  with  one  foot  on  the  cushion  in  readiness  to  catch  the 
ball.  The  other  three,  called  respectively  Right-feld , Center- 
field,  and  Left-field,  stand  well  out  in  the  positions  their  names 
indicate. 

The  same  qualities  are  required  in  a fieldsman  for  this  game 
as  in  “ Cricket : ” great  activity  and  alertness,  a safe  pair 
of  hands  for  a catch,  extreme  dexterity  in  meeting  and  stop- 
ping a ball,  and  above  all,  without  which  the  rest  will  be  of 
little  avail,  perfect  accuracy  in  returning  it  to  the  pitcher  or 
base-tender  as  occasion  may  require. 

Further,  an  umpire  and  scorer  are  required,  the  former  of 
whom  must  be  thoroughly  up  in  the  rules  of  the  game,  and 
should  see  that  they  are  rigidly  enforced. 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


377 


GOOD  game  to  get  warm  with  when  there  is  no 
time  for  any  more  set  amusement.  One  player 
stands  upon  a mound  or  piece  of  rising  ground, 
crying,  “ I am  king  of  the  castle,”  and  the  others 
try  to  pull  him  down  and  supplant  him.  Any 
agreement  may  be  entered  into  previously  as  to 
what  use  of  the  hands,  etc.,  shall  be  allowed.  The 
game  works  better  when  nothing  but  pure  pushing 
is  allowed — no  holding  or  dragging. 

The  writer  once  saw  a lot  of  lambs  play  this  game  in  splen- 
did style,  using  a large  stone  about  a yard  in  diameter  as  their 
castle.  There  must  have  been  about  forty  of  them,  and  they 
played  the  game  just  like  a parcel  of  boys,  showing  a wonder- 
ful individuality  of  character  amongst  them — some  very 
plucky  and  not  to  be  denied,  some  making  a great  parade  of 
charging,  but  doing  next  to  nothing,  and  others  merely  pranc- 
ing and  frisking  about,  and  making  no  attempt  to  get  on  the 
stone  at  all. 

The  wag  of  the  party  was  a rather  slightly  built  but  wiry 
black  lamb  : he  was  here,  there,  and  everywhere^  all  at  once  : 
at  one  moment  gallantly  storming  the  castle  ; at  another 
scouring  madly  off,  with  a lot  after  him  in  their  usually  gre- 
garious fashion  ; then  coming  back  equally  suddenly,  with  a 
rush  and  a spring  clean  on  to  the  stone,  driving  his  head  into 
the  ribs  of  the  unfortunate  king,  and  sending  him  flying  over 
and  over.  After  this,  perhaps,  he  would  execute  a war-dance 
on  the  stone  in  triumph,  but  it  was  equally  likely  that  he  would 
jump  down  again  for  another  scamper,  or  would  suddenly 
stand  still  in  a meditative  manner,  and  regard  the  prospect 
with  an  air  of  the  most  profound  abstraction  from  all  sub- 
lunary considerations.  This  game  went  on  for  weeks  : the 
lambs  never  seemed  to  tire  of  it,  and  the  black  lamb  kept  up 
his  spirits  to  the  last.  He  went  the  way  of  most  black  lambs 
at  last  ; but  he  enjoyed  life  to  the  end,  and  what  more  could 
he  desire  ? 


'HIS  game  derives  its  title  from  the  fact  that  it 
requires  no  court,  and  can  be  played  on  any 
lawn  at  a small  cost  for  fittings.  These  consist 
of  two  poles,  a net,  and  a few  rackets  and  balls. 
The  ground  is  set  out  as  follows,  the  dimensions 
being  those  used  at  Lord’s.  These  dimensions 
may  be  varied  according  to  the  size  of  the  ground, 
providing  that  a due  proportion  be  preserved. 

First,  the  two  posts  are  set  up,  24  ft.  apart,  and  the 
net  so  hung  that  it  is  5 ft.  from  the  ground  where  it  touches 
the  poles,  and  4 ft.  in  the  middle.  The  form  of  the  court  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration  : 


The  rules  of  the  game  are  briefly  as  follows  : 

The  players  take  their  stand  on  opposite  sides  of  this  net. 
The  player  who  “ serves  ” — 2.  e .,  gives  the  first  stroke — stands 
in  one  of  the  courts,  with  one  foot  beyond  the  base-line.  He 
then  strikes  the  ball  over  the  net,  so  that  it  falls  in  the  diago- 
nal court,  and  within  the  server’s  line.  After  it  has  touched 
the  ground,  the  opponent  tries  to  strike  it  over  the  net  again. 
Should  he  fail,  or  send  the  ball  beyond  the  base-line,  the  first 
player,  or  “hand-in,”  scores  one  point.  Should  he  succeed, 
and  “ hand-in  ” fail  to  return  it  properly,  the  other  player  be- 
comes “hand-in.”  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  only  the 
“ hand-in  ” can  score,  and  that,  in  case  of  his  failure,  he  and 
“ hand-out  ” change  places. 

It  is  not  allowed  to  “ volley  ” a ball — i.  e.,  to  strike  it  be- 
fore it  has  touched  the  ground.  The  stroke  is  lost  if  a ball 
touch  any  part  of  a player  or  his  clothes,  or  if  it  be  struck  more 
than  once.  Fifteen  points  constitute  the  game. 


37» 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


^ FULL-SIZED  croquet  ground  should  measure 
40  yards  by  30  yards.  Its  boundaries  should 
be  accurately  defined. 

The  Hoops  should  be  of  half-inch  round  iron, 
and  should  not  be  more  than  6 inches  in  width, 
inside  measurement.  The  crown  of  the  hoop 
should  be  at  least  12  inches  clear  ol  the  ground.  A 
hoop  with  the  crown  at  right  angles  to  the  legs  is 
to  be  preferred. 

The  Pegs  should  be  of  uniform  diameter  of  not  less  than  i| 
inch,  and  should  stand  at  least  18  inches  above  the  ground. 

The  Balls  should  be  of  boxwood,  and  should  not  weigh  less 
than  14  ounces  each. 

The  Four-Ball  Game  is  recommended  for  adoption  in  pref- 
erence to  any  other. 

When  odds  are  given,  the  Bisque  is  recommended.  A 
bisque  is  an  extra  stroke  which  may  be  taken  at  any  time 
during  the  game  in  continuation  of  the  turn.  A player  re- 
ceiving a bisque  cannot  roquet  a ball  twice  in  the  same  turn 
without  making  an  intermediate  point.  In  other  respects,  a 
bisque  confers  all  the  advantages  of  an  extra  turn.  A player 
receiving  two  or  more  bisques  cannot  take  more  than  one  in 
the  same  turn.  Passing  the  boundary,  or  making  a foul 
stroke,  does  not  prevent  the  player  taking  a bisque. 

The  following  Settings  are  recommended  : 

No.  1.  Eight-Hoop  Setting. — Distances  on  a full-sized 
ground  : Pegs  3 yards  from  boundary  ; first  and  correspond- 
ing hoon  5 yards  from  pegs  ; center  hoops  midway  between 
first  and  sixth  hoops,  and  5 yards  from  each  other  ; corner 
hoops  6 yards  from  end  of  ground,  and  5 yards  from  side. 
Starting  spot  2 feet  in  front  of  first  hoop,  and  opposite  its 
center. 


No.  2.  Seven-Hoop  Setting. — Distances  on  a full-sized 
ground  : Pegs  in  center  line  of  ground  8 yards  from  nearest 
boundary.  Hoops  up  center  line  of  ground  6 yards  from  peg, 
and  6 yards  apart ; corner  hoops  7 yards  from  center,  and  in 
a line  with  pegs.  Starting  spot  i-J-  yard  from  first  hoop  in 
center  line  of  ground. 

No.  3.  Six-Hoop  Setting. — Distances  on  a full-sized  ground 
as  in  No.  2,  except  the  middle-line  hoops  8 yards  apart.  Start- 
ing spot  1 foot  from  left-hand  corner  hoop,  and  opposite  its 
center. 

It  is  essential  to  match  play  that  bystanders  should  abstain 
from  walking  over  the  grounds,  speaking  to  the  players  or  the 
umpires,  making  remarks  upon  them  aloud,  or  in  any  way  dis- 
tracting their  attention. 


DEFINITIONS. 

A Point  is  made  when  a hoop  is  run,  or  a peg  is  hit,  in 

order 


The  striker’s  hoop  or  peg  in  order  is  the  one  he  has  next  te 
make. 

A Roquet  is  made  when  the  striker’s  ball  is  caused  by  a blow 
of  the  mallet  to  hit  another  which  it  has  not  before  hit  in  the 
same  turn  since  making  a point. 

The  striker’s  ball  is  said  to  be  in  play  until  it  roquets  another. 
Having  made  roquet,  it  is  in  hand  until  croquet  is  taken.  Cro- 
quet is  taken  by  placing  the  striker’s  ball  in  contact  with  the 
one  roqueted,  the  striker  then  hitting  his  own  ball  with  the 
mallet.  The  non-striker’s  ball,  when  moved  by  a croquet,  is 
called  the  croqueted  ball. 

A Rover  is  a ball  that  has  made  all  its  points  in  order  except 
the  winning  peg. 


THE  LAWS  OF  CROQUET. 

1.  Mallets. — There  should  be  no  restriction  as  to  the  number 

weight,  size,  shape,  or  material  of  the  mallets  ; nor  as  to 
the  attitude  or  position  of  the  striker  ; nor  as  to  the  part 
of  the  mallet  held,  provided  the  ball  be  not  struck  with 
the  handle,  nor  the  mace  stroke  used. 

2.  Size  of  Balls. — The  balls  used  in  match  play  shall  be  3I 

inches  in  diameter. 

3.  Choice  of  Lead  and  of  Balls. — It  shall  be  decided  by  lot 

which  side  shall  have  choice  of  lead  and  of  balls.  In  a 
succession  of  games  the  choice  of  lead  shall  be  alternate, 

' the  sides  keeping  the  same  balls. 

4.  Commencfment  of  Game. — In  commencing,  each  ball  shall 

be  placed  on  the  starting  spot  (see  Settings).  The  striker’s 
ball,  when  so  placed  and  struck,  is  at  once  in  play,  and 
can  roquet  another,  or  be  roqueted,  whether  it  has  made 
the  first  hoop  or  not. 

5.  Stroke,  when  taken. — A stroke  is  considered  to  be  taken  if 

a ball  be  moved  in  the  act  of  striking  ; but  should  a player, 
in  taking  aim,  move  his  ball  accidentally,  it  must  be  re- 
placed to  the  satisfaction  of  the  adversary,  and  the  stroke 
be  then  taken.  If  a ball  be  moved  in  taking  aim,  and 
then  struck  without  being  replaced,  the  stroke  is  foul  (see 
Law  25). 

6.  Hoop,  when  run.  — A ball  has  run  its  hoop  when  having 

passed  through  from  the  playing  side  and  ceased  to  roll, 
it  cannot  be  touched  by  a straight-edge  placed  against  the 
wires  on  the  side  from  which  it  was  played. 

7.  Ball  driven  partly  through  Hoop. — A ball  driven  partly 

through  its  hoop  from  the  non-playing  side  cannot  run 
the  hoop  at  its  next  stroke,  if  it  can  be  touched  by  a 
straight-edge  placed  against  the  wires  on  the  non-play- 
ing side. 

8.  Points  counted  to  Non-Striker' s Ball.  — A ball  driven 

through  its  hoop,  or  against  the  turning  peg,  by  any  stroke 
not  foul,  whether  of  its  own  or  of  the  adverse  side,  counts 
the  point  so  made. 

9.  Points  made  for  Adversary's  Ball. — If  a point  be  made  for 

an  adversary’s  ball,  the  striker  must  inform  his  adversary 
of  it.  Should  the  striker  neglect  to  do  so,  and  the  adver* 
sary  make  the  point  again,  he  may  continue  his  turn  as 
though  he  had  played  for  his  right  point. 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


379 


I 


10. 


ii. 


12. 


13- 


14- 


15- 


16. 


17- 


18. 


19. 


20. 


21. 


x. 


Jk 


The  Turn. — A player,  when  his  turn  comes  round,  may 
roquet  each  ball  once,  and  may  do  this  again  after  each 
point  made.  The  player  continues  his  turn  so  long  as  he 
makes  a point  or  a roquet. 

Croquet  imperative  after  Roquet.— K player  who  roquets  a 
ball  must  take  croquet,  and  in  so  doing  must  move  both 
balls  (see  Law  25).  In  taking  croquet,  the  striker  is  not 
allowed  to  place  his  foot  on  the  ball. 

Ball  in  hand  after  Roquet. — No  point  or  roquet  can  be 
made  by  a ball  which  is  in  hand.  If  a ball  in  hand  dis- 
place any  other  balls,  they  must  remain  where  they  are 
driven.  Any  point  made  in  consequence  of  such  dis- 
placement counts,  notwithstanding  that  the  ball  displac- 
ing them  is  in  hand. 

Balls  Roqueted  simultaneously. — When  a player  roquets 
two  balls  simultaneously,  he  may  choose  from  which  of 
them  he  will  take  croquet  ; and  a second  roquet  will  be 
required  before  he  can  take  croquet  from  the  other  ball. 
Balls  found  Touching. — If  at  the  commencement  of  a turn 
the  striker’s  ball  be  found  touching  another,  roquet  is 
deemed  to  be  made,  and  croquet  must  be  taken  at  once. 
Roquet  and  Hoop  made  by  same  Stroke. — Should  a ball,  in 
making  its  hoop,  roquet  another  that  lies  beyond  the  hoop, 
and  then  pass  through,  the  hoop  counts  as  well  as  the  ro- 
quet. A ball  is  deemed  to  be  beyond  the  hoop  if  it  lies 
so  that  it  cannot  be  touched  by  a straight-edge  placed 
against  the  wires  on  the  playing  side.  Should  any  part 
of  the  ball  that  is  roqueted  be  lying  on  the  playing  side 
of  the  hoop,  the  roquet  counts,  but  not  the  hoop. 

Pegging  out. — If  a rover  (except  when  in  hand)  be  caused 
to  hit  the  winning  peg  by  any  stroke  of  the  same  side,  not 
foul,  the  rover  is  out  of  the  game,  and  must  be  removed 
from  the  ground.  A rover  may  similarly  be  pegged  out 
by  an  adverse  rover. 

Rover  pegged  out  by  Roquet. — A player  who  pegs  out  a 
rover  by  a roquet  loses  the  remainder  of  his  turn. 

Balls  sent  off  the  Ground. — A ball  sent  off  the  ground 
must  at  once  be  replaced  3 feet  within  the  boundary, 
measured  from  the  spot  where  it  went  off,  and  at  right 
angles  to  the  margin.  If  this  spot  be  already  occupied, 
the  ball  last  sent  off  is  to  be  placed  anywhere  in  contact 
with  the  other,  at  the  option  of  the  player  sending  off  the 
ball. 

Ball  sent  off  near  Comer. — A ball  sent  off  within  3 feet  of 
a comer  is  to  be  replaced  3 feet  from  both  boundaries. 
Ball  touching  Boundary. — If  the  boundary  be  marked  by 
a line  on  the  turf,  a ball  touching  the  line  is  deemed  to 
have  been  off  the  ground.  If  the  boundary  be  raised,  a 
ball  touching  the  boundary  is  similarly  deemed  to  have 
been  off  the  ground. 

Ball  sent  off  and  returning  to  Ground. — If  a ball  be  sent 
off  the  ground,  and  return  to  it,  the  ball  must  be  similarly 
replaced,  measuring  from  the  point  of  first  contact  with 
the  boundary. 

Ball  sent  within  3 feet  of  Boundary. — A ball  sent  within 
3 feet  of  the  boundary,  but  not  off  the  ground,  is  to  be 
replaced  as  though  it  had  been  sent  off — except  in  the 
case  of  the  striker’s  ball,  when  the  striker  has  the  option 


of  bringing  his  ball  in,  or  of  playing  from  where  it 
lies. 

23.  Boundary  interfering  with  Stroke. — If  it  be  found  that 
the  height  of  the  boundary  interferes  with  the  stroke,  the 
striker,  with  the  sanction  of  the  umpire,  may  bring  in  the 
balls  a longer  distance  than  3 feet,  so  as  to  allow  a free 
swing  of  the  mallet.  Balls  so  brought  in  must  be  moved 
in  the  line  of  aim. 

24.  Dead  Boundary. — If,  in  taking  croquet,  the  striker  send 
his  own  ball,  or  the  ball  croqueted,  off  the  ground,  he 
loses  the  remainder  of  his  turn  ; bnt  if  by  the  same  stroke 
he  make  a roquet,  his  ball,  being  in  hand,  may  pass  the 
boundary  without  penalty.  Should  either  ball  while  roll- 
ing after  a croquet  be  touched  or  diverted  from  its  course 
by  an  opponent,  the  striker  has  the  option  given  him  by 
Law  26,  and  is  not  liable  to  lose  his  turn  should  the  ball 
which  has  been  touched  or  diverted  pass  the  boundary. 

25.  Foul  Strokes. — If  a player  make  a foul  stroke,  he  loses 
the  remainder  of  his  turn,  and  any  point  or  roquet  made 
by  such  stroke  does  not  count.  Balls  moved  by  a foul 
stroke  are  to  remain  where  they  lie,  or  be  replaced,  at  the 
option  of  the  adversary.  If  the  foul  be  made  when  tak- 
ing croquet,  and  the  adversary  elect  to  have  the  balls  re- 
placed, they  must  be  replaced  in  contact  as  they  stood 
when  the  croquet  was  taken.  The  following  are  foul 
strokes  : 

(a)  To  strike  with  the  mallet  another  ball  instead  of  or 
beside  one’s  own  in  making  the  stroke. 

(£)  To  spoon,  i.  e.,  to  push  a ball  without  an  audible 
knock. 

(c)  To  strike  a ball  twice  in  the  same  stroke. 

(d)  To  touch,  stop,  or  divert  the  course  of  a ball  when 

in  play  and  rolling,  whether  this  be  done  by  the 
striker  or  his  partner. 

( e ) To  allow  a ball  to  touch  the  mallet  in  rebounding 

from  a peg  or  wire. 

(/)  To  move  a ball  which  lies  close  to  a peg  or  wire  by 
striking  the  peg  or  wire. 

(g)  To  press  a ball  round  a peg  or  wire  (crushing 

stroke). 

(h)  To  play  a stroke  after  roquet  without  taking  cro- 

quet. 

(i)  To  fail  to  move  both  balls  in  taking  croquet. 

(k)  To  croquet  a ball  which  the  striker  is  not  entitled  to 
croquet. 

26.  Balls  touched  by  Adversary. — Should  a ball  when  roiling, 
except  it  be  in  hand,  be  touched,  stopped,  or  diverted 
from  its  course  by  an  adversary,  the  striker  may  elect 
whether  he  will  take  the  stroke  again,  or  whether  the  ball 
shall  remain  where  it  stopped,  or  be  placed  where,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  umpire,  it  would  have  rolled  to. 

27.  Balls  stopped  or  diverted  by  Umpire. — Should  a ball 
be  stopped  or  diverted  from  its  course  by  an  umpire,  he 
is  to  place  it  where  he  considers  it  would  have  rolled  to. 

28.  Playing  out  of  Turn,  or  with  the  Wrong  Ball. — If  s 
player  play  out  of  turn,  or  with  the  wrong  ball,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  turn  is  lost,  and  any  point  or  roquet  made 
after  the  mistake.  The  balls  remain  where  they  lie  when 


380 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


the  penalty  is  claimed,  or  are  replaced  as  they  were  before 
the  last  stroke  was  made,  at  the  option  of  the  adversary. 
But  if  the  adverse  side  play  without  claiming  the  penalty, 
the  turn  holds  good,  and  any  point  or  points  made  after 
the  mistake  are  scored  to  the  ball  by  which  they  have 
been  made — that  is,  the  ball  is  deemed  to  be  for  the  point 
next  in  order  to  the  last  point  made  in  the  turn — except 
when  the  adversary's  ball  has  been  played  with,  in  which 
case  the  points  are  scored  to  the  ball  which  ought  to  have 
been  played  with.  If  more  than  one  ball  be  played  with 
during  the  turn,  all  points  made  during  the  turn,  whether 
before  or  after  the  mistake,  are  scored  to  the  ball  last 
played  with.  Whether  the  penalty  be  claimed  or  not,  the 
adversary  may  follow  with  either  ball  of  his  own  side. 

29.  Playing  for  Wrong  Point. — If  a player  make  a wrong 
point  it  does  not  count,  and  therefore — unless  he  have,  by 
the  same  stroke,  taken  croquet,  or  made  a roquet — all 
subsequent  strokes  are  in  error,  the  remainder  of  turn  is 
lost,  and  any  point  or  roquet  made  after  the  mistake. 
The  balls  remain  where  they  lie  when  the  penalty  is 
claimed,  or  are  replaced  as  they  were  before  the  last 
stroke  was  made,  at  the  option  of  the  adversary.  But  if 
the  player  make  another  point,  or  the  adverse  side  play, 
before  the  penalty  is  claimed,  the  turn  holds  good  ; and 
the  player  who  made  the  mistake  is  deemed  to  be  for  the 
point  next  in  order  to  that  which  he  last  made. 

30.  Information  as  to  Score. — Every  player  is  entitled  to  be 
informed  which  is  the  next  point  of  any  ball. 

31.  State  of  Game,  if  disputed. — When  clips  are  used,  their 
position,  in  case  of  dispute,  shall  be  conclusive  as  to  the 
position  of  the  balls  in  the  game. 

32.  Wires  knocked  out  of  Ground. — Should  a player,  in  trying 
to  run  his  hoop,  knock  a wire  of  that  hoop  out  of  the 
ground  with  his  ball,  the  hoop  does  not  count.  The  ball 
must  be  replaced,  and  the  stroke  taken  again  ; but  if  by 
the  same  stroke  a roquet  be  made,  the  striker  may  elect 
whether  he  will  claim  the  roquet  or  have  the  balls  re- 
placed. 

33.  Pegs  or  Hoops  not  Upright. — Any  player  may  set  upright 
a peg  or  hoop,  except  the  one  next  in  order  ; and  that 
must  not  be  altered  except  by  the  umpire. 

34.  Ball  lying  in  a Hole  or  on  Bad  Ground. — A ball  lying  in 
a hole  or  on  bad  ground  may  be  removed  with  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  umpire.  The  ball  must  be  put  back — i.  e., 
away  from  the  object  aimed  at — and  so  as  not  to  alter  the 
line  of  aim. 

35.  Umpires. — An  umpire  shall  not  give  his  opinion,  or  no- 
tice any  error  that  may  be  made,  unless  appealed  to  by 
one  of  the  players.  The  decision  of  an  umpire,  when  ap- 
pealed to,  shall  be  final.  The  duties  of  an  umpire  are — 

(а)  To  decide  matters  in  dispute  during  the  game,  if  ap- 

pealed to. 

(б)  To  keep  the  score,  and,  if  asked  by  a player,  to  dis- 

close the  state  of  it. 

(c)  To  move  the  clips,  or  to  see  that  they  are  properly 

moved. 

(d)  To  replace  balls  sent  off  the  ground,  or  to  see  that 

they  are  properly  replaced. 


( e )  To  adjust  the  hoops  or  pegs  not  upright,  or  to  see 
that  they  are  properly  adjusted. 

36.  Absence  of  Umpire. — When  there  is  no  umpire  present, 
permission  to  move  a ball,  or  to  set  up  a peg  or  hoop,  or 
other  indulgence  for  which  an  umpire  would  be  appealed 
to.  must  be  asked  of  the  other  side. 

37.  Appeal  to  Referee. — Should  an  umpire  be  unable  to  decide 
any  point  at  issue,  he  may  appeal  to  the  referee,  whose 
decision  shall  be  final  ; but  no  player  may  appeal  to  the 
referee  from  the  decision  of  an  umpire. 


?HE  Ball  must  weigh  not  less  than  5$-  oz.,  nor 
more  than  5J  oz.  It  must  measure  not  less 
than  9^  inches  in  circumference.  At  the 
beginning  of  each  innings  either  party  may 
call  for  a new  ball. 

The  Bat  must  not  exceed  4^  inches  in  the 
widest  part  ; it  must  not  be  more  than  38  inches  in 
length. 

3.  The  Stumps  must  be  three  in  number,  27  inches 
out  of  the  ground  ; the  bails  8 inches  in  length  ; 
the  stumps  of  equal  and  sufficient  thickness  to  prevent 
the  ball  from  passing  through. 

The  Bowling-crease  must  be  in  a line  with  the  stumps, 
6 feet  8 inches  in  length,  the  stumps  in  the  center,  with 
a return-crease  at  each  end  towards  the  bowler  at  right 
angles. 

The  Popping-crease  must  be  4 feet  from  the  wicket,  and 
parallel  to  it  ; unlimited  in  length,  but  not  shorter  than 
the  bowling-crease. 

The  Wickets  must  be  pitched  opposite  to  each  other  by 
the  umpires,  at  the  distance  of  22  yards. 

It  shall  not  be  lawful  for  either  party,  during  a match, 
without  the  consent  of  the  other,  to  alter  the  ground  by 
rolling,  watering,  covering,  mowing,  or  beating,  except  at 
the  commencement  of  each  innings,  when  the  ground  may 
be  swept  and  rolled  at  the  request  of  either  party,  such 
request  to  be  made  to  one  of  the  umpires  within  one  min- 
ute after  the  conclusion  of  the  former  innings.  This  rule 
is  not  meant  to  prevent  the  striker  from  beating  the 
ground  with  his  bat  near  to  the  spot  where  he  stands  dur- 
ing the  innings  ; nor  to  prevent  the  bowler  filling  up 
holes  with  sawdust,  etc.,  when  the  ground  is  wet. 

After  rain  the  wickets  may  be  changed  with  the  consent 
of  both  parties. 

The  Bowler  shall  deliver  the  ball  with  one  foot  on 
the  ground  behind  the  bowling-crease  and  within 
the  return-crease,  and  shall  bowl  four  balls  before  he 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


change  wickets,  which  he  shall  be  permitted  to  do  only 
once  in  the  same  innings. 

10.  The  hall  must  be  bowled.  If  thrown  or  jerked,  the  um- 
pire shall  call  “ No  ball.” 

11.  He  may  require  the  striker  at  the  wicket  from  which  he 
is  bowling  to  stand  on  that  side  of  it  which  he  may 
direct. 

12.  If  the  bowler  shall  toss  the  ball  over  the  striker’s  head,  or 
bowl  it  so  wide  that  in  the  opinion  of  the  umpire  it  shall 
not  be  fairly  within  the  reach  of  the  batsman,  he  shall  ad- 
judge one  run  to  the  party  receiving  the  innings,  either 
with  or  without  an  appeal,  which  shall  be  put  down  to 
the  score  of  “wide  balls.”  Such  ball  shall  not  be  reck- 
oned as  one  of  the  four  balls  ; but  if  the  batsman  shall  by 
any  means  bring  himself  within  reach  of  the  ball,  the  run 
shall  not  be  adjudged. 

13.  If  the  bowler  deliver  a “ no  ball  " ora  “ wide  ball,”  the 
striker  shall  be  allowed  as  many  runs  as  he  can  get,  and 
he  shall  not  be  put  out,  except  by  running  out.  In  the 
event  of  no  run  being  obtained  by  any  other  means,  then 
one  run  shall  be  added  to  the  score  of  no  balls,  or  wide 
balls,  as  the  case  may  be.  All  runs  obtained  for  wide 
balls  to  be  scored  for  wide  balls.  The  names  of  the  bowl- 
ers who  bowl  wide  balls  and  no  balls  in  future  to  be 
placed  on  the  score,  to  show  the  parties  by  whom  either 
score  is  made.  If  the  ball  shall  first  touch  any  part  of  the 
striker’s  dress  or  person,  except  his  hands,  the  umpire 
shall  call  “ leg-bye.” 

14.  At  the  beginning  of  each  innings  the  umpire  shall  call 
“ Play  ! ” From  that  time  to  the  end  of  each  innings  no 
trial  ball  shall  be  allowed  to  any  bowler. 

15.  The  Striker  is  out  if  either  of  the  bails  be  bowled  off, 
or  if  a stump  be  bowled  out  of  the  ground  ; 

16.  Or  if  the  ball,  from  the  stroke  of  the  bat  or  hand,  but  not 
the  wrist,  be  held  before  it  touch  the  ground,  although  it 
be  hugged  to  the  body  of  the  catcher  ; 

17.  Or  if,  in  striking,  or  any  other  time  while  the  ball  shall 
be  in  play,  both  his  feet  shall  be  over  the  popping-crease 
and  his  wicket  put  down,  except  his  bat  be  grounded 
within  it  ; 

18.  Or  if,  in  striking  at  the  ball,  he  hit  down  his  wicket ; 

19.  Or  if,  under  pretense  of  running  or  otherwise,  either  of 
the  strikers  prevent  a ball  from  being  caught,  the  striker 
of  the  ball  is  out  ; 

20.  Or  if  the  ball  be  struck  and  he  wilfully  strike  it  again  ; 

21.  Or  if,  in  running,  the  wicket  be  struck  down  by  a throw, 
or  by  the  hand  or  arm  (with  ball  in  hand),  before  his  bat 
(in  hand)  or  some  part  of  his  person  be  grounded  over  the 
popping-crease.  But,  if  both  the  bails  be  off,  a stump 
must  be  struck  out  of  the  ground  ; 

22.  Or  if  any  part  of  the  striker’s  dress  knock  down  the 
wicket ; 

23.  Or  if  the  striker  touch  or  take  up  the  ball  while  in  play, 
unless  at  the  request  of  the  opposite  party  ; 

24.  Or  if  with  any  part  of  his  person  he  stop  the  ball,  which, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  umpire  at  the  bowler’s  wicket,  shall 
have  been  pitched  in  a straight  line  from  it  to  the  striker's 
wicket,  and  would  have  hit. 


25.  If  the  players  have  crossed  each  other,  he  that  runs  fot 
the  wicket  which  is  put  down  is  out. 

26.  A ball  being  caught,  no  run  shall  be  reckoned. 

27.  A striker  being  out,  that  run  which  he  and  his  partner 
were  attempting  shall  not  be  reckoned. 

28.  If  a lost  ball  be  called,  the  striker  shall  be  allowed  six 
runs  ; but  if  more  than  six  shall  have  been  called,  then 
the  striker  shall  have  all  that  have  been  run. 

29.  After  the  ball  shall  have  been  finally  settled  in  the  wick- 
et-keeper’s or  bowler’s  hands,  it  shall  be  considered  dead  ; 
but  when  the  bowler  is  about  to  deliver  the  ball,  if  the 
striker  at  his  wicket  go  outside  the  popping-crease  before 
such  actual  delivery,  the  said  bowler  may  put  him  out, 
unless  (with  reference  to  Law  21)  his  bat  in  hand,  orsome 
part  of  his  person,  be  within  the  popping-crease. 

30.  The  striker  shall  not  retire  from  his  wicket,  and  return  to 
it  to  complete  his  innings,  after  another  has  been  in,  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  opposite  party. 

31.  No  substitute  shall  in  any  case  be  allowed  to  stand  out  or 
run  between  wickets  for  another  person  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  opposite  party  ; and  in  case  any  person  shall 
be  allowed  to  run  for  another,  the  striker  shall  be  out  if 
either  he  or  his  substitute  be  off  the  ground,  in  manner 
mentioned  in  Laws  17  and  21,  while  the  ball  is  in  play. 

32.  In  all  cases  where  a substitute  shall  be  allowed,  the  con- 
sent of  the  opposite  party  shall  also  be  obtained  as  to  the 
person  to  act  as  substitute,  and  the  place  in  the  field  which 
he  shall  take. 

33.  If  any  fieldsman  stop  the  ball  with  his  hat,  the  ball  shall 
be  considered  dead,  and  the  opposite  party  shall  add  five 
runs  to  their  score  ; if  any  be  run,  they  shall  have  five 
in  all. 

34.  The  ball  having  been  hit,  the  striker  may  guard  his  wicket 
with  his  bat,  or  with  any  part  of  his  body  except  his 
hands,  that  Law  23  may  not  be  disobeyed. 

35.  The  wicket-keeper  shall  not  take  the  ball  for  the  purpose 
of  stumping  until  it  shall  have  passed  the  wicket  ; he  shall 
not  move  until  the  ball  be  out  of  the  bowler’s  hand  ; he 
shall  not  by  any  noise  incommode  the  striker  ; and  if  any 
part  of  his  person  be  over  or  before  the  wicket,  although 
the  ball  hit  it,  the  striker  shall  not  be  out 

36.  The  umpires  are  the  sole  judges  of  fair  or  unfair  play,  and 
all  disputes  shall  be  determined  by  them,  each  at  his  own 
wicket ; but  in  case  of  a catch  which  the  umpire  at  the 
wicket  bowled  from  cannot  see  sufficiently  to  decide  upon 
it,  he  may  apply  to  the  other  umpire,  whose  decision  shall 
be  conclqsive. 

37.  .The  umpires  in  all  matches  shall  pitch  fair  wickets,  and 
the  parties  shall  toss  up  for  choice  of  innings.  The  um- 
pires shall  change  wickets  after  each  party  has  had  one 
innings. 

38.  They  shall  allow  two  minutes  for  each  striker  to  come  in, 
and  ten  minutes  between  each  innings,  when  the  umpire 
shall  call  “ play.”  The  party  refusing  to  play  shall  lose 
the  match. 

39.  They  are  not  to  order  a striker  out,  unless  appealed  toby 
the  adversaries  ; 

40.  But  if  one  of  the  bowler’s  feet  be  not  on  the  grftund  be- 


382 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


hind  the  bowling-crease  and  within  the  return-crease  when 
he  shall  deliver  the  ball,  the  umpire  at  his  wicket,  un- 
asked, must  call  “ no  ball.” 

41.  If  either  of  the  strikers  run  a short  run,  the  umpire  must 
call  “one  short.” 

42.  No  umpire  shall  be  allowed  to  bet. 

43.  No  umpire  is  to  be  changed  during  a match,  unless  with 
the  consent  of  both  parties,  except  in  case  of  violation  of 
Law  42  ; then  either  party  may  dismiss  the  transgressor. 

44.  After  the  delivery  of  four  balls  the  umpire  must  call 
“ over,”  but  not  until  the  ball  shall  be  finally  settled  in 
wicket-keeper’s  hands  : the  ball  shall  then  be  considered 
dead.  Nevertheless,  if  an  idea  be  entertained  that  either 
of  the  strikers  is  out,  a question  maybe  put  previously  to, 
but  not  after,  the  delivery  of  the  next  ball. 

45.  The  umpire  must  take  especial  care  to  call  “ no  ball  ” in- 
stantly upon  delivery,  and  “wide  ball  ” as  soon  as  it 
shall  pass  the  striker. 

46.  The  players  who  go  in  second  shall  follow  their  innings 
if  they  have  obtained  80  runs  less  than  their  antagonists, 
except  in  all  matches  limited  to  only  one  day’s  play,  when 
the  number  of  runs  shall  be  limited  to  60  instead  of  80. 

47.  When  one  of  the  strikers  shall  have  been  put  out,  the  use 
of  the  bat  shall  not  be  allowed  to  any  person  until  the 
next  striker  shall  come  in. 


THE  LAWS  OF  SINGLE  WICKET. 

1.  When  there  shall  be  less  than  five  players  on  a side, 
bounds  shall  be  placed  22  yards  each  in  a line  from  the 
off  and  leg  stump. 

2.  The  ball  must  be  hit  before  the  bounds,  to  entitle  the 
striker  to  run,  which  run  cannot  be  obtained  unless  he 
touch  the  bowling-stump  or  crease  in  a line  with  his  bat, 
or  some  part  of  his  person,  or  go  beyond  them,  returning 
to  the  popping-crease,  as  at  double  wicket,  according  to 
Law  21. 

3.  When  the  striker  shall  hit  the  ball,  one  of  his  feet  must 
be  on  the  ground  and  behind  the  popping-crease  ; other- 
wise the  umpire  shall  call  “no  hit.” 

4.  When  there  shall  be  less  than  five  players  on  a side, 
neither  byes  nor  overthrows  shall  be  allowed ; nor  shall 
the  striker  be  caught  out  behind  the  wicket,  nor  stumped 
out. 

5.  The  fieldsman  must  return  the  ball  so  that  it  shall  cross 
the  play  between  the  wicket  and  the  bowjing-stump,  or 
between  the  bowling-stump  and  the  bounds  ; the  striker 
may  run  till  the  ball  be  so  returned. 

6.  After  the  striker  shall  have  made  one  run,  if  he  start 
again,  he  must  touch  the  bowling-stump  and  turn  before 
the  ball  cross  the  play,  to  entitle  him  to  another. 

7.  The  striker  shall  be  entitled  to  three  runs  for  lost  ball, 
and  the  same  number  for  ball  stopped  with  bat,  with  ref- 
erence to  Laws  28  and  23  of  double  wicket. 

8.  When  there  shall  be  more  than  four  players  on  a side, 
there  shall  be  no  bounds.  All  hits,  byes  and  overthrows 
shall  then  be  allowed. 


9.  The  bowler  is  subject  to  the  same  laws  as  at  double 
wicket. 

10.  Not  more  than  one  minute  shall  be  allowed  between  each 
ball. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  RULES. 

DOUBLE  WICKET. 

Rules  3,  4 and  5. — The  accompanying  diagram  will  explain, 
better  than  many  words,  the  arrangement  and  method  of 
marking  the  various  creases,  which  are  usually  marked  out  on 
the  turf  with  a mixture  of  chalk  or  whiting  and  water. 


r.  c 

s s s C , 

3 ft- 

8 

in.  3 ft* 

p 

G 

Unlimited. 

in,  the  Stumps  (the  three  together  forming  the  IVickef) ; B.  C.  the 
Bowling-crease  ; r.  c.  the  Returning-crease  ; P.  C.  the  Popping-crease. 


It  is  well  to  practice  always  with  the  creases  duly  marked, 
and  in  strict  observance  of  all  rules  connected  with  them,  as 
the  mind  thus  forms  a habit  of  unconscious  conformity  to 
them,  and  the  player  is  not  embarrassed,  as  too  many  are  when 
they  come  to  play  in  an  actual  match,  by  the  necessity  of  keep- 
ing a watch  over  his  feet  as  well  as  over  the  ball.  Many  a 
good  bat,  especially  amongst  boys,  allows  himself  to  be 
cramped  in  his  play  in  this  very  unsatisfactory  manner. 

The  purposes  of  the  several  creases  are  as  follows  : 

The  Bowling-crease  marks  the  nearest  spot  to  the  striker 
from  which  the  bowler  may  deliver  the  ball. 

The  Return-crease  prevents  the  bowler  from  delivering 
the  ball  at  an  unreasonable  distance  laterally  from  the  wicket  ; 
and  the  two  together  mark  out  within  sufficiently  exact  limits 
the  precise  spot  from  which  the  striker  may  expect  the  ball. 

The  Popping-crease,  while  giving  the  striker  ample  space 
to  work  in,  puts  a check  upon  any  attempt  to  get  unduly  for- 
ward to  meet  the  ball  ; it  forms,  too,  a distinct  and  convenient 
mark  by  which  to  judge  of  a man’s  being  on  his  ground,  and 
of  his  having  run  the  requisite  distance  between  wickets.  It 
is  unlimited,  to  avoid  the  confusion  between  strikers  and 
fieldsmen,  which  must  inevitably  be  of  constant  recurrence 
were  the  strikers  required  to  run  directly  from  wicket  to 
wicket. 

Rule  13. — “ All  runs  obtained  from  wide  balls  to  be  scored 
to  wide  balls.”  This  does  not  include  hits,  as,  by  the  latter 
part  of  Rule  12,  “ if  the  batsman  bring  himself  within  reach 
of  the  ball,  the  wide  does  not  count.”  Hits,  therefore,  made 
off  wide  balls  score  to  the  striker. 


1 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


383 


Rule  17. — The  popping-crease  itself,  it  must  be  remembered, 
does  not  form  part  of  the  ground  ; the  bat  or  part  of  the  body 
must,  therefore,  be  inside  it  ; on  it  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  rule  : if  the  bat  or  some  portion  of  the 
body  be  not  on  the  ground  inside  the  crease  when  the  wickets 
are  put  down,  the  player  is  out. 

Rule  20. — The  striker  may  block  or  knock  the  ball  away 
from  his  wicket  after  he  has  played  it,  if  that  be  necessary  to 
keep  it  from  the  stumps.  The  rule  only  forbids  striking  it  a 
second  time  with  intent  to  make  runs. 


SINGLE  WICKET. 

The  accompanying  diagram  shows  the  ground  marked  out 
for  single  wicket  with  less  than  five  players  on  a side  : 

X 

b \ 


22 


Yds. 


N 

CM 


IV 


y 


B,  the  Bowling-stump,  Crease,  &c. ; IV.  the  Wickets,  with  Popping- 
crease,  as  in  double  wicket ; b b.  the  Boundaries. 


Rule  2. — “ Hit  before  the  bounds ’’means  that  the  ball,  after 
leaving  the  bat,  must  first  touch  the  ground  in  front  of  the  line 
marked  by  the  two  bounds,  which  line,  by  the  way,  is,  like 
the  popping-crease,  supposed  to  extend  inimitably  either  way. 

Single  wicket  is  chiefly  valuable  in  dearth  of  sufficient  play- 
ers to  form  an  adequate  field  at  double  wicket.  It  is  so  infe- 
rior in  interest  to  double  wicket,  that  it  is  hardly  ever  played, 
unless  when  the  latter  is  impracticable. 

A good  game  at  single  wicket,  though,  where  only  a few 
players  have  met  for  practice,  is  far  better,  and  infinitely  more 
improving,  than  any  amount  of  the  desultory  knocking  about 
which  is  usual  on  such  occasions.  For  a player  deficient  in  driv- 
ing and  forward  hitting  of  all  kinds  the  practice  it  affords  is  in- 
valuable, and  to  such  a good  course  of  single  wicket  is  strongly 
recommended. 

Implements. — A few  words  upon  the  choice  of  bats,  balls, 
gloves,  etc.  Too  much  pains  cannot  be  taken  by  a cricketer 
in  thus  providing  his  outfit.  None  but  experienced  hands  can 
estimate  the  vital  importance  of  attention  to  all  such  details  : 
that  the  bat  is  the  right  weight  and  size,  and  properly  bal- 
anced ; that  the  gloves,  shoes,  pads,  etc.,  are  perfect  in  their 
fit  and  appointments  ; in  fine,  that  the  player  stands  at  the 
wicket  or  in  the  field  fully  equipped  for  the  fray,  yet  in  nowise 
impeded  or  hindered  by  ill-fitting  garments,  clumsy  shoes,  or 
cumbersome  pads. 


First,  then,  for  the  bat.  This  is  limited  in  Rule  2 both  as 
to  length  and  width  ; but  the  thickness  and  weight  are  left  to 
the  fancy  and  capacity  of  the  player.  In  a general  way,  a tall 
man  can  use  a heavier  bat  than  a short  one.  About  2 pounds 
is  a fair  weight  for  a player  of  middle  height  and  ordinary 
muscular  development. 

Although  it  is  a great  mistake  to  play  with  too  heavy  a bat 
— for  nothing  so  cramps  the  style,  and  so  entirely  does  away 
with  that  beautiful  wrist-play  which  is  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  good 
batting,  as  attempting  to  play  with  a bat  of  a weight  above 
one’s  powers — yet  extreme  lightness  is  still  more  to  be  depre- 
cated : it  is  useless  for  hard  hitting,  and  can  therefore  do  little 
in  the  way  of  run-getting  against  a good  field  ; “ shooters,’ 
too,  will  be  apt  to  force  their  way  past  its  impotent  defense. 

The  points  most  to  be  looked  for  in  a bat  are  these  : First, 
weight  suited  to  the  player.  The  young  player  should  play 
with  a heavier  bat  every  year,  until  he  attains  to  his  full  stat- 
ure. Don’t  let  him  think  it  “ manly  ” to  play  with  a full-sized 
bat  before  he  is  thoroughly  up  to  the  weight  and  size  ; it  is 
much  more  manly  to  make  a good  score. 

Secondly,  good  thickness  of  wood  at  the  drive  and  lower  end 
of  the  bat,  i.  e.,  at  the  last  six  inches  or  so. 

Thirdly,  balance.  Badly  balanced  bats  give  a sensation  as 
of  a weight  attached  to  them  when  they  are  wielded,  while  a 
well-balanced  one  plays  easily  in  the  hand.  Experience  alone 
can  teach  the  right  feel  of  a bat. 

The  outward  appearance  of  a bat  must  not  always  be  taken 
as  a certain  indication  of  its  inherent  merits  : varnish  and 
careful  getting  up  may  hide  many  a defect.  There  are  many 
fancies,  too,  in  favor  of  different  grains  : a good  knot  or  two 
near  the  loiver  end  is  generally  a good  sign  ; but,  after  all, 
nothing  but  actual  trial  of  each  several  “bit  of  willow”  can 
decide  its  real  merits  or  defects. 

Last,  but  not  least,  the  handle  is  a very  important  consider 
ation.  Cane  handles,  pure  and  simple,  or  in  composition 
with  ash  or  other  materials,  arc  the  best  : some  prefer  oval 
handles,  some  round.  The  handle  should,  at  least,  be  as 
thick  as  the  player  can  well  grasp  : a thick  handle  greatly  adds 
to  the  driving  power  of  the  bat  ; it  is  also  naturally  stronger, 
and  therefore  more  lasting.  A good  youth’s  bat  costs  about 
eight  shillings. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  a good  bat,  like  good  wine, 
improves  with  keeping. 

In  purchasing  balls,  wickets,  and  other  needful  “plant,”  it 
will  be  found  better  economy  to  pay  a little  more  in  the  be- 
ginning, and  thus  get  a good  article.  With  reasonable  care, 
such  first-class  goods  will  last  out  whole  generations  of  the 
more  cheaply  got-up  articles,  and  prove  more  satisfactory 
throughout  into  the  bargain. 

In  choosing  wickets,  attention  must  be  paid  to  two  points : 
first,  that  each  stump  be  perfectly  straight  ; and,  secondly, 
that  it  be  free  from  flaws  or  knots.  The  least  weakness  is 
sure  to  be  found  out  sooner  or  later. 

Great  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  bails,  that  they  are 
exactly  of  the  right  size,  especially  that  they  are  not  too  long. 
The  least  projection  beyond  the  groove  in  the  stump  may 
make  all  the  difference  between  “out ’’and  “notout” — be- 
tween, perhaps,  winning  a match  and  losing  it. 


384 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


Stumps  and  bails,  with  ordinary  care,  ought  to  last  a very 
long  time.  The  chief  thing  to  guard  against  is  their  lying 
about  in  the  wet,  or  being  put  away  damp  : moisture  is  very 
apt  to  warp  them. 

So  that  the  gloves  and  pads  Jit,  the  player  may  be  left 
pretty  much  to  his  own  discretion  in  selecting  a pattern. 
Vulcanized  India-rubber  is  the  best  for  gloves. 

Spiked  or  nailed  shoes  are  a necessity.  The  player  may 
please  himself  in  the  vexed  question  of  spikes  v.  nails.  Many 
players  keep  two  pairs  of  shoes — witb  spikes  for  wet  and 
slippery  ground,  with  nails  for  dry  ground. 

It  is  hardly  worth  while  for  a boy  in  the  rapid-growing  stage 
to  set  up  a regularly  built  pair  of  cricketing-shoes  : an  admir- 
able substitute  may  be  found,  though,  in  the  ordinary  canvas 
shoes,  as  used  for  rackets,  etc.,  price  half-a-crown  ; a few 
nails  will  make  them  answer  all  the  purposes  of  the  more 
legitimate  article. 

Parents  and  guardians  may  be  informed  that  a proper  cos- 
tume of  flannel  and  shoes  is  actually  better  economy  than 
condemning  a boy  to  play  in  his  ordinary  clothes ; and  for 
this  reason — flannels  are  made  to  suit  the  exigencies  of  the 
game  : loose  where  they  should  be  loose,  and  vice  versa,  with- 
out regard  to  the  exigencies  of  fashion  ; they  are  cheaper,  and 
are,  nevertheless,  more  lasting,  than  ordinary  cloth  clothes  ; 
they  never  get  shabby,  will  wash  when  dirty,  and  will  carry  a 
darn  or  patch  without  detriment  to  their  dignity  ; they  are  not 
injured  by  perspiration  or  wet  ; and,  above  all,  they  are  great 
preservatives  against  colds  and  other  ailments. 

Shoes  may  put  in  much  the  same  claim.  Cricket  is  marvel- 
ously destructive  to  the  ordinary  walking-boot  ; is  it  not,  then, 
better  to  substitute  a cheaper  and  more  durable  article? 

In  choosing  spikes,  care  should  be  taken  to  obtain  good 
length  and  small  diameter  ; a squat,  clumsy  spike  is  an  awful 
nuisance.  If  nails  be  the  choice,  they  should  not  be  put 
much  nearer  than  at  intervals  of  an  inch,  otherwise  they  will 
be  liable  to  clog. 

If  men  play  cricket,  let  that  cricket  be  their  very  best ; any 
little  extra  trouble  at  first  will  be  more  than  repaid  by  the 
results.  It  is  not  given  to  every  man  to  be  a first-rate  crick- 
eter ; but  most  men  might  play  far  better  than  they  do,  and 
many  men,  who  now  hardly  deserve  the  name  of  players, 
might,  with  very  little  expenditure  of  trouble  in  their  younger 
days,  have  been  now  men  of  mark  in  the  cricketing  world. 

Be  it  remembered,  then,  that  there  is  a right  way  to  per- 
form each  function  of  cricket,  and  a wrong  way,  or  perhaps  I 
should  rather  have  said,  innumerable  wrong  ways. 

Now,  this  right  way  will  hardly  come  of  itself  : cricket,  by 
the  light  of  nature  only,  would  be  a prodigy  indeed.  The 
beginner  must,  therefore,  first  ascertain  what  this  right  way  is, 
and  thenceforth  strive  continually  to  practice  and  perfect  him- 
self in  it,  whether  it  be  in  batting,  bowling,  or  fielding,  until 
habit  has  become  a second  nature. 

And  not  only  must  the  learner  cultivate  good  habits,  he  must 
diligently  eschew  all  bad  ones  ; for  bad  habits  are  wonderfully 
easy  of  acquirement,  but,  once  acquired,  can  hardly  ever  be 
completely  shaken  off. 

It  is  all  very  well  to  say,  “ I know  the  right  way,  and  that 
is  enough,”  and  then,  from  sheer  laziness  or  indifference,  go 


the  wrong  ; but  when  it  comes  to  the  point  of  practical  expe. 
rience,  it  will  be  found  that  the  bad  habit  will  have  an  un- 
comfortable knack  of  coming  into  play  at  critical  moments, 
just  when  it  is  least  desired. 

For  cricket,  it  should  be  remembered,  is  a series  of  sur- 
prises. Give  a man  time  to  think,  and  he  can  decide  between 
the  right  way  and  the  wrong  ; but  time  to  think  is  just  the 
very  thing  a man  does  not  get  at  cricket : instant,  unhesitat- 
ing action  is  his  only  chance. 

If  he  has  habituated  himself  to  one  only  method  of  action, 
he  must,  he  can,  only  act  in  accordance  with  it ; but  if  there 
be  several  conflicting  habits,  who  shall  say  which  shall  be  the 
one  that  comes  first  to  hand  in  an  emergency? 

Let  the  young  cricketer,  then — and  the  old  one,  too,  for  the 
matter  of  that — make  this  his  rule  and  study,  to  make  every 
ball  he  bowls,  he  bats,  or  he  fields,  one  link  more  in  the  chain 
of  good  habits,  one  step  farther  on  the  road  to  success. 

ePa- 


m.f. 


P.  t.m. 

o l.sl. 

s.l. 


B o ggj  ° Lst- 

W 

°d 


m.n. 


l 


l.l 


O 

s.l. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  FIELD  FOR  FAST  BOWLING. 


f-P- 


l.f. 


m.f. 

K A 

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A 


s.l. 


B„  ^ 0w.k. 
W 


> l.st 


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l.n. 


s.l. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  FIELD  FOR  SLOW  BOWLING. 


W W.,  wickets;  B.,  batsman  ; i.,  bowler;  •w.k.,  wicket-keeper;  l.st^ 
]ong-stop;  s.l.,  slip;  l.sl.,  long-slip;  t.m.,  third  man;  point;  c.p., 
cover-point ; m.f.,  m.n.,  mid-wicket,  off  and  on  ; /.,  long-field  or  cover- 
bowler  ; l.f.  & l.n..  long-field,  off  and  on  ; s.l.,  square  leg  ; s.s.l.,  short 
square  leg ; l.l.,  long  leg  ; d.,  draw  or  short  leg. 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


HEORY  of  the  Game. — Football,  like  cricket, 
requires  two  opposing  sides.  It  is  played  with 
a hollow  ball,  some  eight  or  ten  inches  in  diam- 
eter, of  India-rubber  (in  former  times  a bladder) 
blown  full  of  air,  and  protected  by  a leather 
case. 

The  goals  are  placed  at  opposite  ends  of  the  field, 
each  side  defending  its  own,  and  trying  to  drive  the 
ball  through  its  opponents’. 

It  is  a game  only  suitable  for  cold  weather,  as  cricket  is  for 
hot,  for  the  exertion  is  not  only  very  severe  while  it  lasts,  but 
the  intervals  of  rest  in  a well-contested  game  are  few  and  far 
between. 


RULES. 

1.  The  length  of  the  ground  shall  be  not  more  than  150 
yards,  and  the  breadth  55  yards.  The  ground  shall  be 
marked  out  by  posts,  two  at  each  end,  parallel  with  the 
goal-posts,  and  55  yards  apart  ; and  by  one  at  each  side 
of  the  ground,  half-way  between  the  side-posts. 

2.  The  goal  shall  consist  of  two  uprights  15  feet  apart,  with 
a cross-bar  8 feet  from  the  ground. 

3.  The  choice  of  goal  and  kick-off  shall  be  determined  by 
tossing. 

4.  In  a match,  when  half  the  time  agreed  upon  has  elapsed, 
the  sides  shall  change  goals  the  next  time  the  ball  is  out 
of  play.  In  ordinary  games  the  change  shall  be  made 
after  every  goal. 

5.  The  heads  of  sides  shall  have  the  sole  management  of 
the  game. 

6.  The  ball  shall  be  put  in  play  as  follows  : 

(a)  At  the  commencement  of  the  game,  and  after  every 
goal,  by  a place-kick  25  yards  in  advance  of  the  goal, 
by  either  side  alternately,  each  party  being  arrayed 
on  its  own  ground. 

(#)  If  the  ball  have  been  played  behind  the  goal-line  (if 
by  the  opposite  party,  the  side  owning  the  goal  shall 
have  a place-kick  from  behind  the  goal-line  at  their 
discretion  ; (2)  by  the  side  owning  the  goal,  whether 
by  kicking  or  guiding,  the  opposite  party  shall  have 
a place-kick  from  a spot  25  yards  in  front  of  the  goal, 
at  their  discretion. 

(c)  If  the  ball  have  been  played  across  the  side-lines,  the 
player  first  touching  it  with  the  hand  shall  have  a 
place-kick  from  the  point  at  which  the  ball  crosssd 
the  line. 

7.  In  all  the  above  cases  the  side  starting  the  ball  shall  be 
out  of  play  until  one  of  the  opposite  side  has  played  it. 

8 When  a player  has  played  the  ball,  any  one  of  the  same 

% 


9- 


X 

v 


side  who  is  nearer  the  opponents’  goal-line  on  their  ground 
is  out  of  play,  and  may  not  touch  the  ball  himself,  or  ob- 
struct any  other  player,  until  the  ball  be  first  played  by 
one  of  the  opposite  side,  or  he  have  crossed  into  his  own 
ground. 

No  player  shall  carry  the  ball,  hold  it,  throw  it,  pass  it  to 

— g ^ — , — another  with  his  hands, 

or  lift  it  from  the  ground 
with  his  hands,  on  any 
pretense  whatever. 

10.  All  charging  is  fair ; but 
holding,  pushing  with  the 
elbows  or  hands,  tripping 
up,  and  hacking  are  for- 
bidden. 

11.  No  player  may  wear  iron 
plates,  projecting  nails, 
or  gutta  percha  on  his 
boots  or  shoes. 

12.  A goal  is  gained  when  the 
ball  is  kicked  from  the 
front  between  the  up- 
rights and  beneath  the 
cross-bar,  or  in  any  way 
passed  through  from  the 
front,  by  the  side  owning 
the  goal 

13.  In  case  of  any  distinct 
and  willful  violation  of 
these  rules  of  play  by  one 
of  either  side,  the  oppo- 
site side  may  claim  a 
fresh  kick-off. 

DEFINITION  OF 
TERMS. 


L1  X 

L u 

'§ 

H 


e 


25  yds 


5 yds  25  yds 


A place-kick  is  a kick  at 
the  ball  while  at  rest  on  the 
ground.  The  kicker  may 
;laim  a free  space  of  3 yards  in  front  ot  the  ball. 

Ground. — Each  side  claims  as  its  owa  that  portion  of  the 
ground  which  lies  between  its  goal  and  the  center. 

Charging  is  bringing  the  body  into  collision  with  that  of  an 
spponent.  The  arms,  and  especially  the  elbows,  must  be  kept 
well  to  the  sides,  not  to  violate  Rule  10. 
flacking  is  kicking  an  adversary  intentionally. 

Tripping  is  throwing  an  adversary  by  placing  the  foot,  leg, 
or  any  part  of  the  body  in  the  way  of  an  adversary’s  legs,  and 
thus  causing  nim  to  fall  or  stumble. 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


THE  BOW. 

OWS  are  of  two  kinds.  The  self  bow  consists 
either  of  one  piece  of  wood,  or  of  two  dove- 
tailed together  at  the  handle,  in  which  latter 
case  it  is  called  a grafted  bow ; by  far  the 
best  material  for  a self  bow  is  yew,  although 
a variety  of  other  woods,  such  as  lancewood,  hick- 
ory, &c.,  are  used.  As  it  is  but  very  rarely  that 
we  are  able  to  obtain  a piece  of  yew  long  enough 
for  a bow  of  equal  quality  throughout,  the  grafted  bow  was 
invented,  in  order  that  the  two  limbs,  being  formed  by  splitting 
one  piece  of  wood  into  two  strips,  may  be  of  exactly  the  same 
nature. 

The  backed  bow  consists  of  two  or  more  strips  of  wood  glued 
together  longitudinally  and  compressed  so  as  to  insure  perfect 
union.  The  strips  may  be  of  the  same  or  of  different  woods 
— for  instance,  of  yew  backed  with  yew,  yew  with  hickory, 
lancewood,  &c. ; but  of  all  backed  bows  the  yew-backed  yew 
is  far  the  best.  It  has  been  a great  subject  of  controversy 
whether  the  self  or  the  backed  bow  be  the  best  for  shooting 
purposes  ; we  most  unhesitatingly  decide  in  favor  of  the  self, 
although  many  good  authorities  prefer  the  backed. 


HOW  TO  CHOOSE  IT. 


In  purchasing  a bow,  it  is  always  better  to  go  to  a good 
maker  ; the  inferior  makers,  although  they  may  sell  their 
goods  a trifle  cheaper,  are  still  not  to  be  depended  upon,  and 
as  a good  deal  concerning  a bow  has  to  be  taken  on  trust — 
e.  g., whether  the  wood  is  properly  seasoned,  horns  firmly  fast- 
ened, &c. — a maker  who  has  a reputation  to  loose  always 
proves  the  cheapest  in  the  end.  Having  selected  a maker  and 
determined  on  the  price  you  are  willing  to  give,  you  will  pro- 
ceed to  see  that  the  bow  tapers  gradually  from  the  handle  to 
the  horns  ; that  the  wood  is  of  straight,  even  grain,  running 
longitudinally  and  free  from  knots  and  pins,  or  that,  if  there 
are  any  pins,  they  are  rendered  innocuous  by  having  the  wood 
left  raised  around  them.  The  bow  should  be  quite  straight, 
or  even  follow  the  string  (bend  in  the  direction  it  will  take 
when  strung)  a little.  Beware  of  a bow  which  bends  away 
from  the  string  : it  will  jar  your  arms  out  of  their  sockets,  and 
should  the  string  break,  there  will  be  an  end  of  it.  See  that 
both  limbs  are  of  equal  strength,  in  which  case  they  will  de- 
scribe equal  curves.  The  handle  should  not  be  quite  in  the 
middle  of  the  bow,  but  the  upper  edge  of  it  should  be  about 
an  inch  above  the  center,  and  above  the  handle  a small  piece 
of  ivory  or  mother-of-pearl  should  be  let  in  on  the  left  side  of 
the  bow,  in  order  to  prevent  the  friction  of  the  arrow  wearing 
away  the  wood.  See  that  there  are  no  sharp  edges  to  the 


nocks  on  the  horns  of  the  bow,  for  if  they  are  not  properly 
rounded  off  they  will  be  continually  cutting  your  string. 
Lastly,  make  sure  that  your  bow  is  not  beyond  your  strength — 
in  other  words,  that  you  are  not  overbowed.  It  is  a very  com- 
mon thing  for  persons  to  choose  very  strong  bows  under  the 
idea  that  it  gives  them  the  appearance  of  being  perfect  Sam- 
sons ; but  their  ungainly  struggles  to  bend  their  weapon,  and 
the  utterly  futile  results  of  their  endeavors,  are,  we  think,  any- 
thing but  dignified.  The  weight  of  the  bow  should  be  such 
that  it  can  be  bent  without  straining,  and  held  steadily  during 
the  time  of  taking  aim.  The  strength  of  bows  is  calculated  by 
their  weight,  which  is  stamped  in  pounds  upon  them,  and 
which  denotes  the  power  which  it  takes  to  bend  the  bow  until 
the  center  of  the  string  is  a certain  distance  (twenty-eight 
inches  for  a gentleman’s,  twenty-five  inches  for  a lady’s  bow) 
from  the  handle.  It  is  ascertained  by  suspending  the  bow  by 
the  handle  from  a steelyard  whilst  the  string  is  drawn  the  re- 
quired distance.  Gentlemen’s  bows  generally  range  from  48 
lbs.  to  56  lbs.,  and  ladies’  from  20  lbs.  to  32  lbs. 


HOW  TO  PRESERVE  IT. 


Many  things  will  spoil  a bow  which  a little  care  and  atten- 
tion would  prevent.  Amongst  the  most  fatal  enemies  to  the 
bow  are  chrysals,  which,  unless  noticed  in  time,  will  surely 
end  in  a fracture.  A chrysal  should  at  once  be  tightly  lapped 
with  fine  string  saturated  with  glue;  this,  if  neatly  done  and  then 
varnished,  will  interfere  but  little  with  the  appearance  of  the 
bow.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  scratch  or  bruise  the  bow. 
When  shooting  in  damp  weather,  the  bow,  especially  if  a 
backed  one,  should  be  kept  well  wiped,  and  perfectly  dried 
with  a waxed  cloth  before  putting  away.  A backed  bow  is 
always  the  better  for  a little  lapping  round  each  end  just  by 
the  horn,  which  prevents  the  bow  from  breaking  if  by  any 
chance  the  glue  is  softened  by  damp.  A bow  should  always 
be  kept  as  dry  as  possible  ; when  going  to  shoot  at  a distance, 
a waterproof  cover  is  advisable.  Do  not  unstring  the  bow  too 
often  while  shooting  ; once  in  every  six  double  ends  is  quite 
enough,  unless  there  are  many  shooters. 

THE  ARROW. 


Arrows  are  distinguished  by  weight  in  the  same  manner  as 
bows,  only  in  the  former  it  is  calculated  as  weighed  against 
silver  money,  and  arrows  are  known  as  of  so  many  shillings’ 
weight,  &c.  The  lengths  recommended  by  the  best  authori- 
ties are  as  follows  : 


For  ladies 


Length. 
25  inches 


For  Gentlemen 


Bovvs  of  50  lbs.  and  upwards, 
and  6 feet  long, 

Bows  under  50  lbs.  and  not 
exceeding  5 ft.  10  in.  long, 


28 

28 


(( 


There  are  two  kinds  of  arrows — self,  made  of  one  piece  of 
wood,  and  footed,  having  a piece  of  hard  wood  at  the  pile  end. 
The  latter  are  the  best  for  several  reasons,  one  being  that  tnev 
are  not  so  likely  to  break  if  they  strike  anything  hard.  The 
best  material  for  arrows  is  red  deal  footed  with  lancewood. 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


387 


r 


HOW  TO  CHOOSE  IT. 

The  first  thing  to  ascertain  is  whether  it  is  quite  straight, 
which  is  done  by  bringing  the  tips  of  the  thumb  and  two  first 
fingers  of  the  left  hand  together  and  laying  the  arrow  thereon, 
while  it  is  turned  round  by  the  right  hand.  If  it  goes  smoothly 
it  is  straight ; but  if  it  jerks  at  all  it  is  crooked.  Then  make 
sure  that  it  is  stiff  enough  to  stand  the  force  of  the  bow  with- 
out bending,  as,  if  too  weak,  it  will  never  fly  straight.  The 
pile  or  point  should  be  what  is  called  the  square-shouldered 
pile  ; some  prefer  the  sharp  pile,  but  the  other  answers  best 
for  all  purposes.  The  nock  should  be  full  and  the  notch 
pretty  deep  ; a piece  of  horn  should  be  let  in  at  the  notch  to 
prevent  the  string  splitting  the  arrow.  The  feathers  should  be 
full  sized,  evenly  and  well  cut,  and  inserted  at  equal  distances 
from  each  other. 

THE  BOW-STRING. 

The  string  should  be  not  too  thin,  or  it  will  not  last  long ; 
in  the  selection  of  it,  it  is  best  to  be  guided  by  the  size  of  the 
notch  of  your  arrows.  At  one  end  of  it  a strong  loop  should 
be  worked  to  go  over  the  upper  horn,  the  other  end  should  be 
left  free  in  order  to  be  fixed  on  to  the  lower  horn.  When 
the  lower  end  is  fastened,  the  distance  between  it  and  the  loop 
at  the  other  end  should  be  such,  that  when  the  loop  is  in  its 
place  (i.e.,  the  bow  strung)  the  string  is,  in  a gentleman’s  bow, 
six  inches,  in  a lady’s  five  inches,  from  the  center  of  the  bow. 
The  string  should  be  lapped  for  an  inch  above  the  nocking 
point,  and  five  inches  below  it,  with  waxed  thread  and  this  again 
with  floss  silk — to  such  a thickness  that  it  completely  fills  the 
notch  of  the  arrow,  but  without  being  too  tight,  or  it  may  split 
it.  Never  trust  a worn  string  ; take  it  off  and  put  on  a new 
one — should  it  break,  it  will  most  probably  snap  your  bow. 

THE  BRACER. 

This  is  a guard  for  the  left  arm,  to  prevent  its  being 
abraded  by  the  string  when  loosed  ; it  also  has  another  object, 
viz.,  to  confine  the  sleeve  and  keep  it  out  of  the  way.  It  con- 
sists of  an  oblong  piece  of  smooth  leather,  and  is  fastened  to 
the  arm  by  straps. 

The  shooting-glove  is  used  to  protect  the  fingers  of  the  right 
hand  from  abrasion  by  the  string  when  loosing,  and  consists 
of  three  finger-guards,  attached  by  strips  of  leather,  passing 
down  the  back  of  the  hand  to  a strap  fastening  round  the 
wrist. 

THE  QUIVER. 

The  quiver  is  a tin  case  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  the  quiver 
usually  represented  as  forming  part  of  the  equipment  of  Robin 
Hood  and  his  band  j it  is  not  now,  however,  used  as  part  of 
the  personal  equipment  of  the  archer,  but  is  employed  simply 
for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  spare  arrows. 

TARGETS. 

A target  is  made  of  utraw  bound  with  string  into  an  even 
rope,  which  is  twisted  upon  itself  until  it  forms  a flat  disc, 
and  then  covered  on  one  side  with  canvas  painted  in  five  con- 
centric rings,  viz.  gold  or  center,  red,  blue  or  inner  white, 


black,  and  white.  These  rings  should  be  all  of  exactly  the 
same  width,  the  target  itself  being  four  feet  in  diameter.  In 
scoring,  the  following  value  is  given  to  the  rings  : 


Gold 9 

Red 7 

Blue 5 

Black 3 

White 1 


When  an  arrow  strikes  on  the  edge  of  two  rings,  the  higher 
is  counted,  unless  it  is  otherwise  agreed  upon.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  have  two  targets,  one  at  each  extremity  of  the  distance 
fixed  upon— as  it  is  not  usual  to  shoot  more  than  three  arrows 
at  each  “end,”  as  it  is  called — walking  over  between  each  three 
to  reclaim  your  arrows,  and  then  shooting  them  back  at  the 
target  you  have  just  left.  By  this  means  a different  set  of 
muscles  are  called  into  play,  those  used  in  shooting  are  relaxed, 
and  in  addition,  a great  deal  is  added  to  the  exercise  which 
renders  archery  so  healthy  a pastime  ; for  example,  in  shoot- 
ing the  national  round  the  archer  walks  3,920  yards,  or  nearly 
two  miles  and  a quarter,  between  the  ends.  The  stands  for 
the  targets  are  usually  made  of  iron  or  wood,  and  somewhat 
resemble  in  shape  an  artist’s  easel.  The  legs  should  be  pad- 
ded or  wrapped  round  with  straw,  otherwise  arrows  striking 
them  will  be  apt  to  break. 

Stringing  the  Bow. — In  stringing  the  bow  it  is  held  by  the 
handle  in  the  right  hand  (flat  part  towards  the  body)  with  the 
lower  horn  resting  on  the  ground  against  the  hollow  of  the 
right  foot.  The  left  hand  is  then  placed  upon  the  upper  part 
of  the  bow  in  such  a manner  that  the  base  of  the  thumb  rests 
upon  the  flat  side  of  it,  the  thumb  pointing  upwards.  The 
bow  is  then  bent  by  the  combined  action  of  the  two  hands, 
the  right  pulling,  the  left  pressing  it  ; at  the  same  time  the 
loop  of  the  string  is  slipped  into  its  place  by  the  left  thumb 
and  forefinger. 

Position. — It  is  difficult  to  determine  exactly  what  is  the 
best  position  for  the  archer.  Every  one  naturally  subsides  into 
that  which  is  most  easy  to  him  ; still  there  are  certain  funda 
mental  rules,  which  are  given  in  almost  every  book  on  archer)', 
by  attention  to  which  in  the  first  place  the  shooter  ultimately 
falls  into  the  best  position  for  himself.  The  left  foot  should 
point  rather  to  the  right  of  the  mark,  the  right  foot  being 
nearly  at  right  angles  to  it,  the  heels  six  or  eight  inches  apart, 
in  a straight  line  from  target  to  target,  both  feet  flat  on  the 
ground,  knees  straight,  body  erect  but  not  too  stiff,  face  turned 
towards  the  mark.  The  body  must  be  carried  as  easily  as 
possible  on  the  hips,  not  too  stiffly  upright  nor  yet  bending 
forward.  Nothing  looks  worse  than  a stiff,  constrained  at- 
titude, except  a loose,  slouching  one. 

Nocking. — Having  mastered  the  position,  the  next  thing  to 
be  looked  to  is  the  nocking.  The  bow  being  held  by  the 
handle  in  the  left  hand,  let  the  arrow  be  placed  with  the  right 
( over  the  string,  not  under)  on  that  part  of  the  bow  upon  which 
it  is  to  lie  ; the  thumb  of  the  left  hand,  being  then  gently 
placed  over  it,  will  serve  to  hold  it  perfectly  under  command, 
and  the  forefinger  and  thumb  of  the  right  hand  can  then  take 
hold  of  the  nock  end  of  the  arrow  and  manipulate  '.t  with  the 
most  perfect  ease  in  any  manner  that  may  be  required. 


388 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


When  the  arrow  is  nocked  it  should  be  at  right  angles  with 
the  string.  Some  archers  are  accustomed  to  try  to  alter  the 
range  of  the  arrow  by  heightening  or  lowering  the  nocking 
point,  but  this  is  a great  mistake.  Care  must  be  taken  that 
the  whipped  portion  of  the  string  exactly  fits  the  notch  of  the 
arrow.  If  too  large  or  too  small,  it  will  probably  split  it. 

Drawing. — Having  nocked  the  arrow  according  to  the 
foregoing  direction,  the  next  thing  to  proceed  with  is  the 
drawing,  which  is  managed  as  follows  : Extend  the  left  arm 

downwards  until  it  is  perfectly  straight,  the  hand  grasping  the 
handle  of  the  bow,  the  arrow  being  held  by  the  nocking  end 
by  the  two  first  fingers  of  the  right  hand  passed  over  the 
string  and  on  each  side  of  the  arrow,  care  being  taken 
not  to  pass  the  fingers  too  far  over  the  string,  or  the 
sharpness  of  the  loose  will  be  interfered  with.  This  done,  the 
left  arm  should  be  smoothly  raised,  still  extended , until  at 
right  angles,  or  nearly  so,  with  the  body,  the  string  being 
drawn  at  the  same  time  with  the  right  hand  until  the  arrow  is 
drawn  about  three-fourths  of  its  length,  when  the  right  wrist 
and  elbow  should  be  at  about  the  level  of  the  shoulder.  Hav- 
ing got  it  thus  far  a slight  pause  may  be  made  before  drawing 
the  arrow  to  its  full  length  (although  we  think  it  better  to 
make  it  all  one  motion),  which  done,  the  archer  must  take  his 
aim  before  loosing.  By  drawing  the  arrow  below  the  level  of 
the  eye,  the  archer  is  enabled  to  look  along  it  as  he  would 
along  the  barrel  of  a rifle.  As  regards  the  direction,  the 
archer  will  find  that  it  is  but  seldom  he  will  be  able  to  aim 
directly  at  the  gold.  He  will  almost  always  have  to  aim  to 
one  side  or  the  other,  to  make  allowance  for  wind,  etc.  This 
cannot  be  taught.  The  archer  will  soon  learn  by  experience 
whereabouts  on  the  target  his  proper  point  of  sight  lies,  and 
will  aim  accordingly.  He  will  also  learn  the  degree  of  eleva- 
tion required  by  his  bow  at  the  various  distances,  which  ele- 
vation he  will  always  give  by  raising  or  lowering  his  left  hand, 
and  in  no  other  way  if  he  values  success. 

Remember ! the  arrow  must  always  be  drawn  to  exactly  the 
same  spot.  If  possible,  let  the  spot  where  the  pile  and  stele 
join  just  reach  the  bow. 

Loosing. — Having  drawn  the  arrow  to  its  full  extent,  the 
next  thing  is  to  loose  it  properly,  and  this,  although  appa- 
rently a very  simple  thing,  is  by  no  means  so  easy  as  it  looks. 
The  great  object  to  be  attained  in  loosing  is  to  remove  the 
obstruction  of  the  fingers  from  the  string  suddenly,  and  yet  in 
such  a manner  that  no  jerk  is  given  to  the  string  (which  would 
be  fatal  to  the  aim),  and  that  the  fingers  do  not  follow  the 
string,  which  would  weaken  the  force  of  the  shot.  The 
string  should  lie  across  the  fingers  at  an  equal  distance  from 
the  tip  of  each — not  too  near  the  joint  nor  too  near  the  tip  ; 
about  midway  between  the  tip  and  joint  of  the  first  finger, 
and  on  the  others  in  proportion,  will  be  found  about  the  most 
convenient  position  for  a good  loose.  The  fingers  must  all  be 
withdrawn  at  once,  for  should  one  be  an  instant  behind  the 
others,  it  would  be  fatal  to  the  aim. 


FGIN  by  putting  out  of  your  mind  the  notion  of 
walking.  Skaters  place  their  feet  flat  on  the  ice 
so  as  to  slide  along  it,  but  do  not  rise  on  the  toe, 
as  if  they  were  walking. 

The  best  way  to  learn  to  advance  on  skates  is 
j)  as  follows:  stand  as  if  in  the  “third  position” 
*n  dancing,  but  with  the  heel  of  the  right  foot  a few 
3A&  inches  away  from  the  hollow  of  the  left.  Then,  with 
the  edge  of  the  left  foot  press  against  the  ice,  so  as  to  push  the 
right  forward.  Bring  up  the  left  foot  parallel  with  the  right, 
and  slide  along  until  the  impetus  is  exhausted.  Do  this  with 
both  feet  alternately  for  some  little  time,  and  you  will  then  be- 
gin to  “ feel  your  skates,”  as  the  saying  is. 

After  you  have  practiced  these  movements  for  some  time, 
gradually  increasing  the  length  of  each  stroke,  you  will 
begin  to  find  yourself  skating  on  the  “ inside  edge,”  a move- 
ment to  which  nine  out  of  ten  skaters  restrict  themselves. 
It  is,  however,  an  ungraceful  plan,  and  is  of  little  use  except  in 
racing,  and,  moreover,  tires  the  ankle  sooner  than  the  “out- 
side edge  ” skating,  which  is  the  only  mode  worth  practicing. 

The  mode  of  learning  this  is  very  simple.  Put  a stone  or 
stick  on  the  ice,  to  act  as  a center  for  the  circle  you  are  about 
to  describe. 

Now  stand  about  three  or  four  yards  from  the  stone,  with 
your  right  side  towards  it,  and  your  head  looking  over  your 
right  shoulder  at  the  stone.  Press  the  outside  edge  of  your 
right  skate  as  firmly  as  you  can  into  the  ice,  and  with  your  left 
skate  propel  yourself  round  the  stone,  leaning  as  much  inwards 
as  you  can. 

After  a short  time  you  will  be  able  to  lift  the  left  foot  off  the 
ice  for  a short  time,  and  as  soon  as  you  can  do  this,  try  how 
long  you  can  keep  the  left  foot  in  the  air.  Practice  these 
movements  with  both  feet  alternately  until  you  feel  that  you 
can  confidently  trust  yourself  to  the  outside  edge. 

As  soon  as  you  are  firm  on  the  edge,  try  to  describe  a com 
plete  circle,  taking  care  to  keep  the  right  knee  quite  straight 
and  the  left  foot  the  least  particle  in  advance  of  the  right. 
When  you  can  get  completely  round  on  either  foot,  combine 
the  two  circles,  and  you  have  the  8,  which,  with  the  3,  is  at 
the  bottom  of  all  figure-skating. 

Now  for  the  3.  Start  forwards , as  before,  on  the  outside 
edge  of  the  right  foot,  but  leave  the  left  foot  well  behind  the 
right,  the  toe  slightly  behind  the  heel.  Do  not  change  the 
position  of  your  feet,  and  you  will  find  that  when  you  have 
rather  more  than  half  completed  your  circle,  you  will  spin 
round  on  the  right  foot  and  make  half  another  circle  backwards. 

The  books  on  skating  say  that,  in  order  to  turn  round,  the 
skater  ought  to  rise  on  his  toe  a little.  I consider  this  advice 
as  totally  wrong.  True,  the  rising  on  the  toe  does  bring  the 


OUT-DOOR  GAMES. 


389 


body  round,  but  it  gives  an  appearance  of  effort,  which  a good  | 
skater  never  shows.  If  you  will  only  keep  the  off  foot  well 
behind  the  other,  you  must  come  round  at  the  proper  spot,  and 
without  effort  of  any  kind. 

In  fact,  in  all  outside  edge  skating  you  steer  yourself  by  the 
foot  which  is  off  the  ice,  and  on  no  consideration  ought  any  of 
the  work  to  be  done  by  the  foot  which  is  on  the  ice. 

When  you  can  cut  the  figure  3 equally  well  with  either  foot, 
combine  them,  passing  from  one  foot  to  the  other  without 
jerking  yourself.  Practice  this  until  you  do  it  without  any 
effort,  the  mere  swing  of  the  body  at  the  time  supplying  just 
enough  impetus  to  carry  you  round. 

The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  get  on  the  outside  edge 
backwards.  This  feat,  difficult  as  it  looks,  and  indeed  is  at  the 
first  attempt,  in  reality  is  easy  enough.  It  all  depends  on  the 
position  of  the  feet.  If  you  have  kept  your  feet  precisely  in 
the  attitude  which  has  been  described,  the  outside  edge  back- 
wards is  a necessary  corollary  of  the  figure  3. 

After  you  have  turned  on  your  right  foot  and  got  partly 
round  the  lower  half  of  the  3,  simply  put  your  left  foot  on  the 
ice  and  lift  your  right  foot.  Don’t  be  afraid  of  it.  Press  the 
outer  edge  of  the  left  foot  well  into  the  ice,  and  you  must  com- 
plete the  circle.  Provided  that  you  do  not  alter  the  position 
of  your  head,  body,  or  limbs,  it  is  the  easiest  thing  in  the 
world,  Only  dare  to  do  it,  and  it  will  be  done. 


When  you  have  learned  to  shift  in  this  way  from  one  foot  to 
the  other  with  ease,  you  will  soon  attain  to  the  summit  of  a 
skating  ambition,  the  quadrille. 

We  will  end  with  a few  cautions. 

Keep  the  knee  of  the  acting  leg  perfectly  rigid  : a knee  ever 
so  slightly  bent  ruins  the  effect  of  the  best  skating. 

Never  carry  a stick. 

Never  raise,  bend,  or  fold  your  arms  ; but  let  them  hang 
easily  by  your  side,  and  keep  your  hands  out  of  your  pockets. 

Keep  the  toe  of  the  off  foot  within  an  inch  of  the  ice,  and 
the  heel  rather  up. 

SLIDING. 

The  only  remark  that  need  be  made  about  sliding  is  that  the 
feet  should  always  be  kept  close  together  and  parallel  with 
the  line  of  the  slide.  The  sideways  sliding  adopted  by  many 
boys  is  altogether  wrong,  and  is  sure  to  lead  to  a nasty  fall 
some  time  or  other. 

Accustom  yourself  to  put  your  weight  on  each  foot  alter- 
nately, so  as  to  be  able  to  lift  the  other  off  the  slide,  and  with 
the  off  foot  give  a double  stamp  on  the  ice.  This  is  called  the 
“ postman’s  knock.”  Keep  the  arms  close  to  the  body,  and, 
as  in  skating,  if  you  find  yourself  likely  to  fall,  slip  down  and 
roll  aside,  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  those  who  are  follow- 
ing you. 


PARLOR  GAMES. 


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This  is  a capital  indoor  table  game,  especially  when  there 
are  some  ten  or  a dozen  players  to  keep  the  game  alive. 

It  is  founded  upon  the  absurd  incongruities  that  result  when 
a number  of  people  combine  together  to  make  one  connected 
sentence,  each  taking  his  own  part  irrespective  of  each  and  all 
of  the  others. 

Just  as  in  the  preceding  game  a connected  drawing  was 
made  by  uniting  three  several  parts,  each  drawn  in  ignorance 
of  the  other  two,  so  in  this  the  several  component  parts  of  a 
sentence  are  written  down  Dy  a number  of  players  separately 
and  without  collusion,  and  then  joined  together  in  one. 

We  will  suppose  eleven  players  are  sitting  round  the  table, 
severally  provided  with  a pencil  and  a strip  of  paper.  Each 
writes  on  the  top  of  his  paper  one  or  more  adjectives  attribu- 
table to  a man,  folds  his  paper  down  over  the  writing,  and 
passes  it  to  his  left-hand  neighbor,  receiving  one  in  return 
from  him  on  his  right  ; and  proceeding  in  the  same  order  he 
writes  in  succession, 

Adjectives  suitable  to  a man, 

A man’s  name, 

Adjectives  suitable  to  a woman, 

A woman’s  name, 

The  name  of  a place, 

Some  productions  of  ditto, 

A date, 

A short  sentence  suited  to  a man, 

A woman’s  reply, 

The  consequences,  and 
What  the  world  said. 

As  an  example  we  will  suppose  the  following  to  have  been 
written  down  on  one  of  the  papers  : 

The  irascible  and  enthusiastic — Paul  Pry — The  pious  and 
! charitable — The  Queen  of  the  Cannibal  Islands — Coney 

Island — Bloaters  and  ginger  beer — Christmas  Day,  B.C.  450 — 


Have  you  seen  Jumbo? — Ask  mamma — They  both  perishetj 
miserably — It  always  knew  how  it  would  be. 

When  all  have  been  filled  up,  the  president  takes  the  pa. 
pers  and  reads  them  out;  the  one  instanced  above  reading  thus ; 

The  irascible  and  enthusiastic  Paul  Pry  met  the  pious  and 
charitable  Queen  of  the  Cannibal  Islands  at  Coney  Island, 
famous  for  its  bloaters  and  ginger  beer,  on  Christmas  Day. 
B.c.  450.  He  asked  her  in  tender  strains , “ Have  you  seen 
Jumbo?”  To  which  she  replied,  with  a modest  blush,  “Ask 
mamma.”  As  a natural  consequence  they  both  perished  mis- 
erably ; and  the  world  said  it  always  knew  how  it  would  be. 


This  is  also  a very  amusing  game.  One  of  the  players 
writes  a letter,  which  of  course  he  does  not  show,  leaving  a 
blank  for  every  adjective.  He  then  asks  each  player  in  turn 
round  the  table  for  an  adjective,  filling  up  the  blank  spaces 
with  the  adjectives  as  he  receives  them. 

The  following  short  letter  will  explain  the  game  better  than 
a long  description  : 

My  detestable  Friend, 

In  answer  to  your  amiablt  letter,  I am  silly  to  inform 
you  that  the  dirty  and  degraded  Miss  Jones  sends  you  her  most 
fallacious  thanks  for  your  kindness,  and  bids  me  tell  you  she 
will  always  think  of  you  as  the  ainest  and  most  adorable 
friend  she  ever  had.  As  for  that  sagacious  fellow,  Smith,  he 
is  such  a delightful  ass,  such  a filthy  and  eminent  muff,  you 
need  not  fear  he  will  prove  a very  complicated  rival. 

Believe  me,  my  foolish  fellow, 

Yours,  etc. 


PARLOR  GAMES. 


This  is  a game  only  for  those  who  have  some  facility  in 
rhyming  and  versifying  ; with  half  dozen  such  it  will  always 
afford  unlimited  amusement.  It  is  played  as  follows  : 

The  players  sit  round  the  table,  each  with  a pencil  and  two 
slips  of  paper  ; on  one  he  writes  a question — any  question  that 
occurs  to  him,  the  quainter  the  better — and  on  the  other,  a noun. 

These  slips  are  put  into  two  separate  baskets  or  hats,  and 
shaken  up  well,  so  as  to  be  thoroughly  mixed.  The  hats  or 
baskets  are  then  passed  round,  and  each  player  draws  two 
slips  at  random,  one  from  either  basket,  so  that  he  has  one 
slip  with  a question  and  one  with  a noun. 

The  players  thus  furnished  now  proceed  to  write  on  a third 
slip  each  a practical  answer  to  the  question  before  him.  The 
answer  must  consist  of  at  least  four  lines,  and  must  introduce 
the  afore-mentioned  noun. 

For  instance,  supposing  a player  to  have  drawn  the  ques- 
tion, IV ho  killed  Cock  Robin?  and  the  noun  Jaw , he  might 
answer  it  somewhat  as  follows  ; 

“ I,  said  the  Sparrow, 

With  my  bow  and  arrow, 

If  you’d  known  him  too 
You'd  have  wished  him  at  Harrow ; 

With  his  cheek,  and  his  jaw, 

And  his  dandy  red  vest, 

He  became  such  a bore. 

Such  a regular  pest  ! 

’Twas  really  no  joke : 

Such  troublesome  folk 

Must  not  be  surprised  if  they’re  promptly  suppressed.” 

Or,  as  a more  concise  example,  question  asked,  Do  you 
bruise  your  oats  ? Noun,  Cheese.  Answer, 

As  I don’t  keep  a steed, 

For  oats  I’ve  no  need  ; 

For  myself,  when  my  own  private  taste  I would  please, 

I prefer  wheaten  bread  to  oat-cake  with  my  cheese. 

Here  is  another  example  of  veritable  crambo  rhymes.  The 
question  was,  “Can  you  pronounce  Llyndgynbwlch  ? ” and 
the  noun  “ Oil.”  Answer  as  follows  : 

“ Pronouncing  Llyndgynbwlch 
My  glottis  will  spoil, 

Unless  lubricated 
With  cocoa-nut  oil.” 

There  happened  to  be  cocoa-nut  cakes  on  the  table. 

These  will  be  amply  sufficient  as  guides  to  the  method  of 
playing  the  game.  They  are  not  offered  as  models  of  poetry 
or  diction,  but  as  just  the  sort  of  things  anybody  might  write 
on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  and  therefore  better  suited  for 
our  purpose  than  any  more  finished  and  elaborate  productions. 

Of  course  this  game  can  only  be  played  by  those  who  will 
take  an  interest  in  it,  and  who  possess  some  little  facility  of 

hr 


versification.  A player  who,  after  half  an  hour  or  so  spent  in 
puzzling  his  brain  and  beating  about  for  rhymes  and  sense, 
cannot  succeed  in  turning  out  a few  lines  of  doggerel,  had 
better,  for  his  own  sake  and  that  of  others,  turn  his  attention 
to  other  and  less  intellectual  amusements. 

But  we  would  not  alarm  any  timid  players— we  have  no 
wish  to  seem  to  require  any  great  poetical  gifts  in  the  player, 
though,  of  course,  the  more  witty  and  brilliant  they  are,  the 
more  delightful  and  interesting  the  game  : the  merest  doggerel 
is  quite  sufficient  for  all  purposes,  and  the  facility  of  stringing 
verses  together  will  be  found  to  increase  rapidly  with  every 
days’  practice.  None  but  a veritable  dunce  need  despair  of 
taking  at  least  a creditable  part  in  this  very  amusing  game. 


The  theory  of  this  game  is  very  simple,  but  the  opening  it 
gives  for  wit  and  satire  is  simply  unbounded,  and  for  pure  in 
tellectuality  it  stands  unrivaled  amongst  evening  games. 

The  players  sit  round  a table  each  with  a pencil  and  piece 
of  paper  ; a noun  is  then  selected  at  random  from  a list,  or  in 
any  convenient  way,  and  each  is  then  bound  to  furnish  an 
original  definition.  This  done,  another  is  given  out  and  sim- 
ilarly defined. 

When  a convenient  number  have  been  thus  disposed  of,  the 
papers  are  handed  up  to  the  president,  who  is  chosen  for  the 
occasion,  and  the  several  definitions  read  aloud. 

Some  very  brilliant  impromptus  are  sometimes  flung  off  in 
this  manner  ; and  we  would  strongly  advise,  where  the  game 
is  much  played,  that  a book  should  be  kept  for  the  enshrine- 
ment of  the  special  flowers  of  wit. 

We  offer  a few  here  as  examples,  not  so  much  for  imitation, 
but  as  illustrations  of  the  modus  operandi , or  perhaps  we  might 
rather  say,  ludendi. 

NOUN— MIRROR. 

DEFINITIONS. 

(a)  The  rarest  gift  the  fays  can  gie  us — 

We  see  oursels  as  ithers  see  us. 

(1)  The  vain  man’s  most  intimate  friend  ; the  wise  man’s  acquaint- 
ance. 

(c)  The  type  of  perfect  unselfishness,  giving  away  all  that  it  receives 
and  retaining  nothing  for  itself. 

( d)  The  hermit  of  modem  life  : it  spends  all  its  time  reflecting  on  thfc 
vanities  of  the  world. 

NOUN— PROSPERITY. 

DEFINITIONS. 

(a)  The  reward  of  exertion. 

( b ) Man’s  greatest  temptation. 

( c ) The  world’s  touchstone  of  merit. 

(d)  What  each  man  most  thinks  he  has  a right  to  expect  for  himieU 
and  is  least  inclined  to  desire  for  his  neighbor. 

(e)  The  pass-key  that  unlocks  the  gates  of  society. 

(_/)  A prize  in  the  lottery  of  fate. 




PARLOR  GAMES. 


NOUN— HUMANITY. 

DEFINITIONS. 


(a)  The  best  abused  virtue  in  the  calendar. 

(£)  The  highest  triumph  of  civilization. 

( c ) The  basis  of  Christian  charity. 

( d)  The  most  God-like  of  virtues, 
fc)  A common  cloak  for  cupidity. 

{/)  The  begging  impostor’s  Tom  Tiddler’s  ground. 
(.£■)  The  weakness  of  the  many,  the  virtue  of  the  few. 


How  DO  YOU  LIKE  IT,  WHEN  DO  YOU  LIKE  IT,  AND  WHERE 
DO  YOU  LIKE  IT? — This  is  also,  like  “ Proverbs,”  a guessing 
game.  One  player,  as  before,  goes  out  of  the  room  while  the 
others  fix  upon  a word.  He  then  returns,  and  puts  to  them 
severally  in  turn  the  question,  “How  do  you  like  it?”  and 
then,  having  completed  the  circle,  “When  do  you  like  it?” 
and  thirdly,  in  like  manner,  “Where  do  you  like  it?”  To 
each  of  which  questions  the  other  players  are  bound  to  return 
a satisfactory  reply. 

At  the  end  of  these  questions,  or  at  any  time  in  the  game, 
the  questioner  may  make  a guess  at  the  word,  being  allowed 
three  guesses  in  all,  as  before  in  “Proverbs.”  If  he  succeed 
in  guessing  rightly,  he  points  out  the  player  from  whose  an- 
swer he  got  the  right  clue,  who  therefore  pays  a forfeit  and 
takes  his  place,  and  the  game  goes  on  as  before.  If  he  do  not 
succeed  in  guessing  rightly,  he  himself  pays  a forfeit  and  goes 
out  again. 

The  great  secret  of  the  game  is  to  select  words  that,  though 
pronounced  alike  (spelling  does  not  matter),  have  two  or  more 
meanings. 

For  instance,  Z goes  out,  and  the  word  “ bow  ” is  chosen. 
He  asks  of  each,  “How  do  you  like  it?”  A answers  “In 
a good  temper”  {beau)  ; B,  “With  long  ends  ” (a  bow  tied  in 
a ribbon)  ; C,  “Very  strong  ” (an  archer’s  bow)  ; and  so  on, 
ringing  the  changes  upon  three  different  sorts  of  bow. 

In  the  next  round  the  players  are  not  bound  to  adhere  to  the 
same  meaning  they  selected  before,  but  may  take  any  meaning 
they  think  most  likely  to  puzzle  the  questioner. 

Thus,  to  the  question  “ When  do  you  like  it?”  the  answers 
may  quite  legitimately  be  as  follows  : A,  “ When  I am  dress- 
ing ; B,  “ When  I want  exercise  C,  “When  I am  going  to 
a party.”  And  to  the  last  question,  “ Where  do  you  like  it?” 
A answers,  “ Under  my  chin  ; ” B,  “At  my  feet  C,  “ Out- 
side on  the  lawn.” 

If  there  be  only  three  to  be  questioned,  this  would  prove 
hard  enough  to  find  out,  though  “Under  the  chin”  might 
perhaps  give  a clue.  Z’s  chance  lies  in  the  number  of  answers 
that  have  to  be  given  to  the  same  question,  and  in  the  short 


time  each  has  to  prepare  a satisfactory  answer— one  that  shall 
satisfy  all  conditions  and  yet  give  no  clue  to  the  word. 

The  whole  fun  in  this  game,  as  in  “ Proverbs,”  depends  en- 
tirely upon  the  wit  and  spirit  of  the  players.  To  be  seen  at 
its  very  best  it  should  be  played  by  a party  of  really  clever 
grown-up  people.  The  contest  of  wit  is  then,  as  Mr.  Cyrus 
Bantam  would  say,  “to  say  the  least  of  it,  re-markable.” 

Below  will  be  found  a few  words,  taken  almost  at  random, 
suitable  for  this  game  : 


Air — Heir 

Bowl 

Mail — Male 

Ant — Aunt 

Cask — Casque 

Main — Mane 

Bow — Bough 

Cell— Sell 

Pear — Pair 

Bow — Beau 

Chord — Cord 

Fair — Fare 

Flour— Flower 

Chest 

Sail— Sale 

Bale — Bail 

Club 

Rain— Rein 

Band 

Corn 

Vale-Veil 

Aisle — Isle 

Drop 

Tale— Tail 

Bar 

Gum 

Note 

Bill 

Kite 

Poll 

Ball 

Dram — Drachm 

Roll 

Buoy — Boy 

Draft — Draught 

Stole 

Balm — Barm 

Knight — Night 

Box 

Arms — Alms 

Hair — Hare 

Game,  etc. 

This  game  is  somewhat  like  the  last,  only  that  the  ques- 
tioner does  not  leave  the  room,  and  the  onus  of  the  game  lies 
on  the  questioned,  not  on  the  questioner. 

The  players  being  seated  in  a semicircle  round  the  ques- 
tioner, he  thinks  of  something  or  a person — it  matters  not 
what — and  demands  of  each  player,  “ What  is  my  thought 
like  ? ” The  answers,  of  course,  being  given  without  any  clue 
to  the  word  thought  of,  are  of  the  most  incongruous  nature. 

This,  however,  is  only  the  commencement  of  the  fun. 
Having  taken  and  noted  each  player’s  simile,  the  questioner 
now  reveals  the  word  he  had  thought  of,  and  demands  of  each 
a verification  of  his  simile  under  penalty  of  a forfeit. 

As  the  answer  must  be  given  promptly,  without  time  to  ar- 
range an  elaborate  defense,  much  quickness  of  wit  and  readi- 
ness  of  resource  is  required  to  avoid  the  forfeit  for  failure. 

If  the  whole  party  succeed  in  justifying  their  similes,  the 
questioner  pays  a forfeit,  and  a new  questioner  is  appointed. 

The  decision  as  to  an  answer  being  satisfactory  or  not  lies 
in  disputed  cases  with  the  whole  party  of  players. 

An  illustration  of  the  working  of  the  game  may  be,  per- 
haps, not  out  of  place. 

We  will  suppose  that  Z,  the  questioner,  has  thought  of  a 
baby,  and  has  asked  the  question,  “ What  is  my  thought  like  ?” 
all  round,  and  received  the  following  answers : 

A,  “A  lump  of  chalk  B,  “Alexander  the  Great;"  C, 
“The  Great  Eastern  ;”  D,  “A  gooseberry;”  E,  “A  fishing- 
rod  ; ” F,  “A  carpet  bag  ; ” and  so  on. 


PARLOR  GAMES. 


393 


Z now  tells  them  he  thought  of  a baby,  and  calls  upon  them 
each  severally  to  justify  his  simile. 

A,  “ It  is  like  a lump  of  chalk  because  it  is  white.”  (Al- 
lowed.) 

B,  “ It  is  like  Alexander  because  it  cries  for  what  it  can’t 
get.”  (Allowed.) 

C,  “ It  is  like  the  Great  Eastern  because  it  costs  a great 
deal  of  money  before  it  makes  any  returns.”  (Disputed  as 
rather  too  fanciful,  but  finally  allowed.) 

D,  “It  is  like  a gooseberry  because  it  is  soft  and  red.” 
(Not  allowed.  It  had  previously  been  likened  to  chalk  as 
being  white  ; red,  therefore,  cannot  stand,  and  softness  is  not 
a sufficiently  characteristic.  Forfeit.) 

E,  “ It  is  like  a fishing-rod  because  it  has  many  joints.” 
(Allowed  by  general  acclaim.) 

F,  “ It  is  like  a carpet  bag  because  it  has  most  elastic  ca- 
pacities of  stowage.”  (Allowed  after  some  discussion.) 

Of  course,  it  is  easy  enough  in  most  cases  to  find  some  sort 
of  justification  of  almost  any  simile  if  time  be  allowed,  though 
even  then  one  sometimes  comes  across  one  that  would  puzzle 
the  most  ingenious  ; but  in  the  actual  game  the  explanation 
must  be  found  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  and  herein  consists 
half  the  fun. 

This  game,  like  all  others  of  its  kind,  is  entertaining  ex- 
actly in  proportion  to  the  wit  and  capacities  of  the  players. 
Even  the  most  witty  and  most  learned  may  join  in  it  without 
derogating  from  their  dignity,  and  with  a certainty  of  deriv- 
ing from  it  a fund  of  endless  and  highly  intellectual  amuse- 
ment. 


This  is  a very  good  mental  exercise  for  all,  and  is  capital 
fun  even  for  adults  ; indeed,  the  better  educated  and  the 
more  clever  the  players  are  the  more  fun  is  there  to  be  got 
out  of  the  game,  as  it  gives  ample  occasion  for  the  exercise  of 
wit  of  the  highest  quality. 

One  player  goes  out  of  the  room,  and  the  rest,  being  seated 
in  a circle,  fix  upon  a proverb,  which  should  not  be  a very 
long  one.  The  first  player  being  now  recalled,  he  begins  at 
player  number  one  in  the  circle  and  asks  any  question  he  likes: 
the  answer  must  contain  the  first  word  of  the  proverb.  He 
then  tries  the  next,  whose  answer  must  contain  the  second 
word,  and  so  on. 

He  is  allowed  to  go  completely  round  the  circle  if  it  be  a 
large  one,  or  twice  if  it  be  a small  one,  and  then  must  either 
guess  the  proverb  or  go  out  again  and  try  a new  one.  If  he 
guess  rightly,  he  has  to  declare  the  answer  that  gave  him  the 
clue,  and  the  player  who  gave  it  has  to  go  in  his  stead. 

In  answering  the  questions  much  Ingenuity  may  be  exer- 
cised, and  much  amusement  created  in  concealing  the  key- 
words of  a proverb.  For  instance,  in  “Birds  of  a feather 


flock  together  ” there  are  three  dangerous  words — birds, 
feather,  and  flock — all  difficult  to  get  into  an  ordinary  sen- 
tence, and  it  requires  much  dexterity  to  keep  them  from  being 
too  prominent.  Let  us  take  this  proverb  as  an  example.  A goes 
out,  and  “ Birds  of  a feather  flock  together”  is  agreed  upon. 
A asks  of  B,  “ Have  you  been  out  to-day  ?”  B,  “ No  ; ” but  I 
sat  at  the  window  for  a long  time  after  sunset  listening  to  the 
birds  and  watching  the  rabbits  on  the  lawn  ; you  can’t  think 
what  a lot  there  were.”  A is  puzzled,  he  has  so  many  words 
to  pick  from,  and  the  word,  which  when  expected  seems  so 
prominent,  falls  unnoticed  upon  his  ear.  He  asks  C,  “ And 
what  have  you  been  doing  with  yourself  this  evening?”  C, 
“ Oh,  I have  been  sitting  with  B,  looking  out  of  window  too.” 
Next  comes  D,  who  can  have  but  little  trouble  in  bringing  in 
his  word  a,  only  let  his  answer  be  not  too  short.  Then  E has 
to  bring  in  the  word  feather.  A asks  him,  “ What  did  you 
have  for  dinner  to-day?”  F,  “Oh,  roast  beef,  turkey,  and 
plum  pudding  ; but  the  turkey  was  so  badly  plucked,  it  tasted 
of  singed  feathers,  and  we  couldn’t  eat  it.”  This,  repeated 
rapidly,  may  deceive  the  questioner,  who  goes  on  to  E : “I 

saw  you  with  a fishing-rod  to-day  ; what  did  you  catch?  ” F 
— who  is  by  no  means  required  to  adhere  to  absolute  facts, 
and  may  draw  upon  his  imagination  .to  any  extent — replies, 
“ Well,  to  tell  you  the  truth,  I did  not  catch  any  ; for  there 
was  a fock  of  sheep  having  their  wool  washed  ready  for  shear- 
ing.” F brings  in  the  wool  to  lead  A off  to  the  proverb 
“ Great  cry  and  little  wool,”  as  almost  his  only  chance  of  con- 
cealing the  real  word  flock.  A then  demands  of  G,  “ Do  you 
like  walking  ? ” G,  “I  do  if  I have  a companion.  When 
Charlie  and  I go  out  together  we  always  have  lots  of  fun  ; but 
Harry  is  such  a duffer,  it’s  awfully  slow  walking  with  him.” 

If  A is  at  all  quick,  he  ought  to  have  heard  quite  sufficient 
to  know  the  proverb  ; he  may,  however,  be  puzzled  by  the 
complicated  sentences  ; but  after  the  second  round  at  least, 
when  the  catch-words  have  been  repeated,  he  must  be  slow 
indeed  if  he  does  not  discover  it. 

One  of  the  party  should  be  appointed  umpire,  to  decide 
whether  any  answer  is  a fair  one,  and  no  one  else  should  be 
allowed  to  interfere  in  any  way  ; nothing  is  so  likely  to  give 
a clue  to  the  questioner  as  a dispute  whether  a word 
has  been  fairly  introduced  or  not.  In  cases  of  doubt  the 
umpire  may  call  for  a fresh  question  and  answer.  There  is  no 
reason  why  the  umpire,  who  should  be  one  of  the  oldest  play- 
ers for  authority's  sake,  should  not  join  in  the  game.  He  is 
appointed  almost  solely  to  prevent  confusion,  and  his  being  a 
player  or  non-player  can  have  no  influence  on  his  decisions. 

The  answers  should  be  made  with  decision,  and  as  rapidly 
as  is  consistent  with  distinctness — a quality  upon  which  the 
umpire  should  insist  ; and  the  player  should  especially  avoid 
giving  short  answers  when  he  has  a simple  word,  such  as 
“of,”  “the,”  etc.,  and  thus  give  the  questioner  the  clue  to 
the  answer  in  which  lie  the  catch-words,  and  thus  aid  him 
materially  in  his  task.  Of  course,  great  pains  must  be  taken 
not  to  lay  any  stress  upon  the  word  that  has  to  be  introduced, 
and  not  to  make  the  answers  unfairly  long. 

Simultaneous  Proverbs. — A very  good  modification  of  the 
above.  No  questions  are  asked  ; but  the  players,  one  for 
each  word  of  the  proverb,  stand  or  sit  in  a semicircle,  and  the 


394 


PARLOR  GAMES. 


player  who  has  to  discover  the  proverb  stands  in  front  of 
them.  One  of  them,  who  is  chosen  leader,  now  gives  the 
time,  “ One,  two,  three  ; ” at  the  word  “ three  ” they  all  call 
out  simultaneously  each  his  own  word.  This  they  may  be 
required  to  repeat  once  or  twice,  according  to  previous  ar- 
rangement, and  then  the  guess  must  be  made  under  the  same 
conditions  as  above. 

A long  proverb  should  be  chosen  for  this,  if  there  be  enough 
players  ; the  greater  the  number  of  voices,  of  course,  the  more 
difficult  it  is  to  discover  the  proverb. 


This  is  a capital  game,  and,  if  well  managed,  will  defy 
all  detection.  To  do  it  well,  however,  requires  some  practice. 

Two  persons  assume  respectively  the  roles  of  Professor  of 
Mesmerism  and  Clairvoyant.  The  professor  must  have  a ready 
wit  and  a good  store  of  language,  a plentiful  vocabulary  at 
his  finger  ends  : whilst  the  clairvoyant  must  be  quick  of  ob- 
servation and  retentive  of  memory. 

A semicircle  is  formed  by  the  spectators,  and  the  clairvoyant 
is  seated  blindfold  with  his  back  to  them  ; and  the  professor, 
after  going  through  the  usual  ceremony  of  mesmerizing  him, 
leaves  him  and  crosses  to  the  spectators,  asking  them  for  any 
objects  they  may  have  about  them  for  the  clairvoyant  to  name 
and  describe. 

If  they  are  both  well  up  to  their  work,  the  clairvoyant  will 
appear  to  those  who  are  not  initiated  into  the  secret  to  be  able 
to  see  without  his  eyes,  to  their  intense  astonishment  and  ad- 
miration. 

The  author  once  thus  played  clairvoyant  to  a friend’s  pro- 
fessor at  a large  charade  party,  and  deluded  the  whole  com- 
pany into  a belief  in  the  reality  of  the  exhibition. 

Robert  Houdin,  the  great  French  conjurer,  and  his  little 
boy  made  this  clairvoyance  one  of  the  leading  features  of  his 
entertainment,  and  brought  the  art  to  a wonderful  pitch  of 
perfection. 

It  would  be  impossible  in  the  contracted  space  of  one  of 
these  short  notices  to  give  full  instructions  how  to  produce 
this  clever  illusion  ; a mere  outline  of  the  method  of  proced- 
ure is  all  that  can  be  attempted.  This,  however,  will  be 
amply  sufficient  for  a boy  of  any  intelligence  to  grasp  the  idea 
of  the  leading  principles  : the  mere  details  he  will  soon  learn 
to  work  out  for  himself.  If  he  should  desire  any  further  par- 
ticulars, he  will  find  much  interesting  information  in  the 
“Memoirs”  of  Robert  Houdin,  which  may  now  be  procured 
at  almost  any  library. 

The  method  of  procedure  is  as  follows  : The  clairvoyant 

makes  it  his  business  to  observe  narrowly — unostentatiously, 
of  course — and  to  catalogue  in  his  mind  the  persons  present, 
any  little  peculiarities  in  their  dress,  ornaments,  etc.,  the  gen- 


eral arrangement  of  the  room,  and  any  little  knickknackeries 
lying  about.  Practice  only  will  enable  him  to  do  this  to  any 
considerable  extent  ; but  if  he  have  any  talent  for  such  men- 
tal exercise,  and  without  it  he  will  never  make  a clever  clair- 
voyant, practice  will  soon  enable  him  to  observe  almost  at  a 
glance  and  retain  in  his  memory  almost  all  the  leading  features 
of  all  around  him,  animate  and  inanimate. 

Robert  Houdin  trained  his  son  and  himself  by  walking  rap- 
idly past  various  shops  in  the  streets  of  Paris,  and  then  writ- 
ing down  on  paper,  after  passing  each  shop,  all  the  articles 
they  could  remember  seeing  in  their  transitory  glimpse  through 
the  window  : at  first  half  a dozen  or  so  was  all  they  could 
manage,  but  they  rapidly  rose  by  practice  to  twenty  or  thirty, 
until  the  young  Houdin,  who  quite  outstripped  his  father, 
would  tell  almost  the  whole  contents  of  a large  window. 

Of  course,  such  a wonderful  pitch  of  perfection  is  scarcely 
attainable  by  an  ordinary  boy,  and  would  not  be  worth  his 
while  if  it  were  ; nor,  indeed,  is  it,  or  anything  like  it,  nec- 
essary ; but  the  instance  may  serve  as  an  indication  of  the 
right  method  of  procedure,  to  be  worked  out  by  each  boy  ac- 
cording to  his  individual  bent  and  opportunities. 

It  should  be  understood  that  all  this  preparation  and  prac- 
tice is  not  absolutely  necessary  before  beginning  to  exhibit  the 
trick.  A very  few  rehearsals  will  suffice  for  a very  respecta- 
ble performance  ; only  if  anything  like  perfection  be  aimed 
at,  some  extra  trouble  must  be  taken  to  attain  it.  Of  course, 
every  exhibition  will  do  its  work  of  improvement. 

Meanwhile  professor  and  patient  must  practice  the  code  of 
signals  by  which  the  former  conveys  to  the  latter  any  neces- 
sary information  about  the  objects  to  be  described. 

These  signs  may  be  words  or  other  sounds  ; but  great  care 
must  be  taken  with  the  latter,  as  they  are  more  open  to  de- 
tection. 

The  initial  letter  of  the  first,  second,  or  last  word  in  each 
sentence  the  professor  addresses  to  the  clairvoyant  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  object ; and  as  the  number  of  objects  likely  to 
be  offered  for  description  is  limited,  a little  practice  will  insure 
its  instant  recognition  from  the  clue  thus  given.  Some  signal 
should  be  preconcerted  by  which  the  clairvoyant  may  be 
warned  that  the  object  presented  is  at  all  out  of  the  common. 

If  there  be  any  difficulty  in  making  out  the  object,  the  pro- 
fessor may,  by  a little  ingenuity  and  assurance,  spell  out  in 
successive  sentences  the  name  of  the  object  in  his  hand.  To 
cover  this  manoeuvre,  he  should  pretend  that  the  mesmeric 
influence  is  failing,  and  make  “passes  ” at  the  patient,  being 
careful,  of  course,  not  to  go  near  him,  and  the  clairvoyant 
must  pretend  to  brighten  up  under  their  influence. 

In  the  instance  above  referred  to  in  the  author’s  own  expe- 
rience, one  of  the  company  presented  for  description  some- 
thing very  much  out  of  the  common  way,  a nutmeg-grater  or 
something  similar,  and  the  professor,  with  the  greatest  readi- 
ness and  the  coolest  assurance,  deliberately  spelt  its  nama 
through  almost  to  the  last  letter  without  detection. 

The  above,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  found  sufficient  to  set  the 
young  aspirant  to  mesmeric  fame  on  the  right  track  ; but  an 
example  of  the  actual  working  may,  perhaps,  prove  more 
serviceable  than  much  description. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  the  object  be  a coin — a shilling,  say, 


PARLOR  GAMES. 


ef  George  the  Third,  date  1800.  The  professor,  who,  by  the 
way,  should  speak  with  as  much  rapidity  as  is  compatible  with 
distinctness,  says  sharply : 

Can  you  tell  me  what  I have  in  my  hand  ? 

A coin. 

Modem  or  ancient  ? * 

Modem. 

English  or  foreign  ? 

English. 

Give  the  reign. 

George  the  Third. 

But  what  value  ? 

Shilling. 

How  dated  ? 

1800. 

Thank  you,  sir  ! Your  shilling,  I believe  ? Right,  is  it  not  ? 

The  first  question,  it  will  be  seen,  begins  with  c ; this, 
without  further  explanation,  means  coin.  The  next  two  ex- 
plain themselves.  The  fourth  begins  with  G for  George , the 
only  possible  modem  English  reign  ; and  the  next  word  be- 
ginning with  t gives  the  clue  to  third.  B at  the  beginning  of 
the  next  stands  for  “ bob,"  or  shilling,  when  speaking  of 
English  coins.  The  guesser  can’t  be  far  wrong  in  his  date, 
knowing  the  reign.  In  enumeration  the  several  digits  are 
represented  by  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  ; h is  the  eighth  let- 
ter, and  therefore  stands  for  1800.  Any  odd  numbers  might 
have  been  spelt  out  in  similar  fashion. 

Both  professor  and  clairvoyant  should  speak  rapidly  and 
decisively  to  prevent  detection,  and  should  constantly  change 
the  key-word  from  first  to  last,  and  so  on.  A knowledge  of 
French  or  some  other  language  will  be  of  great  service  in  con- 
cealing the  machinery.  * 


When  a player  has  to  pay  a forfeit,  he  gives  in  pledge  some 
piece  of  portable  property,  which  he  will  afterwards,  at  the 
end  of  the  game,  have  to  redeem  in  due  order. 


One  player  is  declared  judge,  and,  with  eyes  blindfold 
stands  with  his  face  to  the  wall,  while  another  takes  up  the 
several  pledges  separately  and  asks,  “Here  is  a pretty  thing, 
and  a very  pretty  thing  ; what  is  to  be  done  to  the  owner  of  this 
very  pretty  thing  ? ” Or,  omitting  the  formula,  asks  merely, 
“What  is  to  be  done  to  the  owner  of  this?”  The  blindfolded 
player,  who,  of  course,  does  not  know  to  whom  each  forfeit 
belongs,  and  therefore  cannot  be  accused  of  unfairness,  as- 
signs for  each  forfeit  a task  which  must  be  fulfilled  before  the 
pledge  can  be  reclaimed. 

This  calling  of  the  forfeits  requires  no  little  ingenuity,  tact, 
and  judgment,  and  the  entire  success  depends  upon  the 
suitability  of  the  penalties  to  the  company  and  the  circum- 
stances. 

The  judge  must  take  into  consideration  not  only  what  pen- 
alties can  be  enforced,  but  what  will  afford  the  most  fun, 
and  at  the  same  time  must  avoid  the  slightest  shadow  of 
offense. 

Where  the  party  is  composed  entirely  of  boys  with  no  great 
inequality  of  ages,  the  task  is  tolerably  easy  ; but  where 
there  is  a mixed  company  of  girls  and  boys,  not  only  must 
the  penalty  attached  to  any  forfeit  be  such  as  a girl  could 
perform,  but  it  must  be  such  as  no  girl  would  object  to  per- 
form. 

In  cases  like  this  it  is  better  to  get  an  older  person — a lady 
if  possible — to  cry  the  forfeits  ; and  where  such  is  not  forth- 
coming, it  is  better  not  to  cry  them  at  all ; or,  if  that  be  too 
hard  a trial  for  the  young  players’  philosophy,  to  cry  the  girls’ 
and  the  boys’  separately. 

As  the  penalties,  therefore,  must  depend  so  entirely  upon 
the  special  circumstances  of  each  occasion  on  which  they  are 
imposed,  it  would  be  impossible  for  us  to  find  space  enough 
to  give  a list  sufficiently  comprehensive  to  be  of  any  real  serv- 
ice as  a guide  to  the  judge  in  all  cases. 

The  old  stock  forfeits  are  so  well  known  and  so  stale  that  it 
would  be  mere  waste  of  time  and  space  to  insert  them  here. 
We  might  certainly  give  a few  new  ones  ; but  the  exigencies 
of  space  would,  as  we  said  above,  prevent  our  giving  more 
than  a very  few,  and  we  therefore  prefer  to  leave  them  en- 
tirely to  the  ingenuity  and  invention  of  the  judge  for  the  time 
being,  who,  if  he  will  be  worth  his  salt,  with  one  glance  of  his 
eye  round  the  group  of  expectant  pledge  owners  gather  more 
hints  for  penalties  suited  to  the  occasion  than  he  would  from 
whole  pages  of  printed  instructions 


396 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


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Troy  owes  to  Homer  what  Whist  owes  to  Hoyle." 


DMOND  HOYLE,  the 
great  authority  on  Whist, 
published  his  treatise  in 
043- 

Of  all  card  games,  this  is 
perhaps  the  most  interesting  ; 
and  certainly,  if  such  a term 
can  be  used  in  regard  to  any- 
thing in  which  mere  chance 
is  an  element,  the  most 
■ scientific. 

“ ‘ A clear  fire,  a clean 
hearth,  and  the  rigor  of  the 
game.’  This  was  the  cele- 
brated toast  of  a lady,  who,  next  to  her  devotions, 
loved  a good  game  of  Whist. 

“ Man  is  a gaming  animal,  and  his  passion  can 
scarcely  be  more  safely  expended  than  upon  a game 
at  cards  with  only  a few  cents  for  the  stake.” 


Now  then  for  our  first  lesson  on  Whist.  This  game — Long 
Whist — is  played  by  four  persons,  with  a complete  pack  of 
cards,  fifty-two  in  number.  The  four  players  divide  them- 
selves into  two  parties,  each  player  sitting  opposite  his  partner. 
This  division  is  usually  accomplished  by  what  is  called  cutting 
the  cards , the  two  highest  and  the  two  lowest  being  partners  ; 
or  the  partnership  may  be  settled  by  each  player  drawing  a 
card  from  the  pack  spread  out  on  the  table,  or  in  any  other 


way  that  may  be  decided  on.  The  holder  of  the  lowest  card 
is  the  dealer.  But  previous  to  their  being  dealt,  the  cards  are 
“made” — that  is,  shuffled — by  the  elder  hand,  and  “cut" 
by  the  younger  hand.  The  undermost  card  in  the  pack, 
after  it  has  been  shuffled  and  cut,  is  the  “ trump.” 

The  whole  pack  is  now  dealt  out  card  by  card,  the 
dealer  beginning  with  the  player  on  his  left,  the  elder  hand. 
The  last  card — the  trump — is  then  turned  face  upwards  on  the 
table,  where  it  remains  till  the  first  trick  is  won,  and  turned. 
The  deal  completed,  each  player  takes  up  his  alloted  thirteen, 
and  arranges  them  in  his  hand  according  to  the  several  suits — 
the  Hearts,  Clubs,  Spades,  and  Diamonds  by  themselves  in 
their  regular  order.  The  elder  hand  now  leads  or  plays  a 
card.  His  left-hand  adversary  follows,  then  his  partner,  and 
last  of  all  his  right-hand  adversary.  Each  player  must  “fol- 
low suit,”  if  he  can,  and  the  highest  card  of  the  suit  led  wins 
the  “ trick  or  if  either  player  cannot  follow  suit,  he  either 
passes  the  suit — that  is,  plays  some  card  of  another  suit,  or 
trumps  ; that  is,  plays  a card  of  the  same  suit  or  denomina- 
tion as  the  turned-up  card.  Thus,  we  will  suppose  the  first 
player  leads  a Nine  of  Spades,  the  second  follows  with  a Ten, 
the  third,  who  perhaps  holds  two  high  cards,  plays  a Queen, 
and  the  last  a Two  or  a Three.  The  trick  would  then  belong 
to  the  third  player  who  won  it  with  his  Queen.  The  winnei 
of  the  trick  then  leads  off  a card,  and  the  others  follow  as 
before,  and  so  on  till  the  thirteen  tricks  are  played.  A second 
deal  then  takes  place  as  before,  and  so  the  game  proceeds  till 
one  or  the  other  side  has  obtained  ten  tricks,  which  is  game. 

The  order  and  value  of  the  cards  in  Whist  is  as  follows  : — 
Ace  is  highest  in  play  and  lowest  in  cutting.  Then  follow 
King,  Queen,  Knave,  Ten,  Nine,  Eight,  Seven,  Six,  Five, 
Four,  Three,  Two,  the  lowest. 

But  there  are  other  ways  of  scoring  points  besides  tricks. 
The  four  court  cards  of  the  trump  suit  are  called  honors  ; and 
the  holders  of  four  score  four  towards  the  game  ; the  holders 
of  three  score  two ; but  if  each  player  or  each  set  of  partners 
hold  two,  then  honors  are  said  to  be  divided,  and  no  points 
are  added  to  the  game  on  either  side.  Thus,  A and  C 


\S0 


Of 

t^v 


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Ot 


vvv.^°'s 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


(bartners)  have  between  them  the  Ace,  Knave,  and  Queen. 
At  the  end  of  the  deal  or  round,  they  say  and  score  two  by 
honors ; or,  B and  D hold  Ace  and  King  only,  while  A 
and  B have  Queen  and  Knave  in  their  hands ; then  the 
honors  are  divided. 

All  tricks  above  six  score  to  the  game.  All  honors  above 
two  score  in  the  way  explained— two  points  for  three  honors, 
four  points  for  four  honors. 

There  being  thirteen  tricks  which  must  be  made  in  each 
round  or  deal,  it  follows  that  seven  points  may  be  gained, 
which,  with  the  four  honors,  would  finish  the  game  in  a 
single  deal.  This  stroke  of  good;  fortune  is,  however,  seldom 
attained.  It  is  much  more  likely  that  four  or  five  deals  are 
made  before  the  game  is  won.  As  we  have  explained,  ten 
points  are  game  in  Long  Whist 

In  Short  Whist,  which  is  the  ordinary  game  cut  in  half  .five 
points  win.  But  if  either  side  get  up  to  nine  points,  then  the 
holding  of  honors  is  of  no  advantage.  In  the  language  of  the 
Whist-table,  at  nine  points  honors  do  not  count.  But  at  eight 
points,  the  player  who  holds  two  honors  in  his  hand  has  what 
is  called  the  privilege  of  the  call  That  is,  he  may  ask  his 
partner  if  he  has  an  honor — “Can  you  one?”  or  “ Have  you 
an  honor  ?”  If  the  partner  asked  does  hold  the  requisite 
Court  card,  the  honors  may  be  shown,  the  points  scored,  and 
the  game  ended.  But  the  inquiry  must  not  be  made  by  the 
player  holding  the  two  honors  till  it  is  his  turn  to  play , nor 
must  the  holder  of  a single  honor  inquire  of  his  partner  if  he 
has  two. 

Nor  does  the  holding  of  four  honors  entitle  the  partners  to 
show  them  at  any  stage  of  the  game  except  at  eight  points. 
To  put  the  matter  epigrammatically,  at  six  or  seven  points, 
tricks  count  before  honors  ; at  eight  points,  honors  count  before 
tricks. 

At  nine  points,  honors  do  not  count.  It  must  be  understood, 
however,  that,  in  order  to  count  honors  at  eight  points,  they 
must  be  shown  before  the  first  trick  is  turned,  or  they  cannot  be 
claimed  till  the  round  is  completed.  Thus  it  might  happen 
that  the  partners  at  eight  points,  holding  the  honors  between 
them,  and  neglecting  to  show  them,  would  be  beaten,  even 
though  the  other  side  wanted  three  or  four  tricks  for  the 
game. 

A Single  Game  is  won  by  the  side  which  first  obtains  the 
ten  points  by  a majority  of  one,  two,  three  or  four  points. 

A Double  Game  is  made  when  one  side  obtains  ten  points 
before  the  other  has  scored  fve. 

A Lurch  or  7 riplet  is  won  by  the  obtainment  of  ten  points 
to  nothing  on  the  other  side. 

A Rubber  is  two  games  won  out  of  three. 

The  Points  of  a Rubber  are  reckoned  thuswise  : — For  the 
single  game,  one  point  ; for  the  double,  two  points  ; and  for 
the  rub,  two  points.  Thus  it  is  possible  to  obtain  six  points 
in  one  rubber — namely,  two  doubles  and  the  rub. 

A Lurch  or  Triplet  is  in  some  companies  reckoned  for  three 
points.  Generally,  however,  a lurch  is  only  counted  as  a 
double  game  where  triplets  are  counted  ; it  is  possible,  there- 
fore, for  the  winners  to  obtain  eight  points. 

A Slam  is  when  the  whole  thirteen  tricks  are  won  in  a 
single  hand. 


The  game  is  usually  marked  on  the  table  by  coins  or  count- 
ers, or  by  the  holes  in  a Cribbage-board.  Many  pretty  little 
contrivances  have  been  invented  as  Whist-markers  ; but  if 
coins  be  used,  the  following  is  the  simplest  way  of  arranging 
them  in  order  to  denote  the  score  : — 


i 2 3 


4567  89 


O OO  OOO  QQ 


OO  O 
O OOO 


OOO 

o 


OO 

OO 


o 

o 

o 


Or  thus — a plan  in  which  the  unit  above  stands  for  three,  01 
below  for  five  : — 


4 5 6 7 


9 9 


OOOO 


o 


O OO  OOO  OOOO 


000000  o o 

TECHNICAL  TERMS  USED  IN  WHIST. 


O 

orOO 

O 


Ace. — Highest  in  play,  lowest  in  cutting. 

Blue  Peter. — A signal  for  trumps,  allowable  in  modern  play. 
This  term  is  used  when  a high  card  is  unnecessarily  played 
in  place  of  one  of  lower  denomination,  as  a ten  for  a seven, 
a five  for  a deuce,  etc. 

Bumper. — Two  games  won  in  succession  before  adversaries 
have  won  one  ; that  is,  a rubber  of  full  points — Five  at 
Long  Whist,  Eight  at  Short. 

Cut. — Lifting  the  cards,  when  the  uppermost  portion  (not 
fewer  than  three)  is  placed  below  the  rest.  The  pack  is 
then  ready  for  the  dealer. 

Cutting-in. — Deciding  the  deal  by  each  player  taking  up  not 
fewer  than  three  cards,  and  the  two  highest  and  two  lowest 
become  partners.  In  case  of  ties,  the  cards  must  be  cut 
again. 

Cutting-out. — In  case  of  other  person  or  persons  wishing  to 
play,  the  cut  is  adopted  as  before,  when  the  highest  (or  low- 
est,  as  may  be  agreed  on)  stands  out  of  the  game,  and  does 
not  play. 

Call,  the. — The  privilege  of  the  player  at  eight  points  asking 
his  partner  if  he  holds  an  honor — “ Have  you  one  ?”  The 
partners  having  eight  points  are  said  to  have  the  call.  When 
each  side  stands  at  eight,  the  first  player  has  the  privilege. 
As  explained  in  a previous  page,  no  player  can  call  till  it  is 
his  turn  to  play. 

Deal. — The  proper  distribution  of  the  cards,  from  left  to  right, 
face  downwards. 

Deal,  mis. — A misdeal  is  made  by  giving  a card  too  many  or 
two  few  to  either  player  ; in  which  case  the  deal  passes  to 
the  next  hand.  (See  Laws.) 

Deal,  fresh. — A fresh  or  new  deal,  rendered  necessary  by  any 
violation  of  the  laws,  or  by  any  accident  to  the  cards  or 
players. 

Double. — Ten  points  scored  at  Long  Whist  before  adversaries 
have  obtained  five;  or  in  Short  Whist,  five  before  three. 

Elder-hand. — The  player  to  the  left  of  the  dealer. 

Faced  Card. — A card  improperly  shown  in  process  of  dealing. 


It  is  in  the  power  of  adversaries  in  such  cases  to  demand  a 
new  deal. 

Finessing. — A term  used  when  a player  endeavors  to  conceal 
his  strength,  as  when,  having  the  best  and  third  best  (as 
Ace  and  Queen),  he  plays  the  latter,  and  risks  his  adversary 
holding  the  second  best  (the  King).  If  he  succeed  in  win- 
ning with  his  Queen,  he  gains  a clear  trick,  because,  if  his 
adversary  throws  away  on  the  Queen,  the  Ace  is  certain  of 
making  a trick.  The  term  finessing  may  be  literally  ex- 
plained by  saying  a player  chances  an  inferior  card  to  win 
a trick  with  while  he  holds  the  King  card  in  his  hand. 

Forcing. — This  term  is  employed  when  the  player  obliges  his 
adversary  or  partner  to  play  his  trump  or  pass  the  trick. 
As,  for  instance,  when  the  player  holds  the  last  two  cards  in 
a suit,  and  plays  one  of  them. 

Hand. — The  thirteen  cards  dealt  to  each  player. 

Honors. — Ace,  King,  Queen,  and  Knave  of  trumps,  reckoned 
in  the  order  here  given. 

Jack. — The  Knave  of  any  suit. 

King  Card. — The  highest  unplayed  card  in  any  suit;  the  lead- 
ing or  winning  card. 

Lead , the. — The  first  player’s  card,  or  the  card  next  played  by 
the  winner  of  the  last  trick. 

Long  Trumps. — The  last  trump  card  in  hand,  one  or  more, 
when  the  rest  are  all  played.  It  is  important  to  retain  a 
trump  in  an  otherwise  weak  hand. 

Loose  Cards. — A card  of  no  value,  which  may  be  thrown  away 
on  any  trick  won  by  your  partner  or  adversary. 

Longs. — Long  Whist,  as  opposed  to  Short. 

Lurch — The  players  who  make  the  double  point  are  said  to 
have  lurched  their  adversaries. 

Love. — No  points  to  score.  Nothing. 

Marking  the  Game.  Making  the  score  apparent,  with  coins, 
etc.,  as  before  explained. 

No  Game. — A game  at  which  the  players  make  no  score. 

Opposition. — Side  against  side. 

Points. — The  score  obtained  by  tricks  and  honors.  The  wager- 
ing or  winning  periods  of  the  game. 

Quarte. — Four  cards  in  sequence. 

Quarte  Major. — A sequence  of  Ace,  King,  Queen,  and  Knave. 

Quint. — Five  successive  cards  in  a suit;  a sequence  of  five,  as 
King,  Queen,  Knave,  Ten,  and  Nine. 

Renounce. — Possessing  no  card  of  the  suit  led,  and  playing 
another  which  is  not  a trump. 

Revoke. — Playing  a card  different  from  the  suit  led,  though 
the  player  can  follow  suit.  The  penalty  for  the  error, 
whether  made  purposely  or  by  accident,  is  the  forfeiture  of 
three  tricks.  (See  Laws.) 

Rubber. — The  best  two  of  three  games. 

Ruffing. — Another  term  for  trumping  a suit  other  than 
trumps. 

Sequence. — Cards  following  in  their  natural  order,  as  Ace, 
King,  Queen,  Two,  Three,  Four,  etc.  There  may,  there- 
fore, be  a sequence  of  Four,  Five,  Six,  and  so  on. 

Single. — Scoring,  at  Long  Whist,  ten  tricks  before  your  adver- 
saries have  scored  five. 

See-saw. — When  each  partner  trumps  a suit.  For  instance,  A 
holds  no  Diamonds,  and  B no  Hearts.  When  A plays 

Sfc- 


Hearts,  B trumps  and  returns  a Diamond,  which  A trumps 
and  returns  a Heart,  and  so  on. 

Score. — The  points  gained  in  a game  or  rubber. 

Slam. — Winning  every  trick  in  a round. 

Shorts. — Short  Whist  as  opposed  to  Long. 

Tenace. — Holding  the  best  and  third  best  of  any  suit  led  when 
last  player.  Holding  tenace,  as  King  and  Ten  of  Clubs. 
When  your  adversary  leads  that  suit,  you  win  two  tricks 
perforce.  \Tenace  minor  means  the  second  and  fourth  best 
of  any  suit.] 

Tteble. — Scoring  five  (at  Short  Whist)  before  your  adversaries 
have  marked  one. 

Terce. — A sequence  of  three  cards  in  any  suit. 

Terce  Major. — Ace,  King,  and  Queen  of  any  suit  held  in  one 
hand. 

Tiicks. — The  four  cards  played,  including  the  lead. 

Trump. — The  last  card  in  the  deal;  the  turn-up. 

Trumps. — Cards  of  the  same  suit  as  the  turn-up. 

Ties. — Cards  of  like  denomination,  as  two  Kings,  Queens,  etc. 

Cards  of  the  same  number  of  pips. 

Trumping  Suit. — Playing  a trump  to  any  other  suit  led. 
Underplay.— Playing  to  mislead  your  adversaries;  as  by  lead- 
ing a small  card  though  you  hold  the  King  card  of  the  suit. 
Younger  Hand. — The  player  to  the  right  of  the  dealer. 

SHORT  RULES. 

FOR  FIRST  HAND  OR  LEAD. 

1.  Lead  from  your  strong  suit,  and  be  cautious  how  you 
change  suits  ; and  keep  a commanding  card  to  bring  it  in 
again. 

2.  Lead  through  the  strong  suit  and  up  to  the  weak, but  not 
in  trumps,  unless  very  strong  in  them. 

3.  Lead  the  highest  of  a sequence  ; but  if  you  have  a quart 
or  quint  to  a King,  lead  the  lowest. 

4.  Lead  through  an  honor,  particularly  if  the  game  be  much 
against  you. 

5.  Lead  your  best  trump,  if  the  adversaries  be  eight,  and 
you  have  no  honor;  but  not  if  you  have  four  trumps,  unless 
you  have  a sequence. 

6.  Lead  a trump  if  you  have  four  or  five,  or  a strong  hand; 
but  not  if  weak. 

7.  Having  Ace,  King,  and  two  or  three  small  cards,  lead 
Ace  and  King,  if  weak  in  trumps,  but  a small  one  if  strong  in 
them. 

3.  If  you  have  the  last  trump,  with  some  winning  cards, 
and  one  losing  card  only,  lead  the  losing  card. 

9.  Return  your  partner’s  lead,  not  the  adversaries’;  and  if 
you  have  only  three  originally,  play  the  best;  but  you  need  not 
return  it  immediately,  when  you  win  with  the  King,  Queen, 
or  Knave,  and  have  only  small  ones,  or  when  you  have  a good 
sequence,  have  a strong  suit,  or  have  five  trumps, 
xo.  Do  not  lead  from  Ace  Queen,  or  Ace  Knave. 

11.  Do  not  lead  an  Ace,  unless  you  have  a King. 

12.  Do  not  lead  a thirteenth  card,  unless  trumps  be  out. 

13.  Do  not  trump  a thirteenth  card,  unless  you  be  last 
player,  or  want  the  lead. 

14.  Keep  a small  card  to  return  your  partner’s  lead. 




GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


399 


15.  Be  cautious  in  trumping  a card  when  strong  in  trumps, 
particularly  if  you  have  a strong  suit. 

16.  Having  only  a few  small  trumps,  make  them  when  you 
can. 

17.  If  your  partner  refuses  to  trump  a suit,  of  which  he 
knows  you  have  not  the  best,  lead  your  best  trump. 

18.  When  you  hold  all  the  remaining  trumps  play  one,  and 
then  try  to  put  the  lead  in  your  partner’s  hand. 

19.  Remember  how  many  of  each  suit  are  out,  and  what  is 
the  best  card  left  in  each  hand. 

20.  Never  force  your  partner  if  you  are  weak  in  trumps, un- 
less you  have  a renounce,  or  want  the  odd  trick. 

21.  When  playing  for  the  odd  trick,  be  cautious  of  trump- 
ing out,  especially  if  your  partner  be  likely  to  trump  a suit; 
make  all  the  tricks  you  can  early,  and  avoid  finessing. 

22.  If  you  take  a trick,  and  have  a sequence,  win  with  the 
lowest. 

FOR  SECOND  HAND. 

23.  With  King,  Queen,  and  small  cards,  play  a small  one, 
when  not  strong  in  trumps.  But  if  weak,  play  the  King. 
With  Ace,  King,  Queen,  or  Knave,  only,  and  a small  card, 
play  the  small  one. 

FOR  THIRD  HAND. 

24.  With  Ace  and  Queen,  play  her  Majesty,  and,  if  she 
wins,  return  the  Ace.  In  all  other  cases  the  third  hand  should 
play  his  best  card  when  his  partner  has  led  a low  one.  It  is  a 
safe  rule  for  the  third  hand  to  play  his  highest. 

FOR  ALL  THE  PLAYERS. 

25.  Fail  not,  when  in  your  power,  to  make  the  odd  trick. 

26.  Attend  to  the  game,  and  play  accordingly. 

27.  Hold  the  turn-up  card  as  long  as  possible,  and  so  keep 
your  adversaries  from  a knowledge  of  your  strength. 

28.  Retain  a high  trump  as  long  as  you  can. 

29.  When  in  doubt  win  the  trick. 

30.  Play  the  game  fairly  and  keep  your  temper. 

CUTTING  IN. 

1.  The  two  highest  are  partners  against  the  two  lowest. 

2.  Less  than  three  cards  is  not  a cut. 

[If  fewer  than  three  cards  be  cut  off  the  pack,  the  player  so  cutting 

must  replace  the  cards,  and  cut  again.] 

3.  In  cutting,  the  Ace  is  lowest. 

4 Ties  must  cut  again. 

5.  After  the  pack  is  cut.  no  fresh  cards  can  be  called  for  in 
that  deal. 

6 If  a card  be  exposed,  a new  cut  may  be  demanded. 

7.  All  cutting-in  and  cutting-out  must  be  by  pairs. 

8.  The  right-hand  adversary  cuts  to  the  dealer. 

SHUFFLING. 

9.  The  cards  must  be  shuffled  above  the  table. 

10.  Each  player  has  a right  to  shuffle  the  cards,  the  dealer 
last. 

DEALING. 

11.  The  cards  must  be  dealt  one  at  a time,  commencing 
with  the  player  to  the  left  of  the  dealer. 


12.  In  case  of  a misdeal , the  deal  passes  to  the  next  player. 
[The  following  are  misdeals  : — A card  too  many  or  too  few  given  to 

either  player.  An  exposed  card.  Looking  to  the  trump  card  before 
it  is  turned  up  in  the  regular  order  of  play.  Dealing  the  cards  with 
the  pack  not  having  been  cut.  The  trump  card  dropped  out  of 
turn.  A faulty  pack.  In  every  case,  except  the  last,  the  deal  is 
lost  if  a fresh  deal  be  claimed  by  opponents.  A card  faced  by  any 
other  than  the  dealer  is  not  subject  to  penalty.] 

13.  The  dealer  must  not  touch  the  cards  after  they  have 
left  his  hand,  but  he  is  allowed  to  count  those  remaining  un- 
dealt if  he  suspects  he  has  made  a misdeal. 

14.  The  trump  card  must  be  left  on  the  table,  face  upwards, 
till  the  first  trick  is  turned. 

[If  it  is  not  then  taken  up,  however,  it  can  be  treated  as  an  exposed 
card,  and  called  at  any  part  of  the  game,  provided  that  no  revoke 
be  made  by  playing  it.] 

15.  One  partner  may  not  deal  for  another  without  the  con- 
sent of  opponents. 

THE  GAME. 

16.  Any  card  played  out  of  turn  can  be  treated  as  an  ex- 
posed card  and  called,  provided  no  revoke  be  thereby  caused. 

[Thus,  a player  who  wins  a trick  plays  another  card  before  his  partner 
plays  to  the  trick.  The  second  card  becomes  an  exposed  card.] 

17.  If  the  third  player  throws  down  his  card  before  the 
second,  the  fourth  player  has  a right  also  to  play  before  the 
second;  or,  if  the  fourth  hand  play  before  the  second  or  third, 
the  cards  so  played  must  stand,  and  the  second  be  compelled 
to  win  the  trick  if  he  can. 

18.  No  player  but  he  who  made  the  last  trick  has  a right  to 
look  at  it  after  it  has  been  turned. 

ig.  A trump  card  played  in  error  may  be  recalled  before  the 
trick  is  turned. 

[But  if  the  playing  of  such  trump  cause  the  next  player  to  expose  a 
card,  such  last  exposed  card  cannot  be  called.] 

20.  If  two  cards  be  played,  or  if  the  player  play  twice  to 
the  same  trick,  his  opponents  can  elect  which  of  the  two  shall 
remain  and  belong  to  the  trick.  Provided,  however,  that  no 
revoke  be  caused. 

[But  if  the  trick  should  happen  to  be  turned  with  five  cards  in  it,  ad- 
versaries may  claim  a fresh  deal  ] 

21.  A player,  before  he  throws,  may  require  his  partner  to 
“ draw  his  card,”  or  he  may  have  each  card  in  the  trick 
claimed  by  the  players  before  the  trick  is  completed. 

[The  proper  way  is  to  say,  “ Draw  your  cards,"  as  then  the  chance 
of  partner  claiming  the  wrong  one  is  lessened  ] 

22.  If  two  players  answer  the  lead  together,  the  one  whose 
turn  it  was  to  play  can  call  the  other  card  in  the  next  or  fol- 
lowing trick  as  an  exposed  card. 

23.  No  player  is  allowed  to  transfer  his  hand  to  another 
without  the  consent  of  his  adversaries. 

24.  A hand  once  abandoned  and  laid  down  on  the  table 
cannot  be  taken  up  again  and  played. 

25.  If  a player  announce  that  he  can  win  every  trick,  ad- 
versaries may  call  his  cards. 

THE  REVOKE. 

26.  The  penalty  for  a revoke  is  the  forfeiture  of  three 
tricks.  If  a revoke  be  made,  the  adverse  party  may  add  three 


GAMES  OF  CAR.DS. 


I 400 


to  their  score  by  taking  them  from  their  opponents,  or  they 
may  reduce  your  score  by  three. 

[In  order  to  more  fully  explain  the  intent  of  a revoke  : “If  a suit  is 
led,  and  any  one  of  the  players,  having  a card  of  the  same  suit, 
shall  play  another  suit  to  it— that  constitutes  a revoke.  But  if  the 
error  be  discovered  before  the  trick  is  quitted,  or  before  the  party 
having  so  played  a wrong  suit, or  his  partner,  shall  play  again,  the 
penalty  only  amounts  to  the  cards  being  treated  as  exposed,  and 
being  liable  to  be  called.”], 

27.  If  a player  revokes,  and  before  the  trick  is  turned  dis- 
covers his  error,  adversaries  may  call  on  him  to  play  his  high- 
est or  lowest  card  of  the  suit  led,  or  they  may  call  the  card 
exposed  at  any  time  when  such  call  will  not  lead  to  another 
revoke. 

28.  No  revoke  can  be  claimed  till  the  trick  is  turned  and 
quitted,  or  the  revoker’s  partner  has  played  again. 

29.  When  a revoke  is  claimed,  the  cards  must  not  be  mixed, 
under  forfeiture  of  the  game. 

30.  The  player  or  partners  against  whom  a revoke  is  es- 
tablished cannot  claim  the  game  in  that  deal. 

31.  No  revoke  can  be  claimed  after  the  cards  are  cut  for 
the  next  game. 

32.  When  a revoke  has  occurred  on  both  sides,  there  must 
be  a new  deal. 

33.  The  proof  of  a revoke  is  with  the  claimants,  who  may 
examine  each  trick  on  the  completion  of  the  round. 

CALLING  HONORS. 

34.  Honors  cannot  be  counted  unless  they  are  claimed  be- 
fore the  next  deal.  No  omission  to  score  them  can  be  rectified 
after  the  cards  are  packed,  but  an  overscore  can  be  deducted. 

35.  Honors  can  only  be  called  at  eight  points,  and  then 
only  by  the  player  whose  turn  it  is  to  play. 

[It  is  quite  usual  to  omit  calling  honors  when  the  game  is  pretty  cer- 
tain, but  the  shortest  and  fairest  plan  is  for  the  player  holding  two 
honors  to  ask,  “ Can  you  one  ? ” when,  if  your  partner  holds  one, 
the  game  is  at  an  end.] 

36.  At  nine  points  honors  do  not  count. 

37.  Four  honors  in  one  or  both  partners’  hands  count  four 
to  the  game  ; three  honors,  two.  Two  honors  on  each  side  are 
not  scored,  but  are  said  to  be  divided. 

THE  SCORE. 

38.  If  both  partners  score,  and  a discrepancy  occur  between 
them,  adversaries  may  elect  which  score  to  retain. 

39.  The  score  cannot  be  amended  after  the  game  is  won 
and  the  cards  packed. 

INTIMATIONS  BETWEEN  PARTNERS. 

40.  A player  may  ask  his  partner,  “ What  are  trumps?  ” or, 
“Can  you  follow  suit?”  “Is  there  not  a revoke?”  Or  he 
may  tell  him  to  draw  his  card.  All  other  intimations  are 
unfair. 

41.  Lookers-on  must  not  interfere  unless  appealed  to. 

BY-LAWS. 

These  are  all  the  laws  of  the  game  of  Whist,  but  there  are 
certain  other  rules  or  by-laws  with  which  it  is  important  the 
finished  player  should  be  acquainted.  The  penalties  attached 
to  a disregard  of  any  of  the  following  by-laws  differ  in  differ- 
ent companies,  and  to  some,  which  partake  rather  of  the 
nature  of  maxims,  there  is  no  penalty  at  all. 


When  the  trump  is  turned,  and  taken  into  the  player’s 
hand,  it  cannot  be  demanded  by  either  of  the  players. 

When  a card  is  taken  distinctly  from  the  hand  to  which  it 
belongs,  it  may  be  treated  as  an  exposed  card. 

Taking  a trick  belonging  to  your  adversaries  subjects  you 
to  no  penalty,  but  it  may  be  reclaimed  at  any  time  during  the 
round. 

If  a player  throws  up  his  hand,  and  the  next  player  follows 
his  example,  the  game  must  be  considered  at  an  end,  and  lost 
to  the  first  player  resigning. 

Honors  scored  improperly  are  in  some  companies  trans- 
ferred to  adversaries. 

Approval  or  disapproval  of  a partner’s  play,  or,  in  fact,  any 
improprieties  of  speech  or  gesture,  are  not  allowable. 

As  soon  as  the  lead  is  played  to,  it  is  complete. 

If  a player  announce  that  he  can  win  all  the  remaining  tricks, 
he  may  be  required  to  face  all  his  cards  on  the  table.  His 
partner’s  hand  may  also  be  so  treated,  and  each  card  may  be 
called  separately. 

HINTS  AND  CAUTIONS  FOR  AMATEURS. 

Place  each  suit  together,  in  the  natural  order  of  the  cards, 
but  do  not  always  put  the  trumps  to  the  left,  as  thereby  your 
adversary  is  able  to  count  them  as  you  put  them  aside.  Many 
good  players  do  not  sort  their  cards  at  all,  but  arrange  them 
in  the  hand  just  as  they  fall  on  the  table. 

Never  dispute  the  score,  unless  you  are  pretty  certain  you 
are  right ; nothing  is  so  ungraceful  as  a disputatious  player. 

Never  hesitate  long  in  playing,  but  if  you  have  a bad  hand, 
do  your  best  and  trust  to  your  partner. 

Remember  that  no  points  can  be  marked  if  you  neglect  to 
score  before  the  second  trick  of  the  succeeding  round  is 
played. 

Do  not  show  honors  after  a trick  is  turned,  as  they  may  be 
called  by  your  adversaries. 

At  eight  points,  the  elder  hand  asks  the  younger,  and  not 
the  younger  the  elder.  That  is  to  say,  the  player  with  the 
two  honors  in  hand  asks,  “ Can  you  one  ? ” 

Remember  the  good  old  maxim,  “ Second  hand  throws 
away,  and  third  hand  plays  high.” 

Always  endeavor  to  retain  a leading  card  or  trump  to  nearly 
the  end. 

Never  throw  a high  card  on  a lost  trick  when  a low  one  will 
suffice. 

Follow  your  partner’s  lead,  and  not  your  adversary’s. 

When  you  suspect  your  partner  to  be  strong  in  trumps,  ruff 
when  he  leads  a small  card  and  return  a little  trump. 

When  your  partner  leads  from  an  apparently  good  hand,  do 
your  best  to  assist  him. 

Whist  is  a silent  game  ; therefore  do  not  distract  the  at- 
tention of  the  players  by  idle  conversation. 

Never  interfere  needlessly. 

Watch  the  style  of  your  adversaries’  play,  and  act  in  accord- 
ance with  your  own  judgment. 

Make  tricks  when  you  can  without  injury  to  your  partner’s 
hand. 

Accustom  yourself  to  remember  the  cards  that  are  played, 
A good  memory  is  a wonderful  assistant  at  Whist. 


* 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


401 


GENERAL  RULES. 

Be  cautious  how  you  change  suits,  and  allow  no  artifice  of 
your  adversaries  to  induce  you  to  do  so,  without  your  own 
hand  warrants  it. 

Keep  a commanding  card,  to  bring  in  your  own  strong  suit 
when  trumps  are  out,  if  your  hand  will  permit. 

Never  keep  back  your  partner’s  suit  in  trumps,  but  return 
them  at  the  first  opportunity. 

With  a strong  suit  and  but  few  trumps,  rather  force  your 
adversaries  than  lead  trumps — unless  it  happens  that  you  are 
strong  in  at  least  one  other  suit. 

Never  neglect  to  make  the  odd  trick  when  you  have  a 
chance. 

Look  well  to  your  own  and  your  opponents’  score,  and  shape 
your  play  by  reference  to  them. 

In  a backward  game,  it  is  sometimes  wise  to  risk  one  trick 
in  order  to  secure  two  ; but  in  a forward  game,  be  more  cau- 
tious. 

If  you  hold  three  cards  of  the  suit  led  by  your  partner,  re- 
turn his  lead  with  your  best. 

Remember  what  cards  drop  from  each  hand,  how  many  of 
each  suit  are  out,  and  the  best  remaining  card  in  each. 

Seldom  lead  from  Ace  and  Queen,  Ace  and  Knave,  or  King 
and  Knave,  if  you  hold  another  moderate  suit. 

If  neither  of  your  adversaries  will  lead  from  the  above  suits, 
you  must  do  it  yourself  with  a small  card. 

You  are  strong  in  trumps  with  five  small  ones,  or  three 
small  ones  and  one  honor. 

Do  not  trump  a card  when  you  are  strong  in  trumps,  more 
especially  if  you  hold  any  other  strong  suit. 

If  you  hold  only  a few  small  trumps,  make  them  when  you 
can. 

If  your  partner  refuses  to  trump  a suit  of  which  he  knows 
you  have  not  the  best,  lead  him  your  best  trump  as  soon  as 
you  can. 

If  your  partner  has  trumped  a suit,  and  refuses  to  play 
trumps,  lead  him  that  suit  again. 

Never  force  your  partner  but  when  you  are  strong  in  trumps, 
unless  you  have  a renounce  yourself,  or  want  only  the  odd 
trick. 

If  the  adversaries  trump  out,  and  your  partner  has  a re- 
nounce, give  him  that  suit  when  you  get  the  lead,  if  you  think 
he  has  a small  trump  left. 

Lead  not  from  an  Ace  suit  originally,  if  you  hold  four  in 
number  of  another  suit. 

When  trumps  are  either  returned  by  your  partner,  or  led  by 
your  adversaries,  you  may  finesse  deeply  in  them  ; keeping 
the  command  as  long  as  you  can  in  your  own  hand. 

If  you  lead  the  King  of  any  suit,  and  make  it,  you  must 
not  thence  conclude  that  your  partner  holds  the  Ace. 

It  is  sometimes  proper  to  lead  a thirteenth  card,  in  order  to 
force  the  adversary,  and  give  your  partner  a chance  of  making 
a trick  as  last  player. 

If  weak  in  trumps,  make  your  tricks  soon  ; but  when  strong 
in  them,  you  may  play  a more  backward  game. 

With  five  small  trumps  and  a good  hand,  lead  trumps,  and 
so  exhaust  the  suit. 

With  the  lead,  and  three  small  trumps  and  the  Ace,  it  is  | 


sometimes  judicious  to  allow  your  adversaries  to  make  two 
tricks  in  trumps  with  King  and  Queen,  and  on  the  third 
round  play  your  Ace.  You  then  secure  the  last  trick  with 
your  little  trump. 

With  one  strong  suit,  a moderate  one,  and  a single  card,  it 
is  good  play  to  lead  out  one  round  from  your  strong  suit,  and 
then  play  your  single  card. 

Keep  a small  card  of  your  partner’s  first  lead,  if  possible, 
in  order  to  return  it  when  the  trumps  are  out. 

Never  force  your  adversary  with  your  best  card  of  a suit 
unless  you  have  the  second  best  also. 

In  your  partner’s  lead,  endeavor  to  keep  the  command  in 
his  hand,  rather  than  in  your  own. 

If  you  have  see-saw,  it  is  generally  better  to  pursue  it  than 
to  trump  out,  although  you  should  be  strong  in  trumps  with  a 
good  suit. 

Keep  the  trump  you  turn  up,  as  long  as  you  properly  can. 

When  you  hold  all  the  remaining  trumps,  play  one  of  them, 
to  inform  your  partner  ; and  then  put  the  lead  into  his  hand. 

It  is  better  to  lead  from  Ace  and  Nine  than  from  Ace  and 
Ten. 

It  is  better  to  lead  trumps  through  an  Ace  or  King  than 
through,  a Queen  or  Knave. 

If  you  hold  the  last  trump,  some  winning  cards,  and  one 
losing  card  only,  lead  the  losing  card. 

When  only  your  partner  has  trumps  remaining,  and  leads  a 
suit  of  which  you  hold  none,  if  you  have  a good  sequence  of 
four,  throw  away  the  highest  of  it. 

If  you  have  an  Ace,  with  one  small  card  of  any  suit,  and 
several  winning  cards  in  other  suits,  rather  throw  away  some 
winning  card  than  that  small  one. 

If  you  hold  only  one  honor  with  a small  trump,  and  wish 
the  trumps  out,  lead  the  honor  first. 

If  trumps  have  been  led  thrice,  and  there  be  two  remaining 
in  your  adversaries’  hands,  endeavor  to  force  them  out. 

Never  play  the  best  card  of  your  adversaries’  lead  at  second 
hand,  unless  your  partner  has  none  of  that  suit. 

If  you  have  four  trumps,  and  the  command  of  a suit  where- 
of your  partner  has  none,  lead  a small  card,  in  order  that  he 
may  trump  it. 


With  these  general  directions  we  may  now  proceed  to  con- 
sider each  hand  as  analyzed  by  Hoyle  and  improved  by 
modern  players.  The  following  are  from  the  last  and  best 
edition  of  Hoyle  ; the  maxims  have  been  adopted  by  Payne, 
Trebor,  Carleton,  Coelebs,  Captain  Crawley,  and  all  the  other 
writers  on  the  game. 

THE  LEAD— FIRST  HAND. 

Begin  with  the  suit  of  which  you  have  the  greatest  number ; 
for,  when  trumps  are  out,  you  will  probably  make  tricks  in  it. 

If  you  hold  equal  numbers  in  different  suits,  begin  with 
the  strongest ; it  is  the  least  liable  to  injure  your  partner. 

Sequences  are  always  eligible  leads  ; they  support  your 
partner’s  hand  without  injuring  your  own. 

Lead  from  King  or  Queen  rather  than  from  a single  Ace  ; 


40? 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


for,  since  your  opponents  will  lead  from  contrary  suits,  your 
Ace  will  be  powerful  against  them. 

Lead  from  King  rather  than  Queen,  and  from  Queen  rather 
than  Knave  ; for  the  stronger  the  suit,  the  less  is  your  partner 
endangered. 

Do  not  lead  from  Ace  Queen,  or  Ace  Knave,  till  you  are 
obliged  ; for,  if  that  suit  be  led  by  your  opponents,  you  have 
& good  chance  of  making  two  tricks  in  it. 

In  sequences  to  a Queen,  Knave,  or  Ten,  begin  with  the 
highest,  and  so  distress  your  left-hand  adversary. 

With  Ace,  King,  and  Knave,  lead  the  King  ; if  strong  in 
trumps,  you  may  wait  the  return  of  this  suit,  and  finesse  the 
Knave. 

With  Ace,  Queen,  and  one  small  card,  lead  the  small  one  ; 
by  this  lead,  your  partner  has  a chance  of  making  the  Knave. 

With  Ace,  King,  and  two  or  three  small  cards,  play  Ace 
and  King  if  weak,  but  a small  card  if  strong,  in  trumps  ; when 
strong  in  trumps,  you  may  give  your  partner  the  chance  of 
making  the  first  trick. 

With  King,  Queen,  and  one  small  card,  play  the  small  one  ; 
for  your  partner  has  an  equal  chance  to  win,  and  there  is  little 
fear  of  your  making  King  or  Queen. 

With  King,  Queen,  and  two  or  three  small  cards,  lead  a 
small  card  if  strong,  and  the  King  if  weak,  in  trumps ; 
strength  in  trumps  entitles  you  to  play  a backward  game,  and 
to  give  your  partner  a chance  of  winning  the  first  trick.  But 
if  weak  in  trumps,  lead  the  King  and  Queen,  to  secure  a trick 
,n  that  suit. 

With  Ace,  with  four  small  cards,  and  no  other  good  suit, 
play  a small  one  if  strong  in  trumps,  and  the  Ace  if  weak  ; 
strength  in  trumps  may  enable  you  to  make  one  or  two  of  the 
small  cards,  although  your  partner  cannot  support  your  lead. 

With  King,  Knave,  and  Ten,  lead  the  Ten  ; if  your  part- 
ner has  the  Ace,  you  may  probably  make  three  tricks,  whether 
he  pass  the  Ten  or  not. 

With  King,  Queen,  and  Ten,  lead  the  King  ; for,  if  it  fail, 
by  putting  on  the  Ten,  upon  the  return  of  the  suit  from  your 
partner,  you  may  make  two  tricks. 

With  Queen,  Knave,  and  Nine,  lead  the  Queen  ; upon  the 
return  of  that  suit  from  your  partner,  by  putting  on  the  Nine, 
you  make  the  Knave. 

SECOND  HAND. 

With  Ace,  King,  and  small  ones,  play  a small  card  if  strong 
in  trumps,  but  the  King  if  weak.  Otherwise  your  Ace  or 
King  might  be  trumped  in  the  latter  case.  Except  in  critical 
cases  no  hazard  should  be  run  with  few  trumps. 

W.th  Ace,  Queen,  and  small  cards,  play  a small  one  ; upon 
the  return  of  that  suit  you  may  make  two  tricks. 

With  Ace,  Knave,  and  small  cards,  play  a small  one  ; upon 
the  return  of  that  suit  you  may  make  two  tricks. 

With  Ten  or  Nine,  with  small  cards,  play  a small  one.  By 
this  plan  you  may  make  two  tricks  in  the  suit 

With  King,  Queen,  Ten,  and  small  cards,  play  the  Queen. 
By  playing  the  Ten  on  the  return  of  the  suit,  you  stand  a 
good  chance  of  making  two  tricks. 

With  King,  Queen,  and  small  cards,  play  a small  card  if 
srrong  in  trumps,  but  the  Queen  if  weak  in  them  ; for  strength 


in  trumps  warrants  a backward  game.  It  is  advantageous  to 
keep  back  your  adversaries’  suit. 

With  a sequence  to  your  highest  card  in  the  suit,  play  the 
lowest  of  it,  for  by  this  means  your  partner  is  informed  of 
your  strength. 

With  Queen,  Knave,  and  small  ones,  play  the  Knave,  be- 
cause you  will  probably  secure  a trick. 

With  Queen,  Ten,  and  small  ones,  play  a small  one,  for 
your  partner  has  an  equal  chance  to  win. 

With  either  Ace,  King,  Queen,  or  Knave,  with  small  cards, 
play  a small  one  ; your  partner  has  an  equal  chance  to  win 
the  trick. 

With  either  Ace,  King,  Queen,  or  Knave,  with  one  small 
card  only,  play  the  small  one,  for  oherwise  your  adversary 
will  finesse  upon  you. 

If  a Queen  of  trumps  be  led,  and  you  hold  the  King,  put 
that  on  ; if  your  partner  hold  the  Ace,  you  do  no  harm  ; and 
if  the  King  be  taken,  the  adversaries  have  played  two  honors 
to  one. 

If  a Knave  of  trumps  be  led,  and  you  hold  the  Queen,  put 
it  on  ; for,  at  the  worst,  you  bring  down  two  honors  for  one. 

If  a King  be  led,  and  you  hold  Ace,  Knave,  and  small 
ones,  play  the  Ace,  which  can  only  make  one  trick. 

THIRD  HAND. 

The  third  hand  plays  high. 

With  Ace  and  King,  play  the  Ace  and  immediately  return 
the  King.  It  is  not  necessary  that  you  should  keeo  tne  com- 
mand of  your  partner’s  hand. 

With  Ace  and  Queen,  play  the  Ace  and  return  the  Queen. 
By  this  means  you  make  a certain  trick,  though  it  is  sometimes 
policy  to  play  the  Queen.  Your  partner  is,  however,  best 
supported  by  the  old-fashioned  method. 

With  Ace  and  Knave,  play  the  Ace  and  return  the  Knave, 
in  order  to  strengthen  your  partner’s  hand. 

With  King  and  Knave,  play  the  King;  and  if  it  win,  return 
the  Knave. 

Play  the  best  when  your  partner  leads  a small  card,  as  it 
best  supports  him. 

If  you  hold  Ace  and  one  small  card  only,  and  your  part- 
ner lead  the  King,  put  on  the  Ace,  and  return  the  small 
one  ; for,  otherwise,  your  Ace  may  be  an  obstruction  to  his 
suit. 

If  you  hold  King  and  only  one  small  card,  and  your  part, 
ner  lead  the  Ace,  when  the  trumps  are  out,  play  the  King ; 
for,  by  putting  on  the  King,  there  will  be  no  obstruction  to 
the  suit. 

FOURTH  HAND. 

If  a King  be  led,  and  you  hold  Ace,  Knave,  and  a small 
card,  play  the  small  one  ; for  supposing  the  Queen  to  follow 
you  will  probably  make  both  Ace  and  Knave. 

When  the  third  hand  is  weak  in  his  partner’s  lead,  you 
may  often  return  that  suit  to  g-ieat  advantage  ; but  this  rule 
must  not  be  applied  to  trumps,  unless  you  are  very  strong 
indeed. 

Never  neglect  to  secure  the  trick  if  there  is  any  doubt  about 
the  game. 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


4°3 


If  you  hold  the  thirteenth  trump,  retain  it  to  make  a trick 
when  your  partner  fails  in  his  lead. 

If  you  stand  in  the  nine  holes,  make  all  the  tricks  you 
can  ; but  at  the  same  time  be  careful.  Watch  the  game  nar- 
rowly, and  look  well  to  your  partner’s  lead. 

LEADING  TRUMPS. 


Lead  trumps  from  a strong  hand,  but  never  from  a weak 
one  ; by  which  means  you  will  secure  your  good  cards  from 
being  trumped. 

Never  trump  out  with  a bad  hand,  although  you  hold  five 
small  trumps  ; for,  since  your  cards  are  bad,  you  only  bring 
out  your  adversaries’  good  ones. 

If  you  hold  Ace,  King,  Knave,  and  three  small  trumps, 
play  Ace  and  King  ; for  the  probability  of  the  Queen  falling 
is  in  your  favor. 

If  you  hold  Ace,  King,  Knave,  and  one  or  two  small 
trumps,  play  the  King,  and  wait  the  return  from  your  part- 
ner to  put  on  the  Knave.  By  this  plan  you  may  win  the 
Queen.  But  if  you  have  particular  reasons  to  exhaust  trumps, 
play  two  rounds,  and  then  your  strong  suit. 

If  you  hold  Ace,  King,  and  two  or  three  small  trumps,  lead 
a small  one,  with  a view  to  let  your  partner  win  the  first  trick  ; 
but  if  you  have  good  reason  for  getting  out  trumps,  play  three 
rounds,  or  play  Ace  and  King,  and  then  your  strong  suit. 

If  your  adversaries  are  eight,  and  you  hold  no  honor,  throw 
off  your  best  trump  ; for,  if  your  partner  has  not  two  honors, 
you  lose  the  game.  But  if  he  should  happen  to  hold  two 
honors — as  he  probably  would — you  have  a strong  command- 
ing game. 

Holding  Ace,  Queen,  Knave,  and  small  trumps,  play  the 
Knave  ; by  this  means,  the  King  only  can  make  against  you. 

Holding  Ace,  Queen,  Ten,  and  one  or  two  small  trumps, 
lead  a small  one  ; this  will  give  your  partner  a chance  to  win 
the  first  trick,  and  keep  the  command  in  your  own  hand. 

Holding  King,  Queen,  Ten,  and  small  trumps,  lead  the 
King  ; for,  if  the  King  be  lost,  upon  the  return  of  trumps  you 
may  finesse  the  Ten. 

Holding  King,  Knave,  Ten,  and  small  ones,  lead  the  Knave; 
it  will  prevent  the  adversaries  from  making  a small  trump. 

Holding  Queen,  Knave,  Nine,  and  small  trumps,  lead  the 
Queen  ; if  your  partner  hold  the  Ace,  you  have  a chance  of 
making  the  whole  suit. 

Holding  Queen,  Knave,  and  two  or  three  small  trumps, 
lead  the  Queen. 

Holding  Knave,  Ten,  Eight,  and  small  trumps,  lead  the 
Knave  ; on  the  return  of  trumps  you  may  finesse  the  Eight. 

Holding  Knave,  Ten,  and  three  small  trumps,  lead  the 
Knave  ; this  will  most  distress  your  adversaries,  unless  two 
honors  are  held  on  your  right  hand,  the  odds  against  which 
are  about  three  to  one. 

Holding  only  small  trumps,  play  the  highest ; by  which 
means  you  support  your  partner. 

Holding  a sequence,  begin  with  the  highest  ; thus  your  part- 
ner is  instructed  how  to  play  his  hand,  and  cannot  be  injured. 

If  any  honor  be  turned  up  on  your  left,  and  the  game  much 
against  you,  lead  a trump  as  soon  as  you  can.  You  may  thus 
probably  retrieve  an  almost  lost  game. 


In  all  other  cases  it  is  dangerous  to  lead  through  an  honor 
without  you  are  strong  in  trumps,  or  have  an  otherwise  good 
hand.  All  the  advantage  of  leading  through  an  honor  lies  in 
your  partner  finessing. 

If  the  Queen  be  turned  up  on  your  right,  and  you  hold  Ace, 
King,  and  small  ones,  lead  the  King.  Upon  the  return  of 
trumps  finesse,  unless  the  Queen  falls.  Otherwise  the  Queen 
will  make  a trick. 

With  the  Knave  turned  up  on  your  right,  and  you  hold 
King,  Queen,  and  Ten,  the  best  play  is  to  lead  the  Queen. 
Upon  the  return  of  trumps  play  the  Ten.  By  this  style  of 
play  you  make  the  Ten. 

If  the  Knave  turn  up  on  your  right,  and  you  hold  King, 
Queen,  and  small  ones,  it  is  best  to  lead  the  King.  If  that 
comes  home,  you  can  play  a small  one,  for  the  chance  of  your 
partner  possessing  the  Ace. 

If  Knave  turn  up  on  your  right,  and  you  have  King,  Queen, 
and  Ten,  with  two  small  cards,  lead  a small  one.  Upon  the 
return  of  trumps  play  the  Ten.  The  chances  are  in  favor  of 
your  partner  holding  an  honor,  and  thus  you  make  a trick. 

If  an  honor  be  turned  up  on  your  left,  and  you  hold  only 
one  honor  with  a small  trump,  play  out  the  honor,  and  then 
the  small  one.  This  will  greatly  strengthen  your  partner’s 
hand,  and  cannot  injure  your  own. 

If  an  honor  be  turned  up  on  the  left,  and  you  hold  a 
sequence,  lead  the  highest  ; it  will  prevent  the  last  hand 
from  injuring  your  partner. 

If  a Queen  be  turned  up  on  the  left  and  you  hold  Ace, 
King,  and  a small  one,  lead  the  small  trump  ; you  have  a 
chance  for  winning  the  Queen. 

If  a Queen  be  turned  up  on  your  left,  and  you  hold  Knave, 
with  small  ones,  lead  the  Knave  ; for  the  Knave  can  be  of  no 
service,  since  the  Queen  is  on  your  left. 

If  an  honor  be  turned  up  by  your  partner,  and  you  are 
strong  in  trumps,  lead  a small  one  ; but  if  weak  in  them,  lead 
the  best  you  have,  By  this  means  the  weakest  hand  supports 
the  strongest. 

If  an  Ace  be  turned  up  on  the  right,  and  you  hold  King, 
Queen,  and  Knave,  lead  the  Knave  ; it  is  a secure  lead. 

If  an  Ace  be  turned  up  on  the  right,  and  you  hold  King, 
Queen,  and  Ten,  lead  the  King  ; and  upon  the  return  of 
trumps  play  the  Ten.  By  this  means  you  show  strength  to 
your  partner,  and  probably  make  two  tricks. 

If  a King  be  turned  up  on  the  right,  and  you  hold  Queen, 
Knave,  and  Nine,  lead  the  Knave,  and  upon  the  return  of 
trumps,  play  the  Nine  : it  may  prevent  the  Ten  from  making. 

If  a King  be  turned  up  on  your  right,  and  you  hold  Knave, 
Ten  and  Nine,  lead  the  Nine  ; upon  the  return  of  trumps  play 
the  Ten.  This  will  disclose  your  strength  in  trumps  to  your 
partner. 

If  a Queen  be  turned  up  on  the  right,  and  you  have  Ace, 
King,  and  Knave,  lead  the  King.  Upon  the  return  of  trumps 
play  the  Knave,  which  makes  a certain  trick. 

HOW  TO  PLAY  WHEN  YOU  TURN  UP  AN  HONOR. 

If  you  turn  up  an  Ace,  and  hold  only  one  small  trump  with 
it,  if  either  adversary  lead  the  King,  put  on  the  Ace. 

But  if  you  turn  up  an  Ace,  and  hold  two  or  three  small 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


r- 

404 


trumps  with  it,  and  either  adversary  lead  the  King,  put  on  a 
small  one  ; for,  if  you  play  the  Ace,  you  give  up  the  command 
in  trumps. 

If  you  turn  up  a King  and  hold  only  one  small  trump  with 
it,  and  your  right-hand  adversary  lead  a trump,  play  a small 
one. 

If  you  turn  up  a King,  and  hold  two  or  three  small  trumps 
with  it,  if  your  right-hand  adversary  lead  a trump,  play  a 
small  one. 

If  you  turn  up  a Queen  or  Knave,  and  hold  besides  only 
small  trumps,  if  yonr  right-hand  adversary  lead  a trump,  put 
out  a small  one. 

If  you  hold  a sequence  to  the  honor  turned  up,  play  it  last. 

HOW  TO  PLAY  FOR  THE  ODD  TRICK. 

Never  trump  out  if  you  can  avoid  it,  for  you  can  hardly  be 
sure  of  the  other  three  hands. 

If  your  partner,  by  hoisting  the  Blue  Peter,  or  by  any  other 
allowable  intimation,  shows  that  he  has  means  of  trumping  any 
suit,  be  cautious  how  you  trump  out.  Force  your  partner,  if 
strong  in  trumps,  and  so  make  all  the  tricks  you  can. 

Make  tricks  early  in  the  game,  and  be  cautious  in  finessing. 

With  a single  card  of  any  suit,  and  only  two  or  three  small 
trumps,  lead  the  single  card. 

RETURNING  PARTNER'S  LEAD. 

In  the  following  cases  it  is  best  to  return  your  partner’s  lead 
directly  : — 

When  you  win  with  the  Ace,  and  can  return  an  honor  ; for 
then  it  will  greatly  strengthen  his  hand. 

When  he  leads  a trump,  in  which  case  return  the  best  re- 
maining in  your  hand  unless  you  hold  four.  An  exception  to 
this  arises  if  the  lead  is  through  an  honor. 

When  your  partner  has  trumped  out ; for  then  it  is  evident 
he  wants  to  make  his  strong  suit. 

When  you  have  no  good  card  in  any  other  suit  ; for  then 
you  are  entirely  dependent  on  your  partner. 

In  the  following  instances  it  is  proper  that  you  should  NOT  re- 
turn your  partner's  lead  immediately; — 

When  you  win  with  the  King,  Queen,  or  Knave,  and  have 
only  small  cards  remaining.  The  return  of  a small  card  will 
more  distress  than  strengthen  your  partner’s  hand. 

When  you  hold  a good  sequence  ; for  then  you  may  make 
tricks  and  not  injure  his  hand. 

When  you  have  a strong  suit.  Leading  from  a strong  suit 
is  a direction  to  your  partner  and  cannot  injure  him. 

When  you  have  a good  hand  ; for  in  this  case  you  have  a 
right  to  consult  your  own  hand,  and  not  your  partner’s. 

When  you  hold  five  trumps  ; for  then  you  are  warranted  to 
play  trumps  if  you  think  it  right. 

When,  in  fine,  you  can  insure  two  or  three  tricks,  play  them, 
and  then  return  the  lead.  With  a leading  hand,  it  is  well  to 
play  your  own  game. 

THE  FINISH. 

The  most  important  part  of  a game  at  Whist  is  the  Finish 
- — the  last  two  or  three  tricks.  Be  careful  how  you  play,  or 
Vou  may  make  a bad  ending  to  a good  beginning. 


Loose  Card. — If  you  hold  three  winning  cards  and  a loose 
one,  play  the  latter,  and  trust  to  your  partner. 

Loose  Trump  and  Tenace. — Holding  these,  play  the  loose 
trump. 

King  and  the  Lead. — If  you  hold  a King,  and  a loose  card, 
the  best  plan  is  to  play  the  last,  so  that  your  partner  may  lead 
up  to  your  King. 

Long  Trumps.—  If  you  hold  three  it  is  best  to  lead  the  small- 
est ; by  this  means  you  give  your  partner  a chance  of  making 
tricks,  and  still  hold  a commanding  card  in  your  own  hand. 
It  is  not  well  to  play  out  the  King  card. 

Third  Hand  with  King , Cfc. — “ Supposing,”  says  Coelebs, 
“ten  tricks  being  made,  you  remain  with  King,  Ten,  and 
another.  If  second  hand  plays  an  honor,  cover  it ; otherwise 
finesse  the  Ten  for  a certain  trick.  If  you  want  two  tricks 
play  your  King.” 

Running  a Card. — The  same  authority  says — “With  such 
cards  as  Knave,  Nine,  Eight,  against  Ten  guarded,  by  ‘ run- 
ning’ the  Eight  you  make  every  trick.” 

STRENGTH  IN  TRUMPS. 

The  following  hands  are  given  by  Hoyle  to  demonstrate 
what  is  known  as  being  strong  in  trumps  : — 

Ace,  King,  and  three  small  trumps. 

King,  Queen,  and  three  small  trumps. 

Queen,  Ten,  and  three  small  trumps. 

Queen  and  four  small  trumps 

Knave  and  four  small  trumps. 

Five  trumps  without  an  honor  must  win  two  tricks  if  led. 

FORCING  YOUR  PARTNER. 

You  are  justified  in  forcing  your  partner  if  you  hold — 

Ace  and  three  small  trumps. 

King  and  three  small  trumps. 

Queen  and  three  small  trumps. 

Knave  and  four  small  trumps. 

Five  trumps. 

CALCULATIONS  FOR  BETTING. 

At  Long  Whist. 

It  is  about  five  to  four  that  your  partner  holds  one  card  out 
of  any  two. 

Five  to  two  that  he  holds  one  card  out  of  any  three. 

Two  to  one  that  he  does  not  hold  a certain  named  card. 

Three  to  one  that  he  does  not  hold  two  out  of  three  named 
cards  in  a suit. 

Three  to  two  that  he  does  not  hold  two  cards  out  of  any 
four  named. 

Five  to  one  that  your  partner  holds  one  winning  card. 

Four  to  one  that  he  holds  two. 

Three  to  one  that  he  holds  three. 

Three  to  two  that  he  holds  four. 

Four  to  six  that  he  holds  five. 

BETTING  THE  ODDS. 

The  odds  on  the  rubber  are  five  to  two  in  favor  of  the  deal* 
ers  generally. 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


4°5 


With  the  first  game  secured,  the  odds  on  the  rubber,  with 
the  deal,  are — 


to  love 


about 


7 to  2 

4 — 1 

9 — 2 

5 ~ 1 

6 — 1 


At  any  part  of  the  game,  except  at  the  points  of  eight  or  nine, 
the  odds  are  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  points  required  to 
make  the  ten  required.  Thus,  if  A wants  four  and  B six  of 
the  game,  the  odds  are  six  to  four  in  favor  of  A.  If  A 
wants  three  and  B five,  the  odds  are  seven  to  five  on  A win- 
ning the  game. 

Against  honors  being  divided,  the  odds  are  about  three  to 
two  against  either  side,  though  the  dealers  have  certainly  the 
best  chance. 

The  following,  calculated  strictly,  are  the 


ODDS  ON  THE  GAME  WITH  THE  DEAL. 


love 

love 

love 

love 

love 

love 

love 

love 

love 

to  i 


is  11 

— 5 

— 3 

— 7 

— 2 

— 5 

— 7 

— 5 

— 9 


to  10 

— 4 

— 2 

— 4 

— 1 

— 2 

— 2 

— 1 

— 2 

to  8 


4 to 

5 — 

6 — 

7 — 

8 — 

9 — 


to 


to 


to 


— I 

— I 

— I 

— 9 — 7 

— 9 — 6 

— 9 — 5 

9 

1 ! 
4-  4- 

1 

— 5 

— 2 

30  to  I “ “ 

15  to  I “ “ 

6. 

5- 

— I 

— 9 — 4 

6 

to  5 

is  5 

to  4 

5 to  I 

4- 

— I 

— 3 — 1 

7 

— 5 

— 5 

— 3 

3 to  2 “ “ 

3- 

— I 

— 9 — 2 

8 

— 5 

— 5 

— 2 

5 to  2 in  favor  of  his  holding  2 

or  more. 

— I — 4 — 


— 2 — 1 


to 


to 


to 


to 


3 

12 


to 


to 


Honors  counting  at  eight  points  and  not  at  nine,  the  odds 
are  slightly  in  favor  of  the  players  at  eight.  It  is  usual  for  the 
players  at  eight  points,  with  the  deal,  to  bet  six  to  five  on  the 
game.  It  is  about  an  even  bet,  if  honors  are  not  claimed  at 
eight  points,  that  the  dealers  win.  As  a disinterested  piece  of 
advice,  however,  let  me  add — Don't  bet  at  all. 


1 to  love  is  about 

2 — 

3 — 

4 — 


10  to  8 

5 — 3 

3 — 1 

4 — 1 


2 to  I is  about 

3—2  — 

3—3  — 

4 — 3 — 


5 to  4 
2 — 1 
11  — to 

9—7 


ON  THE  RUBBER  WITH  THE  DEAL 

1 to  love  is  about 

2 — 

3 — 

4 — 


to  4 

— 1 

— 2 

— 1 


The  following  are  given  as  mere  matters  of  curiosity : 

It  is  50  to  1 against  the  dealer  holding  7 trumps,  neithei 
more  nor  less. 

15  to  I against  his  holding  6 trumps. 

8 to  1 against  his  holding  exactly  5. 

3 to  2 against  his  holding  exactly  4. 

5 to  2 in  favor  of  his  holding  3 trumps  or  more  trumps. 

II  to  2 in  favor  of  his  holding  2 or  more  trumps. 

30  to  1 against  his  holding  only  the  I trump  turned  up. 
Against  any  non-dealer  holding  any  specified  number  0/ 
trumps. 

100  to  1 against  his  holding  exactly  7. 


50  to  1 in  favor  of  his  holding  1 trump  or  more. 

Against  the  dealer  holding  13  trumps  it  is  calculated  to  be 
158,753.389.899  to  1. 

Against  his  holding  12  trumps,  338,493,367  to  1. 

Against  his  holding  11  trumps,  3,000,000  to  I. 

Against  his  holding  10  trumps,  77,000  to  1. 

Against  his  holding  9 trumps,  3,500  to  I. 

Against  his  holding  8 trumps,  320  to  1. 

Against  his  holding  7 trumps,  50  to  1. 

These  figures  are,  however,  of  but  small  practical  utility  in 
Whist,  from  the  simple  fact  that  nowadays  such  odds  are 
seldom  or  never  offered  or  taken.  Whist  is  not  a game  to 
gamble  at. 


AT  SHORT  WHIST. 

The  following  are  the  generally-accepted  odds,  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  in  respect  of  betting  the  chances  in  Short 
Whist  do  not  greatly  differ  from  those  of  the  old  and,  as  I 
think,  much  superior  game. 

ON  THE  GAME  WITH  THE  DEAL. 

At  starting,  the  odds  are  about  11  to  10,  or  perhaps  21  to 
20,  in  favor  of  the  dealers.  With  an  honor  turned  up,  the 
odds  are  nearly  a point  greater  in  favor  of  the  dealers. 


SHORT  WHIST,  DUMMY,  DOUBLE 
DUMMY,  etc. 

THE  LAWS  OF  SHORT  WHIST. 

1.  The  game  consists  of  five  points.  One  point  scored 
saves  the  triple  game  ; three  points,  a double.  The  rubber  is 
reckoned  as  two  points. 

[Eight  points  may  therefore  be  gamed  in  a single  rubber.] 

2.  Honors  cannot  be  “called ” at  any  part  of  the  game,  and 
do  not  count  at  the  point  of  four. 

[In  all  other  respects,  honors  arc  reckoned  as  in  Long  Whist.] 


4°6 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


The  two  highest  and  two  lowest  are  partners,  the  lowest 
cut  having  the  deal. 

[The  cards  are  to  be  shuffled  and  cut  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  in 
the  old-fashioned  game.] 

4 An  exposed  card  necessitates  a fresh  deal. 

5.  In  cases  of  misdeal,  the  deal  passes  to  the  next  player. 

[Misdeals  occur  from  precisely  the  same  causes  as  in  Long  Whist,  and 

need  not,  therefore,  be  stated.] 

6.  No  questions  as  to  either  hand  can  be  asked  after  the 
trick  is  turned. 

[Nor  are  any  questions  except  those  admissible  in  the  other  game  to 
be  asked.] 

7.  Any  card  played  out  of  turn,  or  shown  accidentally,  can 
be  called. 

8.  A revoke  is  subject  to  the  penalty  of  three  tricks. 

[Taken  as  in  Long  Whist.] 

9.  The  side  making  the  revoke  remains  at  four,  in  whatever 
way  the  penalty  be  enforced. 

10.  Lookers-on  must  not  interfere  unless  appealed  to  by  the 
majority  of  the  players. 


It  is  not  necessary  to  dilate  upon  the  best  method  of  playing 
each  separate  hand  at  this  game,  because  whatever  is  useful 
and  true  at  Long  Whist  is  equally  useful  and  true  at  Short 
Whist.  “ The  peculiarities  of  the  short  game,”  says  a recent 
writer,  “ call  for  special  appliances.  This  should  act  as  stim- 
ulants to  the  player,  and  rouse  his  energy.”  But  what  these 
special  appliances  are  it  is  difficult  to  discover,  seeing  that  the 
two  games  are  identical  in  everything  but  length.  The  only 
advantage  of  the  short  game  lies  in  the  more  forcible  use  that 
can  be  made  of  trumps.  “ Trumps,”  says  Carleton,  “ should 
be  your  rifle  company  ; use  them  liberally  in  your  manoeuvers  ; 
have  copious  reference  to  them  in  finessing,  to  enable  you  to 
maintain  a long  suit.  Should  you  be  weak  in  trumps,  ruff  a 
doubtful  card  at  all  times  ; with  a command  in  them,  be  very 
chary  of  that  policy.  Let  your  great  principle  always  be  to 
keep  the  control  of  your  adversaries’  suit,  and  leave  that  of 
your  partner  free.  If  you  see  the  probable  good  effect  of 
fo.cing,  decide  which  of  your  adversaries  you  will  assail,  but 
do  not  attempt  them  both  at  once.  Let  it  be  the  stronger  if 
possible.  When  you  force  both  hands  opposed  to  you,  one 
throws  away  his  useless  cards  ; while  the  chance  is,  the  other 
makes  trumps  that,  under  other  circumstances,  would  have 
been  sacrificed.”  And  so , et  cetera  ad  infinitum.  Deschapel- 
les,  who  is  the  French  Hoyle  without  his  science,  but  with 
double  his  power  of  writing,  says  of  Short  Whist : “ When  we 
consider  the  social  feelings  it  engenders,  the  pleasure  and  vi- 
vacity it  promotes,  and  the  advantages  it  offers  to  the  less  skill- 
ful player,  we  cannot  help  acknowledging  that  Short  Whist  is 
a decided  improvement  upon  the  old  game.”  All  this  is, 
however,  open  to  argument  ; and  therefore  de gustibus  nonest. 

DUMBY,  OR  THREE-HANDED  WHIST. 

This  game  is  precisely  the  same  as  Long  Whist,  only  that 
one  player  takes  two  hands,  one  of  which  he  holds  in  the 
usual  manner,  and  the  other  he  spreads  open  on  the  table.  The 
rules  are  the  same. 

Another  Game  is  played  by  three  persons,  in  which  two 


Nines  and  Fours,  and  one  of  the  Five  is  cast  out  from  the  pack 
and  each  player  plays  on  his  own  account. 

A Third  Way  of  playing  three-handed  Whist  is  to  reject 
the  fourth  hand  altogether,  and  allow  it  to  remain  unseen  on 
the  table.  Each  player  then  takes  the  miss,  or  unseen  hand, 
in  exchange  for  his  own,  if  he  thinks  fit.  Each  player  stands 
on  his  cards,  and  the  best  hand  must  win.  There  is,  however, 
room  for  finesse,  and  the  player  who  sees  two  hands — the  miss, 
and  that  first  dealt  to  him — has  an  undeniable  advantage. 

TWO-HANDED  WHIST. 

This  game  is  either  played  as  Double  Dumby,  by  exposing 
two  hands  and  playing  as  with  four  players,  or  by  rejecting 
two  hands  and  each  player  making  the  best  he  can  of  his  own 
hand.  In  these  games  each  honor  counts  as  one  point  in  the 
game.  There  is  but  small  room  for  skill  in  any  of  the  im- 
perfect Whist  games,  and  the  player  who  is  acquainted  with 
the  real  old-fashioned  game  need  not  be  told  how  to  play  his 
cards  at  Dumby  or  French  Humbug.  At  best  these  games  are 
inferior  to  Cribbage,  Ecarte”,  All-Fours,  or  any  of  the  regular 
two-handed  games. 


UCHRE  is  played  with  a pack  of  thirty-two 
cards,  all  below  the  Seven  being  rejected. 
Two,  three,  or  four  persons  may  play,  but  the 
four-handed  game  is  the  best. 

THE  DEAL. 

The  players  having  cut  for  deal  the  pack  is  shuffled 
and  the  player  to  the  right  of  the  dealer  cuts.  The 
deal  is  executed  by  giving  five  cards  to  each  player. 
The  dealer  gives  two  cards  at  a time  to  each  in  rotation,  begin- 
ning with  the  player  to  his  left  ; he  then  gives  three  cards  at  a 
time  to  each,  or  vice  versa.  In  which  ever  manner  the  dealer 
commences  to  distribute  the  cards,  he  must  continue  ; he  must 
not  deal  two  to  the  first,  three  to  the  next,  and  so  on.  After 
each  player  has  received  five  cards,  the  dealer  turns  up  the 
next  card  for  trumps,  and  places  it  face  upward  on  top  of  the 
stock. 

The  right  to  deal  passes  successively  to  the  left. 

At  the  outset  of  the  game  each  player  cuts  for  the  deal,  and 
the  lowest  cut  deals.  In  a tie,  the  parties  tied  cut  again.  The 
players  cutting  the  two  highest  cards  play  against  those  cut« 
ting  the  two  lowest. 

In  cutting,  the  Ace  is  lowest,  and  the  other  cards  rank  as  at 
Whist. 

Should  a player  expose  more  than  one  card,  he  must  cut 
again. 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


407 


The  cards  may  be  shuffled  by  any  player  who  demands  that 
privilege,  but  the  dealer  has  always  the  right  to  shuffle  last. 

The  cards  must  be  cut  by  the  right-hand  opponent  before 
they  are  dealt. 

A cut  must  not  be  less  than  four  cards  removed  from  the 
top,  nor  must  it  be  made  so  as  to  leave  less  than  four  cards  at 
the  bottom  ; and  the  pack  must  be  put  on  the  table  for  the 

cut. 

RANK. 

The  cards  in  suits,  not  trumps,  rank  as  at  Whist,  the  Ace 
being  the  highest,  the  Seven  the  lowest.  When  a suit  is 
trump,  the  cards  rank  differently.  The  Knave  of  the  suit 
turned  up  is  called  the  right  Bower,  and  is  the  highest  trump. 
The  other  Knave  of  the  same  color  (black  or  red,  as  the  case 
may  be)  is  called  the  left  Bower,  and  is  the  next  highest 
trump. 


HOW  TO  ORDER  UP,  ASSIST,  PASS,  AND  TAKE  UP. 

When  the  trump  is  turned,  the  player  to  the  left  of  the 
dealer  examines  his  hand  to  determine  his  plans.  He  may 
either  order  rp  the  trump,  or  pass.  If  he  thinks  his  cards  are 
strong  enough  to  win  three  tricks,  he  says,  “ I order  it  up.” 
The  dealer  then  discards  one  card  from  his  hand,  and  puts  it 
under  the  stock,  face  downward,  and  the  trump  card  belongs 
to  the  dealer,  instead  of  the  card  he  discarded.  If  the  eldest 
hand  is  not  satisfied  with  his  cards,  he  says,  “ I pass.” 

If  the  eldest  hand  pass,  the  partner  of  the  dealer  then  has 
the  option  of  declaring  what  he  will  do,  and  he  may  either 
assist  his  partner,  or  pass.  If  his  hand  is  strong  enough,  with 
the  help  of  the  trump  his  partner  has  turned,  to  win  three 
tricks,  he  says,  “ I assist,"  and  his  partner  discards  as  before, 
and  the  trump  card  belongs  to  him.  If  the  partner  of  the 
dealer  has  a weak  hand,  he  says,  “ I pass,”  and  the  third 
player,  that  is,  the  player  next  to  the  right  of  the  dealer,  has 
the  option  of  saying  what  he  will  do. 

The  third  player  proceeds  exactly  as  the  eldest  hand,  and, 
if  he  pass,  the  dealer  has  the  next  say. 

If  all  the  other  players  pass  the  dealer  may  either  take  up 
the  trump,  or  pass.  If  his  hand  is  strong  enough  to  take  three 
tricks  he  says,  “ I take  it  up.”  The  dealer  then  discards  the 
weakest  card  from  his  hand,  and  takes  the  trump  card  instead. 
If  the  dealer  has  a weak  hand,  he  says,  “ I turn  it  down,”  and, 
at  the  same  time,  places  the  trump  card  face  upward  under  the 
stock. 

If  the  dealer  turns  down  the  trump,  the  eldest  hand  has  the 
option  of  naming  any  suit  (except  the  one  turned  down)  for 
trumps,  or  of  passing  again.  If  he  pass,  he  says,  “ I pass  the 
making.” 

If  the  eldest  hand  pass  the  making,  the  partner  of  the  dealer 
then  has  the  option  of  making  the  trump,  and  so  on  in  rota- 
tion up  to  and  including  the  dealer. 

If  all  the  players,  including  the  dealer,  decline  to  make  the 
trump,  a fresh  deal  takes  place,  and  the  eldest  hand  deals. 


If  either  side  adopt  (play  with  the  suit  turned  up  for  trump\ 
or  make  the  trump,  the  play  of  the  hand  commences. 

When  the  trump  is  made  of  the  same  color  as  the  turn  up 
(that  is,  black,  if  the  turn  up  is  black,  or  red,  if  it  is  red),  it  is 
called  making  it  next  in  suit. 

If  the  trump  is  made  of  a different  color  from  the  turn  up, 
it  is  called  crossing  the  suit, 

WHEN  TO  PLAY  IT  ALONE. 

If  a player  holds  a hand  so  strong  that  he  has  a reliable 
hope  of  taking  all  five  tricks  without  the  assistance  of  his 
partner,  he  may  flay  alone.  If  he  plays  without  his  partner, 
he  says,  “/  flay  alone."  His  partner  then  places  his  cards 
face  downward  on  the  table,  and  makes  no  sign. 

If  the  eldest  hand  order  up,  or  make  the  trump  either  he  or 
his  partner  may  play  alone.  If  the  dealer’s  partner  assist, 
or  make  the  trump,  either  he  or  the  dealer  may  play  alone. 
If  the  player  to  the  right  of  the  dealer  order  up  or  make 
the  trump,  he  may  play  alone  (but  his  partner  cannot).  If  the 
dealer  take  up  or  make  a trump,  he  may  play  alone  (but  his 
partner  cannot). 

A player  cannot  play  alone  after  having  passed  a trump,  or 
passed  the  making  of  a trump.  A player  cannot  play  alone 
when  the  opposing  side  adopt  or  make  the  trump  ; nor  can  he 
play  alone  unless  he  announce  his  intentions  to  do  so  before 
he  or  the  opposing  side  make  a lead. 

THE  PLAY. 

The  eldest  hand  leads  a card  and  each  player  in  rotation 
plays  a card  to  the  lead.  The  four  cards  thus  played  consti- 
tute a trick.  A player  must  follow  suit  if  he  can,  but  if  not 
able  to  follow  suit  he  may  play  any  card  he  chooses. 

The  highest  card  of  the  suit  lead  wins  the  trick  ; trumps  win 
all  other  suits.  The  winner  of  the  trick  leads  to  the  next,  and 
so  on  until  the  five  tricks  are  played. 

THE  SCORE. 

The  game  is  five  points. 

If  the  side  who  adopt,  or  make  a trump,  win  all  five  tricks, 
they  make  a march,  and  score  two. 

If  they  win  three  tricks,  they  make  the  foint,  and  score  one. 
Four  tricks  count  no  more  than  three  tricks. 

If  they  fail  to  take  three  tricks  they  are  euchered,  and  the 
opposing  side  scores  two  points. 

When  a player  plays  alone  and  takes  all  five  tricks,  he  scores 
four  points. 

If  he  takes  three  tricks  he  scores  one  point.  If  he  fails  to 
take  three  tricks  he  is  euchered,  and  the  opposing  side  score 
two  points.  By  some  rules  to  euchre  a lone  hand  counts  the 
opposing  side  four  points. 

Cards  are  used  in  marking  game.  The  face  of  the  Three 
being  up,  and  the  face  of  the  Four  down  on  it,  counts  one, 
whether  one,  two,  or  three  pips  are  exposed  ; the  face  of  the 


408 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


Four  being  up,  and  the  Three  over  it,  face  down,  counts  two , 
whether  one,  two,  three,  or  four  of  the  pips  are  shown  ; the 
face  of  the  Three  uppermost  counts  three  ; and  the  face  of  the 
Four  uppermost  counts  four. 

’ GOLDEN  MAXIMS. 

Never  lose  sight  of  the  state  of  the  game.  When  you  are 
four  and  four,  adopt  or  make  the  trump  upon  a weak  hand. 

When  the  game  stands  three  to  three,  reflect  before  you 
adopt  or  make  a trump  upon  a weak  hand,  for  a euchre  will 
put  your  adversaries  out. 

When  your  are  one  and  your  opponents  have  scored  four, 
you  can  afford  to  try  and  make  it  alone  upon  a weaker  hand 
than  if  the  score  were  more  in  your  favor. 

When  you  are  eldest  hand  and  the  score  stands  four  for 
you  and  one  for  your  opponents,  do  not  fail  to  order  up  the 
trump,  to  prevent  them  from  playing  alone.  This  is  called  a 
“ Bridge.”  You  need  not  do  this  if  you  hold  the  Right  Bower, 
or  the  Left  Bower  guarded. 

Never  trump  your  partner’s  winning  cards,  but  throw  your 
losing  and  single  cards  upon  them. 

If  your  partner  adopts  or  makes  the  trump,  and  you  hold 
the  Right  or  Left  Bower  alone,  ruff  with  it  as  soon  as  you  can 
get  the  opportunity. 

When  playing  second,  be  careful  how  you  ruff  a card  of  a 
small  denomination  the  first  time  round,  for  it  is  an  even 
chance  that  your  partner  will  be  able  to  take  the  trick  if  you 
let  it  pass.  Throw  away  any  single  card  lower  than  an 
Ace,  so  that  you  may  ruff  the  suit  you  throw  away  when  it  is 
led. 

When  your  partner  assists,  and  you  hold  a card  next  higher 
to  the  turn-up  card,  ruff  with  it  when  an  opportunity  occurs, 
for  by  so  doing  you  give  your  partner  information  of  value. 

When  you  are  in  the  position  of  third  player,  ruff  with  high 
or  medium  trumps. 

When  your  partner  leads  a lay  Ace,  and  you  have  none  of 
that  suit,  do  not  trump  it  ; but  if  you  have  a single  card,  throw 
it  away  upon  it. 

When  second  hand,  if  compelled  to  follow  suit,  head  the 
trick  if  possible,  to  strengthen  your  partner’s  game. 

When  you  cannot  follow  suit  or  trump,  dispose  of  your 
weakest  card. 

When  opposed  to  a person  playing  it  alone,  be  careful  how 
you  separate  two  cards  of  the  same  suit.  Be  cautious  how 
you  separate  your  trumps  when  you  hold  the  Left  Bower 
guarded. 

When  it  comes  your  turn  to  say  what  you  will  do,  decide 
promptly,  saying,  “ I pass,”  “assist,”  etc.,  at  once. 

In  discarding  endeavor  to  keep  as  few  suits  as  possible. 

EUCHRE  WITH  THE  JOKER. 

A euchre  pack  is  usually  accompanied  by  a specimen  blank 
card,  which  has  given  rise  to  this  amusing  variety  of  the  game 
of  Euchre.  It  is  called  ‘‘the  Joker,”  or  highest  trump  card, 
and  ranks  above  the  Right  Bower.  If  this  “Joker”  should 
happen  to  be  turned  for  trump,  the  dealer  must  turn  up  the 
next  card  to  determine  the  trump  suit.  In  all  other  particu- 


lars the  game  is  played  in  the  same  manner  as  the  regular  game 
of  Euchre. 

TWO-HANDED  EUCHRE. 

The  rules  of  the  four-handed  game  apply  equally  to  two- 
handed  euchre. 

The  player,  remembering  that  he  has  but  a single  hand  to 
contend  against,  may  play  or  even  order  up,  if  he  has  a reason- 
able hope  of  making  three  tricks. 

MISDEALS. 

A card  too  many  or  too  few  given  to  either  player. 

Dealing  the  cards  when  the  pack  has  not  been  properly  cut  ; the 
claim  for  a misdeal  in  this  case  must  be  made  before  the  trump  card  is 
turned,  and  before  the  adversaries  look  at  their  cards. 

Whenever  a misdeal  is  attributable  to  any  interruption  by 
the  adversaries,  the  deal  will  not  be  forfeited. 

If,  during  the  deal,  a card  be  exposed  by  the  dealer  or  part- 
ner, should  neither  of  the  adversaries  have  touched  their 
cards,  the  latter  may  claim  a new  deal,  but  the  deal  is  not  lost. 

If,  during  the  deal,  the  dealer’s  partner  touch  any  of  his 
cards,  the  adversaries  may  do  the  same  without  losing  their 
privilege  of  claiming  a new  deal  should  chance  give  them  that 
option. 

If  an  opponent  displays  a card  dealt,  the  dealer  may  make 
a new  deal,  unless  he  or  his  partner  have  examined  their  own 
cards. 

If  a deal  is  made  out  of  turn,  it  is  good,  provided  it  be  not 
discovered  before  the  dealer  has  discarded,  and  the  eldest 
hand  has  led. 

If  a card  is  faced  in  dealing,  unless  it  be  the  trump  card,  a 
new  deal  may  be  demanded,  but  the  right  to  deal  is  not  lost. 

If  the  pack  is  discovered  to  be  defective,  by  reason  of  hav- 
ing more  or  less  than  thirty-two  cards,  the  deal  is  void  ; but 
all  the  points  before  made  are  good. 

The  dealer,  unless  he  turn  down  the  trump,  must  discard 
one  card  from  his  hand  and  take  up  the  trump  card. 

The  discard  is  not  complete  until  the  dealer  has  placed  the 
card  under  the  pack  ; and  if  the  eldest  hand  makes  a lead  be- 
fore the  discard  is  complete,  he  cannot  take  back  the  card 
thus  led,  but  must  let  it  remain.  The  dealer,  however,  may 
change  the  card  he  intended  to  discard  and  substitute  another, 
or  he  may  play  alone,  notwithstanding  a card  has  been  led. 
After  the  dealer  has  quitted  the  discarded  card  he  cannot  take 
it  back  under  any  circumstances. 

After  the  discard  has  been  made,  the  dealer  may  let  the 
trump  card  remain  upon  the  table  until  it  is  necessary  to  play 
it.  After  the  trump  card  has  been  taken  in  hand,  no  player 
has  a right  to  demand  its  denomination,  but  he  may  ask  what 
card  is  trump,  and  the  dealer  must  inform  him. 

Should  a player  play  with  more  than  five  cards,  or  the 
dealer  forget  to  discard  or  omit  to  declare  the  fact  before  three 
tricks  have  been  turned,  the  offending  party  is  debarred  from 
counting  any  points  made  in  that  deal,  under  these  circum- 
stances. Should  the  adverse  side  win,  they  may  score  all  the 
points  they  make. 

PLAY  OUT  OF  TURN,  AND  EXPOSURE  OF  CARDS. 

All  exposed  cards  may  be  called,  and  the  offending  party 
compelled  to  lead  or  play  the  exposed  card  or  cards  when  he 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


409 


can  legally  do  so,  but  in  no  case  can  a card  be  called  if  a 
revoke  is  thereby  caused. 


A party,  refusing  to  play  an  exposed  card  on  call,  forfeits 
two  to  his  opponents. 


EXPOSED  CARDS. 

Two  or  more  cards  played  at  once. 

If  a player  indicates  that  he  hoids  a certain  card  in  his  hand. 

Any  card  that  is  dropped  with  its  face  upwards. 

All  cards  exposed,  by  accident  or  otherwise,  so  that  an  opponent  can 
distinguish  and  name  them. 

If  any  player  lead  out  of  turn,  his  adversaries  may  demand 
of  him  to  withdraw  his  card,  and  the  lead  may  be  compelled 
from  the  right  player,  the  card  improperly  led  be  treated  as 
an  exposed  card,  and  called  at  any  time  during  that  deal, 
provided  it  causes  no  revoke. 

If  any  player  lead  out  of  turn  and  the  mislead  is  followed 
by  the  other  three,  the  trick  stands  good  ; but  if  only  the 
second,  or  the  second  and  third,  have  played  to  the  false  lead, 
their  cards,  on  discovery  of  their  mistake,  are  taken  back,  and 
there  is  no  penalty  save  against  the  original  offender,  whose 
card  may  be  called. 

If  a player  play  out  of  turn,  his  opponents  may  compel  him 
to  withdraw  his  card,  and  the  card  so  played  may  be  treated 
as  an  exposed  card,  and  called  at  any  time  during  that  deal, 
provided  no  revoke  is  thereby  caused. 

If  any  player  trump  a card  in  error,  and  thereby  induce  an 
opponent  to  play  otherwise  than  he  would  have  done,  the 
latter  may  take  up  his  card  without  penalty,  and  may  call  up- 
on the  offender  to  play  the  trump  at  any  period  of  the  hand. 

If  two  cards  be  played,  or  if  the  player  play  twice  to  the 
same  trick,  his  opponent  can  elect  which  of  the  two  shall  be- 
long to  the  trick,  provided,  however,  that  no  revoke  be  caused. 

If  a player,  imagining  that  he  can  take  every  trick,  or  for 
any  other  reason,  throw  down  his  cards  upon  the  table  with 
their  faces  exposed,  the  adverse  side  may  call  each  and  all  of 
the  cards  so  exposed,  as  they  may  deem  most  advantageous  to 
their  game, and  thedelinquent  party  mustplay  the  exposed  cards 
accordingly.  This,  however,  in  the  case  of  a lone  hand  only. 

REVOKE. 

When  a revoke  takes  place,  the  adverse  party  is  entitled  to 
add  two  points  to  their  score. 

If  a suit  is  led,  and  any  one  of  the  players,  having  a card  of 
the  same  suit,  shall  play  the  card  of  another  suit  to  it — that 
constitutes  a revoke.  But  if  the  error  be  discovered  before 
the  trick  is  quitted,  or  before  the  party  having  so  played  a 
wrong  suit,  or  his  partner,  shall  play  again,  the  penalty  only 
amounts  to  the  cards  being  treated  as  exposed,  and  being 
liable  to  be  called. 

When  the  player,  who  has  made  a revoke,  corrects  his 
error,  his  partner,  if  he  has  played,  cannot  change  his  card 
played  ; but  the  adversary  may  withdraw  his  card  and  play 
another  if  he  elects  to  do  so. 

When  a revoke  is  claimed  against  adversaries,  if  they  mix 
their  cards,  or  throw  them  up,  the  revoke  is  taken  for  granted, 
and  they  lose  the  two  points. 

No  party  can  claim  a revoke  after  cutting  for  a new  deal. 

A revoke  on  both  sides  causes  forfeit  to  neither ; but  a new 
deal  must  be  made. 

If  a player  makes  a revoke,  his  side  cannot  count  any  point 
or  points  made  in  that  hand. 


MAKING  THE  TRUMP,  PLAYING  ALONE. 

Any  player  making  a trump  cannot  change  the  suit  after 
having  once  named  it  ; and  if  he  should  by  error  name  the 
suit  previously  turned  down,  he  forfeits  his  right  to  make  the 
trump,  the  privilege  passing  to  the  next  eldest  player. 

A player  may  only  play  alone  when  he  orders  up,  takes  up,  or 
makes  a trump  ; or  when  his  partner  assists,  orders  up,  or  makes 
a trump.  He  cannot  play  alone  with  a trump  he  has  passed,  or 
with  a trump,  the  making  of  which  he  has  passed  ; nor  can 
he  play  alone  after  a lead  has  been  made  by  himself,  or  by 
his  opponents. 

A player  cannot  play  alone  when  he  or  his  partner  is  ordered 
up  by  an  opponent,  or  when  the  opposite  side  adopt  or  make 
the  trump. 

When  a player,  having  the  right  to  play  alone,  resolves  to  do 
so,  his  partner  cannot  supersede  him,  and  play  alone  instead. 

When  a player  announces  that  he  will  go  it  alone,  his 
partner  must  place  his  cards  upon  the  table  face  downwards, 
and  should  the  latter  expose  the  face  of  any  of  his  cards, 
either  by  accident  or  design,  his  opponents  may  compel  him 
to  play  or  not  to  play  with  his  partner,  at  their  option; 

A player  who  goes  alone  must  announce  his  intention  in 
a clear  and  audible  tone,  so  that  no  doubt  can  be  entertained 
of  his  design. 

DELICATE  HINTS  BETWEEN  PARTNERS. 

If  a partner  indicates  his  hand  by  words  or  gestures  to 
his  partner,  directs  him  how  to  play,  even  by  telling  him  to 
follow  the  rules  of  the  game,  or  in  any  way  acts  out  of 
order,  the  adversary  scores  one  point. 

If  a player,  when  his  side  is  at  a bridge,  call  the  attention 
of  his  partner  to  the  fact,  so  that  the  latter  orders  up,  the 
latter  forfeits  the  right  to  order  up,  and  either  of  the  op- 
ponents may  play  alone,  if  they  choose  so  to  do. 

No  player  has  a right  to  see  any  trick  but  the  one  last  turned. 


T requires  a pack  of  fifty-two  cards  to  play  this 
Mfd  game,  and  any  number  of  persons  from  two  to 
six. 

THE  DEAL. 

Before  the  dealer  begins  to  deal  the  cards,  the 
player  next  to  his  left,  who  is  called  the  Ante-man,  or 
^£“5  Age,  must  deposit  in  the  pool  an  ante  not  exceeding 
one-half  the  limit  previously  agreed  upon;  this  is 
called  a blind. 


4io  GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


The  deal  is  executed  by  giving  five  cards  to  each  player, 
one  at  a time,  beginning  with  the  player  to  the  left  of  the 
dealer. 

THE  ORIGINAL  HAND. 

After  the  cards  have  been  dealt  the  players  consult  their 
hands,  and  each  player,  in  rotation,  beginning  with  the  player 
to  the  left  of  the  Age , determines  whether  he  will  go  in  or  not. 
Any  player  who  decides  to  go  in — that  is,  to  play  for  the  pool, 
must  put  into  the  pool  double  the  amount  of  the  ante,  except 
the  player  holding  the  Age,  who  contributes  the  same  amount 
as  his  original  ante. 

Those  who  declare  they  will  not  play  throw  their  cards,  face 
downward,  upon  the  table  in  front  of  the  next  dealer. 

Any  player,  when  it  is  his  turn,  and  after  making  the  ante 
good,  may  raise , i.  e.,  increase  the  ante  any  amount  within  the 
limit  of  the  game  ; the  next  player,  after  making  good  the 
ante  and  raise,  may  then  also  raise  it  any  amount  within  the 
limit  ; and  so  on.  Each  player  as  he  makes  good  and  pays  a 
share  that  equalizes  his  with  the  other  players  who  are  in  be- 
fore him,  may  thus  increase  the  ante  if  he  chooses,  compelling 
the  others  to  pay  up  that  increase,  or  abandon  their  share  of 
the  pool. 

Each  player  who  raises  the  ante,  must  do  so  in  rotation, 
going  round  to  the  left,  and  any  player  who  remains  in  to 
play,  must  put  in  the  pool  as  much  as  will  make  his  stake 
equal  to  such  increase,  or  abandon  everything  which  he  has 
already  contributed  to  the  pool. 

STRADDLE. 

When  betting  upon  the  original  hand , the  straddle  may  be 
introduced  The  straddle  is  nothing  more  than  a double 
blind. 

The  straddle  does  not  give  a player  the  Age,  it  only  gives 
him  the  first  opportunity  to  be  the  last  in  before  the  draw; 
that  is,  the  player  to  the  left  of  the  last  straddler,  after  looking 
at  his  hand,  and  before  the  draw,  must  be  the  first  to  declare 
whether  he  will  make  good  the  straddle,  and  so  on,  in  rota- 
tion, up  to  the  player  who  made  the  last  straddle.  After  the 
draw,  the  player  to  the  left  of  the  Age  must  make  the  first  bet, 
provided  he  remains  in. 

FILLING  THE  HANDS. 

When  all  are  in  who  intend  to  play,  each  player  has  the 
right  to  draw  any  number  of  cards  he  chooses,  from  one  to 
five,  or  he  can  retain  the  cards  originally  dealt  to  him.  If  a 
player  draws  cards,  he  must  discard  a like  number  from  his 
hand  previous  to  drawing,  and  the  rejected  cards  must  be 
placed  face  downward  upon  the  table  near  the  next  dealer. 

The  dealer  asks  each  player  in  rotation,  beginning  with  the 
holder  of  the  Age,  how  many  cards  he  wants,  and,  when  the 
player  has  discarded,  he  gives  the  number  requested  from  the 
top  of  the  pack.  When  the  other  hands  have  been  helped, 
the  dealer,  if  he  has  “gone  in,”  and  wants  cards,  then  helps 
himself  last. 

BET,  RAISE,  AND  CALL. 

When  all  the  hands  are  filled,  the  player  to  the  left  of  the 
Age  has  the  first  say,  and  he  must  either  bet  or  retire  from  the 
game,  forfeiting  what  he  has  already  staked.  The  same  with 


all  the  other  players,  in  rotation,  up  to  the  Age.  When  a 
player  makes  a bet,  the  next  player  must  either  see  him — that 
is,  put  in  the  pool  an  equal  amount,  os  go  better — that  is,  make 
the  previous  bet  good,  and  raise  it  any  amount  not  exceeding 
the  limit;  or  he  must  retire.  This  continues  either  until  some 
one  player  drives  all  the  others  out  of  the  game,  and  takes  the 
pool  without  showing  his  hand  ; or  until  all  the  other  players 
who  remain  in  see  the  last  raise  (no  one  going  better)  and  call 
the  player  who  made  the  last  raise.  In  this  event,  that  is, 
when  a call  is  made,  the  players  remaining  in  all  show  their 
hands,  and  the  strongest  hand  takes  the  pool. 

If  all  the  players  pass,  up  to  the  Age,  the  latter  takes  the 
pool,  and  the  deal  ends. 

VALUE. 

One  Pair. — If  two  players  each  hold  a pair,  the  highest  pair 
wins;  if  the  two  are  similar,  the  highest  remaining  card  wins. 

Two  Pair. — A the  players  each  hold  two  pairs,  the  highest 
pair  wins.  If  the  two  pairs  are  similar,  the  player  whose  re- 
maining card  is  the  highest  wins. 

Triplets. — Three  cards  of  the  same  denomination,  not  ac- 
companied by  a pair.  The  highest  triplet  wins.  Triplets 
beat  two  pairs. 

A Straight. — A sequence  of  five  cards  not  all  of  the  same 
suit.  An  Ace  may  either  begin  or  end  a straight.  If  more 
than  one  player  holds  a straight,  the  straight  headed  by  the 
highest  card  wins.  A straight  will  beat  triplets. 

A Flush. — Five  cards  of  the  same  suit,  not  in  sequence.  If 
more  than  one  player  holds  a flush,  the  flush  containing  the 
highest  card  wins  ; if  the  highest  cards  tie,  the  next  highest 
cards  in  those  two  hands  wins,  and  so  on.  A flush  will  beat 
a straight,  and  consequently,  triplets. 

A Full. — Three  cards  of  the  same  denomination  and  a pair. 
If  more  than  one  player  holds  a full,  the  highest  triplets  win 
A full  will  beat  a flush. 

Fours. — Four  cards  of  the  same  denomination,  accompanied 
by  any  other  card.  If  more  than  one  player  holds  fours,  the 
highest  fours  win.  When  straights  are  not  played,  fours  beat 
a straight  flush 

A Straight  Flush. — A sequence  of  five  cards,  all  of  the  same 
suit.  If  more  than  one  player  holds  a straight  flush,  the  win- 
ning hand  is  determined  in  the  same  manner  as  the  straight, 
which  see. 

When  none  of  the  foregoing  hands  are  shown,  the  highest 
card  wins  ; if  these  tie,  the  next  highest  in  those  two  hands, 
and  so  on. 

If,  upon  a call  for  a show  of  hands,  it  occurs  that  two  or 
more  parties  interested  in  the  call  hold  hands  identical  in 
value,  and  those  hands  are  the  best  out,  the  parties  thus  tied 
must  divide  the  pool,  share  and  share  alike. 

THE  TECNICAL  TERMS. 

Age. — Same  as  eldest  hand. 

Ante. — The  stake  deposited  in  the  pool  by  the  Age  at  the 
beginning  of  the  game. 

Blaze. — This  hand  consists  of  five  court  cards,  and,  when  it 
is  played,  beats  two  pairs. 

Blind.—  The  ante  deposited  by  the  Age  previous  to  the 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


deal.  The  blind  may  be  doubled  by  the  player  to  the  left  of 
the  eldest  hand,  and  the  next  player  to  the  left  may  at  his  op- 
tion straddle  this  bet ; and  so  on,  including  the  dealer,  each 
player  doubling.  The  player  to  the  left  of  the  Age  alone  has 
the  privilege  of  the  first  straddle,  and  if  he  decline  to  straddle, 
it  debars  any  other  player  coming  after  him  from  doing  so. 
To  make  a blind  good  costs  double  the  amount  of  the  ante, 
and  to  make  a straddle  good  costs  four  times  the  amount  of 
the  blind.  Each  succeeding  straddle  costs  double  the  pre- 
ceding one. 

Call. — When  the  bet  goes  round  to  the  last  better,  a player 
who  remains  in,  if  he  does  not  wish  to  see  and  go  better, 
simply  sees  and  calls,  and  then  all  those  playing  show  their 
hands,  and  the  highest  hand  wins  the  pool. 

Chips. — Ivory  or  bone  tokens,  representing  a fixed  '■"due  in 
money. 

Discard. — To  take  from  your  hand  the  number  of  cards  you 
intend  to  draw  and  place  them  on  the  table,  near  the  next 
dealer,  face  downwards. 

Draw. — After  discarding  one  or  more  cards,  to  receive  a 
corresponding  number  from  the  dealer. 

Eldest  Hand , or  Age. — The  player  immediately  at  the  left 
of  the  dealer. 

Filling. — To  match,  or  strengthen  the  cards  to  which  you 
draw. 

Foul  Hand. — A hand  composed  of  more  or  less  than  five 
cards. 

Going  Better. — When  any  player  makes  a bet,  it  is  the  privi- 
lege of  the  next  player  to  the  left  to  raise  him — after  making 
good  the  amount  already  bet  by  his  adversary,  to  make  a still 
higher  bet. 

Going  In. — Making  good  the  ante  of  the  Age  and  the  strad- 
dles (if  any)  foi  the  privilege  of  drawing  cards  and  playing  for 
the  pool. 

Limit. — A condition  made  at  the  beginning  of  a game,  limit- 
ing the  amount  of  any  single  bet  or  raise. 

Flaking  Good. — Depositing  in  the  pool  an  amount  equal  to 
any  bet  previously  made.  This  is  done  previous  to  raising  or 
calling  a player,  and  is  sometimes  called  seeing  a bet. 

Original  Hand. — The  first  five  cards  dealt  to  any  player. 

Bat  Hand. — An  original  hand  not  likely  to  be  improved  by 
drawing,  such  as  a full,  straight,  flush  or  pairs. 

Pass. — “ I Pass,”  signifies  that  a playerthrows  up  his  hand 
and  retires  from  the  game. 

Jack  Pots. — Comes  from  out  West.  See  page  412. 

liaising  a Bet. — The  same  as  going  better. 

Say. — When  it  is  the  turn  of  any  player  to  declare  what  he 
will  do,  whether  he  will  bet , or  pass  his  hand,  it  is  said  to  be 
bis  say. 

Seeing  a Bet. — Synonymous  with  making  good. 

Straddle. — Refer  to  Blind. 

Table-Stakes. — A table-stake  signifies  that  each  player  places 
his  stake  where  it  may  be  seen,  and  that  a player  cannot  be 
raised  more  than  he  has  upon  the  table  ; but,  at  any  time  be- 
tween deals,  he  may  increase  his  stake  from  his  pocket,  or  he 
may  put  up  any  article  for  convenience’  sake,  say  a key,  and 
state  that  that  makes  his  stake  as  large  as  any  other  player’s, 
and  he  is  then  liable  to  be  raised  to  any  amount  equal  to  the 


stake  of  any  other  player,  and  must  make  good  with  cash. 
When  playing  table-stakes  if  a player  have  no  money  on  the 
table,  he  must  put  up  or  declare  his  stake  previous  to  raising 
his  hand,  and  failing  to  do  this,  he  must  stand  out  of  the  game 
for  that  hand. 

THE  LAWS. 

CUT  AND  DEAL. 

The  deal  is  determined  by  casting  one  card  to  each  player, 
and  the  lowest  card  deals. 

In  casting  for  the  deal,  the  Ace  is  lowest  and  the  King 
highest.  Ties  are  determined  by  cutting. 

The  cards  must  be  shuffled  above  the  table  ; each  player 
has  a right  to  shuffle  the  cards,  the  dealer  last. 

The  player  to  the  right  of  the  dealer  must  cut  the  cards. 

The  dealer  must  give  each  player  one  card  at  a time,  in 
rotation,  beginning  to  his  left,  and  in  this  order  he  must 
deliver  five  cards  to  each  player. 

If  the  dealer  deals  without  having  the  pack  properly  cut,  or 
if  a card  is  faced  in  the  pack,  there  must  be  a fresh  deal.  The 
cards  are  reshuffled  and  recut,  and  the  dealer  deals  again. 

If  a card  be  accidentally  exposed  by  the  dealer  while  in  the 
act  of  dealing,  the  player  to  whom  such  card  is  dealt  must 
accept  it  as  though  it  had  not  been  exposed. 

If  the  dealer  give  to  himself,  or  either  of  the  other  players, 
more  or  less  than  five  cards,  and  the  player  receiving  such  a 
number  of  cards  discover  and  announce  the  fact  before  he 
raises  his  hand,  it  is  a misdeal. 

If  the  dealer  give  to  himself,  or  either  of  the  other  players, 
more  or  less  than  five  cards,  and  the  player  receiving  such  im- 
proper number  of  cards  lift  his  hand  before  he  announces  the 
fact,  it  is  not  a misdeal,  and  the  player  must  retire  from  the 
game  for  that  hand. 

After  the  first  hand  the  deal  proceeds  in  rotation,  begin- 
ning with  the  player  to  the  left  of  the  dealer. 

DISCARD  AND  DRAW. 

After  the  deal  has  been  completed,  each  player  who  remains 
in  the  game  may  discard  from  his  hand  as  many  cards  as 
he  chooses,  or  his  whole  hand,  and  call  upon  the  dealer 
to  give  him  a like  number  from  the  top  of  those  re- 
maining in  the  pack.  The  eldest  hand  must  discard  first, 
and  so  in  regular  rotation  round  to  the  dealer,  who  discards 
last.  All  the  players  must  discard  before  any  party  is  helped. 

Any  player,  after  having  asked  for  fresh  cards,  must  take 
the  exact  number  called  for  ; and  after  cards  have  once  been 
discarded,  they  must  not  again  be  taken  in  hand. 

Any  player,  previous  to  raising  his  hand  or  making  a bet, 
may  demand  of  the  dealer  how  many  cards  he  drew,  and  the 
latter  must  reply  correctly.  By  raising  his  hand,  or  making  a 
bet,  the  player  forfeits  the  right  to  inquire,  removing  the  obli- 
gation to  answer. 

Should  the  dealer  give  any  player  more  cards  than  the  latter 
has  demanded,  and  the  player  discover  and  announce  the  fact 
before  raising  his  cards,  the  dealer  must  withdraw  the  super- 
fluous cards  and  restore  then  to  the  pack.  But  if  the  player 
raise  the  cards  before  informing  the  dealer  of  the  mistake,  he 
must  retire  from  the  game  during  that  hand. 


412 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


Should  the  dealer  give  any  player  fewer  cards  than  the  lat- 
ter has  discarded,  and  the  player  discover  and  announce  the 
fact  previous  to  lifting  the  cards,  the  dealer  must  give  the 
player  from  the  pack  sufficient  cards  to  make  the  whole  num- 
ber correspond  with  the  number  originally  demanded.  If  the 
player  raise  the  cards  before  making  the  demand  for  more,  he 
must  retire  from  the  game  during  that  hand. 

If  a player  discard  and  draw  fresh  cards  to  his  hand,  and 
while  serving  him  the  dealer  expose  one  or  more  of  the  cards, 
the  dealer  must  place  the  exposed  cards  upon  the  bottom  of 
the  pack,  and  give  to  the  player  a corresponding  number  from 
the  top  of  the  pack. 

BET,  CALL  AND  SHOW. 

In  opening  the  pool,  the  Age  makes  the  first  ante,  which 
must  not  exceed  one-half  the  limit.  After  the  cards  are  dealt, 
every  player  in  his  proper  turn,  beginning  with  the  player  to 
the  left  of  the  Age,  must  make  this  ante  good  by  depositing 
double  the  amount  in  the  pool,  or  retire  from  the  game  for 
that  hand. 

After  the  cards  have  been  dealt,  any  player,  in  his  proper 
turn,  beginning  with  the  player  to  the  left  of  the  Age,  after 
making  good  the  Age’s  ante,  may  raise  the  same  any  amount 
not  exceeding  the  limit  of  the  game. 

After  the  hands  are  filled,  any  player  who  remains  in  the 
game,  may,  in  his  proper  turn,  beginning  with  the  player  to 
the  left  of  the  Age,  bet  or  raise  the  pool  any  amount  not  ex- 
ceeding the  limit  of  the  game. 

After  the  draw  has  been  made,  the  eldest  hand  or  Age  has 
the  privilege  of  deferring  his  say  until  after  all  the  other 
players  have  made  their  bets,  or  passed.  The  Age  is  the  last 
player  to  declare  whether  he  will  play  or  pass.  If,  however,  the 
Age  pass  out  of  the  game  before  the  draw,  then  the  next  player 
to  his  left  in  the  game  after  the  draw,  must  make  the  first 
bet  ; or  failing  to  bet,  must  pass  out. 

If  a player,  in  his  regular  turn,  bet,  or  raise  a bet  any  amount 
not  exceeding  the  limit  of  the  game,  his  adversaries  must 
either  call  him,  go  better,  or  retire  from  the  game  for  that 
hand. 

When  a player  makes  a bet  he  must  deposit  the  amount  in 
the  pool. 

If  a player  makes  good,  orr^rabet,  and  calls  for  a show  of 
hands,  each  player  must  show  his  entire  hand  to  the  board, 
the  caller  last,  and  the  best  poker  hand  wins  the  pool. 

If  a player  bets,  or  raises  a bet,  and  no  other  player  goes 
better  or  calls  him,  he  wins  the  pool  and  cannot  be  compelled 
o show  his  hand. 

Upon  a show  of  hands,  if  a player  miscall  his  hand,  he 
Qoes  not  lose  the  pool  for  that  reason,  for  every  hand  shows 
for  itself. 

If  a player  pass  or  throw  up  his  hand,  he  passes  out  of  the 
game,  and  cannot,  tinder  any  circumstances  whatever , parti- 
cipate further  in  that  game. 

Any  player  betting  with  more  or  less  than  five  cards  in  his 
hand,  loses  the  pool,  unless  his  opponents  all  throw  up  their 
hands  before  discovering  the  foul  hand.  If  only  one  player 
is  betting  against  the  foul  hand,  that  player  is  entitled  to  the 
ante  and  all  the  money  bet  ; but  if  there  are  more  than  one 


betting  against  him,  then  the  best  hand  among  his  opponents 
is  entitled  to  the  pool. 

If  a player  makes  a bet,  and  an  adversary  raises  him,  and 
the  player  who  made  the  previous  bet  has  not  money  sufficient 
to  see  the  raise,  he  can  put  up  all  the  funds  he  may  have  and 
call  for  a show  for  that  amount. 

None  but  the  eldest  hand  (the  Age)  has  the  privilege  of 
going  a blind.  The  party  next  and  to  the  left  of  the  eldest 
hand  may  double  the  blind,  and  the  next  player  straddle  it, 
the  next  double  the  straddle,  and  so  on,  but  the  amount  of 
the  straddle,  when  made  good,  must  not  exceed  the  limit  of 
the  game. 

A player  cannot  straddle  a blind  and  raise  it  at  the  same 
time,  nor  can  any  player  raise  a blind  before  the  cards  are 
dealt. 

If  the  player  to  the  left  of  the  Age  decline  to  straddle  a 
blind,  he  prevents  any  other  player  from  doing  so. 

JACK  POT. 

This  is  played  as  follows  : When  all  the  players  pass  up  to 
the  blind  hand,  the  latter  allows  his  blind  to  remain  in  the 
pot,  and  each  of  the  other  players  deposits  a similar  amount. 
The  blind  now  deals,  and  any  player  in  his  regular  turn  may 
open  or  break  the  pot,  provided  he  holds  a pair  of  Jacks  or 
better,  but  a player  is  not  compelled  to  do  so,  this  being  en- 
tirely optional. 

Each  player  in  turn,  commencing  with  the  one  at  the  left 
of  the  dealer,  declares  whether  he  can  and  will  open  the  pot. 

If  no  player  opens  the  pot,  then  each  player  deposits  in 
the  pool  the  same  amount  that  was  previously  contributed, 
and  the  deal  passes  to  the  next  player.  The  same  perform- 
ance or  mode  of  action  will  continue  until  some  player  holds 
the  necessary  cards,  and  is  willing  to  break  the  pot. 

A player  may  break  the  pot  for  any  amount  within  the  lim- 
its of  the  game,  and  each  player  in  turn  must  make  the  bet 
good,  raise  it,  or  retire. 

After  all  the  players  who  determine  to  go  in  have  made 
good  the  bet  of  the  player  who  opened  the  Jack  Pot,  and  the 
hands  have  been  filled,  then  the  opener  of  the  pot  makes  the 
first  bet. 

If  all  pass  up  to  the  player  who  broke  the  pot,  the  latter 
takes  the  pool,  and  can  only  be  compelled  to  show  the  Jacks, 
or  better,  necessary  to  break  the  pot. 

A player  who  breaks  the  pot  on  a pair,  may  split  the  pair 
in  order  to  draw  to  a four  flush  or  straight;  but,  if  he  does  so, 
he  must  lay  the  discard  to  one  side,  separate  from  any  other 
cards,  so  that  after  the  result  has  been  determined  he  may 
satisfy  the  other  players  that  he  broke  the  pot  with  a correct 
hand.  If  this  precaution  is  not  observed,  and  attention  called 
to  it,  the  delinquent  is  subject  to  deposit  in  the  pool,  as  pen- 
alty, twice  the  amount  of  his  original  bet. 

If  no  player  come  in  except  the  one  who  broke  the  pot  on 
an  insufficient  hand,  a new  hand  must  be  dealt,  and  the  penalty 
added  to  the  pot. 

STRAIGHT  POKER. 

Straight  Poker,  which  is  sometimes  called  Bluff,  is  played 
with  a pack  of  fifty-two  cards.  The  same  rules  as  those  of 


GAMES  OF  CARDS. 


Draw  Poker  govern  it.  It  differs  from  the  latter  game  in  the 
following  particulars  only: 

I.  The  winner  of  the  pool  has  the  deal. 

II.  Each  player  antes  before  the  cards  are  cut  for  the  deal. 

III.  Any  player  may  pass  with  the  privilege  of  coming  in 
again,  provided  no  player  preceding  him  has  made  a bet. 

IV.  No  plaver  is  permitted  to  discard,  or  draw  any  cards. 

V.  When  all  the  players  pass,  the  eldest  hand  deals,  and 
each  player  deposits  another  ante  in  the  pool,  thus  making 
what  is  termed  a “ double-header.”  When  a misdeal  occurs 
the  rule  is  the  same. 

WHISKEY  POKER. 

Each  player  contributes  one  chip  to  make  a pool,  and  the 
same  rules  govern  as  at  Draw  Poker,  save  that  the  strongest 
hand  you  can  get  is  a straight  flush.  Five  cards  are  dealt  to 
each  player,  one  at  a time,  and  an  extra  hand  is  dealt  on  the 
table,  which  is  called  the  “widow.''  The  eldest  hand  then 
examines  his  cards,  and  if,  in  his  judgment,  his  hand  is  suffi- 
ciently strong,  he  passes.  The  next  player  then  has  the  pri- 
vilege of  the  widow,  and,  supposing  him  to  take  it,  he  then 
fays  his  discarded  hand  (that  which  he  relinquishes  for  the 


widow)  face  up  in  the  centre  of  the  table,  and  the  next  piayer 
to  the  left  selects  from  it  that  card  which  suits  him  best  in 
filling  his  hand,  and  so  on  all  around  the  board,  each  player 
discarding  one  card  and  picking  up  another,  until  some  one  is 
satisfied,  which  he  signifies  by  knocking  upon  the  table. 
When  this  occurs,  all  the  players  around  to  the  satisfied  party 
have  the  privilege  of  one  more  draw,  when  the  hands  are 
shown,  and  the  strongest  wins.  If  any  player  knocks  before 
the  widow  is  taken,  the  widow  is  then  turned  face  up,  and 
each  player  from  him  who  knocks  has  but  one  more  draw. 
Should  no  one  take  the  widow,  but  all  pass  to  the  dealer,  he 
then  turns  the  widow,  and  all  parties  have  the  right  to  draw 
until  some  one  is  satisfied. 

STUD  POKER 

is  in  all  essential  particulars  like  the  other  Poker  games,  and 
is  subject  to  the  same  laws  and  mode  of  betting,  passing,  etc. 

MISTIGRIS 

is  a variety  of  a game  of  Draw  Poker,  sometimes  called  Fifty- 
Three  Deck  Poker.  Mistigris  is  a name  given  to  the  blank 
card  accompanying  every  pack  ; the  player  holding  it  can  call 
it  any  card  not  already  in  his  hand. 


■-ft 


I 414 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


Black. 


HESS  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of 
known  games  of  skill.  Various  theories 
are  advanced  as  to  its  origin.  One  ac- 
count states  that  the  wife  of  Ravan, 
King  of  Ceylon,  devised  it  in  order  to 
amuse  her  royal  spouse  with  an  image  of 
war  while  his  metropolis  was  closely  be- 
sieged by  Rama. 


We  will  now  proceed  to  give  the  necessary  directions  for 
playing  the  game. 

The  game  is  played  on  a board  divided  into  sixty-four 
squares,  colored  alternately  black  and  white.  It  is  the  same 
as  that  used  at  draughts.  Eight  pieces  of  different  denomina- 


tions and  powers,  and  eight  pawns,  are  allotted  to  each  com- 
petitor. As  a necessary  distinction,  each  set  is  colored  in  a 
different  way,  one  commonly  being  white,  the  other  red  or 
black.  The  pieces  are  named  as  follows  : 


King.  Queen.  Bishop. 


^ m 

^ MBA 

l Knight. 


■ 


Rook. 


Pawn. 


Every  player,  therefore,  is  provided  with  one  king,  one 
queen,  two  bishops,  two  knights,  and  two  rooks,  besides  the 
eight  pawns.  They  are  placed,  at  the  beginning  of  each  game, 
in  the  order  shown  at  the  head  of  this  article. 

In  placing  the  board,  care  must  be  taken  that  a white 
corner  square  be  at  the  right  hand  of  each  player.  It  should 
also  be  observed  that  the  queen  must  be  placed  upon  a square 
of  her  own  color. 


THE  PIECES:  THEIR  POWERS  AND  MODE 
OF  ACTION. 

The  king  can  move  in  any  direction — forward,  backward, 
sideways,  or  diagonally,  provided  always,  of  course,  that  he 
does  not  move  into  check.  The  king  possesses  one  great 
prerogative — that  of  never  being  taken  j but,  by  way  of  counter- 
balancing the  advantage  of  this  exemption,  he  is  restrained 
from  exposing  himself  to  e/ieck.  He  can  move  only  one 
square  at  a time,  except  when  he  eastles,  which  he  may  do 
once  during  each  game.  He  may  then  move  two  squares.  He 
cannot  castle  when  in  check , nor  after  he  has  once  moved,  nor 
with  a rook  that  has  been  moved,  nor  if  any  of  the  squares 
over  which  he  has  to  move  be  commanded  by  an  adverse 
piece. 

The  queen  can  move  either  horizontally  or  diagonally.  She 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


combines  the  powers  of  the  bishop  and  the  rock.  She  can,  at  I 
one  move,  pass  along  the  whole  length  of  the  board,  or,  if 
moving  diagonally,  from  corner  to  corner.  Although  she  can 
move  and  take  in  the  same  manner  as  a bishop  or  as  a rook, 
she  must  make  the  whole  of  one  move  in  one  direction,  and 
cannot  combine  in  one  move  the  powers  of  these  two  pieces  : 
in  other  words,  she  cannot  move  round  a corner  at  one  step. 

The  rook  (sometimes  called  the  castle)  may  pass  along  the 
entire  length  of  the  board  at  one  move.  It  may  move  back- 
wards, or  forwards,  or  sideways — but  always  horizontally, 
never  diagonally. 

The  bishop  can  move  only  in  a diagonal  direction,  but  can 
go  any  number  of  squares,  from  one  to  eight,  or  as  far  as  the 
space  be  open.  The  bishop  can  never  change  the  color  of  his 
square.  Thus,  the  white  king’s  bishop  being  on  a white 
square  at  the  beginning,  remains  so  throughout  the  game. 
This  is  a necessary  consequence  of  his  move  being  purely 
diagonal. 

The  knight  has  a power  of  moving  which  is  quite  peculiar, 
and  rather  difficult  to  explain.  He  moves  two  squares  at  once 
in  a direction  partly  diagonal  and  partly  straight.  He 
changes  the  color  of  his  squares  at  every  move.  The  knight 
is  the  only  piece  that  possesses  what  is  styled  the  “ vaulting 
motion.”  He  is  not  precluded  from  going  to  a square  be- 
tween which  and  his  own  other  pieces  intervene.  Thus, 
instead  of  moving  your  king’s  pawn  two,  as  your  first  move, 
you  might,  if  good  play  permitted  it,  move  out  either  of  your 
knights  right  over  the  row  of  pawns  in  front.  This  power  is 
possessed  by  the  knight  alone,  all  the  other  pieces  being 
obliged  to  wait  until  there  is  an  opening  in  front  of  thfm 
before  they  can  emerge. 

The  pawn  moves  in  a straight  line  towards  the  adverse 
party.  It  cannot  move  out  of  its  file  except  in  capturing  one 
of  the  opposing  pawns  or  pieces,  when  it  steps  one  square  in  a 
diagonal  or  slanting  direction,  and  occupies  the  square  of  the 
captured  piece.  It  can  only  be  moved  one  square  at  a time, 
excepting  in  the  first  move,  when  the  player  has  the  option  of 
advancing  it  two  squares.  The  pawn  is  the  only  piece  which 
cannot  retreat,  and  which  does  not  take  in  the  direction  in 
which  it  moves.  For  full  explanations  relative  to  “queening 
the  pawn,”  and  taking  a pawn  en  passant,  see  instructions  on 
those  points. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

The  abbreviations  which  are  invariably  used  in  chess  publi- 
cations are  the  following:  K.  for  king,  Q.  for  queen,  B.  for 
bishop,  Kt.  for  knight,  R.  for  rook,  P.  for  pawn,  Sq.  for 
square,  and  Ch.  for  check.  The  pieces  on  one  side  of  the 
board  are  distinguished  from  those  on  the  other  in  the  follow- 
ing manner : Those  on  the  same  side  as  the  king  are  named 
after  him,  as  K.’s  B.  (king’s  bishop),  K.’s  Kt.  (king’s  knight), 
K.’s  R.  (king’s  rook) ; while  those  on  the  same  side  as  the 
queen  are  named  Q.’s  B.  (queen’s  bishop),  Q.’s  Kt.  (queen’s 
knight),  Q.’s  R.  (queen’s  rook).  The  pawns  are  distinguished 
in  like  manner.  The  pawn  occupying  the  square  in  front  of 
the  K.’s  B.  is  called  K.’s  B.’s  P.  ; that  in  front  of  the  K.’s  Kt. 
is  called  K.’s  Kt.’s  P.  ; that  in  front  of  the  Q.’s  R.  the  Q.’s 
R.’s  P.,  etc. 


41 5 


CHESS  NOTATION. 

It  is  very  necessary  that  the  beginner  should  thoroughly 
understand  the  system  of  notation  which  is  invariably  used 
throughout  England,  for  without  it  he  could  never  make  any 
use  of  book  games. 

The  following  diagram  fully  explains  it.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  moves  are  reckoned  both  for  black  and  white. 


Black. 


•bs  h O 

bsVH'O 

bs  a 0 

•bsO 

■bs’a 

•bs  aa 

bs  ra  a 

bs  a a 

Q.R.8. 

Q.Kt.8. 

Q.B.8. 

Q 8. 

K.8. 

K.B  8. 

K.Kt.8. 

K.R  8. 

z'H  Q 

z ia  5 

1 a <3 

■zQ 

za 

•z  a a 

2 iaa 

za  a 

q.r.7. 

Q.Kt.7 

Q.B.7. 

0- 7- 

k.7. 

R.B  7. 

K.Kt.7 

k.r.7. 

£a0 

£ia(3 

•£'trO 

•£•0 

•e-a 

£aa 

■(■iaa 

•£a  a 

Q.R.6. 

Q.Kt.6. 

Q.B.6. 

Q.6. 

K.6. 

B.6. 

K.Kt.6. 

K.R  6. 

t’-aO 

tua  <3 

* a 3 

•t’O 

•t-a 

►aa 

■traa 

aa 

Q.R.5. 

Q.Kt.s. 

Q.B.s. 

0-5- 

k.5. 

k.b.5. 

K.Kt.  5. 

k.r.5. 

•sy.O 

s-ia  5 

s-8  5 

S-Q 

•SK 

s a a 

•s-ra-a 

£ aa 

0-R-4- 

QKt.4. 

Q.B+ 

04- 

K.4. 

K.B. 4. 

K.Kt.4. 

K r.4. 

•9a'6 

•9  iaQ 

•9a'5 

•9(5 

•9  a 

9 a a 

•91a -a 

9 a a 

Q.R-3- 

Q.Kt.3. 

Q-B.3- 

0-3- 

k,3. 

k.b.3. 

K.Kt.3. 

K.R  3. 

L ta  0 

•£a3 

tQ 

z a 

L a a 

•t-ra  a 

L aa 

Q.R.2. 

Q.Kt.2. 

Q.B.2. 

0.2. 

K.2. 

K.B  2. 

K.Kt  2. 

K.R  2. 

sa  5 

8-ta'O 

8 a 5 

•8(3 

•8’a 

•8-aa 

'8iaa 

•sa  a 

Q-R  sq- 

Q.Kt.sq 

0 B sq. 

0.sq 

K.sq. 

K.B  sq 

K.Kt  sq 

K.R.sq. 

White. 


CHESS  NOTATION  FROM  EACH  END  OF  THE  BOARD. 

Suppose  the  white  queen’s  bishop  moves  one  square,  it  is 
then  said  to  stand  on  its  second,  which  is  the  black  queen’s 
bishop’s  seventh.  The  white  king’s  eighth  is  the  black  king’s 
first,  and  vice  versci  all  through  the  pieces. 


TECHNICAL  TERMS  USED  IN  THE  GAME. 

The  Move. — Whichever  player  opens  the  game  by  making 
the  first  move  is  said  to  have  “ the  move.” 

Check. — When  your  king  is  attacked  by  any  piece,  he  is  said 
to  be  “ in  check,’’  and  it  is  your  opponent’s  duty  to  give  you 
warning  of  such  an  event  by  crying  “ Check,”  when  he  makes 
the  move.  You  must  then  put  your  king  out  of  check  by 
moving  him,  by  taking  the  checking  piece,  or  by  interposing 
one  of  your  own  men  between  the  checking  piece  and  your 
king,  thus  “ covering  ” check,  as  it  is  termed. 

Checkmate  is  the  term  used  when  the  king  is  in  inextricable 
check,  i.e.,  when  none  of  the  above  means  avail  to  place  him 
beyond  the  range  of  the  attacking  pieces.  When  a checkmate 
is  obtained,  the  game  is  at  an  end,  that  being  the  sole  object. 

Discovered  Check  is  when  the  player  moves  a pawn  or  piece 
from  before  another  piece,  thereby  opening  or  “discovering” 
check  : e.g.,  the  black  rook  may  be  on  a line  with  the  oppos- 
ing king,  the  only  intervening  piece  being  a black  pawn.  The 
removal  of  this  pawn  “discovers  check.” 

Double  Check  is  when  check  is  discovered  as  above,  the  king 
being  also  attacked  by  the  piece  moved. 

Perpetual  Check  is  when  the  king  of  one  of  the  players  can 
be  checked  almost  at  every  move,  and  when  he  has  little  else 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


4 *0 


to  do  but  move  out  of  check.  When  the  game  has  reached 
this  stage,  the  weaker  player  may  demand  that  checkmate 
shall  be  given  in  a certain  number  of  moves,  in  default  of 
which  it  may  be  declared  a drawn  game.  (See  Rule  8.) 

Drawn  Game. — A drawn  game  may  arise  from  several 
causes : 

1.  As  above. 

2.  Stalemate.  (See  “Stalemate.”) 

3.  Equal  play.  “ Between  very  good  players,”  remarks 
Phillidor,  “ it  sometimes  happens  that  the  equipoise  in  force 
and  position  is  constantly  sustained  in  the  opening,  in  the  in- 
termediate stages,  and  in  the  last  result ; when  either  all  the 
exchangeable  pieces  have  been  mutually  taken,  or  the  remain- 
ing forces  are  equal — as  a queen  against  a queen,  a rook  against 
a rook,  with  no  advantage  in  position,  or  the  pawns  are  mu- 
tually blocked  up.” 

4.  Absence  of  mating  power,  i.  •. , when  neither  player  pos- 
sesses the  force  requisite  to  obtain  a checkmate.  (See  “ Mating 
Power.”) 

5.  Unskillful  use  of  a sufficiently  strong  force.  If  one  player 
is  superior  in  force  to  his  adversary,  and  possesses  the  requisite 
mating  power,  the  game  may  still  be  drawn  by  the  unskillful 
use  of  that  superiority.  If  he  cannot  effect  a checkmate  in 
fifty  moves  it  maybe  declared  a drawn  game. 

Stalemate  describes  that  state  of  the  game  when  one  of  the 
players  has  nothing  left  but  his  king,  which  is  so  placed  that, 
although  not  in  check,  he  cannot  move  without  going  into 
check. 

Castling  is  a double  operation,  accomplished  by  moving  the 
king  and  one  of  the  rooks  at  the  same  time.  When  the  re- 
moval of  the  bishop  and  the  knight  on  the  one  side,  or  of  the 
bishop,  knight,  and  queen  on  the  other,  has  cleared  the  inter- 
vening squares,  the  king  may  castle  with  either  of  his  rooks. 
If  it  should  be  done  on  the  king’s  side  of  the  board,  the  king 
is  to  be  placed  on  the  knight’s  square,  and  the  rook  on  the 
bishop’s  ; if  in  the  queen's  section,  the  king  must  be  moved  to 
the  bishop’s  square,  and  the  rook  to  the  queen’s.  In  other 
words,  the  king,  in  either  case,  must  move  two  squares,  and 
the  rook  be  placed  on  the  opposite  side  of  him  to  that  on 
which  he  stood  before. 

En  Prise. — A piece  is  said  to  be  en  ptise  when  under 
attack. 

En  Passant  (in  passing). — If  your  adversary  has  advanced 
one  of  his  pawns  to  the  fifth  square,  and  you  move  one  of 
your  pawns  in  either  of  the  adjoining  files  two  squares,  he  is 
entitled  to  take  your  pawn,  en  passant,  as  though  you  had  only 
moved  it  one  square.  This  peculiar  mode  of  capture  can  only 
be  effected  by  pawns. 

Panks  and  Piles. — The  lines  of  squares  running  from  left  to 
right  are  known  as  ranks , and  those  perpendicular  to  them, 
running  from  one  player  to  the  other,  are  called  files. 

Passed  and  Isolated  Pawns. — A pawn  is  said  to  be  “ passed  ” 
when  it  is  so  far  advanced  that  no  pawn  of  the  adversary’s  can 
oppose  it.  An  isolated  pawn  is  one  that  stands  alone  and  un- 
supported. 

Double  Pawn. — Two  pawns  on  the  same  file. 

“ fiadoube"  (signifying  I adjust  or  I arrange)  is  the  ex- 
pression generally  used  when  a player  touches  a piece  to 


arrange  it  without  the  intention  of  making  a move.  Perhaps  it 
is  not  absolutely  necessary  that  he  should  say  “fiadoube,” 
but  he  must  at  any  rate  use  an  equivalent  expression. 

To  Interpose. — This  term  explains  itself.  If  your  king  or 
one  of  your  pieces  is  attacked,  and  you  move  another  of  your 
pieces  between  the  attacking  piece  and  the  piece  attacked, 
either  for  the  purpose  of  covering  check,  or  as  a means  of 
protection,  or  with  any  other  object,  you  are  said  to  “ inter- 
pose.” 

Winning  the  Exchange. — You  arc  said  “to  win  the  ex- 
change ” when  you  gain  a rook  for  a bishop,  a bishop  for  a 
knight,  or,  in  short,  whenever  you  gain  a superior  piece  by 
giving  an  inferior. 

Queening  a Pawn. — You  are  said  to  “queen  a pawn  ” when 
you  advance  it  to  the  eighth  square  on  the  file.  You  may  then 
claim  a queen  or  any  other  piece  in  exchange  for  it.  Formerly 
the  rule  was,  that  you  might  substitute  for  it  any  piece  you 
had  previously  lost,  but  according  to  the  modern  game  three 
or  more  rooks,  or  bishops,  or  knights  may  be  obtained  in  this 
way. 

Gambit. — This  term,  which  is  derived  from  the  Italian,  de- 
scribes an  opening  in  which  a pawn  is  purposely  sacrificed  at 
an  early  stage  of  the  game,  in  order  subsequently  to  gain  an 
advantage.  Several  gambits  are  distinguished  by  the  names 
of  their  inventors,  such  as  the  Cochrane  gambit,  the  Muzio 
gambit,  the  Salvio  gambit,  etc.;  there  are  also  the  bishop’s 
gambit,  the  queen’s  gambit,  etc.,  etc. 

Mating  Power. — The  force  requisite  to  bring  about  a check- 
mate : a king  and  queen  against  king  and  two  bishops,  king 
and  two  knights,  king  and  bishop  and  knight,  or  against  king 
and  rook,  can  effect  checkmate.  King  and  two  bishops  can 
mate  against  king  and  bishop,  or  king  and  knight.  King  with 
two  bishops  and  knight  can  mate  against  king  and  rook.  King 
with  rook  and  bishop  can  mate  against  rook  and  king.  King 
can  always  draw  against  king  and  bishop,  or  king  and  knight. 
King  and  rook  against  either  a king  and  bishop,  or  king  and 
knight,  makes  a drawn  game,  etc. 

LAWS  OF  THE  GAME. 

The  following  laws  are  in  force  in  all  the  principal  clubs  in 
this  country  : 

1.  If  a player  touch  one  of  his  men,  unless  for  the  purpose 

of  adjusting  it,  when  he  must  say  “ fiadoube  ” (see  Law 
4),  or  it  being  his  turn  to  move,  he  must  move  the 
piece  he  has  so  touched. 

[Walker  gives  the  following  remarks  on  this  law : "When 
you  touch  a piece  with  the  bona  fide  intention  of  playing  it. 
the  saying  fiadoube  will  not  exonerate  you  from  completing 
the  move.  A chess-player’s  meaning  cannot  be  misunderstood 
on  the  point ; and  were  it  otherwise,  you  might  hold  a man  in 
your  hand  for  five  minutes,  and  then  saying  ‘fiadoube,’  re- 
place it,  and  move  elsewhere.”] 

2.  If  the  men  are  not  placed  properly  at  the  beginning  of 

the  game,  and  this  is  discovered  before  four  moves  have 
been  made  on  each  side,  the  game  must  be  recom- 
menced. If  the  mistake  should  not  be  found  out  till 
after  four  moves  have  been  made,  the  game  must  be 
proceeded  with. 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


40 


3.  Where  the  players  are  even,  they  must  draw  lots  for  the 
first  move,  after  which  they  take  the  first  move  alternately. 
When  a player  gives  odds,  he  has  the  option  of  making  the 
first  move,  and  the  choice  of  men  in  every  game. 

[In  giving  odds,  should  it  be  agreed  upon  to  give  a pawn, 
it  is  customary  to  take  the  K.  B.  P.  If  a piece  is  to  be  given, 
it  may  be  taken  from  either  the  king’s  or  queen’s  side.] 

4.  If  a player  should  accidentally  or  otherwise  move  or 

touch  one  of  his  men  without  saying  “ J'adoube"  his 
adversary  may  compel  him  to  move  either  the  man  he 
has  touched  or  his  king,  provided  the  latter  is  not  in 
check. 

5.  When  a player  gives  check,  and  fails  to  give  notice  by 

crying  “ Check,”  his  adversary  need  not,  unless  he  think 
proper,  place  his  king  out  of  check,  nor  cover. 

[If  it  is  discovered  that  the  king  is  in  check,  and  has  been 
so  for  several  moves  past,  the  players  must  move  the  men  back 
to  the  point  at  which  they  stood  when  check  was  given.  If 
they  cannot  agree  as  to  when  check  was  first  given,  the  player 
who  is  in  check  must  retract  his  last  move,  and  defend  his  king.] 

6.  The  player  who  effects  checkmate  wins  the  game. 

7.  Stalemate  constitutes  a draw  game. 

8.  So  long  as  you  retain  your  hold  of  a piece  you  may  move 

it  where  you  will. 

9.  Should  you  move  one  of  your  adversary's  men  instead  of 

your  own,  he  may  compel  you  to  take  the  piece  you 
have  touched,  should  it  be  en  prise,  or  to  replace  it  and 
move  your  king;  provided,  of  course,  that  you  can  do 
so  without  placing  him  in  check. 

10.  Should  you  capture  a man  with  one  that  cannot  legally 
take  it,  your  adversary  may  compel  you  either  to  take 
such  piece  (should  it  be  en  prise)  with  one  that  can  le- 
gally take  it,  or  to  move  the  piece  touched ; provided 
that  by  so  doing  you  do  not  discover  check,  in  which 
case  you  may  be  directed  to  move  your  king. 

XI.  Should  you  move  out  of  your  turn,  your  adversary  may 
compel  you  either  to  retract  the  move,  or  leave  the 
piece  where  you  placed  it,  as  he  may  think  most  advan- 
tageous. 

12.  If  you  touch  the  king  and  rook,  intending  to  castle,  and 
have  quitted  hold  of  the  one  piece,  you  must  complete 
the  act  of  castling.  If  you  retain  your  hold  of  both, 
your  adversary  may  compel  you  to  move  either  of  them. 

13.  The  game  must  be  declared  to  be  drawn  should  you  fail 
to  give  checkmate  in  fifty  moves,  when  you  have 

King  and  queen  against  king.  King  and  pawn  against  king. 

King  and  rook  “ King  and  two  pawns  “ 

King  and  two  bishops  “ King  and  minor  piece  “ 

King,  bishop,  and  kt.  “ 

14.  Drawn  games  of  every  description  count  for  nothing. 

15.  Neither  player  may  leave  a game  unfinished,  nor  leave 

the  room  without  the  permission  of  his  adversary. 

16.  Lookers-on  are  not  permitted  to  speak,  nor  in  any  way 

express  their  approbation  or  disapprobation  while  a 
game  is  pending. 

17.  In  case  a dispute  should  arise  on  any  point  not  provided 

for  by  the  laws,  a third  party  must  be  appealed  to, 
and  his  decision  shall  be  final. 


HINTS  FOR  COMMENCING  THE  GAME. 

To  open  the  game  well,  some  of  the  pawns  should  be  played 
out  first.  The  royal  pawns,  particularly,  should  be  advanced 
to  their  fourth  square  ; it  is  not  often  safe  to  advance  them 
farther.  The  bishop's  pawn  should  also  be  played  out  early 
in  the  game  ; but  it  is  not  always  well  to  advance  the  rook’s 
and  knight’s  pawns  too  hastily,  as  these  afford  an  excellent 
protection  to  your  king  in  case  you  should  castle.  Phillidoi 
describes  pawn-playing  as  the  “the  soul  of  chess.”  When 
they  are  not  too  far  advanced,  and  are  so  placed  as  to  be  mu- 
tually supporting,  they  present  a strong  barrier  to  the  advance 
of  your  adversary,  and  prevent  him  from  taking  up  a com- 
manding position.  If  you  play  your  pieces  out  too  early,  and 
advance  too  far,  your  adversary  may  oblige  you  to  bring  them 
back  again  by  advancing  his  pawns  upon  them,  and  you  thus 
lose  time. 

Do  not  commence  your  attack  until  you  are  well  prepared. 
A weak  attack  often  results  in  disaster.  If  your  attack  is  likely 
to  prove  successful,  do  not  be  diverted  from  it  by  any  bait 
which  your  adversary  may  purposely  put  in  your  way.  Pause, 
lest  you  fall  into  a snare. 

Beware  of  giving  check  uselessly — i.  e.,  unless  you  have  in 
view  the  obtaining  of  some  advantage.  A useless  check  is  a 
move  lost,  which  may,  particularly  between  good  players,  de- 
cide the  game. 

It  is  generally  injudicious  to  make  an  exchange  when  your 
position  is  good,  or  when,  by  so  doing,  you  bring  one  of  your 
adversary’s  pieces  into  good  play.  Never  make  an  exchange 
without  considering  the  consequences.  When  your  game  is 
crowded  and  ill  arranged  and  your  position  inferior,  it  is  ad- 
vantageous to  exchange.  Sometimes  also,  when  you  are  much 
superior  in  force,  it  is  worth  your  while  to  make  an  equal 
exchange. 

The  operation  of  castling  often  relieves  a crowded  game. 
A lost  opportunity  of  castling,  or  castling  at  the  wrong  time, 
is  a disadvantage  which  may  be  turned  to  account  by  your  ad- 
versary. 

Never  put  your  queen  before  your  king  in  such  a way  that 
your  adversary  may  bring  forward  a bishop  or  rook  and  attack 
her,  and  the  king  through  her.  In  such  a case,  unless  you 
can  interpose  another  piece,  you  will  inevitably  lose  your 
queen. 

It  is  good  play  to  “ double  ” your  rooks — i.  e. , to  make  them 
mutually  supporting.  Don’t  bring  your  rooks  into  active  play 
too  soon.  They  can  generally  operate  most  effectively  at  a 
distance,  and  they  are  therefore  of  most  value  toward  the  enIT 
of  a game,  when  the  board  is  comparatively  clear. 

From  time  to  time  take  a review  of  the  game.  Although 
an  incurably  tedious  player  is  a general  nuisance,  it  is  mere 
folly  to  play  without  “ knowing  the  reason  why.”  To  take 
an  occasional  review  of  the  game  gets  you  into  a systematic 
habit.  When  near  the  close,  take  notice  of  the  position  of 
your  adversary’s  pawns,  and  if  you  find  that  you  can  queen 
before  him,  make  all  haste  to  do  so  ; if  not,  attack  his  pawns 
so  as  to  prevent  him  from  queening.  If  your  adversary  pos- 
sesses a decided  advantage,  look  out  for  a means  of  drawing 
the  game. 

Do  not  stick  to  one  opening,  but  learn  as  many  as  you  can. 


418 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


Always  be  willing  to  accept  odds  of  a better  player,  so  that 
the  game  may  be  interesting  to  him.  If  you  should  lose,  it  is 
natural  that  you  should  feel  inwardly  chagrined,  but  do  not  let 
your  disappointment  be  perceived.  “Keep  your  temper”  is 
a golden  rule.  Do  not  give  up  the  game  before  you  are  quite 
sure  it  is  lost.  On  the  other  hand,  you  should  not  too  hastily 
jump  to  the  conclusion  that  you  have  won  it. 

It  is  necessary  that  you  should  occasionally  study  some  of 
the  best  book  games,  but  without  actual  practice  proficiency  can 
seldom  be  attained. 

Endeavor  to  understand  the  reasons  which  lead  to  your  adver- 
sary’s moves,  and  take  measures  accordingly. 

“Openings”  of  Games. — The  principal  openings  are  the 
king’s  gambit,  the  queen’s  gambit,  the  king’s  knight’s  open- 
ing, the  king’s  bishop’s  opening,  etc.  From  these  spring  the 
various  gambits,  known  as  the  Evans,  the  Muzio,  the  Cunning- 
ham, the  Allgaier,  the  Cochrane,  the  Giuoco  piano,  etc.,  most 
of  them  deriving  their  names  from  the  inventors.  All  these 
gambits  have  a variety  of  subdivisions,  and  openings  not 
founded  on  them  are  termed'  irregular  openings.  We  shall, 
after  defining  each  of  the  most  celebrated  of  these  openings, 
give  illustrations  of  them. 

The  King's  Gambit. — In  this  gambit,  the  first  player  ad- 
vances his  K.  B.  P.  two  squares  at  his  second  move. 

The  Queen's  Gambit  is  when  the  first  player,  at  his  second 
move,  advances  his  Q.  B.  P.  two  squares. 

King's  Bishop's  Gambit  is  sc  styled  because  the  first  player 
brings  out  the  K.  B.  at  his  second  move. 

King's  Knight's  Gambit. — In  this  much-used  opening  the 
first  player  brings  out  his  K.  Kt.  at  his  second  move. 

The  Evans  Gambit , so  styled  from  its  inventor,  Captain  W. 
D.  Evans,  R.  N. , is  when  the  player  advances  Q.  Kt.  P.  two 
at  his  fourth  move,  and  sacrifices  it,  with  the  object  of  recov- 
ering at  least  its  equivalent,  at  the  same  time  obtaining  a de- 
cided lead. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  the  queen’s  pawn-two-opening, 
the  queen’s  bishop’s  pawn’s  opening,  the  Lopez  gambit,  the 
king’s  pawn-one-opening,  the  queen’s  counter-gambit,  the 
king’s  rook’s  pawn’s  gambit,  the  Allgaier  gambit,  the  Muzio 
gambit,  the  Cochrane  gambit,  the  Cunningham  gambit,  the 
bishop’s  gambit,  the  Damian’s  gambit,  the  Greco  counter- 
gambi  , etc.,  etc. 

Ir.  an  article  of  such  limited  scope  as  the  present,  it  would 
be  impossible  to  treat  at  any  length  upon  every  one  of  these 
openings.  We  shall  therefore  content  ourselves  with  making 
a selection  which  will  be  at  once  interesting  and  suitable  for 
beginners.  In  every  case  we  have  preferred  to  give  those 
variations  which  are  considered  the  best  and  most  legitimate, 
believing  that  the  study  and  practice  of  such  positions  will  be 
more  advantageous  to  the  learner  than  giving,  as  some  writers 
do,  inferior  play  and  positions,  and  then  afterward  giving  the 
Cf/rrect  ones. 

The  King's  Gambit. — 

White.  Black. 

i K.  P.  2.  i.  K.  P.  2. 

2.  K.  B.  P.  2.  2.  P.  takes  P. 

3.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3.  3.  K.  Kt.  P.  2. 

4.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4. 

There  has  been  much  difference  of  ODinion  as  to  the  move 


which  black  should  now  make.  Some  writers  prefer  advancing 
K.  Kt.  P.,  whilst  Walker  and  a whole  host  of  authorities  think 
it  better  to  place  the  K.  B at  Kt.  second:  “Although,”  says 
Walker,  “playing  the  pawn  is  productive  of  more  brilliant 
situations.”  He  advises  both  moves  for  practice. 

King's  Bishop's  Opening. — This  opening  is  considered  by 
the  great  chess  master,  Phillidor,  as  the  very  finest  opening 
for  the  first  player,  as  it  brings  out  the  bishop  at  the  second 
move,  and  immediately  attacks  black’s  K.  B.  P.,  his  weakest 
point.  From  this  opening  spring  some  of  the  finest  and  most 
difficult  combinations  known.  It  commences  thus  : 


White. 

j.  K.  P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  K.  B.  to  Q B.  4. 

3.  P.  to  Q.  B.  3. 

4.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 


Black. 

1.  P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4 (best). 

3.  Q.  to  K.  2 (good). 


Some  prefer  to  play  the  Kt.  to  K.  2,  but  in  our  opinion  this 
is  not  so  good  as  to  B.  3,  because  in  the  former  case  black 
could  take  K.  B.  P.  with  his  bishop  (check)  ; and  if  white  K. 
takes  bishop,  black  queen  gives  check  at  her  B.  4,  and  white 
loses  bishop. 

White.  Black. 

4.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 

5.  Q.  to  K.  2.  5.  P.  to  Q.  3. 

6.  P.  to  Q.  3.  6.  P.  to  Q.  B.  3. 


If  black  plays  his  Q.  B.,  pinning  Kt.,  white  will  advance 
R.  T.,  which  will  cause  black  either  to  retire  bishop  (which  will 
be  losing  time)  or  force  an  exchange,  which  will  open  the  game 
to  white’s  queen.  Therefore  it  will  be  better  for  black  to  play 
P.  to  Q.  B.  3,  as  we  have  given  it,  which  will  leave  the  game 
pretty  equal  up  to  this  point.  If  black,  at  his  third  move, 
replies  as  follows — which  is  an  inferior  move — then  the  game 
proceeds  thus : 

White.  Black. 


4.  P.  to  Q.  4. 

5.  P.  to  K.  5. 

6.  Q.  to  K.  2. 

7.  P.  to  K.  B.  4. 

8.  P.  to  K.  B.  5. 


3.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 

4.  P.  takes  P. 

5.  Kt.  to  K.  s 

6.  Kt  to  Kt.  4. 

7 ■ Kt.  to  K.  3. 


If  black  now  play 


8.  Kt.  to  K.  B., 


white  has  the  best  of  the  game,  and  ought  to  win  ; but  if  black 
play  Kt.  to  Kt.  4,  white  will  play  Q.  to  K.  R.  5,  and  then  P. 
to  K.  R.  4.  If  white  at  his  third  move  should  play  Q.  to  K.  2, 
attacking  K.  B.  P.  and  threatening  ch.  with  Q.  and  capture  of 
bishop,  and  if  black  advance  Q.  P.  one,  it  may  then  become 
the  Ruy  Lopez  gambit  by  white  playing  as  his  fourth  move  P. 
to  K.  B.  4.  If  the  gambit  referred  to  be  not  properly  met,  it 
leads  to  strong  positions  of  attack.  It  is  better  for  the  second 
player  to  refuse  the  pawn  offered. 

King's  Knight's  Opening. — This  is  a sound  opening,  and 
has  been  largely  treated  upon  by  many  writers.  Some  fine 
situations  spring  from  it.  At  the  second  move,  white  directly 
attacks  K.  P.  with  K.  Kt.  We  will  give  the  opening,  and  a 
few  brief  remarks  thereon,  together  with  a game  arising  from 
it  : 

White.  Black. 

1.  P.  to  K.  4.  1.  P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  I<.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 


For  black,  in  reply  to  this,  to  move  P.  to  K.  B.  3,  would 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


419 


only  show  weak  play,  and  would  enable  white  to  win  in  a few 
moves,  or  at  any  rate  to  obtain  a rook  and  a pawn  in  exchange 
for  a knight.  Black’s  best  answer  is  the  following  : 

2.  Q Kt.  to  B.  3. 


Black  thus  defends  his  pawn,  and  has  the  advantage  of  a 
counter-attack. 

King's  Knight’s  Gambit. — This  is  a variation  of  the  king’s 
gambit,  brought  about  by  white  at  his  fourth  move  advancing 
the  K.  R.  P.  before  bringing  out  bis  K.  B.  This  variation 
brings  out  some  fine  play,  but  is  not  so  strong  for  the  first 
player  as  the  king’s  gambit  proper.  The  Allgaier  gambit 
springs  from  this  opening. 

White.  Black. 

x.  P.  to  K.  4.  1.  P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  P.  to  K.  B.  4.  2.  P.  takes  P. 

3.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3.  3.  P.  to  K.  Kt.  4. 

4.  P.  to  K R.  4.  4.  P.  to  K.  Kt.  s (best). 

5.  K.  Kt.  to  K.  5. 


By  white’s  last  move  the  game  emerges  into  the  Allgaier. 
Black’s  best  move  now  is 

5.  P.  to  K.  R.  4. 

6.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4.  6.  R.  to  K.  2. 

This  move  of  black’s  is  considered  better  than  K.  Kt.  to  R.  3. 

7.  P.  to  Q.  4.  7.  p.  to  Q.  3. 

8.  Kt.  to  Q.  3.  8.  K.  B.  P.  advances. 


If  white  now  plays  K.  Kt.  P.,  black  has  the  best  of  the  game 
by  keeping  the  gambit  pawn.  If  white  attacks  queen  with 
bishop,  black  will  give  check  with  pawn,  and  have  the  stronger 
game.  Most  authorities  consider  this  opening  weak  for  the 
first  player. 

The  Allgaier  Gambit. — This  opening,  the  invention  of  a 
noted  German  from  whom  it  takes  its  name,  arises  out  of  the 
king’s  knight’s  gambit,  as  detailed  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 
It  is  not  a safe  opening,  although,  if  successful,  it  will  prove  a 
strong  one.  When  properly  met,  the  siege  is  soon  raised,  and 
the  second  player  will  stand  in  the  better  position.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a fine  opening,  and  requires  cautious  play  on  both  sides. 
It  is  as  follows : 

White.  Black. 

1.  P.  to  K.  4.  j.  P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  P.  to  K.  B.  4.  2.  P.  takes  P. 

3.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3.  3.  P.  to  K.  Kt.  4. 

4.  P.  to  I<.  R.  4.  4.  p to  K.  Kt.  5. 

5.  K.  Kt.  to  Kt.  5. 


White’s  fifth  move  constitutes  the  Allgaier  gambit,  white  in- 
tending to  sacrifice  the  knight  if  attacked  by  the  pawns.  Black 
may  reply  in  several  ways,  but  in  our  opinion  his  best  move  is 
the  following: 

5.  P.  to  K.  R.  3. 

Blaak  by  this  move  wins  the  knight. 

6.  Kt.  takes  K.  B.  P.  6.  K.  takes  Kt. 

7.  Q.  takes  P.  7 . K.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 

8.  Q.  takes  B.  P. 


The  last  move  is  much  better  than  giving  check  with  the 
bishop,  which  would  only  have  the  effect  of  involving  white’s 
game.  Walker  says,  “ No  better  move  can  be  played  at  this 
crisis.  It  will  be  good  practice  for  the  student  to  continue 
the  above  opening,  and  exercise  his  ingenuity  by  finishing  the 
game. 

The  Muzio  Gambit. — This  is  another  variation  of  the  king’s 
gambit,  and  is  produced  by  white  offering  to  sacrifice  knight 


in  order  to  gain  a strong  attacking  position.  It  is  the  inven- 
tion of  Signor  Muzio,  an  Italian  player  of  some  eminence. 
Walker  says  this  may  be  classed  as  the  most  brilliant  and 
critical  opening  known,  and  recommends  the  student  to 
play  it  at  every  opportunity  ; he  also  throws  out  the  warning 
that  an  incorrect  move  may  irrecoverably  lose  the  game.  The 
defense  is  most  difficult  to  discover  in  actual  play. 


White, 
x.  P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  P.  to  K.  B.  4. 

3.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 

4.  K . B.  to  Q.  B.  4. 

5.  Castles. 


Black. 

1.  P.  to  I<.  4. 

2.  P.  takes  P. 

3.  P.  to  K.  Kt.  4. 

4.  K.  Kt.  P.  advances. 


This  move  consttutes  the  gambit  ; for,  instead  of  white  with- 
drawing his  Kt.,  or  moving  it  to  Q.  4,  he  allows  it  to  remain 
and  be  taken.  It  now  rests  with  black  whether  he  will  accept 
the  gambit.  Walker  says  he  cannot  do  better. 


6.  Q.  takes  P. 


5.  P.  takes  Kt. 

6 Q.  to  K.  B.  3 (best). 


This  last  move  is  Sarratt’s  defense,  which  is  clearly  shown  to 
be  the  best. 


7.  K.  P.  advances.  7.  Q.  takes  K.  P. 


This  is  black’s  best  move,  for,  if  he  did  not  take  P.,  white  at 
once  obtains  the  advantage  by  playing  P.  to  Q.  2,  defending 
K.  P.  If  black  play  Q.  to  Kt.  3 (ch.),  white  moves  K.  to  R. 
sq.,  and  ought  to  win. 

The  Scotch  Gambit , or  Queen’s  J'awn  Two  Opening. — This 
gambit  has  a fine,  dashing  attack,  and  one  of  its  advantages  is, 
that  in  case  it  should  miscarry,  the  disaster  is  comparatively 
slight.  “ It  is,”  as  Walker  says,  “ one  of  the  most  attacking 
yet  safe  methods  of  commencing  the  game  which  can  possibly 
be  adopted.”  Again,  “ It  is  alike  fertile  in  resource  and  safe 
in  results.” 

White.  Black. 

1.  P.  to  K.  4.  1.  P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  K.  Kt.  to  B.  3.  2.  Q.  Kt.  to  B.  3. 

3.  P.  to  Q.  4. 

The  third  move  of  white  gives  it  the  name  of  the  Queen’s 
Pawn  Two  Opening.  White  plays  the  pawn  for  the  purpose 
of  opening  the  game,  especially  for  his  bishops.  Black  may 
now  take  the  pawn  either  with  his  P.  or  Kt.  We  will  suppose 
him  to  do  the  former,  which  we  consider  best  : 


4.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4. 


3.  P.  takes  P. 


Some  players  now  give  black’s  fourth  move  as  B.  to  Q.  Kt. 
5 (ch.);  but  this  is  a decidedly  bad  move,  and  with  an  indif- 
ferent player  would  lose  the  game.  Black’s  best  move  is  that 
introduced  by  Macdonnell,  and  described  by  Walker  as  a sound 
defense.  We  give  it  below  : 

4.  Q.  to  K.  B.  3. 

White  may  now  castle,  or  play  P.  to  Q.  B.  3 ; either  of  which 
is  better  than  Kt.  or  B.  to  K.  Kt.  5. 


HOW  TO  FINISH  THE  GAME. 

Having  now  considered  the  “ Hints  for  Commencing  the 
Game,”  and  studied  most  of  the  principal  openings,  we  must 
say  a few  words  with  regard  to  finishing  the  game.  It  is  often 
very  difficult  to  checkmate  when  you  have  a king,  bishop,  and 
knight  against  a king.  Although  possessing  the  requisite  mat- 
ing power,  good  players  have  often  failed  to  accomplish  the 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


the  mate  within  the  stipulated  fifty  moves.  The  only  way 
in  which  it  can  be  done  is  by  driving  the  adverse  king  to  a 
corner  commanded  by  your  bishop.  The  better  to  convey 
our  meaning,  we  give  an  illustration.  Suppose  the  men  to 
be  placed  thus  : 

White  K.  at  K.  B.  6. 

“ K.  B.  at  K.  B.  s. 

“ Kt  at  K.  Kt.  5- 
Black  K.  at  K.  R.  sq. 

Then,  in  eighteen  moves,  white  may  effect  checkmate  : 


White.  Black. 


T. 

Kt.  to  K.  B.  7 (ch.). 

1. 

K. 

to 

Kt 

:.  sq. 

2. 

B.  to  K.  4. 

2. 

K. 

to 

K. 

B.  sq. 

3- 

B.  to  K.  R.  7. 

3- 

K. 

to 

K. 

sq. 

4* 

Kt.  to  K.  5. 

4- 

K. 

to 

K. 

B.  sq. 

5- 

Kt.  to  Q.  2. 

5- 

K. 

to 

K. 

sq. 

6. 

K.  to  K.  sq. 

6. 

K 

to 

e- 

sq. 

7* 

K.  to  Q.  6. 

7- 

K. 

to 

K. 

sq. 

8. 

B.  to  K.  Kt.  6 (ch.). 

8. 

K. 

to 

0- 

sq. 

9- 

Kt.  to  Q.  B.  5. 

9- 

K. 

to 

0- 

B.  sq. 

10. 

B.  to  B.  7. 

10. 

K. 

to 

0- 

sq. 

11. 

Kt.  to  Q.  Kt.  7 (ch.). 

11. 

K. 

to 

0- 

B.  sq. 

12. 

K.  to  Q.  B.  6. 

12. 

K. 

to 

0- 

Kt.  sq. 

x3- 

K.  to  Q.  Kt.  6. 

13- 

K. 

to 

0- 

B.  sq. 

14. 

B.  to  K.  6 (ch.). 

14. 

K. 

to 

0- 

Kt.  sq. 

x5* 

Kt.  to  Q.  B.  5. 

*5- 

K. 

to 

0- 

R.  sq. 

16. 

B.  to  Q.  7. 

16. 

K. 

to 

0- 

Kt.  sq. 

x7. 

Kt.  to  Q.  R.  6 (ch.). 

17- 

K. 

to 

0- 

R.  sq. 

18.  B.  to  Q.  B.  6,  checkm. 


As  will  be  observed  from  the  above  example,  one  of  the 
important  objects  is  never  to  let  the  king  escape  into  the  middle 
of  the  board. 

In  our  chapter  on  checkmate  we  should  not  omit  to  give  the 
“ Fool’s  Mate  ” and  the  “ Scholar’s  Mate.” 

The  former  shows  that  it  is  possible  to  effect  mate  in  as  few 
as  two  moves.  It  is  easy  to  understand  why  it  should  be 
named  the  “ fool’s  mate; ’’but  why  a checkmate  which  may 
be  effected  in  four  moves  should  be  termed  “scholar’s  mate” 
is  probably  less  capable  of  explanation. 

FooF  s Ala  lt\ — 


White. 

r.  K.  Kt.  P.  2 sq. 
2.  K.  B.  P.  i sq. 
Scholar's  Male. — 

White, 
i.  K.  P.  2. 


Black, 
i.  K.  P.  2. 

2 Queen  mates 

Black, 
i.  K.  P.  2. 


2.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4.  2.  K.  B.  to  Q.  B.  4. 

3.  Q.  to  K.  R.  5.  2.  Q.  P.  1. 

4.  Q.  takes  K.  B.  P.,  giving  “ scholar’s  mate.” 

King  and  Queen  against  King. — Several  examples  of  this 
checkmate  might  be  given,  but  the  one  below  will  probably  be 
sufficient.  The  principal  point  upon  which  the  learner  need 
be  warned  is  against  allowing  his  adversary  to  effect  stalemate. 
Suppose  the  pieces  to  be  placed  thus : 

White  king  at  K.  sq. 

“ queen  at  Q.  B.  sq. 

Black  king  at  Q.  3. 

The  game  may  then  proceed  as  follows  : 

White.  Black. 

1.  Q.  to  K.  Kt.  5.  1.  K.  to  K.  4. 


2.  K.  to  K.  2. 

3.  K.  to  K.  3. 

4.  K to  K.  4. 


2.  K.  to  Q.  3. 
3-  K.  to  K.  3. 
4 K.  to  Q.  3. 


5.  Q.  to  K.  Kt.  6.  5. 

6.  K.  advances.  6. 

7.  Q.  mates. 


King  and  Queen  against  King  and  Rook. — Suppose  the  men 
to  be  placed  thus  : 

White  king  at  K.  B.  3. 

“ queen  at  K.  sq. 

Black  king  at  K.  R.  7. 

“ rook,  at  K.  Kt.  7, 

supposing  white  to  have  the  first  move,  the  game  may  be  com- 
pleted in  three  moves  : 

White.  Black. 

j.  Q.  to  K.  s (ch.).  1.  K.  to  R.  8. 

2.  Q.  to  Q.  R.  (ch.).  2.  K.  moves. 

3.  Q.  to  K.  sq.,  and  wins. 

PROBLEMS. 

The  following  problems  are  selected  from  various  sources, 
and  are  given  because  they  are  just  sufficiently  difficult  to  ex- 
ercise the  ingenuity  of  the  learner.  At  the  same  time,  we 
would  caution  him  against  too  close  a study  of  problems  until 
he  is  well  up  in  the  game,  for,  if  followed  up,  it  will  only  tend 
to  weary,  and  tire  him,  and  the  result  maybe  that  he  will 
throw  up  the  game  with  dislike. 

PROBLEM  No.  1. 


White. 

White  to  move,  and  mate  in  two  moves. 
PROBLEM  No.  2. 


White. 


White  to  move,  and  mate  in  two  moves. 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


42 1 


PROBLEM  No.  3. 


Black. 


White  to  move,  and  mate  in  three  moves. 


PROBLEM  No.  4, 
Black. 


White. 

White  to  move,  and  mate  in  three  moves. 


PROBLEM  No.  5. 
Black. 


White  to  move,  and  mate  in  three  moves 


PROBLEM  No.  6. 
Black. 


White  to  move,  and  mate  in  three  moves. 


PROBLEM  No.  7. 
Black. 


White  to  move,  and  mate  in  three  moves. 

PROBLEM  No.  8. 

Black. 


White  to  move,  and  mate  in  four  moves. 


1 


422 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


PROBLEM  No.  9. 
Black. 


White  to  move,  and  mate  in  four  moves. 

PROBLEM  No.  10. 

( The  Indian  Problem.1) 

Black. 


White  to  move,  and  mate  in  four  moves. 


4-r 


SOLUTIONS  OF  THE  PROBLEMS. 

Problem  i.  Problem  2. 

White.  Black.  White.  Black. 

1.  Q.  to  B.  4 (ch).  1.  P.  takes  Q.  1.  R.  to  Q.  8 (ch.).  1.  K.  takes  R. 

2.  R.  to  Q.  8,  mate  2.  Q.  to  Q.  7,  mate. 

Problem  3.  Problem  4. 

White.  Black.  Whit  . Black. 

1.  R.  to  K.  sq.  i.K.  toB.  sq.  1.  K.  R.  to  R.  6.  1.  K.toK.B4- 

2.  R.  to  K.  Kt.  sq.  2.  K.  to  K.  sq.  2.  Q.  R.  to  K.  Kt.  sq.  2.  K.  to  K.  4. 

3.  R.  to  Kt.  8.  mate.  3.  R.  to  Kt.  5,  mate. 

There  are  two  other  solutions  to 

this  problem. 

Problem  5.  Problem  6. 

White.  Black.  White.  Black. 

1.  Q.  to  K.  R.  7.  1.  Q.  Kt  takes  Q.  1.  Q.  to  Q.  2.  1.  K.  moves. 

2.  Kt.  to  Kt.  6(ch.).  2,  K.  to  Kt.sq.  2.  Q.  to  Q.  sq.  2.  K.  takes  Kt. 

3.  B to  Q.  5,  mate.  3.  Q.  mates. 


Problem  7.  Problem  8. 

White.  Black.  White.  Black. 

1.  R.  to  Q.  B.  2 (dis.  ch.).  1.  R.  takes  1.  Kt.  to  K.  B.  6.  1.  P.  advances. 

R.  2.  Kt.  to  K.  4 (ch.).  2.  K.  to  R.  8. 

2 R.  to  Q.  B.  4.  (ch.).  2.  P.  takes  R.  3.  K.  to  B.  sq.  3.  R.  P.  1. 

3.  B.  mates.  4. 

Problem  9. 


White.  Black. 

1.  R.  to  K.  Kt.  2 (ch.).  1.  K.  to  B.  sq. 

2.  Kt.  to  Q.  7 (ch.).  2.  R.  takes  Kt. 

3.  R.  to  K.  8 (ch.).  3.  K.  takes  R. 

4.  R.  to  Kt.  8,  mate. 


Kt.  to  B.  2,  mate. 

Problem  10. 

(The  Indian  Problem.) 
White.  Black. 

1.  B.  to  Q.  B.  sq.  1 . P.  moves. 

2.  R.  to  Q.  2.  2.  P.  moves. 

3.  K.  moves.  3.  K.  moves. 

4.  R.  to  Q.  4 (dis.  checkm.). 


* 

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7Z 

RAUGHTS  is  a game  that  is  very  often 
underrated,  because  it  is  supposed  that 
there  is  little  or  no  play  in  it,  and  thus, 
when  a person  is  asked  if  he  plays 
draughts,  his  reply  is  not  unusually, 
gajy^'No,  it  is  such  a stupid  game;  there’s  no 
play  in  it.” 

Whenever  this  remark  is  made  to  us,  we  challenge 
the  person  to  a series  of  games,  when,  having  beaten 
him  some  half-dozen  in  succession,  wre  prove  that 
there  must  be  some  play  in  the  game,  or  such  a re- 
sult would  be  improbable. 

When  playing  chess,  there  are  so  many  pieces, 
each  having  a different  moving  power  and  a relative 
value,  that  one  oversight,  caused  probably  by  a 
momentary  relaxation  of  memory,  loses  a game, 
whereas  in  draughts  such  a result  is  less  probable, 
and  the  attention  can  be  more  completely  devoted 
to  some  plot,  through  which  the  opponent  does  not 
see.  As  a rule,  a good  draught-player  is  a more 
acute  person  on  every-day  subjects  than  is  a good 
chess-player,  and  thus  we  strongly  recommend 
draughts  as  a game  likely  to  call  into  action  very 
useful  qualities. 

Draughts  is  played  on  the  same  board  as  is  chess,  the  men, 
however,  being  placed  entirely  on  squares  of  one  color. 

There  are  twelve  men  on  each  side,  arranged  on  the  squares 
from  1 to  12  and  from  21  and  32. 

The  two  squares  marked  1 and  5,  and  32  and  28,  are  called 
the  double  corners,  and  these  must  always  be  on  the  right  hand 
of  the  player,  whilst  the  left-hand  lowest  squares,  4 and  29, 
must  always  be  on  the  left-hand  side. 

Having  arranged  the  men,  the  first  move  is  arranged  be- 
tween the  players  by  lot. 


-4 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


423 


The  men  move  one  square  at  a time  ; thus,  the  man  on  22 
can  move  either  to  18  or  17;  the  man  on  23  can  move  either 
to  19  or  18.  The  men  can  only  move  forwards,  not  back- 
wards, until  they  have  succeeded  in  reaching  the  bottom  row 
of  the  adversary’s  squares,  when  they  are  crowned  by  having  a 
second  man  placed  above  them.  They  are  then  termed  kings, 
and  can  move  either  forwards  or  backwards  as  desirable. 

A man  may  take  an  opponent’s  man  by  leaping  over  him 
and  taking  up  the  vacant  square  beyond  him,  the  piece  taken 
being  removed  from  the  board. 

A man  may  take  two  or  three  men  at  one  move,  provided 
he  can  leap  over  each  in  succession.  To  understand  this, 
place  a white  man  at  18,  11,  and  25,  and  a black  man  at  29, 
all  other  pieces  being  removed  from  the  board.  The  black 
man  can  move  and  take  the  three  white  men,  as  he  can  leap 
to  22,  15,  and  8,  thus  taking  the  men  on  squares  18,  11,  and 
Black. 


White. 

25.  A king  can  take  both  backwards  and  forwards  any  num- 
ber of  men,  as  long  as  a square  is  open.  Thus,  place  a white 
man  on  25,  26,  27,  19,  10,  9,  and  17.  A black  king  at  29 
could  take  all  these  men  at  once,  for  he  could  leap  from  29  to 
22,  taking  25  man  ; to  31,  taking  26  ; to  24,  taking  27;  to  15, 
taking  19  ; to  6,  taking  10  ; to  13,  taking  9 ; and  to  22,  taking 
17,  and  taking  all  these  in  one  move. 

If  a man  take  other  men,  and  in  the  taking  reach  the 
bottom  row,  he  cannot  go  on  taking,  as  a king,  until  the  ad- 
versary has  moved. 

Example. — Place  a white  man  at  24,  7,  16,  and  8,  a black 
man  at  28.  The  black  man  takes  24  by  leaping  to  19,  takes 
• 16  by  leaping  to  12,  takes  8 by  leaping  to  3,  and  is  there 

crowned  ; but  cannot  leap  to  10,  thus  taking  the  man  at  7, 
until  the  adversary  has  moved. 

The  game  is  won  when  all  the  adversary’s  men  are  either 
taken  or  blockaded  so  that  they  cannot  move,  and  it  is  drawn 
when  two  kings  or  less  remain  able  to  move,  in  spite  of  the 
adversary. 

Laws. — The  following  are  the  established  laws  of  the  game, 
which  should  be  learned  by  every  person  who  is  desirous  of 
becoming  a draught-player. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME  OF  DRAUGHTS. 

The  chief  laws  for  regulating  the  game  of  draughts  are  as 
j follows : — 


1.  Each  player  takes  the  first  move  alternately,  whether  the 

last  game  be  won  or  drawn. 

2.  Any  action  which  prevents  the  adversary  from  having  a 

full  view  of  the  men  is  not  allowed. 

3.  The  player  who  touches  a man  must  play  him. 

4.  In  case  of  standing  the  huff,  which  means  omitting  to 

take  a man  when  an  opportunity  for  so  doing  occurred,- 
the  other  party  may  either  take  the  man,  or  insist  upon 
his  man,  which  has  been  so  omitted  by  his  adversary, 
being  taken. 

5.  If  either  party,  when  it  is  his  turn  to  move,  hesitates 

above  three  minutes,  the  other  may  call  upon  him  to 
play;  and  if,  after  that,  he  delay  above  five  minutes 
longer,  then  he  loses  the  game. 

6.  In  the  losing  game,  the  player  can  insist  upon  his  adver- 

sary taking  all  the  men  in  case  opportunities  should 
present  themselves  for  their  being  so  taken. 

7.  To  prevent  unnecessary  delay,  if  one  color  have  no 

pieces  but  two  kings  on  the  board,  and  the  other  no 
piece  but  one  king,  the  latter  can  call  upon  the  former 
to  win  the  game  in  twenty  moves.  If  he  does  not 
finish  it  within  that  number  of  moves,  the  game  to  be 
relinquished  as  drawn. 

8.  If  there  are  three  kings  to  two  on  the  board,  the  subse- 

quent moves  are  not  to  exceed  forty. 

Advice. — The  men  should  be  kept  as  much  as  possible  in  a 
wedge  form  towards  the  center  of  the  board.  Avoid  moving 
a man  on  the  side  square,  for,  when  there,  he  is  deprived  of 
half  his  power,  being  able  to  take  in  one  direction  only. 

Consider  well  before  you  touch  a man,  for  a man  once 
touched  must  be  moved. 

Avoid  the  cowardly  practice  of  moving  a man,  and  then, 
when  you  discover  by  your  adversary’s  move  that  you  have 
committed  an  error,  taking  your  move  back.  Stand  the  con- 
sequences though  the  game  be  lost,  and  next  time  you  will  be 
more  careful.  A game,  even  if  won  after  replacing  a man,  is 
unsatisfactory,  and  not  to  be  counted  a victory,  and  often 
leads  to  disputes.  The  rules  are  made  to  avoid  all  argument 
and  dispute,  and  the  more  closely,  therefore,  you  obey  these, 
the  more  harmonious  will  be  your  games. 

Do  not  talk  during  a game,  or  whistle,  or  fidget  by  drum- 
ming with  the  fingers,  or  in  any  way  act  so  as  to  annoy  or 
worry  an  adversary.  A game  of  draughts,  though  only  a 
game,  may  be  made  a training  process  for  much  more  im- 
portant matters.  A careless,  thoughtless,  or  worrying  draught- 
player  will,  undoubtedly,  be  the  same  character  in  worldly 
matters. 

Never  allow  the  loss  of  a game  to  cause  you  to  lose  your 
temper,  for  such  a proceeding  shows  you  to  be  more  self- 
sufficient  than  intellectual.  If  beaten,  it  proves  your  adver- 
sary to  be  more  experienced  or  quicker-sighted  than  yourself, 
and  you  should,  therefore,  use  all  your  faculties  to  discover 
how  he  beats  you. 

As  a rule,  seek  to  play  with  a better  player  than  yourself 
rather  than  with  a worse,  which  is  merely  saying,  ‘ ' Endeavor 
to  improve  your  own  game  rather  than  to  instruct  a worse 
player.” 

When  you  lose  a game,  avoid  all  disparaging  remarks,  such 


424 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


as,  “Oh,  I should  have  won  that  if  so-and-so  had  not  oc- 
curred,” etc.  Your  adversary  who  defeats  you  will  think 
more  highly  of  you  if  you  say  nothing,  or  merely  acknow- 
ledge his  greater  skill. 

If  you  find  a person  who  defeats  you  easily,  remember  how 
much  thought  and  time  he  must  have  devoted  to  the  subject 
'in  order  to  obtain  this  advantage,  and  bear  in  mind  that  it  is 
only  by  a similar  process  that  you  can  gain  like  results. 

GAMES. 

Draughts  is  a game  in  which  one  is  particularly  called  upon 
to  estimate  the  skill  and  style  of  play  of  one's  adversary.  One 
person  may  very  easily  be  drawn  into  a trap,  where  another 
more  cautious  could  not  be  thus  defeated.  Again,  a too  cau- 
tious player  may  be  defeated  by  a dashing  move,  whereas 
another  opponent  would  win  the  game  in  consequence.  We 
will  now  give  one  or  two  examples  of  games,  calling  attention 
to  the  points  in  each.  The  men  are  supposed  to  be  arranged 
as  before  mentioned — white’s  men  from  21  to  32,  black’s  from 
1 to  12.  Black  moves  first. 

Black.  White. 

11  to  15.  22  to  18. 

15  to  22  (takes).  25  to  18  (takes). 

8  to  11.  29  to  25. 

Now,  at  this  point  of  the  game,  if  white  were  a very  young 
or  incautious  player,  he  might  be  easily  tempted  into  a false 
move  by  black  moving  11  to  16,  for  white,  seeing  a supposed 
advantage  in  position,  might  move  24  to  20.  Let  us  suppose 
these  moves  to  have  been  made,  and  black  wins  at  once,  for, 
moving  3 to  8,  he  compels  white  to  take  20  to  1 1,  and  then, 
with  a man  at  8,  takes  II,  18,  and  25,  and  procures  a king  at 
29,  thus  gaining  a majority  of  two  men,  an  advantage  equi- 
valent to  the  game,  for,  by  exchanging  man  for  man  on  every 
occasion,  he  would  soon  reduce  the  odds  to  4 to  2,  or  2 to  o. 

If,  however,  black  play  a more  cautious  game,  he  should 
move  4 to  8. 

White  again  might  lose  the  game  if  he  moved  either  24  or 
23  to  19,  for  black  would  respond  by  I O to  15,  when  white 
must  move  from  1 9 to  1 o,  black  from  6 to  29,  taking  these 
men  as  before. 

Black’s  best  move  is,  perhaps,  25  to  22. 

At  this  period  of  the  game  exchanges  of  men  usually  take 
place,  the  object  being  an  advantage  of  position,  as  follows: 


Black. 

White. 

9 to  14. 

18  to  9. 

5 to  14. 

24  to  20. 

6 to  9. 

22  to  18. 

1 to  5. 

28  to  24. 

Up  to  the  present  time  no  great  advantage  is  gained  on 
either  side,  the  game  being,  perhaps,  slightly  in  favor  of  black, 
who  may  cause  a separation  in  white’s  men  by  the  following: 

Black.  White. 

9  to  13.  18  to  9. 

5 to  14- 

White  may  reply  by — 

23  to  18. 

Then, 

14  to  23.  27  to  18. 

Now,  unless  black  moves  2 to  6,  or  10  to  15,  white  could 


procure  a king  as  follows:  Suppose  black  had  moved  1 2 to  16, 
then  white  18  to  14, 

Black.  White. 

10  to  17.  21  to  14. 

and  whatever  black  now  does,  white  must  procure  a king.  It 
is  under  such  conditions  as  these  that  the  acute  player  often 
wins  a game  ; for  we  shall  find  that  the  eagerness  for  gaining 
this  king  may  cause  white  to  be  in  a difficult  position.  Carry 
ing  on  the  game  under  this  supposition,  we  have 


Black. 

White. 

16  to  19. 

24  to  15. 

11  to  18. 

13  to  9. 

8 to  11. 

9 to  s. 

18  to  22. 

26  to  17. 

13  to  22. 

5 to  1 (king). 

2 to  6. 

1 to  10. 

7 to  14. 

32  to  28. 

14  to  17. 

28  to  24. 

3 to  8.* 

31  to  27. 

8 to  12. 

27  to  23. 

Biack  must  now  lose  a man,  and 
follows  — 

therefore  the  game,  as 

Black. 

White. 

22  to  26,  or  17  to  21. 

23  to  18. 

26  to  31,  or  22  to  25. 

19  to  15,  and  white  wins. 

The  Double  Comers. — When  there  is  one  king  against  two, 
the  rule  is  that  the  game  is  drawn  unless  it  be  won  in  at  least 
twenty  moves.  If  the  player  does  not  know  how  to  block  up 
in  the  double  corners,  this  may  easily  be  a drawn  game.  We 

will  now  show  the  moves  for  blocking 

in  the  double  comers, 

giving  the  case  that  will  require  the  greatest  number  of 

moves. 

Black’s  kings  at  I and  5 ; white’s  at 

IO. 

Black. 

White. 

5 to  9. 

10  to  15. 

9 to  14. 

15  to  19. 

14  to  18. 

19  to  24. 

18  to  23. 

24  to  28  (reaches  double 

i to  6. 

28  to  32.  corner.) 

6 to  10. 

32  to  28. 

10  to  15. 

28  to  32. 

15  to  19. 

32  to  28. 

23  to  27. 

28  to  32. 

19  to  23. 

32  to  28. 

27  to  32. 

28  to  24. 

23  to  18. 

24  to  19. 

32  to  28. 

19  to  16. 

18  to  15. 

16  to  20. 

15  to  11,  and  wins  in  15  moves. 

Had  black  moved  from  15  to  19  at  last,  while  could  have 
gone  to  24,  and  the  game  would  have  been  prolonged.  There 
is  no  position  on  the  board  where  two  kings  cannot  defeat  one 
in  fifteen  moveg. 

It  is  usual  with  two  experienced  players  to  pronounce  the 
game  drawn  when  there  are  two  kings  only  on  each  side,  one 
of  which  is  enabled  to  reach  the  double  corners.  There  are 
however,  two  or  three  chances  of  catching  an  incautious 
player.  r 

The  following  example  will  serve  to  illustrate  cases.  White’s 

* This  move  of  black’s  will  very  likely  lose  him  a man,  or,  at  least, 
allow  his  adversary  to  make  a king  rapidly. 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


425 


positions  are  king  at 
moves. 

Black. 

24  to  27. 
19  to  23. 
23  to  30. 
30  to  25. 

25  to  30. 


Black 

White. 

28  to  32. 

30  to  26. 

32  to  23. 

23  to  26. 

26  to  22,  and  wins. 


28  and  at  30  ; black’s  at  24  and  19. 


Another  case  may  be  tried  with  caution,  and  which  is  as 
follows,  two  kings  each:  black  at  15  and  23;  white  at  16  and 
25.  White  moves. 

White.  Black. 

25  to  22.  23  to  18. 

16  to  11.  18  to  25. 

11  to  18,  and  wins  next  move  by  blocking. 


These  are  not  positions  likely  to  entrap  very  good  players, 
but  succeed  very  often  with  average  hands. 

The  game  in  these  instances  resulted  in  the  winner  having 
what  is  called  “ the  move.”  To  ascertain  whether  you  have 
the  move  of  any  one  of  your  adversary’s  men,  examine  the 
situation  of  each.  If  your  opponent  has  a black  square  at 
a right  angle  under  his  man,  you  have  the  move,  and  vice 
versa. 

Draughts  is  in  reality  a deeply  interesting  game,  and  one 
that  is  very  rarely  appreciated. 


THE  LOSING  GAME  OF  DRAUGHTS. 

The  losing  game  of  draughts  is  rarely  understood,  and  there- 
fore rarely  appreciated.  We  believe  that  there  is  even  more 
foresight  required  in  the  losing  than  in  the  winning  game  of 
draughts,  for  it  is  equally  as  necessary  to  see  several  moves  on 
ahead,  and  the  game  may  be  almost  instantly  lost  by  a thought- 
less move. 

To  win  at  the  losing  game  we  must  compel  our  adversary  to 
take  all  our  men,  and  the  novice  usually  commences  by  losing 
as  many  men  as  possible.  This  proceeding  is  an  error  ; the 
player  has  the  advantage  who  has  the  most  men  on  the  table, 
as  will  be  instanced  by  one  or  two  examples. 

Suppose  white  to  have  a king  on  each  of  the  four  squares,  1, 
2,  3,  4;  black,  one  on  31.  First,  we  will  suppose  that  white 
commences  thus  : — 

White  Black. 

4 to  8.  31  to  27. 

3 to  7.  27  to  23. 

2 to  6.  23  to  18. 

1 to  5. 


Black  must  now  retreat,  for,  if  he  moves  to  14  or  15,  the  game 
is  lost,  as  he  may  be  compelled  to  take  each  of  his  opponent’s 
men  in  succession.  Thus,  suppose  he  move  to  14  : — 


White. 

5 to  9. 

6 to  9. 

7 to  10. 

8 to  11  and  wins. 
Thus  black’s  move  must  be 
5.  Then. 

Black. 

18  to  22. 

22  to  26. 

26  to  31. 

31  to  27. 


Black. 

14  to  5. 

5 to  14. 

14  to  7. 

retreat  in  answer  to  white’s  1 to 

White. 

5 to  9- 

6 to  id. 

14  to  18. 


At  this  point,  if  white  advanced  from  18  to  23  to  be  taken,  he 
would  lose  the  game  unless  very  careful,  as  the  lost  man  would 
have  the  move  against  him.  His  best  move,  therefore,  would 
be  18  to  25.  If  black  moves  to  24,  he  loses.  Black  had  better 
move  to  32,  and  white  6 to  10. 


Black. 

White. 

32  to  28. 

8 to  u. 

28  to  32. 

15  to  19. 

32  to  28. 

19  to  24. 

28  to  19. 

10  to  15. 

19  to  3. 

it  to  7,  and  wins. 

We  will  now  point  out  the  best  “traps”  for  the  losing 
game. 

Suppose  white’s  men  to  be  placed  from  21  to  32.  If  then  we  can 
secure  one  of  the  adversary’s  men  at  21,  we  are  almost  certain 
to  lose  all  our  men  first,  and  thus  to  win  the  game,  for,  by 
keeping  this  man  blocked  until  required,  he  can  be  made  use 
of  at  the  right  time.  Let  us  take  an  example,  white  moving 
first. 


White. 

Black. 

22  to  18. 

9 to  14. 

18  to  9. 

5 to  14  (very  bad  play; 

21  to  17. 

14  to  21. 

this  ought  to 

24  to  20. 

11  to  16. 

have  been  6 

20  to  II. 

7 to  16. 

to  13.) 

23  to  18  (not  a good  move,  but  will  10  to  15. 

18  to  II. 

serve  to  illustrate  the  8 to  15. 

28  to  24. 

advantage  of  man  at  21.)  15  to  00. 

24  to  15. 

6 to  10. 

15  to  6. 

1 to  10. 

26  to  22. 

4 to  8. 

27  to  23. 

16  to  19. 

23  to  16. 

12  to  19. 

22  to  18. 

10  to  15. 

18  to  4. 

3 to  8. 

4 to  II. 

2 tO  7. 

11  to  2. 

White  now  has  six  men  on  the  board,  whilst  black  has  only 
two  ; but  white  can  reduce  this  number  at  any  time  by  moving 
30  to  26.  Black  can  only  move  19  to  24  or  to  23.  Suppose 
he  move  it  to  23,  then  it  will  be  better  for  white  to  reduce 
black  to  one  as  follows  : — 


White. 

Black. 

31  to  27. 

23  to  26. 

30  to  23. 

21  to  30. 

29  to  25. 

30  to  2t. 

32  to  28. 

21  to  17. 

28  to  24. 

17  to  14. 

If  black  move  to  18,  10,  or  9,  he  loses  at  once,  so  14  to  17  is 
the  best  move.  If  white  move  27  to  23  he  loses  the  game,  for 
black  would  move  17  to  22,  from  which  white  could  not  escape. 
Hence  the  game  would  be  best  played  by 


White. 
2 to  6. 
6 to  10. 
10  to  14. 
14  to  17 


Black. 
17  to  21. 
21  to  2S, 
25  to  30 


The  game  might  now  be  prolonged,  but  still  to  win  the 
losing  game  with  the  four  against  one  is  almost  a certainty,  as 
it  can  only  be  lost  by  an  oversight. 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


D0JB]TOEg. 


i^L=  a s Eli  ~ 


iMH 

. ..  .-—*** 


'HE  game  of  dominoes  is  frequently 
looked  upon  as  a trivial  amusement,  but 
those  who  are  well  acquainted  with  it 
agree  that  it  affords  room  for  much  curi- 
ous calculation.  It  is  by  no  means  a 
mere  game  of  chance.  Let  any  ordinary 
player  enter  the  lists  against  an  old  and  ex- 
perienced hand,  and  he  will  soon  discover  that  it 
requires  something  besides  good  weapons  to  come 
off  victorious  in  this  as  in  most  other  contests.  In 
fact,  it  is  as  much  a game  of  skill  as  any  of  the  card 
games.  A moderately  good  player  can  generally 
tell  what  his  adversary  has  in  his  hand,  by  his  style 
of  play  ; and  by  calculating  two  or  three  moves  in 
advance,  he  may  either  block  the  game  or  leave  it 
open,  just  as  he  finds  it  will  suit  his  purpose. 

The  ordinary  game — technically  termed  “ double 
sixes  is  played  with  twenty-eight  dominoes.  In 
some  parts  of  England— chiefly  in  the  North — they 
use  “double  nines”  and  “double  twelves.”  But  it 
signifies  little  how  many  dominoes  are  used,  the 
rules  and  principles  of  the  game,  as  here  laid  down, 
will,  in  most  cases,  equally  apply. 

HOW  TO  COMMENCE  THE  GAME. 

In  the  English  game  it  is  usual  to  play  a rubber  of  three 
games  ; but  this,  of  course,  is  subject  to  arrangement. 

After  the  dominoes  have  been  well  shuffled,  each  player 
draws  one,  and  he  who  draws  the  domino  containing  the 
smallest  number  of  pips  wins  “ the  down  in  plainer  Eng- 
lish, he  wins  the  privilege  of  playing  first.  Sometimes  a dif- 
ferent method  of  deciding  who  shall  have  “the  down”  is 
adopted.  One  of  the  players  draws  a domino,  and  without 
showing  it,  asks  if  it  is  odd  or  even.  If  the  adversary  guesses 
right  he  wins  “ the  <Jown  if,  on  the  contrary,  he  guesses 
wrong,  he  loses  it.  The  latter  method  is  the  more  common 
of  the  two.  A third  method  is  in  use  on  the  Continent.  The 
person  holding  the  highest  double  has  the  “ pose ,”  or  “ down,” 
and  he  commences  by  playing  that  domino.  If  there  should 


be  no  doubles,  then  the  person  holding  the  highest  domino 
has  the  pose.  However,  it  is  quite  immaterial  which  of  these 
plans  is  adopted.  The  dominoes  having  been  shuffled,  each 
player  takes  six  or  seven,  as  may  be  agreed  upon. 

If  it  is  found  that  one  of  the  players  has  drawn  more  than 
the  number  agreed  upon,  his  adversary  withdraws  the  extra 
number,  and  puts  them  back  on  the  heap,  keeping  the  face 
downwards,  of  course.  Each  player  then  takes  up  his  dom- 
inoes, and  the  first  player  commences  by  putting  down  one  of 
his  dominoes,  after  which  his  adversary  joins  one  to  it,  con- 
taining on  one  of  its  sections  the  same  number  of  pips  as  are 
marked  upon  adjoining  of  the  domino  first  played.  They 
thus  play  alternately  till  the  game  may  become  so  “blocked” 
that  one  of  the  players  cannot  “ go.”  His  adversary  will  then 
continue  to  play  as  long  as  there  is  an  end  open.  If  he  should 
succeed  in  getting  rid  of  all  his  men  he  wins  the  game  ; but  if 
the  game  should  be  blocked  at  both  ends  before  either  player 
has  played  out,  they  compare  the  aggregate  number  of  pips  on 
all  the  dominoes  in  each  hand,  and  whoever  has  the  smallest 
number  wins  the  game. 

GENERAL  MAXIMS. 

1.  Endeavor  to  play  so  as  to  keep  both  ends  open,  so  that 
you  may  be  sure  of  being  able  to  “go”  next  time. 

2.  Play  out  your  heavy  dominoes  first,  because,  if  the  game 
becomes  blocked,  you  will  then  have  fewer  pips  to  count. 

3.  Contrive  to  play  so  that  the  numbers  at  both  ends  shall 
be  those  of  which  you  hold  the  most.  By  this  means  you  may 
often  block  your  adversary  till  you  are  played  out. 

4.  If  you  have  made  both  ends  alike,  and  your  adversary 
plays,  follow  him  at  that  end,  as  the  chances  are  that  he  can- 
not go  at  the  other,  which  you  may  keep  open  for  yourself 
until  you  are  able  to  play  at  his  end. 

5.  It  is  sometimes  an  advantage  to  hold  heavy  dominoes 
as  they  not  unfrequently  enable  you  to  obtain  what  is  called  a 
good  “ follow  ; ” and  if  your  adversary  should  hold  none  but 
low  dominoes,  he  would  not  be  able  to  go,  thus  enabling  you 
to  play  five  or  six  times  consecutively,  or  even  to  play  out. 

6.  When  you  have  sole  command  over  both  ends  you  are 
generally  in  a position  to  “block”  the  game  or  not,  as  you 
think  most  expedient  for  your  own  game.  In  such  a case, 
you  must  be  guided  by  the  number  of  dominoes  you  hold  com- 
pared with  those  in  your  adversary’s  hands  ; and  another  ele- 
ment for  your  consideration  would  be  whether  yours  are  light 
or  heavy.  If  they  are  light,  and  fewer  in  number  than  your 
adversary’s,  of  course  your  best  policy  is  to  close  the  game  at 
once  and  count.  But  in  this  you  must  learn  to  calculate  from 
your  adversary’s  style  of  play  whether  his  hand  is  light  or 
heavy. 

7.  At  the  commencement  of  the  game  it  is  better  to  have  a 
variety  in  hand. 

8.  If  you  hold  a “double,”  with  two  of  the  same  number, 
it  is  better  to  play  the  double  before  either  of  the  others. 
Sometimes  you  will  be  obliged  to  play  one,  in  which  case  you 
must  endeavor  to  force  the  double. 

9.  If  you  hold  a double,  and  one  other  of  the  same  nunv 
ber,  play  both  consecutively  ; but  if  you  are  unable  to  dt 
that,  endeavor  at  any  rate  to  let  the  double  go  first. 


GAMES  OF  SKILL 


10.  In  playing  against  “ the  down,”  endeavor  to  deceive 
your  opponent  by  playing  a domino  or  two  at  each  end  indif- 
ferently. This  is  better  than  playing  to  his  last  domino,  as  it 
leads  him  to  believe  you  cannot  go  at  that  end,  while  at  the 
same  time  you  may  be  simply  keeping  both  ends  open. 

11.  If  your  adversary  has  possession  of  one  end,  make  the 
other  of  a number  of  which  you  hold  several,  with  a view  of 
forcing  him  to  play  at  his  end,  and  shutting  it  against  the 
dominoes  he  was  keeping  it  for. 

12.  If  you  hold  several  doubles,  wait  till  your  adversary 
makes  the  number  for  them  in  preference  to  making  them  for 
yourself  ; otherwise,  a good  player  will  see  what  you  are  aim- 
ing at,  and  will  block  the  double.  But  if  you  hold  a double 
with  several  duplicates,  and  can  bring  that  number  at  both 
ends,  do  so. 

13.  If  your  adversary  cannot  go  at  one  end,  and  you  hold 
the  double  of  that  end,  it  is  better  that  you  should  play  at  the 
other  as  long  as  you  can.  When  you  are  blocked  at  that  end, 
you  may  then  play  your  double,  and  your  adversary  will  then 
in  most  cases  be  obliged  to  open  the  other  end  for  you. 

14.  It  is  generally  considered  that  a light  hand,  yet  with  no 
number  missing,  is  the  best  for  ordinary  play.  The  follow- 
ing, for  example,  would  be  a very  fine  hand  : §,  5,  f,  §, 

An  example  of  a bad  hand  would  be  : £,  £,  f,  t , i ; but 

the  worst  possible  hand  would  be  the  following  : £,  j,  §,  §, 

L The  latter,  however,  would  seldom  occur  in  actual  play. 

15.  It  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  because  a hand  is 
heavy  it  must  therefore  lose.  Provided  it  is  equally  varied,  it 
has  an  equal  chance  of  success  with  a light  hand.  The  dis- 
advantage of  a heavy  hand  is  shown  when  the  game  becomes 
blocked,  and  has  to  be  decided  by  counting. 

16.  In  leading  “the  down”  from  a hand  consisting  of  a 
high  double  and  several  light  dominoes,  lead  the  double,  and 
afterwards  endeavor  to  obtain  command  of  both  ends.  Sup- 
pose, for  example,  you  hold  the  following  hand  : £,  §,  f , f, 
i,  0 ! it  would  be  better  to  play  the  £,  as  your  other  double 
can  be  forced  by  the  aid  of  the  f and  §■. 

17.  It  will  at  all  times  be  found  a difficult  thing,  in  an 
equal  game  and  between  equal  players,  for  the  second  player 
to  win. 

18.  Endeavor  to  bring  both  ends  as  often  as  you  can  to  a 
number  of  which  you  have  several  duplicates,  for  by  that 
means  you  may  block  your  adversary. 

19.  In  blocking  the  game,  you  must  be  cautious  th?t  you  do 
not  block  it  to  yourself,  and  leave  it  open  to  your  ad/ersary. 

20.  During  the  game  look  over  the  dominoes  which  have 
been  played,  so  that  you  may  calculate  what  numbers  are 
likely  to  be  soon  run  out,  and  what  numbers  your  opponent 
is  likely  to  be  short  of. 

21.  Do  not  push  the  game  to  a block  if  you  hold  a heavy 
hand,  but  play  out  your  heaviest  first,  and  keep  both  ends 
open. 

22.  Use  your  judgment  freely.  It  is  not  always  the  best 
policy  to  adhere  too  strictly  to  the  rules  laid  down  in  books. 
In  fact,  a wily  player  will  oftentimes  find  it  expedient  to  play 
a speculative,  eccentric  game,  apparently  quite  at  variance 
with  the  ordinary  “laws." 

23.  Keep  perfectly  quiet,  attentively  watch  your  opponent’s 


57 

moves,  and  prevent  him,  if  you  can,  from  obtaining  an  insighl 
into  your  play. 

24.  Last  (though  not  least),  don’t  lose  your  temper. 

ALL  FIVES. 

This  game  stands  next  in  popularity  to  the  preceding  one 
The  same  number  of  dominoes  are  taken,  or  as  many  as  may 
be  agreed  upon,  and  in  many  points  it  is  similar.  The  object 
of  the  game  is  to  contrive  so  to  play  that  the  aggregate  num- 
ber of  pips  on  the  dominoes  at  both  ends  shall  number  5,  10, 

15,  or  20.  If  they  number  5,  the  player  who  makes  the  point 
counts  one  ; if  10,  two  ; if  15,  three  ; if  20,  four. 

In  order  to  make  our  meaning  clearer,  we  give  an  illus- 
tration. Suppose  that  at  one  end  there  is  %,  and  at  the  other 
a five.  The  next  player  then  plays  f to  the  single  five,  and 
scores  two,  because  the  aggregate  number  of  pips  on  the  dom- 
inoes at  both  ends  is  ten.  It  the  opponent  should  follow  up 
by  playing  the  $ to  the  §,  he,  of  course,  scores  three. 

To  give  another  illustration.  Suppose  at  one  end  is  §,  and 
the  next  player  places  at  the  other  end  he  scores  four  for 
making  twenty. 

If  the  game  becomes  blocked,  he  who  holds  the  least  num- 
ber of  pips  counts  one. 

The  custom  as  to  what  number  shall  be  “ up,”  is  different 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  In  some  places  it  is  ten  ; in 
others  fifteen  ; in  others  again,  twenty.  The  number  ought 
to  be  agreed  upon  at  the  commencement  of  the  game.  In  our 
opinion  it  adds  to  the  interest  of  the  game  to  select  the  lower 
numbers. 

Sometimes  the  game  is  so  played  that  he  who  makes  five 
counts  five  ; ten  is  made  to  count  ten,  and  so  on  ; but  in  that 
case  not  fewer  than  50,  and  not  more  than  100,  points  should 
constitute  the  game. 

As  we  have  shown,  the  material  point  in  which  this  game 
differs  from  the  previous  one  is  that  you  count  the  fives,  from 
which  circumstance  it  derives  its  name. 

The  next  best  thing  to  making  fives  yourself  is  to  prevent 
your  adversary  from  doing  so ; and  when  you  do  give  him 
the  opportunity  of  making  a point  it  should  only  be  in  order 
that  you  may  make  two  or  three  points  yourself. 

When  your  adversary  fails  to  avail  himself  of  a good  chance, 
you  may  presume  that  he  does  not  hold  such  and  such  dom- 
inoes, and  from  that  and  like  indications,  which  you  must 
carefully  store  up  in  your  memory,  you  will  be  able  to  form  a 
tolerably  accurate  estimate  of  his  hand.  You  should  never 
omit  to  tum  these  indications  to  good  account. 

There  is  only  one  domino  in  the  whole  pack  which  can  be 
led  without  the  next  player  being  able  to  make  a point  from 
it — namely  §.  Always  lead  that  if  possible. 

If  you  must  play  one  of  two  dominoes,  either  of  which  you 
fear  your  adversary  will  tum  to  his  account,  of  course  you 
must  play  that  by  which  you  think  you  will  be  likely  to  lose 
the  least. 

It  is  good  practice  occasionally  to  take  a survey  of  the  game 
as  far  as  it  has  gone,  not  only  in  order  to  refresh  your  memory 
as  to  what  has  been  played,  but  also  that  you  may  form  an 
opinion,  if  possible,  of  what  your  opponent’s  "little  game” 
is.  If  there  are  good  grounds  for  coming  to  the  conclusion 


428 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


that  he  holds  heavy  numbers  while  you  hold  light  ones,  block 
up  the  game  as  speedily  as  you  can,  and  proceed  to  count.  To 
understand  your  opponent’s  hand  is  a most  important  matter, 
and  we  do  not  think  we  have  insisted  on  it  too  much.  Good 
players  will  tell  you  that  they  have  won  many  games  by  watch- 
ing closely  the  opponent’s  moves,  and  drawing  therefrom  in- 
ferences respecting  the  dominoes  he  holds  in  hand.  We 
need  not  add,  the  greatest  caution  must  be  used  in  forming 
these  inferences. 

THE  DRAWING  GAME. 

The  same  number  of  dominoes  are  used,  and  the  lead  is 
drawn  for  in  the  same  manner  in  this  as  in  the  previously 
described  games. 

The  difference  is  that  when  a player  cannot  go,  he  must 
draw  a domino  from  the  pack.  If  he  cannot  then  go,  he  must 
draw  another,  and  so  on  until  he  is  able  to  continue  the  game. 

He  who  plays  out  first,  or,  in  case  the  game  becomes  blocked, 
he  who  holds  the  smallest  number  of  pips,  wins. 

The  French  have  a different  way  of  playing  this  game. 
The  player  who  holds  the  highest  double,  or,  in  the  event  of 
there  being  no  double,  the  highest  domino,  has  the  pose  or 
lead.  The  second  player,  should  he  be  unable  to  go,  may  draw 
all  the  remaining  dominoes  except  two,  which  must  remain 
untaken.  If  he  leave  more  than  two,  the  first  player,  should 
he  require  them  in  order  to  continue  the  game,  may  appropri- 
ate the  surplus,  still  leaving  two  on  the  table. 

If  a player  cannot  go,  it  is  compulsory  that  he  draw  till  he 
gets  hold  of  a domino  that  will  enable  him  to  continue  the 
game. 

Each  player  may  take  the  pose  alternately,  or  the  winner  in 
the  first  instance  may  letain  it,  as  agreed  upon. 

The  French  method  of  counting  is  also  different.  When  a 
player  has  played  out,  he  counts  the  pips  in  his  opponent’s 
hand,  and  scores  them  to  his  own  account.  In  case  the  game 
should  become  blocked,  the  player  holding  the  fewest  pips 
scores  the  number  of  pips  in  his  adversary’s  hand  to  his  own 
account,  each  pip  counting  one.  A game  consists  of  from  20 
to  100  points,  according  to  agreement. 

With  respect  to  the  English  method  of  playing  this  game, 
the  general  instructions  and  maxims  given  on  the  other  games 
apply  equally  to  this.  But  a few  words  must  be  added  with 
regard  to  the  French  play.  He  who  has  the  highest  double 
is  compelled  to  play  first,  and  cannot  draw  any  more  dominoes 
until  it  is  his  turn  to  play  again,  but  his  opponent  may  draw 
all  but  two,  which  two  must  remain  untaken  during  that  game. 
But  the  second  player  should  not  draw  more  than  half  the 
dominoes,  unless  really  compelled  by  the  badness  of  his  hand, 
as  by  this  means  it  will  leave  a chance  of  his  opponent  having 
as  many  to  draw.  A good  player  at  times  might  be  justified 
in  taking  all  but  two,  for  by  the  calculation  and  judgment 
obtained  by  having  them,  he  might  be  enabled  to  play  them 
all  before  his  opponent  could  play  his  five  or  six  dominoes,  as 
the  case  may  be.  Should  the  second  player  hold  a good 
hand,  comprising  dominoes  of  every  denomination,  he  should 
not  draw  until  compelled.  If  he  should  happen  to  draw  high 
doubles,  he  ought  to  continue  to  draw  until  he  holds  several 
of  that  number. 


It  is  not  always  the  player  holding  the  greatest  number  whc 
gets  out  first,  because  as  he  has  some  of  almost  every  denorm 
nation,  his  adversary  will  keep  playing  to  him,  and  the  odds 
are  that  he  (the  adversary)  will  be  able  to  play  out  first.  Still, 
in  many  games,  the  one  holding  the  largest  number  of  dom- 
inoes possesses  this  advantage,  that  he  has  the  power  to  keep 
both  ends  open  to  himself  but  closed  to  his  opponent,  and  he 
may  thus  run  out. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  play  out  first  with  the  largest  number 
(supposing  that  only  two  dominoes  remain  untaken),  you 
should  by  all  means,  and  in  the  first  place,  endeavor  to  ascer. 
tain  what  those  two  are.  You  may  arrive  at  this  in  two  ways. 
Suppose  you  hold  so  many  of  a particular  number  that  with 
those  already  played  they  make  six  out  of  the  seven  of  that 
denomination,  you  must  by  all  means  keep  playing  them. 

As  an  illustration,  we  will  suppose  you  hold  in  your  hand 
four  threes,  and  that  two  other  threes  have  already  been 
played.  Now,  if  you  play  your  threes,  and  your  adversary, 
not  being  able  to  play  to  them,  becomes  blocked,  it  is  quite 
clear  that  one  of  the  dominoes  on  the  table  is  a three.  Then,  if 
those  you  hold  in  your  hand  are — f,  §,  and  §,  and  you  find 
among  the  dominoes  played  § and  it  is,  of  course,  quite 
safe  to  conclude  that  the  domino  which  is  left  is  the  £. 

The  second  plan  is  this.  If  during  the  course  of  the  game 
you  have  given  your  opponent  opportunities  of  playing  a cer- 
tain double  which  you  do  not  yourself  hold,  you  may  be  cer- 
tain that  it  is  one  of  the  left  dominoes. 

A little  experiment,  in  order  to  test  the  nature  of  your  ad- 
versary’s hand,  so  as,  however,  not  materially  to  injure  your 
own,  would  often  be  found  more  expedient  than  groping  all 
the  while,  as  it  were,  in  the  dark. 

By  carefully  looking  over  your  own  hand,  you  may  judge 
pretty  correctly  as  to  whether  your  adversary’s  is  light  or  heavy. 

It  is  only  by  taking  into  account  all  these  and  other  nice 
points  that  a player  can  possibly  be  successful. 

Having  formed  an  idea  of  your  opponent’s  hand,  you  should 
make  it  an  object  to  “ run  out,”  or  play  so  that  he  may  be 
blocked,  or  that  he  may  be  obliged  to  leave  both  ends  open 
for  you  to  play  out. 

Having  given  some  instructions  to  the  player  who  holds  the 
larger  number  of  dominoes,  we  must  now  proceed  to  give  a 
few  hints  to  the  lesser  hand. 

If,  holding  the  lesser  hand,  you  can  contrive  to  play  a few 
moves  at  first  without  being  blocked,  you  ought  to  be  pretty 
sure  of  winning  ; because,  by  that  time,  your  hand  will  have 
become  so  disproportionately  small,  that  your  opponent  will 
have  some  difficulty  in  preventing  you  from  playing  out  with- 
out blocking  himself.  This,  therefore,  must  be  one  of  your 
main  objects. 

If  the  game  goes  pretty  equal,  bring  out  your  strong  suits. 
Wherever  you  are  short  of  a particular  suit,  if  you  find  that 
many  of  that  number  have  already  been  played,  you  need  not 
fear  that  your  adversary  will  be  able  to  block  you  in  regard  to 
it,  for  you  will,  of  course,  infer  that  they  are  as  scarce  in  his 
hand  as  in  your  own.  Endeavor  to  bring  these  rules  to  bear, 
reserving  to  your  discretion  as  to  whether  you  should  in  any 
wise  depart  from  them,  or  use  such  modifications  as  the  con* 
tingencies  of  the  moment  require. 


r 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


429 


THE  MATADORE  GAME. 

This  is  a foreign  game,  and  each  player  takes  only  three 
dominoes.  You  can  only  play  when  your  domino,  added  to 
the  one  previously  played,  would  make  seven.  Those  dominoes 
which  themselves  make  that  number  are  termed  “matadores," 
and  may  be  played  at  any  time,  regardless  of  the  numbers 
played  to.  The  double  blank  is  also  a matadore.  The  mata- 
'1  dores,  therefore,  are  four  in  number,  viz.  : f , L §. 

The  highest  domino  leads,  and  if  the  next  player  cannot  go, 
he  must  draw  from  the  heap  until  he  can.  He  must  cease, 
however,  to  draw  when  there  are  only  two  dominoes  left.  He 
who  plays  out  first  wins,  and  if  the  game  is  blocked,  he  who 
holds  the  least  number  of  pips  counts  those  held  by  his  op- 
ponent, and  scores  them  to  his  own  game.  The  number  of 
points  constituting  the  game  is  subject  to  agreement  ; it  varies 
from  26  to  IOO. 

MAXIMS  FOR  PLAYING  THE  MATADORE  GAME. 

This  game  differs  widely  from  any  of  the  other  varieties  of 
dominoes.  The  element  of  chance  is  more  largely  introduced. 
The  player  who  happens  to  obtain  more  matadores  than  the 
other  is  almost  certain  of  winning,  provided  the  parties  be 
pretty  evenly  balanced  in  skill  and  experience. 

The  blanks  are  very  valuable  at  this  game — the  double  blank 
being  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  matadores.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  make  a seven  against  a blank,  so  that  if  you  hold 
blanks  you  may  easily  block  the  game  and  count. 

When  you  have  the  worst  of  the  game,  and  indeed  at  other 
times  as  well,  guard  against  your  adversary’s  blanks,  and  pre- 
vent him  from  making  them  ; which  you  may  do  by  playing 
only  those  dominoes  which  fit  with  the  blanks  already  down. 

Never  play  a blank  at  the  pose  unless  you  have  a matadore 
or  a corresponding  blank. 

Keep  back  your  double  blank  till  your  opponent  makes  it 
blanks  all  ; you  can  then  force  him  to  play  a matadore,  or 
compel  him  to  draw  till  he  obtains  one.  It  is  better  to  have 
a mixed  hand. 

DOMINO  POOL. 

This  game  is  played  either  by  partners  or  by  separate  play- 
ers. If  played  singly  by  three  or  four  players,  each  must  draw 
a domino,  and  he  who  draws  the  highest  number  of  pips  but 
one  sits  on  the  left  of  him  who  draws  the  highest,  the  next 
highest  to  the  left  of  the  second,  and  so  on.  If  the  game  is 
played  by  partners,  the  two  lowest  are  partners  and  the  two 
highest.  The  partners  must  sit  opposite  to  each  other.  The 
players  must  draw  afresh  at  each  game,  and  the  stake  to  be 
played  for,  called  the  “ pool,"  must  be  placed  on  the  table. 

Each  player  takes  five  dominoes,  and  he  who  holds  the  high- 
est leads.  When  one  player  cannot  go,  the  next  in  turn  plays, 
and  so  on.  The  maxims  given  in  reference  to  the  English 
game  apply  equally  to  this. 

The  game  is  scored  in  the  following  manner  : When  one 
player  has  played  out,  the  one  keeping  the  score  counts  the 
number  of  pips  on  each  player’s  remaining  dominoes,  and  puts 
down  the  number  under  each  of  their  names  or  initials  respec- 
tively. The  same  is  done  if  a player  cannot  go.  When  the 
number  of  any  one  player  reaches  40, 50,  or  100,  or  any  limit 
previously  agreed  upon,  he  is  out  of  the  game  ; but  he  comes 


in  again  by  what  is  called  “starring.”  In  other  words,  he 
must  pay  over  again  the  amount  he  originally  put  into  the 
pool.  The  method  of  “ starring”  is  the  same  as  at  billiards, 
from  which  the  game  is  taken.  He  who  “ stars  ” recommences 
at  the  number  which  the  player  holds  who  is  in  the  worst 
position.  Suppose,  for  example,  there  were  three  players — 
one  at  20,  one  at  40,  and  the  other  at  60,  100  being  up,  the 
player  who  “stars”  must  recommence  at  60.  He  can  only 
“star”  once,”  and  that  must  be  at  the  time  he  is  out.  Each 
player  has  the  option  of  “starring,”  except  the  last  two,  who 
must  divide  the  pool,  or  they  may  agree  to  play  it  out.  Still, 
unless  an  agreement  to  play  out  is  made  beforehand,  the  last 
two  must  divide. 

INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  PLAYING  DOMINO  POOL. 

When  this  game  is  played  by  separate  players,  and  one  be- 
comes greatly  ahead,  the  other  three  can  combine,  so  as  to 
render  his  chance  of  winning  uncertain.  The  necessity  of  this 
combination  is  clear.  If  he  is  allowed  to  win,  the  competi- 
tion for  that  game  is  over  ; but  if,  by  combining,  the  other 
players  can  keep  him  back  a little,  they  obtain  for  themselves 
a better  chance  of  success.  The  player  who  is  ahead  will  also 
do  his  best  to  throw  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  player  in  the 
next  best  position,  as  he  becomes  a dangerous  competitor. 
The  two  in  the  worst  position  will  in  like  manner  combine 
against  the  two  ahead.  The  necessity  for  this  combination 
does  not  arise  till  the  game  is  somewhat  advanced,  as  at  the 
beginning  all  the  players  are  on  a level  ; and  the  relative  posi- 
tion of  the  others  is  of  no  moment  till  the  game  becomes  ad- 
vanced. It  is  of  very  little  use  for  one  player  to  attempt  to 
stop  the  progress  of  another  who  is  too  far  ahead,  unless  the 
others  combine  with  him.  If,  through  ignorance  or  anything 
else,  they  continue  to  play  for  their  own  hands,  you  must  do 
likewise.  Although,  if  you  attempted  by  yourself  to  stop  the 
player  who  was  ahead  of  you,  you  might  succeed,  that  success 
might  be  purchased  at  the  risk  of  your  own  chance  in  the  game. 
As  in  this  game  you  have  only  five  dominoes  out  of  twenty, 
your  power  of  influencing  the  game  is  very  much  diminished, 
and  there  is  not  quite  so  much  scope  for  the  exercise  of  your 
judgment  as  in  other  single  games  where  you  hold  six  dom- 
inoes out  of  twelve.  Your  opponents  are  sure  to  hold  some  of  the 
remaining  numbers  in  which  you  are  strong  ; so  that  the  in- 
jury you  can  in  other  games  inflict  by  having  a preponderance 
of  a particular  number  will  be  greatly  diminished  here. 
Therefore  it  is  scarcely  worth  your  while  endeavoring  to  retard 
your  opponent’s  game  when  you  have  three  of  a number,  un- 
less some  of  that  number  have  already  been  played  ; because, 
if  you  keep  those  numbers  until  you  are  called  upon  to  play 
them,  you  will  do  infinitely  more  towards  crippling  their  game 
than  if  you  were  to  lead  from  them.  On  the  other  hand, 
should  you  hold  more  than  three  of  a particular  number,  do  not 
wait  for  this  chance,  but  lead  it  on  the  first  opportunity.  If 
you  find  that  you  and  one  of  the  other  players  hold  nearly  all 
of  a particular  number,  combine  with  him,  in  order  to  exhaust 
the  hands  of  the  other  two.  In  doing  this  you  are  of  course 
only  studying  your  own  interest.  It  is  better  to  adopt  this 
plan  when  you  have  reasons  to  believe  you  are  already  on  the 
safe  side.  If  you  hold  one  or  two  doubles,  with  duplicates  of 


GAMES  OF  SKILL. 


either,  retain  the  latter  until  you  first  get  rid  of  the  doubles  ; 
but  if  you  hold  three  or  four  duplicates  along  with  a double, 
play  the  duplicates  at  once,  as  you  will  be  able  by  your  own 
hand  to  force  the  double  at  any  time.  If  you  are  short  in  any 
particular  number,  get  rid  of  your  heavy  dominoes  as  quickly 
as  possible.  In  playing  off  you  may  lead  with  a light  domino, 
if  you  hold  one  or  more  of  the  number  ; but  if  not,  you  must 
lead  a higher  domino,  in  order  to  diminish  the  number  of  pips 
in  your  hand.  If  you  hold  a heavy  hand  with  high  doubles,  or 
a hand  which  admits  of  little  or  no  variety,  or  without  any 
particular  preponderance,  you  must  play  a safe  game,  and 
sustain  as  little  loss  as  you  possibly  can  under  the  circum- 
stances. Endeavor  to  balance  the  inferiority  of  your  hand  by 
drawing  the  other  players  along  with  you. 

When  there  are  only  three  players  left,  and  one  is  greatly 
ahead,  while  another  has  starred,  it  should  be  the  object  of 
the  third  player  to  prolong  the  game  as  much  as  possible,  as 
he  still  has  a chance  to  star. 

When  two  players  are  in  advance,  the  two  behind  must  avoid 
embarrassing  each  other  in  their  combinations  against  the  other 
two.  It  is  better  for  them  to  use  their  joint  efforts  against  one 
at  a time,  as  the  attack,  if  concentrated  in  that  way,  would  be 
stronger  and  more  effectual.  Should  one  of  the  advanced 
players  get  embarrassed,  endeavor  to  embarrass  him  still  more, 
for  you  may  be  sure  his  competitor  will  not  assist  him. 

It  will  be  perfectly  understood,  however,  that,  in  playing 
with  partners,  the  object  of  each  partner  will  be  to  play  as 
much  as  possible  into  his  partner’s  hands  and  to  cripple  his 
opponents.  If  it  is  your  lead  and  you  have  a good  hand,  you 
must  try  and  win  with  it,  regardless  of  your  partner’s  position. 
So,  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  your  partner’s  down,  and  you 
have  a bad  hand,  you  must  be  content  to  sacrifice  your  own 
chance  in  order  to  increase  his.  In  the  partner’s  game  it  is 
generally  good  play  to  lead  from  a strong  suit,  for,  as  this  is  a 
generally  understood  rule,  your  partner  will  accept  the  hint, 
and  will  not  fail  to  “ return  your  lead,”  or,  in  other  words,  to 
play  into  your  hands  as  much  as  possible.  If  you  hold  some 
doubles,  with  others  of  the  same  number,  you  may — contrary 
to  the  single  game — play  the  latter  first  if  it  suits  your  hand, 
as  your  partner  will  be  sure  to  assist  in  getting  out  your 
doubles. 

We  might  continue  these  directions  and  hints  ad  infinitum, 
but  experience,  after  all,  is  the  best  teacher  ; and — recom- 
mending the  learner  to  practice  assiduously  and  play  carefully 
—we  dismiss  this  portion  of  our  subject. 

THE  WHIST  GAME. 

This  game  resembles  in  some  points  the  game  of  cards  from 
which  it  takes  its  name.  It  is  played  by  four  persons — two 
partners  on  each  side.  The  partners,  as  usual,  sit  opposite  to 
each  other.  The  whole  of  the  dominoes  are  taken — seven  by 
each  player. 


It  is  best  to  lead  from  your  strongest  suit.  By  this  and 
such  other  indications  you  will  enable  your  partner  to  form  an 
opinion  as  to  your  hand,  by  which  he  will  be  guided  very 
much  in  his  play,  and  as  the  game  proceeds  each  must  tax  his 
recollection  as  to  who  played  such  and  such  a domino,  and 
how  the  game  stood  at  that  particular  time,  so  as  to  form  a 
judgment  as  to  the  motive  of  such  play,  etc.  The  general  in- 
structions given  in  previous  chapters  will  apply  in  great 
measure  to  this  game,  particularly  those  given  in  reference  to 
the  Pool  Game. 

THE  FOUR  GAME. 

In  this  game,  which  is  played  by  four  persons,  each  player 
takes  seven  dominoes  ; and  he  who  plays  out  first,  or,  if  the 
game  becomes  blocked,  holds  the  least  number  of  pips,  wins 
the  hand,  and  draws  a certain  stake  from  the  other  three. 

Very  little  in  the  way  of  instruction  is  required  in  this  game. 
If  you  have  the  pose,  you  should  play  out  as  far  as  possible, 
and  then  endeavor  to  block  the  game. 

Endeavor  to  keep  your  hand  even,  so  as  to  be  ready  at  any 
number,  or  (and  in  this  you  must  be  guided  by  the  nature  of 
your  hand)  play  to  keep  your  strongest  suit  in  hand  until  those 
of  the  same  suit  held  by  other  players  are  out.  By  this  means 
you  may  oftentimes  be  able  to  play  out  or  shut  the  game,  as 
you  find  most  expedient. 

SEBASTOPOL  GAME. 

This  game  is  played  by  four  players,  each  taking  seven  dom- 
inoes. The  player  holding  the  double  six  plays  it,  and  takes 
the  lead.  Each  player  must  play  a six  to  it.  He  who  cannot 
loses  the  turn.  The  dominoes  are  played  in  the  form  of  a 
cross  the  first  round,  after  which  the  players  alternately  play 
at  either  of  the  four  ends.  He  who  has  the  last  domino,  or,  in 
the  event  of  more  than  one  player  being  left  with  dominoes 
when  the  game  is  shut,  he  who  holds  the  greatest  number  of 
pips,  pays  a certain  amount  to  the  winners. 

Endeavor  to  get  rid  of  your  heavy  dominoes,  and  put  ob- 
stacles in  the  way  of  your  adversaries  running  out. 

TIDDLE-A-WINK  GAME. 

This  is  a very  amusing  game,  and  suitable  for  a round 
party. 

If  six  or  more  play,  each  takes  three  dominoes.  The  § is 
then  called  for,  as  in  the  French  game,  and  the  person  holding 
it  leads  with  it.  If  it  is  not  out,  the  next  highest  double  is 
called  forth,  and  so  on  downwards  until  a start  is  made. 

In  this  game,  he  who  plays  a double,  either  at  the  lead  or  at 
any  other  part  of  the  game,  is  entitled  to  play  again  if  he  can 
— thus  obtaining  two  turns  instead  of  one.  The  game  then 
proceeds  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  he  who  plays  out  first  cries 
“ Tiddle-a-wink  ! ” having  won.  In  the  event  of  the  game 
being  blocked,  he  who  holds  the  lowest  number  of  pips  wins. 


FEW  preliminary  hints  are  necessary  in 
order  to  enable  an  amateur  to  perform 
the  tricks  he  attempts  with  effect  and 
success. 

A conjuror  should  always  be  able  to 
“ palm  ” well.  That  is  done  by  holding 
coin  in  the  fingers,  and  by  a quick  move- 
ment passing  it  into  the  middle  or  palm  of  the  hand, 
and,  by  contracting  the  muscles  on  each  side  of  the 
hand,  to  retain  it  there,  making  the  hand  appear 
open  and  as  though  nothing  were  in  it.  After  a lit- 
tle practice  this  will  become  comparatively  easy,  but 
it  will  require  the  exercise  of  great  perseverance  in 
order  to  become  perfect.  The  pains,  however,  will 
be  well  bestowed,  as  this  is  one  of  the  principal 
means  by  which  prestidigitators  deceive  their 
audiences. 


MAKING  THE  PASS. 

In  many  of  the  tricks  with  cards  it  is  necessary  to 
“make  the  pass,”  as  it  is  termed,  which  is  a very 
neat  and  simple  movement.  The  operator  shows  a 
card,  which  he  wishes  his  audience  to  believe  he  can 
change  by  simply  using  the  mysterious  words  “ Presto, 
begone  ! ” While,  however,  he  is  saying  these  words, 
he  gives  a sharp  blow  on  the  pack  he  holds  in  his 
hand,  and  at  the  same  time  slips  the  card  under  the 
pack  and  takes  off  the  top  one,  or  vice  versa.  Prac- 
tice, in  this  as  in  other  matters,  will  impart  great 
dexterity  to  the  operator  ; and,  as  the  hand  can  be 
trained  to  move  more  quickly  than  the  eye  can  see, 
he  will  be  able  to  go  through  the  movement  without 
it  being  perceived  by  his  audience. 

The  following  mode  of  “ making  the  pass  ” should 


be  well  studied  : Hold  the  pack  of  cards  in  your 
right  hand  so  that  the  palm  of  your  hand  may  be  under 
the  cards  ; place  the  thumb  of  that  hand  on  one  side 
of  the  pack,  and  the  first,  second,  and  third  fingers 
on  the  other  side,  and  your  little  finger  between 
those  cards  that  are  to  be  brought  to  the  top  and  the 
rest  of  the  pack.  Then  place  your  left  hand  over 
the  card  in  such  a manner  that  the  thumb  may  be 
at  5,  the  forefinger  at  6,  and  the  other  fingers  at  7, 
as  in  the  accompanying  figure  : 

Left  hand. 


Right  hand. 

7 

Bottom. 

Top. 

Little  finger. 

5 


The  hands  and  the  two  portions  of  the  pack  being 
thus  disposed,  you  drawoff  the  lower  cards  confined 
by  the  little  finger  and  the  other  parts  of  the  right 
hand,  and  place  them  with  an  imperceptibly  quick 
motion  on  top  of  the  pack. 

But  before  you  attempt  any  of  the  tricks  that  de- 
pend upon  “ making  the  pass  ” you  must  have  great 
practice,  and  be  able  to  perform  it  so  dexterously 
and  expeditiously  that  the  eye  cannot  detect  the 
movement  of  “.he  hand,  or  you  may,  instead  of 
deceiving  others,  expose  yourself. 

FORCING  A CARD. 

In  card  tricks  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  “ force 
a card,”  by  which  you  compel  a person  to  take  such 


PARLOR  MAGIC. 


a card  as  you  think  fit,  while  he  imagines  he  is  taking 
one  at  haphazard.  The  following  is,  perhaps,  the 
best  method  of  performing  this  trick  : 

Ascertain  quietly,  or  whilst  you  are  amusing  your- 
self with  the  cards,  what  the  card  is  which  you  are  to 
force ; but  either  keep  it  in  sight,  or  place  the  little 
finger  of  your  left  hand,  in  which  you  have  the  cards, 
upon  it.  Next,  desire  a person  to  select  a card  from  the 
pack,  for  which  purpose  you  must  open  them  quick- 
ly from  left  to  right,  spreading  the  cards  backwards 
and  forwards  so  as  to  perplex  him  in  making  his 
choice,  and  when  you  see  him  about  to  take  one, 
open  the  pack  until  you  come  to  the  one  you  intend 
him  to  take,  and  just  at  the  moment  his  fingers  are 
touching  the  pack  let  its  corner  project  invitingly  a 
little  forward  in  front  of  the  others.  This  will  seem  so 
fair  that  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  he  will  take  the  one 
so  offered,  unless  he  is  himself  aware  of  the  secret 
of  forcing.  Having  by  this  method  forced  your 
card,  you  request  him  to  examine  it,  and  then  give 
him  the  pack  to  shuffle,  which  he  may  do  as  often  as 
he  likes,  for  you  are  of  course  always  aware  what 
card  he  has  taken.  A perfect  acquaintance  with  the 
art  of  forcing  is  indispensably  necessary  before  you 
attempt  any  of  the  more  difficult  card  tricks. 


THE  “LONG  CARD.” 


Another  stratagem  connected  with  the  perform- 
ance of  many  of  the  following  tricks  is  what  is  termed 
the  “long  card,”  that  is,  a card  a trifle  longer  or 
wider  than  the  rest  of  the  pack,  so  as  not  to  be  per- 
ceptible to  the  eye  of  the  spectator,  but  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  touch  of  the  operator.  Good 
operators  sometimes  have  both  cards  in  the  pack. 
Any  bookbinder  will  shave  the  edges  of  your  pack 
so  as  to  leave  you  a long  and  a wide  card. 

Having  laid  down  what  we  may  be  allowed  to 
term  the  “ leading  principles”  which  rule  the  art  of 
card  conjuring,  we  now  propose  to  explain  the  vari- 
ous tricks  which  may  be  performed  with  a pack  of 
ordinary  playing-cards.  They  depend  to  some  ex- 
tent for  success  on  manual  dexterity,  a knowledge 
of  the  science  of  numbers,  and  some  simple  appara- 
tus, easily  procured  or  made  by  an  ingenious  youth. 
For  instance,  all  the  court  cards  may  be  made  to 
come  together  by  relying  upon  the  doctrine  of 
chances.  Thus  : take  the  pack,  separate  all  the 
kings,  queens,  and  knaves,  and  place  them  all  to- 
gether in  any  part  of  the  pack  you  choose.  There 


are  five  hundred  chances  to  one  that  a stranger  can- 
not in  twelve  cuts  disturb  the  order  in  which  they 
are  placed.  This  trick  is  easy,  and  when  success- 
fully carried  out  is  amusing.  It  may  be  made  more 
so  by  placing  one-half  of  the  above  number  of  cards 
at  the  bottom  of  the  pack  and  the  other  half  at  the 
top.  Of  a very  similar  character  is  the  famous 
trick  of 

GUESSING  A CARD  THOUGHT  OF. 

To  do  this  well  you  must  attend  to  the  following  directions  : 
Spread  out  the  cards  in  your  right  hand  in  such  a manner 
that,  in  showing  them  to  the  audience,  not  a single  card  is 
wholly  exposed  to  view,  with  the  exception  of  the  king  of 
spades,  the  upper  part  of  which  should  be  clearly  seen  with- 
out any  obstruction  either  from  the  fingers  or  from  the  other 
cards.  When  you  have  thus  spread  them  out,  designedly  in 
fact,  but  apparently  at  random,  show  them  to  one  of  the 
spectators,  requesting  him  to  think  of  a card,  and  at  the  same 
time  take  care  to  move  the  hand  a little,  so  as  to  describe  a 
segment  of  a circle,  in  order  that  the  audience  may  catch  sight 
of  the  king  of  spades  without  noticing  that  the  other  cards 
are  all  partially  concealed.  Then  shuffle  the  cards,  but  in 
doing  so  you  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  king  of  spades,  which 
you  will  then  lay  on  the  table  face  downwards.  You  may 
then  tell  the  person  who  has  thought  of  a card  that  the  one  in 
his  mind  is  on  the  table,  and  request  him  to  name  it.  Should 
he  name  the  king  of  spades,  which  he  would  be  most  likely  to 
do,  you  will  of  course  turn  it  up  and  show  it  to  the  company, 
who,  if  they  are  not  acquainted  with  the  trick,  will  be  very 
much  astonished.  If,  however,  he  should  name  some  other 
card — say  the  queen  of  clubs — you  must  tell  him  that  his 
memory  is  defective,  and  that  that  card  couH  not  have  been 
the  card  he  at  first  thought  of.  Whilst  telling  him  this,  which 
you  must  do  at  as  great  length  as  you  can  in  order  to  gain 
time,  shuffle  the  cards  rapidly  and  apparently  without  any  par- 
ticular purpose  until  your  eye  catches  the  card  he  has  just 
named  (the  queen  of  clubs).  Put  it  on  the  top  of  the  pack, 
and,  still  appearing  to  be  engrossed  with  other  thoughts,  go 
through  the  first  false  shuffle  to  make  believe  that  you  have 
no  particular  card  in  view.  When  you  have  done  shuffling, 
take  care  to  leave  the  queen  of  clubs  on  the  top  of  the  pack  ; 
then  take  the  pack  in  your  left  hand  and  the  king  of  spades 
in  your  right,  and  while  dexterously  exchanging  the  queen  of 
clubs  for  the  king  of  spades,  say,  “What  must  I do,  gentle- 
men, that  my  trick  should  not  be  a failure  ? what  card  should 
I have  in  my  right  hand?”  They  will  not  fail  to  call  out  the 
queen  of  clubs,  upon  which  you  will  turn  it  up,  and  they  will 
see  that  you  have  been  successful. 

This  trick,  when  well  executed,  always  has  a good  effect, 
whether  the  spectator  thinks  of  the  card  you  intended  him  to 
think  of,  or,  from  a desire  to  complicate  matters,  of  some 
other.  It  requires  considerable  presence  of  mind,  however, 
and  the  power  of  concealing  from  your  audience  what  your 
real  object  is. 

Another  method  of  making  the  spectator  think  of  any  par- 


PARLOR  MAGIC. 


r 

cicular  card  is  the  following  : Pass  several  cards  under  the  eye 
of  the  person  selected,  turning  them  over  so  rapidly  that  he 
sees  the  colors  confusedly,  without  being  able  to  distinguish 
their  number  or  value.  For  this  purpose  take  the  pack  in 
your  left  hand,  and  pass  the  upper  part  into  your  right,  dis- 
playing the  front  of  the  cards  to  the  audience,  and  conse- 
quently seeing  only  the  backs  yourself.  Pass  one  over  the 
other  so  rapidly  that  he  will  not  be  able  to  distinguish  any  one 
of  them,  until  you  come  to  the  card  which  you  desire  to  force 
— presuming,  of  course,  that  you  have  made  yourself  ac- 
quainted with  its  position.  The  card  you  select  ought  to  be 
a bright-looking  and  easily  distinguishable  one,  such  as  the 
king  of  hearts  or  the  queen  of  clubs.  Contrive  to  have  this 
card  a little  longer  before  your  audience  than  the  rest,  but 
avoid  all  appearance  of  effort,  and  let  everything  be  done 
naturally.  During  the  interval  watch  the  countenance  of  the 
spectator,  in  order  that  you  may  be  sure  he  notices  the 
card  you  display  before  him.  Having  thus  assured  yourself 
that  he  has  fixed  upon  the  card  you  selected,  and  that  he  is 
not  acquainted  with  the  trick,  you  then  proceed  as  before. 
Should  you  come  to  the  conclusion  that  he  has  fixed  upon 
some  other  card,  you  will  then  have  recourse  to  the  “ex- 
changed card”  trick,  as  explained  in  the  previous  trick. 

TO  TELL  A CARD  BY  SMELLING  IT. 

A very  clever  trick,  and  one  which  never  fails  to  excite  as- 
tonishment at  an  evening  party,  is  to  select  all  the  court  cards 
when  blindfolded  ; but  before  commencing  it,  you  must  take 
one  of  the  party  into  your  confidence,  and  get  him  to  assist 
you.  When  all  is  arranged,  you  may  talk  of  the  strong  sense 
of  smell  and  touch  which  blind  people  are  said  to  possess,  and 
state  that  you  could,  when  blindfolded,  distinguish  the  court 
cards  from  the  rest,  and  profess  your  willingness  to  attempt 
it.  The  process  is  this  : After  you  have  satisfied  the  company 
that  your  eyes  are  tightly  bound,  take  the  pack  in  your  hands, 
and  holding  up  one  of  the  cards  in  view  of  the  whole  com- 
pany, feel  the  face  of  it  with  your  fingers.  If  it  is  a court 
card,  your  confederate,  who  should  be  seated  near  to  you, 
must  tread  on  your  toe.  You  then  proclaim  that  it  is  a court 
card,  and  proceed  to  the  next.  Should  you  then  turn  up  a 
common  card  your  confederate  takes  no  notice  of  it,  and  you 
inform  the  company  accordingly  ; and  so  on  until  you  have 
convinced  the  company  that  you  really  possess  the  extraordi- 
nary power  to  which  you  laid  claim. 

to  Tell  all  the  cards  without  seeing 

THEM. 

Another  good  parlor  trick  is  to  tell  the  names  of  all  the 
cards  when  their  backs  are  turned  towards  you.  Perhaps  this 
is  one  of  the  best  illusions  that  can  be  performed  with  cards, 
as  it  not  only  brings  the  whole  pack  into  use,  but  can  never 
fail  in  the  hands  of  an  ordinarily  intelligent  operator.  This 
trick,  which  is  founded  on  the  science  of  numbers,  enables 
you  to  tell  every  card  after  they  have  been  cut  as  often  as  your 
audience  please,  although  you  only  see  the  backs  of  them.  It 
is  thus  performed  : A pack  of  cards  are  distributed  face  up- 
permost on  a table,  and  you  pick  them  up  in  the  following 
order — 6,  4,  1,  7,  5,  king,  8,  10,  3,  knave,  9,  2,  queen.  Go 


through  this  series  until  you  have  picked  up  the  whole  of  the 
pack.  It  is  not  necessary  that  you  should  take  up  the  whole 
of  one  suit  before  commencing  another.  In  order  that  the 
above  order  may  not  be  forgotten,  the  following  words  should 
be  committed  to  memory  : 

641  75 

The  sixty-fourth  regiment  beats  the  seventy-fifth  ; up  starts 
king  8 10  3 knave  9 2 

the  king,  with  eight  thousand  and  three  men  and  ninety-two 
queen 
women. 

The  cards  being  thus  arranged,  the  cards  must  be  handed 
to  the  company  to  cut.  They  may  cut  the  cards  as  often  as 
they  like,  but  it  must  be  understood  that  they  do  it  whist 
fashion,  that  is,  taking  off  a portion  of  the  cards,  and  placing 
the  lower  division  on  what  was  formerly  the  upper  one.  You 
then  take  the  pack  in  your  hands,  and,  without  letting  your 
audience  perceive,  cast  a glance  at  the  bottom  card.  Having 
done  this — which  you  may  do  without  any  apparent  effort — 
you  have  the  key  of  the  whole  trick.  You  then  deal  out  the 
cards,  in  the  ordinary  way,  in  thirteen  different  sets,  putting 
four  cards  to  each  set  ; in  other  words,  you  deal  out  the  first 
cards  singly  and  separately,  and  then  place  the  fourteenth 
card  above  the  first  set,  the  next  upon  the  second  set,  and  so 
on  throughout,  until  you  have  exhausted  the  whole  pack.  You 
may  be  certain  now  that  each  one  of  these  thirteen  sets  will 
contain  four  cards  of  the  same  denomination — thus,  the  four 
eights  will  be  together,  and  so  with  the  four  queens,  and  every 
other  denomination.  The  thirteenth,  or  last  set,  will  be  of 
the  same  denomination  as  the  card  at  the  bottom  which  you 
contrived  to  see,  and  as  they  will  be  placed  exactly  in  the  re- 
verse order  of  that  in  which  you  first  of  all  picked  them  up, 
you  may  without  difficulty  calculate  of  what  denomination 
each  of  the  sets  consists.  For  example,  suppose  an  8 was  the 
bottom  card,  you  would  find,  after  a little  calculation,  that 
after  being  dealt  out,  in  the  manner  above  described,  they 
would  be  placed  in  the  following  order:  king,  5,  7,  1,  4,  6, 
queen,  2,  9,  knave,  3,  10,  8 ; and  repeating  in  your  own  mind 
the  words  which  you  have  committed  to  memory,  and  reckon- 
ing the  cards  backwards,  you  would  say — 

8 10  3 knave  9 2 queen 

“ Eight  thousand  and  three  men,  and  ninety-two  women  ; 

641  75 

sixty-fourth  regiment  beats  the  seventy-fifth  ; up  starts  the 
king 

king  with,”  etc.,  etc. 

You  observe  the  same  rule  whatever  the  bottom  card  may 
be. 

TO  TELL  A CARD  THOUGHT  OF. 

By  a certain  prearranged  combination  of  cards,  the  con- 
juror is  enabled — apparently  to  guess,  but  really  to  calculate 
— not  only  the  card  that  is  thought  cf  by  any  member  of  the 
company,  but  to  tell  its  position  in  the  pack.  You  take  the 
pack  and  present  it  to  one  of  those  present,  desiring  him  to 
shuffle  the  cards  well,  and  after  he  is  done,  if  he  chooses,  to 
hand  them  over  to  some  one  else  to  shuffle  them  a second 
time.  You  then  cause  the  pack  to  be  cut  by  several  persons, 
after  which  you  select  one  out  of  the  company  whom  you  re- 


PARLOR  MAGIC. 


— 

I 434 


quest  to  take  the  pack,  think  of  a card,  and  fix  in  his  memory 
not  only  the  card  he  has  thought  of,  but  also  its  position  in 
the  pack,  by  counting  I,  2,  3,  4,  and  so  on,  from  the  bottom 
of  the  pack,  as  far  as,  and  including,  the  card  thought  of. 
You  may  offer  to  go  into  another  room  while  this  is  being 
done,  or  remain  with  your  eyes  bandaged,  assuring  the  com- 
pany that,  if  they  desire  it,  you  will  announce  beforehand  the 
number  at  which  the  card  thought  of  will  be  found.  Now, 
supposing  the  person  selecting  the  card  stops  at  No.  13  from 
the  bottom,  and  that  this  thirteenth  card  is  the  queen  of 
hearts,  and  supposing  also  that  the  number  you  have  put 
down  beforehand  is  24,  you  will  return  to  the  room  or  remove 
your  handkerchief,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  without  putting 
any  question  to  the  person  who  has  thought  of  a card,  you  ask 
for  the  pack,  and  rest  your  nose  upon  it,  as  if  you  would  find 
out  the  secret  by  smelling.  Then,  putting  your  hands  behind 
your  back  or  under  the  table,  so  that  they  cannot  be  seen,  you 
take  away  from  the  bottom  of  the  pack  twenty-three  cards — 
that  is,  one  fewer  than  the  number  you  marked  down  before- 
hand— and  place  them  on  the  top,  taking  great  care  not  to 
put  one  more  or  less,  as  inaccuracy  in  this  respect  would  cer- 
tainly cause  the  trick  to  fail.  You  then  return  the  pack  to 
the  person  who  thought  of  the  card,  requesting  him  to  count 
the  cards  from  the  top,  beginning  from  the  number  of  the 
card  he  thought  of.  For  example,  having  selected  the  thir- 
teenth card,  he  will  commence  counting  14,  15,  16,  and  so  on. 
When  he  has  called  23,  stop  him,  telling  him  that  the  number 
you  marked  down  was  24,  and  that  the  twenty-fourth  card 
which  he  is  about  to  take  up  is  the  queen  of  hearts,  which  he 
will  find  to  be  correct.  In  performing  this  trick  it  is  neces- 
sary to  observe  that  the  number  you  name  must  be  greater 
than  the  number  which  your  opponent  gives  you,  describing 
its  position  in  the  pack. 

TO  CHANGE  A CARD  BY  WORD  OF  COMMAND. 

It  at  first  sight  seems  singular  that  any  one  should  be  able 
even  to  appear  to  change  a card  by  word  of  command  ; yet  it 
can  easily  be  done,  and  under  different  titles,  and  with  slight 
variations,  the  trick  is  constantly  performed  in  public.  To  do 
it,  you  must  have  two  cards  alike  in  the  pack — say,  for  ex- 
ample, a duplicate  of  the  king  of  spades.  Place  one  next  to 
the  bottom  card,  which  we  will  suppose  to  be  the  seven  of 
hearts,  and  the  other  at  the  top  ; shuffle  the  cards  without  dis- 
placing these  three,  and  then  show  one  of  the  company  that 
the  bottom  card  is  the  seven  of  hearts.  This  card  you  dex- 
terously slip  aside  with  your  finger,  so  that  it  may  not  be  per- 
ceived, and  taking  the  king  of  spades  from  the  bottom,  which 
the  person  supposes  to  be  the  seven  of  hearts,  lay  it  on  the 
table,  telling  him  to  cover  it  with  his  hand.  Shuffle  the  cards 
again  without  displacing  the  first  and  last  cards,  and  shifting 
the  other  king  of  spades  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  show  it 
to  another  person.  You  then  contrive  to  remove  the  king  of 
spades  in  the  same  manner  as  before,  and  taking  the  bottom 
card,  which  will  then  be  the  seven  of  hearts,  but  which  the 
company  will  still  suppose  to  be  the  king  of  spades,  you  lay 
that  also  on  the  table,  and  tell  the  second  person  to  cover  it 
with  his  hand.  You  then  command  the  cards  to  change 
places,  and  when  the  two  parties  take  off  their  hands,  they 


will  see,  to  their  great  astonishment,  that  your  commands  are 
obeyed. 

“TWIN  CARD”  TRICK. 

Another  trick  performed  by  means  of  “ twin,”  or  duplicate, 
cards,  as  in  the  previous  case,  is  to  show  the  same  card  appar- 
ently on  the  top  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  pack.  One  of 
these  duplicate  cards  may  be  easily  obtained  ; in  fact,  the 
pat-tern  card,  which  accompanies  every  pack,  may  be  made 
available  for  that  purpose.  Let  us  suppose,  then,  for  a mo- 
ment, that  you  have  a duplicate  of  the  queen  of  clubs.  You 
place  both  of  them  at  the  bottom  of  the  pack,  and  make  be- 
lieve to  shuffle  them,  taking  care,  however,  that  these  two 
keep  their  places.  Then  lay  the  pack  upon  the  table,  draw 
out  the  bottom  card,  show  it,  and  piace  it  on  the  top.  You 
then  command  the  top  card  to  pass  to  the  bottom,  and,  on  the 
pack  being  turned  up,  the  company  will  see  with  surprise  that 
the  card  which  they  had  just  seen  placed  upon  the  top  is  now 
at  the  bottom. 

MAGIC  TEA-CADDIES. 

This,  like  some  of  the  tricks  we  have  previously  explained, 
requires  suitable  apparatus  for  its  successful  performance. 
Two  cards,  drawn  by  different  persons,  are  put  into  separate 
tea-caddies,  and  locked  up,  and  the  object  of  the  operator  is 
to  appear  to  change  the  cards  without  touching  them.  This 
may  be  done  without  the  aid  of  a confederate.  The  caddies 
are  made  with  a copper  flap  which  has  a hinge  at  the  bottom 
and  opens  against  the  front,  where  it  catches  under  the  bolt 
of  the  lock,  so  that  when  the  lid  is  shut  and  locked  the  flap 
will  fall  down  upon  the  bottom.  The  operator  places  the  two 
cards  he  intends  to  be  chosen  between  the  flap  and  the  front, 
which  may  be  handled  without  any  suspicion  ; he  then  re- 
quests one  of  the  persons  to  put  the  card  he  has  selected  into 
one  of  the  caddies,  taking  care  that  he  puts  it  into  the  caddy 
into  which  you  placed  the  other  card  ; the  second  person,  of 
course,  puts  his  card  into  the  other  caddy.  The  operator  then 
desires  them  to  lock  the  caddies,  and  in  doing  this  the  flap 
becomes  unlocked,  falls  to  the  bottom,  and  covers  the  cards, 
and  when  opened,  the  caddies  show  apparently  that  the  cards 
have  been  transposed. 

THE  VANISHING  CARD. 

Another  good  trick  is  thus  performed  : Divide  the  pack, 
placing  one-half  in  the  palm  of  the  left  hand,  face  downwards; 
and,  taking  the  remainder  of  the  pack  in  the  right  hand,  hold 
them  between  the  thumb  and  first  three  fingers,  taking  care 
to  place  the  cards  upright,  so  that  the  edges  of  those  in  your 
right  hand  may  rest  upon  the  back  of  those  in  the  left,  thus 
forming  a right  angle  with  them.  In  this  way  the  four  fingers 
of  the  left  hand  touch  the  last  of  the  upright  cards  in  your 
right  hand.  It  is  necessary  that  the  cards  should  be  placed  in 
this  position,  and  that  once  being  attained,  the  rest  of  the 
trick  is  easy.  These  preliminaries  having  been  gone  through, 
one  of  the  company,  at  your  request,  examines  the  top  card 
of  the  half-pack  that  rests  in  the  palm  of  your  left  hand,  and 
then  replaces  it.  Having  done  this,  you  request  him  to  look 
at  it  again,  and,  to  his  astonishment,  it  will  have  vanished. 


PARLOR  MAGIC. 


435 


wid  another  card  will  appear  in  its  place.  In  order  to  accom- 
plish this,  having  assumed  the  position  already  described,  you 
must  damp  the  tips  of  the  four  fingers  that  rest  against  the 
last  card  of  the  upright  set  in  your  right  hand.  When  the 
person  who  has  chosen  a card  replaces  it,  you  must  raise  the 
upright  cards  in  your  right  hand  very  quickly,  and  the  card 
will  then  adhere  to  the  damped  fingers  of  your  left  hand.  As 
you  raise  the  upright  cards,  you  must  close  your  left  hand 
skillfully,  and  you  will  thereby  place  the  last  of  the  upright 
cards — which,  as  we  have  explained,  adheres  to  the  fingers  of 
your  left  hand — upon  the  top  of  the  cards  in  the  palm  of  your 
left  hand,  and  when  you  request  the  person  who  first  examined 
it  to  look  at  it  again,  he  will  observe  that  it  has  been  changed. 
Rapidity  and  manual  dexterity  are  required  for  the  perform- 
ance of  this  capital  sleight-of-hand  trick. 

TO  TELL  THE  NUMBER  OF  CARDS  BY  WEIGHT. 

The  apparently  marvelous  gift  of  telling  the  number  of 
cards  by  weight  depends  on  the  use  of  the  long  card.  Take 
a portion  of  a pack  of  cards — say  forty — and  insert  among 
them  two  long  cards.  Place  the  first — say  fifteen  from  the 
top,  and  the  other  twenty-six.  Make  a feint  of  shuffling  the 
cards,  and  cut  at  the  first  long  card  ; poise  those  you  hold  in 
your  hand,  and  say,  “ There  must  be  fifteen  here  ; ” then  cut 
at  the  second  long  card,  and  say,  “There  are  but  eleven 
here  and  poising  the  remainder,  say,  “ And  here  are  four- 
teen.” The  spectators,  on  counting  them,  will  find  that  you 
have  correctly  estimated  the  numbers, 

TO  PRODUCE  A MOUSE  FROM  A PACK  OF  CARDS. 

Cards  are  sometimes  fastened  together  like  snuff-boxes.  If 
you  possess  such  a pack,  or  can  procure  one,  you  may,  with- 
out difficulty,  perform  this  feat.  The  cards  are  fastened  to- 
gether at  the  edges,  but  the  middles  must  be  cut  out,  leaving 
a cavity  in  the  pack  resembling  a box.  A whole  card  is  glued 
on  to  the  top,  and  a number  of  loose  ones  are  placed  above  it. 
They  must  be  skillfully  and  carefully  shuffled,  so  that  your 
audience  may  be  led  to  believe  that  it  is  an  ordinary  and  per- 
fect pack.  The  card  at  the  bottom  of  what  we  may  term  the 
“box”  must  likewise  be  a whole  card,  but  must  be  glued  to 
the  box  on  one  side  only,  so  that  it  will  yield  immediately  to 
internal  pressure.  This  bottom  card  serves  as  the  door 
through  which  you  convey  the  mouse  into  the  middle  of  the 
pack.  Being  thus  prepared,  and  holding  the  bottom  tight 
with  your  hand,  request  one  of  the  company  to  place  his  open 
hands  together,  telling  him  you  intend  to  produce  something 
very  marvelous  from  the  pack.  Place  the  pack  in  his  hands, 
and  whilst  you  engage  his  attention  in  conversation,  affect  to 
want  something  out  of  your  bag,  and  at  the  same  moment  take 
the  pack  by  the  middle,  and  throw  it  into  the  bag,  and  the 
mouse,  which  you  had  previously  placed  in  the  box,  will  re- 
main in  the  hands  of  the  person  who  holds  the  cards. 

TO  SEND  A CARD  THROUGH  A TABLE. 

Request  one  of  the  company  to  draw  a card  from  the  pack, 
examine  it,  and  then  return  it.  Then  make  the  pass — or,  if 
you  cannot  make  the  pass,  make  use  of  the  long  card — and 


bring  the  card  chosen  to  the  top  of  the  pack,  and  shuffle 
by  means  of  any  of  the  false  shuffles  before  described,  without 
losing  sight  of  the  card.  After  shuffling  the  pack  several 
times,  bring  the  card  to  the  top  again.  Then  place  the  pack 
on  the  table,  about  two  inches  from  the  edge  near  which  you 
are  sitting,  and  having  previously  slightly  dampened  the  back 
of  your  right  hand,  you  strike  the  pack  a sharp  blow,  and  the 
card  will  adhere  to  it.  You  then  put  your  right  hand  very 
rapidly  underneath  the  table,  and  taking  off  with  your  left 
hand  the  card  which  has  stuck  to  your  right  hand,  you  show 
it  to  your  audience,  who  will  at  once  recognize  in  it  the  card 
that  was  drawn  at  the  commencement  of  the  trick.  You  must 
be  careful  while  performing  this  trick  not  to  allow  any  of  the 
spectators  to  get  behind  or  at  the  side  of  the  table,  but  keep 
them  directly  in  front,  otherwise  the  illusion  would  be  dis- 
covered. 

TO  KNOCK  ALL  THE  CARDS  FROM  A PERSON’S 
HAND  EXCEPT  THE  CHOSEN  ONE. 

With  a little  care  a novice  may  easily  learn  this  trick.  It 
is  not  new,  and  is  called  by  some  the  “ Nerve  Trick.”  Force 
a card,  and  request  the  person  who  has  taken  it  to  return  it  to 
the  pack  and  shuffle  the  cards.  Then  look  at  the  card  your- 
self, and  place  the  card  chosen  at  the  bottom  of  the  pack. 
Cut  them  in  two,  and  give  him  the  half  containing  his  card  at 
the  bottom,  and  request  him  to  hold  it  just  at  the  corner  be- 
tween his  finger  and  thumb.  After  telling  him  to  hold  them 
tight,  strike  them  sharply,  and  they  will  all  fall  to  the  ground 
except  the  bottom  one,  which  is  the  card  he  has  chosen.  An 
improvement  in  this  trick  is  to  put  the  chosen  card  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pack  and  turn  the  face  upwards,  so  that  when 
you  strike,  the  card  remaining  will  stare  the  spectators  in  the 
face. 

ANOTHER  CLEVER  CARD  TRICK. 

This  trick,  commonly  called  the  “ Turnover  Feat,”  is  easily 
performed,  and  yet  is  difficult  of  detection.  Having  forced 
a card,  you  contrive,  after  sundry  shufflings,  to  convey  it  to 
the  top  of  the  pack.  Make  the  rest  of  the  cards  perfectly 
even  at  the  edges,  but  let  the  chosen  card  project  a little  over 
the  others.  Then,"  holding  them  between  your  finger  and 
thumb,  about  two  feet  above  the  table,  let  them  suddenly  and 
quickly  drop,  and  the  projecting  card  in  the  course  of  its  de- 
scent will  be  turned  face  uppermost  by  the  force  of  the  air,  and 
exposed  to  the  view  of  the  whole  company. 

TO  TELL  THE  NAME  OF  A CARD  THOUGHT  OF. 

One  of  the  company  must,  at  your  request,  draw  seven  or 
eight  cards  promiscuously  from  the  pack,  and  select  one  from 
among  them  as  the  card  he  desires  to  think  of.  He  then  re- 
turns them  to  the  pack,  and  you,  either  by  shuffling  or  in  any 
other  way  which  will  not  be  noticed,  contrive  to  pass  the 
whole  of  them  to  the  bottom  of  the  pack.  You  then  take  five 
or  six  cards  off  the  top  of  the  pack,  and  throw  them  on  the 
table  face  upwards,  asking  if  the  card  thought  of  is  among 
them.  Whilst  the  person  is  examining  them  you  secretly  take 
one  card  from  the  bottom  of  the  pack  and  place  it  on  the  top  ; 
and  when  he  tells  you  that  the  card  he  thought  of  is  not  in 
the  first  parcel,  throw  him  five  or  six  more,  including  the  card 


43*5 


PARLOR  MAGIC. 


you  have  just  taken  from  the  bottom — the  denomination  and 
suit  of  which  it  is  presumed  you  have  taken  the  opportunity 
to  ascertain — so  that  should  be  say  that  his  card  is  in  the  sec- 
ond parcel,  you  will  at  once  know  which  card  is  indicated, 
and  in  order  to  “ bring  it  to  light,”  you  may  make  use  either 
of  the  two  foregoing  tricks,  or  any  other  you  think  proper. 

TO  TELL  THE  NAMES  OF  ALL  THE  CARDS  BY 
THEIR  WEIGHTS. 

The  pack  having  been  cut  and  shuffled  to  the  entire  satis- 
faction of  the  audience,  the  operator  commences  by  stating 
that  he  undertakes,  by  poising  each  card  for  a moment  on  his 
fingers,  to  tell  not  only  the  color,  but  the  suit  and  number  of 
spots,  and,  if  a court  card,  whether  it  be  king,  queen,  or 
knave.  For  the  accomplishment  of  this  most  amusing  trick 
we  recommend  the  following  directions : You  must  have  two 

packs  of  cards  exactly  alike.  One  of  them  we  will  suppose  to 
have  been  in  use  during  the  evening  for  the  performance  of 
your  tricks  ; but  in  addition  to  this  you  must  have  a second 
pack  in  your  pocket,  which  you  must  take  care  to  arrange  in 
the  order  hereinafter  described.  Previous  to  commencing  the 
trick  you  must  take  the  oppprtunity  of  exchanging  these  two 
packs,  and  bringing  into  use  the  prepared  pack.  This  must 
be  done  in  such  a manner  that  your  audience  will  believe  that 
the  pack  you  introduce  is  the  same  as  the  one  you  have  been 
using  all  the  evening,  which  they  know  has  been  well  shuffled. 
The  order  in  which  the  pack  must  be  arranged  will  be  best 
ascertained  by  committing  the  following  lines — the  words  in 
italics  forming  the  key  : — 

Eight  kings  threa-ten’d  to  save, 

Eight , king,  three,  ten,  two,  seven. 

Nine  fair  ladies  for  one  sick  knave, 

Nine,  Jive , queen,  four,  ace,  six,  knave. 

These  lines  thoroughly  committed  to  memory  will  be  of 
material  assistance.  The  alliterative  resemblance  will  in 
every  instance  be  a sufficient  guide  to  the  card  indicated.  The 
order  in  which  the  suits  should  otherwise  be  committed  to 
memory, — viz.,  hearts,  spades,  diamonds,  clubs.  Having  sorted 
your  cards  in  accordance  with  the  above  directions,  your 
pack  is  “ prepared  ” and  ready  for  use  ; and  when  you  have 
successfully  completed  the  exchange,  you  bring  forward  your 
prepared  pack,  and  hand  it  round  to  be  cut.  The  pack  may 
be  cut  as  often  as  the  audience  pleases,  but  always  whist 
fashion, — i.e. , the  lower  half  of  the  pack  must  be  placed 
upon  the  upper  at  each  cut.  You  now  only  want  to  know  the 
top  card,  and  yen  will  then  have  a clue  to  the  rest.  You 
therefore  take  off  the  top  card,  and  holding  it  between  your- 
self and  the  light,  you  see  what  it  is,  saying  at  the  same  time, 
by  way  of  apology,  that  this  is  the  old  way  of  performing  the 
trick,  but  that  it  is  now  superseded.  Having  once  ascertained 
what  the  first  is,  which,  for  example,  we  will  suppose  to  be 
the  king  of  diamonds,  you  then  take  the  next  card  on  your 
finger,  and  poise  it  for  a moment,  as  if  you  were  going 
through  a process  of  mental  calculation.  This  pause  will 
give  you  time  to  repeat  to  yourself  the  two  lines  given  by 
which  means  you  will  know  what  card  comes  next.  Thus  : — 
“ Eight  kings  threa-tewV  to,"  etc.  ; it  will  be  seen  that  the 
three  comes  next. 


THE  QUEEN’S  DIG  FOR  DIAMONDS. 

Taking  the  pack  in  your  hands,  you  separate  from  it  the 
four  kings,  queens,  knaves,  and  aces,  and  also  four  common 
cards  of  each  suit.  Then  laying  the  four  queens,  face  up. 
wards,  in  a row  on  the  table,  you  commence  telling  your  story 
somewhat  after  this  fashion  : — 

“ These  four  queens  set  out  to  seek  for  diamonds.  [ Here 
you  place  any  four  cards  of  the  diamond  suit  half  over  the 
queens. ] As  they  intend  to  dig  for  diamonds,  they  each  take 
a spade.  [ Here  lay  four  common  spades  half  over  the  diamonds .] 
The  kings,  their  husbands,  aware  of  the  risk  they  run,  send  a 
guard  of  honor  to  protect  them.  [ Place  the  four  aces  half  over 
the  spades.~\  But  fearing  the  guard  of  honor  might  neglect 
their  duty,  the  kings  resolve  to  set  out  themselves.  [. Here  lay 
the  four  kings  half  over  the  four  aces.  ] Now,  there  were  four 
robbers,  who,  being  apprised  of  the  queens’  intentions,  deter- 
mined to  waylay  and  rob  them  as  they  returned  with  the  dia- 
monds in  their  possession.  \Lay  the  four  knaves  half  over  the 
four  kings .]  Each  of  these  four  robbers  armed  himself  with 
a club  [ lay  out  four  clubs  half  over  the  knaves~\  ; and  as  they 
do  not  know  how  the  queens  may  be  protected,  it  is  necessary 
that  each  should  carry  a stout  heart.”  \Lay  out  four  hearts 
half  over  the  knaves.  ] 

You  have  now  exhausted  the  whole  of  the  cards  with  which 
you  commenced  the  game,  and  have  placed  them  in  four  col- 
umns. You  take  the  cards  in  the  first  of  these  columns,  and 
pack  them  together,  beginning  at  your  left  hand,  and  keeping 
them  in  the  order  in  which  you  laid  them  out.  Having  done 
this,  you  place  them  on  the  table,  face  downwards.  You  pack 
up  the  second  column  in  like  manner,  lay  them  on  the  first, 
and  so  on  with  the  other  two. 

The  pack  is  then  handed  to  the  company,  who  cut  them  as 
often  as  they  choose,  provided  always  that  they  cut  whist 
fashion.  That  done,  you  may  give  them  what  is  termed  a 
shuffle-cut ; that  is,  you  appear  to  shuffle  them,  but  in  reality 
only  give  them  a quick  succession  of  cuts,  taking  care  that 
when  you  are  done  a card  of  the  heart  suit  remains  at  the 
bottom. 

You  then  begin  to  lay  them  out  again  as  you  did  in  the  first 
instance,  and  it  will  be  found  that  all  the  cards  will  come  in 
their  proper  order. 

MYSTERIOUS  DISAPPEARANCE  OF  THE  KNAVE 
OF  SPADES. 

Fixing  your  eye  upon  the  stoutest-looking  man  in  the  room, 
you  ask  him  if  he  can  hold  a card  tightly.  Of  course  he  will 
answer  in  the  affirmative  ; but  if  he  should  not,  you  will  have 
no  difficulty  in  finding  one  who  does.  Youthen  desire  him  to 
stand  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  and  holding  up  the  pack  of 
cards,  you  show  him  the  bottom  one,  and  request  him  to  state 
what  card  it  is.  He  will  tell  you  that  it  is  the  knave  of 
spades.  You  then  tell  him  to  hold  the  card  tightly  and  look 
up  at  the  ceiling.  While  he  is  looking  up  you  ask  him  if  he 
recollects  his  card  ; and  if  he  answer,  as  he  will  be  sure  to  do, 
the  knave  of  spades,  you  will  reply  that  he  must  have  made  a 
mistake,  for  if  he  look  at  the  card  he  will  find  it  to  be  the  knave 
of  hearts,  which  will  be  the  case.  Then  handing  him  the 


PARLOR  MAGIC. 


43/ 


pack,  you  tell  him  that  if  he  will  look  over  it,  he  will  find  his 
knave  of  spades  somewhere  in  the  middle  of  the  pack. 

This  trick  is  extremely  simple  and  easy  of  accomplishment. 
You  procure  an  extra  knave  of  spades,  and  cut  it  in  half, 
keeping  the  upper  part,  and  throwing  away  the  lower.  Be- 
fore showing  the  bottom  of  the  pack  to  the  company,  get  the 
knave  of  hearts  to  the  bottom,  and  lay  over  it,  unperceived  by 
the  company,  your  half  knave  of  spades  ; and  under  pretense 
of  holding  the  pack  very  tight,  put  your  thumb  across  the 
middle,  so  that  the  joining  may  not  be  seen,  the  legs  of  the 
two  knaves  being  so  similar  that  detection  is  impossible.  You 
then  give  him  the  lower  part  of  the  knave  of  hearts  to  hold, 
and  when  he  has  drawn  the  card  away  hold  your  hands  so  that 
the  faces  of  the  cards  will  be  turned  toward  the  floor.  As 
early  as  possible  you  take  an  opportunity  of  removing  the 
half  knave. 

SLEIGHT-OF-HAND  TRICKS,  Etc. 

Having  completed  our  catalogue  of  card  feats,  we  now  pro- 
ceed to  give  a short  selection  of  other  conjuring  tricks. 

A CHEAP  WAY  OF  BEING  GENEROUS. 

You  take  a little  common  white  or  bees’  wax,  and  stick  it 
on  your  thumb.  Then,  speaking  to  a bystander,  you  show 
him  sixpence,  and  tell  him  you  will  put  the  same  into  his 
hand  ; press  it  down  upon  the  palm  of  his  hand  with  your 
waxed  thumb,  talking  to  him  the  while,  and  looking  him  in 
the  face.  Suddenly  take  away  your  thumb,  and  the  coin  will 
adhere  to  it ; then  close  his  hand,  and  he  will  be  under  the 
impression  that  he  holds  the  sixpence,  as  the  sensation  caused 
by  the  pressing  still  remains.  You  may  tell  him  he  is  at 
liberty  to  keep  the  sixpence  ; but  on  opening  his  hand  to  look 
at  it  he  will  find,  to  his  astonishment,  that  it  is  gone. 

f HE  FAMOUS  MOUNTEBANK  TRICK. 

In  the  days  when  merry-andrews  and  mountebanks  met  with 
a hearty  welcome  on  every  English  village  green,  no  conjuring 
trick  was  more  popular  than  this  ; yet  there  are  few  that  can 
be  performed  with  less  difficulty.  You  first  of  all  procure  a 
long  strip  of  paper,  or  several  smaller  strips  pasted  together, 
two  or  three  inches  wide.  Color  the  edges  red  and  blue,  and 
roll  up  the  paper  like  a roll  of  ribbon.  Before  doing  so,  how- 
ever, securely  paste  a small  piece  of  cotton  at  the  end  you 
begin  to  roll.  Then,  when  the  proper  time  has  arrived,  you 
take  hold  of  this  cotton,  and  begin  to  pull  out  a long  roll 
which  very  much  resembles  “a  barber’s  pole.”  In  order  to 
perform  this  trick  with  good  effect,  have  before  you  some 
paper  shavings,  which  may  easily  be  procured  at  any  book- 
binder’s, and  commence  to  appear  to  eat  them.  The  chewed 
paper  can  be  removed  each  time  a fresh  handful  is  put  into 
the  mouth  ; and  when  the  proper  time  and  opportunity  have 
arrived,  put  the  roll  into  the  mouth,  and  pull  the  bit  of  cotton, 
when  a long  roll  comes  out,  as  before  described,  to  the  as- 
tonishment of  the  audience. 

A more  elegant  but  similar  feat  is  the  following,  which  we 
will  style 

BRINGING  COLORED  RIBBONS  FROM  THE 
MOUTH. 

Heap  a quantity  of  finely-carded  cotton  wool  upon  a plate, 


which  place  before  you.  At  the  bottom  of  this  lint,  and  con- 
cealed from  the  company,  you  should  have  several  narrow 
strips  of  colored  ribbons,  wound  tightly  into  one  roll,  so  as  to 
occupy  but  little  space.  Now  begin  to  appear  to  eat  the  lint 
by  putting  a handful  in  your  mouth.  The  first  handful  can 
easily  be  removed  and  returned  to  the  plate  unobserved  while 
the  second  is  being  “ crammed  in.”  In  doing  this,  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  use  all  the  lint,  but  to  leave  sufficient 
to  conceal  the  roll.  At  the  last  handful,  take  up  the  roll  and 
push  it  into  your  mouth  without  any  lint  ; then  appear  to  have 
had  enough,  and  look  in  a very  distressed  state,  as  if  you 
were  full  to  suffocation  ; then  put  your  hands  up  to  your 
mouth,  get  hold  of  the  end  of  the  ribbon,  and  draw,  hand  over 
hand,  yards  of  ribbon  as  if  from  your  stomach.  The  slower 
this  is  done,  the  better  the  effect.  When  one  ribbon  is  off 
the  roll  your  tongue  will  assist  you  in  pushing  another  end 
ready  for  the  hand.  You  will  find  you  need  not  wet  or  damage 
the  ribbons  in  the  least.  This  is  a trick  which  is  frequently 
performed  by  one  of  the  cleverest  conjurers  of  the  day. 

CATCHING  MONEY  FROM  THE  AIR. 

The  following  trick,  which  tells  wonderfully  well  when  skill- 
fully performed,  is  a great  favorite  with  one  of  our  best-known 
conjurers.  So  far  as  we  are  aware,  it  has  not  before  been 
published.  Have  in  readiness  ar.y  number  of  silver  coins, 
say  thirty-four  ; place  all  of  them  in  the  left  hand,  with  the 
exception  of  four,  which  you  must  palm  into  the  right  hand, 
then,  obtaining  a hat  from  the  audience,  you  quietly  put  the 
left  hand  with  the  silver  inside  ; and  whilst  playfully  asking 
if  it  is  a new  hat,  or  with  some  such  remark  for  the  purpose 
of  diverting  attention,  loose  the  silver,  and  at  the  same  time 
take  hold  of  the  brim  with  the  left  hand,  and  hold  it  still  so 
as  not  to  shake  the  silver.  Now  address  the  audience,  and  in- 
form them  that  you  are  going  to  “catch  money  from  the  air.” 
Ask  some  person  to  name  any  number  of  coins  up  to  ten,  say 
eight.  In  the  same  way  you  go  on  asking  various  persons, 
and  adding  the  numbers  aloud  till  the  total  number  named  is 
nearly  thirty  ; then  looking  round  as  though  some  one  had 
spoken  another  number,  and  knowing  that  you  have  only 
thirty-four  coins,  you  must  appear  to  have  heard  the  numbei 
called  which,  with  what  has  already  been  given,  will  make 
thirty-four  ; say  the  last  number  you  added  made  twenty-eight, 
then,  as  though  you  had  heard  some  one  say  six,  “ and  twenty- 
eight  and  six  make  thirty-four — Thank  you,  I think  we 
have  sufficient.”  Then,  with  the  four  coins  palmed  in  your 
right  hand,  make  a catch  at  the  air,  when  they  will  chink. 
Look  at  them,  and  pretend  to  throw  them  into  the  hat,  but 
instead  of  doing  so  palm  them  again  ; but,  in  order  to  satisfy 
your  audience  that  you  really  threw  them  into  the  hat,  you 
must,  when  in  the  act  of  palming,  hit  the  brim  of  the  hat  with 
the  wrist  of  the  right  hand,  which  will  make  the  coins  in  the 
hat  chink  as  if  they  had  just  fallen  from  the  right  hand.  Hav- 
ing repeated  this  process  several  times,  say,  “ I suppose  we 
have  sufficient,”  empty  them  out  on  to  a plate,  and  let  one  of 
the  audience  count  them.  It  will  be  found  that  there  are  only 
thirty,  but  the  number  which  you  were  to  catch  was  thirty- 
four.  You  will  therefore  say,  “Well,  we  are  four  short;  I 
must  catch  just  four,  neither  more  nor  less.”  Then,  still  hav- 


PARLOR  MAGIC. 


ing  four  coins  palmed  in  your  right  hand,  you  catch  again, 
and  open  your  hands,  saying  to  the  audience,  “ Here  they 
are.” 

HOW  TO  FIRE  A LOADED  PISTOL  AT  THE 
HAND  WITHOUT  HURTING  IT 

This  extraordinary  illusion  is  performed  with  real  powder, 
real  bullets,  and  a real  pistol  ; the  instrument  which  effects 
the  deception  being  the  ramrod.  This  ramrod  is  made  of 
polished  iron,  and  on  one  end  of  it  is  very  nicely  fitted  a tube, 
like  a small  telescope  tube.  When  the  tube  is  off  the  rod, 
there  will,  of  course,  appear  a little  projection.  The  other 
end  of  the  rod  must  be  made  to  resemble  this  exactly.  The 
ramrod  with  the  tube  on  being  in  your  hand,  you  pass  the 
pistol  round  to  the  audience  to  be  examined,  and  request  one 
of  them  to  put  in  a little  powder.  Then  take  the  pistol  your- 
self, and  put  in  a very  small  piece  of  wadding,  and  ram  it 
down  ; and  in  doing  so  you  will  leave  the  tube  of  the  ramrod 
inside  the  barrel  of  the  pistol.  To  allay  any  suspicion  that 
might  arise  in  the  minds  of  your  audience,  you  hand  the  ram- 
rod to  them  for  their  inspection.  The  ramrod  being  returned 
to  you,  you  hand  the  pistol  to  some  person  in  the  audience, 
requesting  him  to  insert  a bullet,  and  to  mark  it  in  such  a 
way  that  he  would  recognize  it  again.  You  then  take  the 
pistol  back,  and  put  in  a little  more  wadding.  In  ramming 
it  down,  the  rod  slips  into  the  tube,  which  now  forms,  as  it 
were,  an  inner  lining  to  the  barrel,  and  into  which  the  bullet 
has  fallen  ; the  tube  fitting  tight  on  to  the  rod  is  now  with- 
drawn along  with  it  from  the  pistol,  and  the  bullet  is  easily 
got  into  the  hand  by  pulling  off  the  tube  from  the  rod  while 
seeking  a plate  to  “catch  the  bullets”;  and  the  marksman 
receiving  order  to  fire,  you  let  the  bullet  fall  from  your  closed 
hand  into  the  plate  just  as  the  pistol  goes  off. 

CURIOUS  WATCH  TRICK. 

By  means  of  this  trick,  if  a person  will  tell  you  the  hour  at 
which  he  means  to  dine,  you  can"  tell  him  the  hour  at  which 
he  means  to  get  up  next  morning.  First  ask  a person  to  think 
of  the  hour  he  intends  rising  on  the  following  morning.  When 
he  has  done  so,  bid  him  place  his  finger  on  the  hour,  on  the 
dial  of  your  watch,  at  which  he  intends  dining.  Then— hav- 
ing requested  him  to  remember  the  hour  of  which  he  first 
thought  —you  mentally  add  twelve  to  the  hour  upon  which 
he  has  placed  his  finger,  and  request  him  to  retrograde, 
counting  the  hours  you  mention,  whatever  that  may  be,  but 
that  he  is  to  commence  counting  with  the  hour  he  thought  of 
from  the  hour  he  points  at.  For  example,  suppose  he  thought 
of  rising  at  eight,  and  places  his  finger  on  twelve  as  the  hour 
at  which  he  means  to  dine,  you  desire  him  to  count  back 
twenty  four  hours  ; beginning  at  twelve  he  counts  eight,  that 
being  the  hour  he  thought  of  rising,  eleven  he  calls  nine,  ten 
he  calls  ten  (mentally,  but  not  aloud),  and  so  on  until  he  has 
counted  twenty-four,  at  which  point  he  will  stop,  which  will 
be  eight,  and  he  will  probably  be  surprised  to  find  it  is  the 
hour  he  thought  of  rising  at. 

THE  FLYING  QUARTER. 

This  is  a purely  sleight  of  hand  trick,  but  it  does  not  require 
much  practice  to  be  able  to  do  it  well  and  cleverly.  Take  a 

kr — 


quarter  between  the  forefinger  and  thumb  of  the  right  hand  ; 
then,  by  a rapid  twist  of  the  fingers,  twirl  the  coin  by  the  same 
motion  that  you  would  use  to  spin  a teetotum.  At  the  same 
time  rapidly  close  your  hand,  and  the  coin  will  disappear  up 
your  coat  sleeve.  You  may  now  open  your  hand,  and,  much 
to  the  astonishment  of  your  audience,  the  coin  will  not  be  there. 

This  capital  trick  may  be  varied  in  a hundred  ways.  One 
plan  is  to  take  three  quarters,  and  concealing  one  in  the  palm 
of  your  left  hand,  place  one  of  the  others  between  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand,  and  the  third  between  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  left  hand.  Then  give  the  coin  in 
the  right  hand  the  twist  already  described,  and  closing  both 
hands  quickly,  it  will  disappear  up  your  sleeve,  and  the  left 
hand  on  being  unclosed,  will  be  found  to  contain  two  quarters. 
Thus  you  will  make  the  surprised  spectators  believe  that  you 
conjured  the  coin  from  your  right  hand  to  the  left. 

PLUMES  FOR  THE  LADIES. 

The  following  very  clever  trick  was  a favorite  with  M.  Hou- 
din,  and  was  performed  by  him  at  St.  James  Theater,  where 
it  drew  forth  a good  deal  of  admiration.  When  known,  how. 
ever,  it  appears  like  a great  many  other  tricks,  extremely  simple 
and  easy. 

Procure  two  or  three  large  plumes  of  feathers,  or  a lot  tied 
together.  Take  off  your  coat,  and  hold  one  lot  in  each  hand, 
so  that  the  plumes  will  lie  in  a parallel  line  with  the  arms. 

Put  your  coat  on  again,  and  press  the  feathers  into  small  com- 
pass. Ask  some  one  to  lend  you  a large  silk  handkerchief, 
throw  it  over  one  hand  and  part  of  the  arm,  and  with  the  other 
quickly  draw  the  feathers  from  that  arm.  The  plumes,  being 
released  from  their  imprisonment,  will  spread  out  and  resume 
their  bulky  appearance,  and  the  onlookers  will  be  completely 
baffled  as  to  where  they  could  have  come  from.  Then  repeat 
the  process  with  the  other  arm. 

THE  BORROWED  QUARTER  IN  THE  WORSTED 
BALL. 

This  easily-performed  trick  should  be  in  the  repertoire  of 
every  amateur  magician.  A large  ball  of  worsted  is  obtained, 
and  a marked  quarter  having  been  borrowed  from  the  audience, 
the  worsted  is  unwound,  and  out  falls  the  quarter  which  but  a 
moment  before  was  supposed  to  be  in  the  hands  of  the  opera 
tor.  It  is  done  in  this  way : Procure  a few  skeins  of  thick 
worsted  ; next,  a piece  of  tin  in  the  shape  of  a flat  tube,  large 
enough  for  the  coin  to  pass  through,  and  about  four  inches 
long.  Then  wind  the  worsted  on  one  end  of  the  tube  to  a 
good-sized  ball,  having  a quarter  of  your  own  in  your  right 
hand.  You  may  now  show  the  trick.  Place  the  worsted  any- 
where out  of  sight,  borrow  a marked  quarter,  and  taking  it 
in  your  left  hand,  you  put  the  one  in  your  right  hand  on  the  end 
r/[  the  table  farthest  from  the  company.  While  so  doing,  drop 
the  marked  quarter  into  the  tube,  pull  the  tube  out,  and  wind  » 
little  more  worsted  on  in  order  to  conceal  the  hole.  Then  put 
the  ball  into  a tumbler,  and  taking  the  quarter  you  left  on  th6 
table,  show  it  to  the  company  (who  will  imagine  it  to  be  ths 
borrowed  quarter),  and  say  “Presto!  fly  ! pass  !”  Give  ths 
fnd  of  the  ball  to  one  of  the  audience  and  request  him  to  un- 
wind it,  and  on  that  being  done  the  money  will  fall  out. 

i 


PARLOR  MAGIC. 


439 


THE  INK  AND  FISH  TRICK. 

This  trick,  originally  introduced  by  M.  Houdin,  has  been 
performed  by  every  wizard  since.  A large  goblet  is  placed  on 
the  table,  containing  apparently  several  pints  of  ink.  A small 
quantity  of  ink  is  taken  out  with  a ladle,  and  being  poured  out 
into  a plate,  is  handed  round  to  the  company  to  satisfy  them 
that  it  really  is  ink.  A handkerchief  is  then  covered  over  the 
goblet,  and  upon  being  instantly  withdrawn,  reveals  the  glass 
now  full  of  water,  in  which  swim  gold  and  silver  fish.  The 
trick  is  thus  performed  : a black  silk  lining  is  placed  inside  the 
goblet,  and  kept  in  its  place  by  a wire  ring.  It  thus  forms  a 
bag  without  a bottom,  as  it  were,  and  when  wet  adheres  close 
to  the  glass  in  which  are  the  water  and  the  fish.  The  next  part 
of  the  deception  is  the  ladle,  which'must  be  capable  of  contain- 
ing as  much  ink  as  will  induce  the  audience  to  believe  that  it 
was  got  from  the  goblet  before  them.  The  ink  must  be  con- 
cealed in  the  handle  of  the  ladle,  so  that  when  it  is  lying  on 
the  table  it  will  not  be  perceived  ; but  on  being  elevated,  it 
must  run  into  the  ladle  through  a small  aperture  made  for  the 
purpose.  The  black  silk  is  easily  withdrawn  by  the  thumb 
and  finger  at  the  time  the  handkerchief  is  removed.  It  must 
be  concealed  within  the  folds  of  the  handkerchief. 

SILVER  CHANGED  TO  GOLD— FLYING  MONEY. 

Before  commencing  this  trick  you  must  provide  yourself 
with  two  quarters  and  a half  eagle,  and  one  of  the  quarters 
must  be  concealed  in  the  right  hand.  Lay  the  other  quarter 
and  the  half  eagle  on  the  table,  in  full  view  of  the  audience. 
Now  ask  for  two  handkerchiefs,  then  take  the  half  eagle  up 
and  pretend  to  roll  it  in  one  of  the  handkerchiefs  ; but  instead 
of  that  roll  up  the  quarter,  which  you  had  concealed  in  the 
right  hand,  and  retain  the  half  eagle.  Then  give  the  handker- 
chief to  one  of  the  company  to  hold.  Now  take  the  quarter 
off  the  table,  and  pretend  to  roll  that  up  in  the  second  hand- 
kerchief, but  put  up  the  half  eagle  instead.  Give  this  hand- 
kerchief to  a second  person  and  bid  him  “ hold  it  tight,”  while 
you  command  the  half|eagle  and  the  quarter  to  change  places. 
On  the  handkerchief  being  opened,  the  coins  will  appear  to 
have  obeyed  your  command. 

THE  “TWENTY  CENTS”  TRICK. 

This  trick  may  be  performed  with  any  number  of  either 
quarters,  half  eagles,  or  half  dollars  ; but,  following  the  tradi- 
tional rule,  we  will  suppose  that  you  borrow  at  random  twenty 
cents  from  the  company  and  display  them  on  a plate,  having 
previously  concealed  five  other  cents  in  your  left  hand. 
You  take  the  cents  from  the  plate  into  the  right  hand,  mix 
them  with  the  concealed  five,  and  then  give  them  to  one  of 
the  company  to  hold.  You  then  ask  the  possessor  to  return 
five  to  you,  which  he  will  do,  under  the  supposition  that  he 
only  retains  fifteen,  while  in  reality  he  retains  twenty.  You 
must  now  have  another  cent  palmed  in  your  right  hand,  so 
that  when  you  give  the  five  cents  to  another  person  to  hold, 
you  add  one  to  the  number,  and  in  reality  put  six  in  his  hands. 
You  then  ask  him,  as  in  the  previous  case  to  return  one  to 
you,  reminding  him,  as  you  receive  it,  that  he  has  only  four  left. 


Then  pretending  to  put  the  cent  you  have  just  received  inta 
your  left  hand,  you  strike  the  left  hand  with  your  magic  wana, 
and  bid  the  coin  you  are  supposed  to  be  holding  to  fly  into  th« 
closed  hand  of  the  person  holding  five,  or,  as  he  supposes,  four 
cents.  On  unclosing hishand  he  will  find  it  to  contain  five  cents, 
and  he  will  believe  that  you  transferred  one  of  them  thither. 
Now,  taking  the  five  cents,  you  must  dexterously  pass  them 
into  the  left  hand,  and  bid  them  fly  into  the  closed  hand  of  the 
person  holding  the  supposed  fifteen  ; and  he,  in  like  manner, 
will  be  astonished  to  find,  on  unclosing  his  hand,  that  it  con- 
tains twenty  cents  instead  of,  as  he  supposed,  fifteen. 

THE  MYSTERIOUS  BAG. 

Mr.  Philippe,  when  appearing  before  his  wonder-struck  au- 
diences, used  to  excite  the  most  profound  amazement  by  means 
of  a mysterious  bag,  from  which  he  produced  nearly  every 
conceivable  thing,  from  a mouse-trap  to  a four-post  bedstead  ; 
and  its  capacity  was  so  prodigious,  that  it  swallowed  even 
more  than  it  produced.  Similar  but  less  pretending  is  the 
one  which  we  give  under  the  title  of  “ The  Mysterious  Bag.” 
Make  two  bags,  each  about  a foot  long  and  six  inches  wide,  of 
some  dark  material,  and  sew  them  together  at  the  edge,  so  that 
one  may  be  inside  the  other.  Next  make  a number  of  pock- 
ets, each  with  a cover  to  it,  which  may  be  fastened  down  by  a 
slight  elastic  band.  Place  these  about  two  inches  apart,  be- 
tween the  two  bags,  sewing  one  side  of  the  pocket  to  one  bag 
and  the  other  side  to  the  other.  Make  slits  through  both  bags 
about  an  inch  long,  just  above  the  pockets,  so  that  you  can 
put  your  hand  in  the  bags  ; and  by  inserting  your  thumb  and 
finger  through  these  slits  you  may  obtain  entrance  to  the  pock- 
ets, and  bring  out  of  them  whatever  they  contain.  It  is,  of 
course,  necessary  that  a variety  of  articles  should  be  put  in  the 
pockets.  Before  commencing  the  trick  you  may  turn  the  bag 
inside  out  any  number  of  times,  so  that  your  audience  may 
conclude  that  it  is  quite  empty.  You  can  then  cause  to  appear 
or  disappear  any  number  of  articles  of  a light  nature,  much  to 
the  amusement  of  your  audience. 

TO  MAKE  A DIME  DISAPPEAR  AT  COMMAND. 

This  simple  and  well-known  but  often  amusing  trick,  en- 
ables the  operator  to  cause  a small  coin  to  disappear  after  it 
has  been  wrapped  up  in  a handkerchief.  Borrow  a dime  or  a 
small  coin,  or  use  one  of  your  own,  and  secretly  place  a small 
piece  of  soft  wax  on  one  side  of  it ; then  spread  a pocket- 
handkerchief  on  a table,  and  taking  up  a coin,  show  it  to 
your  audience,  being  very  careful  not  to  expose  the  side  that 
has  the  wax  on  it.  Having  done  this,  place  the  coin  in  the 
center  of  the  handkerchief,  so  that  the  wax  side  will  adhere. 
Then  bring  the  corner  of  the  handkerchief  over,  and  com- 
pletely hide  the  coin  from  the  view  of  the  spectators.  All  this 
must  be  carefully  done,  or  the  company  will  perceive  the  wax 
on  the  back  of  the  coin.  You  must  now  press  very  hard  on 
the  coin  with  your  thumb,  in  order  to  make  it  adhere.  When 
you  have  done  this,  fold  over  successively  the  other  corners, 
repeating  the  operation  a second  time,  and  leaving  the  fourth 
corner  open.  Then  take  hold  of  the  handkerchief  with  both 
hands  at  the  open  part,  and  sliding  your  finger  along  the 


440 


PARLOR  MAGIC. 


edge  of  the  same,  it  will  become  unfolded,  and  the  coin  ad- 
hering to  the  corner  of  the  handkerchief  will,  of  course,  come 
into  your  right  hand  ; then  detach  the  coin,  shake  out  the 
handkerchief,  and  to  the  great  astonishment  of  the  company 
the  coin  will  have  disappeared. 

In  order  to  convince  your  audience  that  the  coin  is  still  in 
the  handkerchief  after  you  have  wrapped  it  up,  you  can  drop 
it  on  the  table,  when  it  will  sound. 

TO  PRODUCE  A CANNON-BALL  FROM  A HAT. 

This  is  a very  old  trick,  though  it  still  finds  favor  with  most 
of  the  conjurors  of  the  present  day.  You  borrow  a hat,  and 
on  taking  it  into  your  hands  you  ask  a number  of  questions 
about  it,  or  say  it  would  be  a pity  for  you  to  spoil  so  nice  a 
hat,  or  make  use  of  some  such  remark.  This,  however,  is  only 
a ruse  for  the  purpose  of  diverting  attention.  Then  passing 
round  to  the  back  of  your  table — (where,  by  the  way,  you  have 
arranged  on  pegs  a large  wooden  “ cannon-ball,”  or  a cab- 
bage, or  a bundle  of  dolls,  trinkets,  etc.,  loosely  tied  together, 
so  that  they  may  be  easily  disengaged) — you  wipe,  in  passing, 
one  or  other  of  these  articles  off  the  pegs,  where  they  must  be 
very  slightly  suspended,  into  the  hat  so  rapidly  as  not  to  be 
observed. 

Returning  to  the  gentleman  from  whom  you  received  the 
hat,  you  say  to  him — “You  are  aware,  sir,  that  your  hat  was 
not  empty  when  you  gave  it  to  me  ” — at  the  same  time  empty- 
ing the  contents  in  front  of  the  audience.  Supposing  you 
have,  in  the  first  instance,  introduced  the  dolls  and  trinkets, 
you  may  repeat  the  trick  by  wiping  the  “ cannon-ball  ” or  one 
of  the  other  articles  into  the  hat,  and  again  advancing  towards 
the  gentleman  from  whom  you  received  it,  say,  “ Here  is 
your  hat  ; thank  you,  sir.”  Then,  just  as  you  are  about  to 
give  it  to  him,  say,  “Bless  me,  what  have  we  here?”  and 
turning  the  hat  upside  down,  the  large  cannon-ball  will  fall 
out. 

EVANESCENT  MONEY. 

“ ’ T is  here,  and ’t  is  gone  ! ” This  simple  but  effective 
trick  is  done  in  the  following  manner  : Stick  a small  piece  of 
white  wax  on  the  nail  of  your  middle  finger  ; lay  a dime 
on  the  palm  of  your  hand,  and  state  to  the  company  that  you 
will  make  it  vanish  at  the  word  of  command,  at  the  same 
time  observing  that  many  perform  the  feat  by  letting  the  dime 
fall  into  their  sleeve,  but  to  convince  them  that  you  have  not 
recourse  to  any  such  deception,  turn  up  the  cuffs  of  your 
sleeves.  Then  close  your  hand,  and  by  bringing  the  waxed 
nail  in  contact  with  the  dime,  it  will  firmly  adhere  to  it. 
Then  blow  upon  your  hand,  and  cry  “ Begone  !”  and  sud- 
denly opening  it  and  extending  yonr  palm,  you  show  the  dime 
has  vanished.  Care  must  be  taken  to  remove  the  wax  from  the 
dime  before  you  restore  it  to  the  owner. 

THE  WINGED  DIME. 

Take  a dime  with  a hole  in  the  edge,  and  attach  it  to  a 
piece  of  white  sewing-silk,  at  the  end  of  which  is  a piece  of 
elastic  cord  about  twelve  inches  in  length.  Sew  the  cord  to 
the  lining  of  your  left-hand  coat  sleeve,  but  be  careful  that  the 


end  of  the  cord  to  which  the  coin  is  attached  should  not  ex- 
tend lower  than  within  two  inches  of  the  end  of  the  sleeve 
when  the  coat  is  on.  Having  done  this,  bring  down  the  six- 
pence with  the  right  hand,  and  place  it  between  the  thumb  and 
under  finger  of  the  left  hand,  and  showing  it  to  the  company, 
tell  them  you  will  give  it  to  any  one  present  who  will  not  let 
it  slip  away.  You  must  then  select  one  of  your  audience,  to 
whom  you  proffer  the  dime,  and  just  as  he  is  about  to  receive 
it  you  must  let  it  slip  from  between  your  fingers,  and  the  con- 
traction of  the  elastic  cord  will  draw  the  coin  up  your  sleeve, 
and  its  sudden  disappearance  will  be  likely  to  astonish  the 
would-be  recipient.  This  feat  can  be  varied  by  pretending  to 
wrap  the  coin  in  a piece  of  paper  or  a handkerchief.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  let  any  part  of  the  cord  be  seen, 
as  that  would  be  the  means  of  discovering  the  trick. 

THE  AERIAL  COIN. 

The  following  will  furnish  the  key  to  many  of  the  stock 
tricks  of  professional  conjurors.  Having  turned  up  the  cuffs 
of  your  coat,  begin  by  placing  a cent  on  your  elbow  (your 
arm  being  bent  by  raising  the  hand  toward  the  shoulder) 
and  catching  it  in  your  hand — a feat  of  dexterity  easily 
performed.  Then  say  that  you  can  catch  even  a smaller  coin 
in  a more  difficult  position.  You  must  illustrate  this  by 
placing  the  dime  half-way  between  the  elbow  and  the  wrist, 
and  by  suddenly  bringing  the  hand  down  the  dime  will 
fall  securely  into  the  cuff,  unseen  by  any  one,  and  it  will 
seem  to  have  disappeared  altogether.  Take  a drinking  glass 
or  tumbler,  and  bidding  the  spectators  to  look  upwards,  in- 
form them  that  the  lost  coin  shall  drop  through  the  ceiling. 
By  placing  the  glass  at  the  side  of  your  arm,  and  elevating 
your  hand,  the  coin  will  fall  from  the  cuff  into  the  tumbler. 

THE  TRAVERSING  RING. 

Provide  yourself  with  a silk  handkerchief  and  a small  ring. 
With  a needleful  of  silk,  doubled,  sew  the  ring  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  handkerchief,  but  let  it  be  suspended  by  the  silk 
within  an  inch  or  two  of  the  bottom  of  the  handkerchief. 
When  the  handkerchief  is  held  up  by  the  two  corners,  the  ring 
must  always  hang  on  the  side  facing  the  conjuror.  The  hand- 
kerchief may  now  be  crumpled  up  to  “ show  all  fair.”  Obtain 
a ring  from  one  of  the  company,  and  retain  it  in  the  hand  with 
which  you  receive  it,  but  pretend  to  pass  it  to  the  other.  Then 
pretend  to  wrap  it  up  in  the  handkerchief,  and  taking  hold  of 
the  other  ring  through  the  folds,  request  some  one  to  hold  it. 
Ask  them  if  they  can  feel  it,  and  as  soon  as  they  are  satisfied 
that  this  is  the  identical  ring  which  you  borrowed,  you  put  a 
plate  on  the  table,  and  request  the  person  holding  the  hand- 
kerchief to  place  both  it  and  the  ring  on  the  plate.  You  then 
inform  the  company  that  you  will  cause  the  ring  to  pass 
through  the  plate  and  table  into  a little  box,  which  you  show 
round,  and  which  you  will  place  under  the  table.  You  can 
easily  slip  the  ring  in  as  you  are  doing  so.  Then  partly  un- 
wrap the  handkerchief,  so  that  the  ring  will  chink  upon  the 
plate,  and  with  the  words,  “Quick  ! change  ! begone  !”  or 
some  expressions  of  similar  import,  take  the  handkerchief  by 
two  corners,  and  put  it  in  your  pocket,  saying,  “ It  is  now  in 


PARLOR  MAGIC. 


the  box.”  You  then  request  some  one  to  pick  it  up  and  take 
out  the  ring. 


THE  COOKING  HAT. 

Have  cakes  or  pudding  previously  made,  and  procure  a jar 
or  doctor’s  gallipot,  and  a tin  pot,  made  straight  all  the  way 
up,  with  the  bottom  half  way  down,  so  that  both  ends  contain 
exactly  the  same  quantity.  The  ready-made  pancakes  are  pre- 
viously put  into  the  one  end  of  this  pot,  which  must  be  dex- 
trously  slipped  into  the  hat.  Then  take  some  milk,  flour, 
eggs,  &c.,  and  mix  them  up  in  the  jar.  Having  done  so,  de- 
liberately pour  the  mixture  into  the  hat,  taking  care  that  the 
pot  previously  deposited  there  receives  it.  Put  the  jar  down 
into  the  hat,  press  it  on  the  tin  pot,  which  exactly  fits  inside 
the  jar,  and  brings  away  the  pot  containing  the  mixture,  leav- 
ing the  pancakes,  which  you  pretend  to  fry  over  the  candle, 
using  the  hat  as  a frying-pan.  Then  turn  out  the  pudding  or 
pancakes,  show  that  the  hat  remains  unsoiled,  and  restore  it 
to  its  owner. 

AN  AVIARY  IN  A HAT. 

This  excellent,  but  well-known  trick  requires  the  assistance 
of  a confederate.  A hat  is  borrowed  as  before  from  one  of 
the  audience,  and  turned  round  and  round  to  show  there  is 
nothing  in  it.  It  is  then  laid  on  the  operator’s  table,  behind 
a vase  or  some  other  bulky  article  ; after  which,  as  if  a new 
idea  had  occurred  to  you,  perform  some  other  trick,  during 
which  the  confederate  removes  the  borrowed  hat,  substituting 
one  previously  prepared.  This  substituted  hat  is  filled  with 
small  pigeons,  placed  in  a bag  with  a whalebone  or  an  elastic 
mouth,  which  fits  the  inside  of  the  hat.  The  bag  containing 
the  birds  is  covered  with  a piece  of  cloth,  with  a slit  in  the 
top.  The  operator,  taking  up  the  hat,  puts  his  hands  through 
the  slit,  and  takes  out  the  birds  one  by  one,  till  all  are  free. 
The  hat  is  then  placed  on  the  table,  for  the  ostensible  purpose 
of  cleaning  it  before  handing  it  back,  and  the  confederate 
again  changes  the  hats,  having  in  the  interim  fitted  the  bor- 
rowed hat  with  a bag  similar  to  the  other,  and  also  filled 
with  pigeons.  This  having  been  done,  you  call  out  to  your 
confederate,  and  request  him,  so  that  all  your  audience  may 
hear,  to  “ Take  the  gentleman’s  hat  away,  and  clean  it.”  He 
takes  it  up,  and  peeps  into  it,  saying,  “ You  have  not  let  all 
the  birds  away,”  upon  which,  to  the  surprise  and  amusement 
of  the  spectators,  you  produce  another  lot  of  birds  as  before. 
In  brushing  the  hat  previous  to  restoring  it  to  the  owner,  the 
bag  may  be  adroitly  removed. 

A BANK-NOTE  CONCEALED  IN  A CANDLE. 

Ask  some  one  to  lend  you  a bank-note,  and  to  notice  the 
number,  etc.  You  then  walk  up  to  the  screen  behind  which 
your  confederate  is  concealed,  pass  the  note  to  him,  and  take 
a wax  or  composite  candle.  Then  turning  to  the  audience, 
you  ask  one  of  them — a boy  would  be  preferred — to  step  up 
on  the  platform.  At  your  request  he  must  cut  the  candle  into 
four  equal  parts.  You  then  take  three  of  them,  and  say  you 
will  perform  the  trick  by  means  of  them,  passing  the  fourth 
piece  to  the  other  end  of  the  table,  where  your  confederate  has 


441 


already  rolled  up  the  note  in  a very  small  compass,  and  thrust 
it  into  a hollow  bit  of  candle,  previously  made  ready.  You 
take  up  this  piece,  and,  concealing  it  in  your  hand,  you  walk 
up  to  the  boy,  and  appear  accidentally  to  knock  one  of  the 
bits  of  candle  out  of  his  hand,  and  while  you  are  stooping  to 
pick  it  up  off  the  floor,  you  change  it  for  the  bit  which  con- 
tains the  note.  You  then  place  it  on  the  table,  and  say  to  the 
audience,  “ Which  piece  shall  I take — right  or  left  ? ” If  they 
select  the  one  which  contains  the  note,  ask  the  boy  to  cut  it 
carefully  through  the  middle,  and  to  mind  that  he  does  not  cut 
the  note.  When  he  has  made  a slight  incision,  tell  him  to 
break  it,  when  the  note  will  be  found  in  the  middle.  If  the 
audience  select  the  piece  which  does  not  contain  the  note,  you 
throw  it  aside,  and  say  that  the  note  will  be  found  in  the  re- 
maining piece.  When  this  is  done  with  tact,  the  audience  will 
naturally  believe  that  they  have  really  had  the  privilege  of 
choosing. 

THE  DOLL  TRICK. 


The  Doll  Trick,  although  common  in  the  streets  of  London 
and  at  every  fair  throughout  the  country,  is  without  exception 
one  of  the  best  sleight-of-hand  tricks  that  was  ever  performed, 
and  must  not  be  omitted  here. 

The  conjuror  produces  a wooden  painted  doll,  about  six 
inches  long  ; he  then  places  it  in  a bag  of  very  dark  material, 
and  tells  his  story.  “The  little  traveler,  ladies  and  gentle- 
men, you  see- before  you,  is  a wonderful  little  man  who  has 
been  all  over  the  world  ; but  as  he  has  grown  older  he  has  be- 
come very  nervous.  One  evening  lately,  at  a small  cabaret  in 
the  south  of  France,  he  was  stating  how  nervous  he  was  and 
how  much  he  dreaded  being  robbed,  when  a Jew  who  sat  in  a 
corner  of  the  room  undertook  to  impart  to  him  the  means  of 
making  himself  invisible  at  any  moment,  for  a sum  to  be 
agreed  upon.  The  bargain  was  struck,  the  money  paid,  and 
the  Jew  placed  at  his  disposal  a small  skull-cap,  which,  as 
soon  as  it  was  placed  upon  his  head,  rendered  him  at  once  in- 
visible ; and  I will  now  show  you,  ladies  and  gentlemen,  the 
power  possessed  by  this  cap.”  The  doll  is  then  introduced 
into  the  bag,  which  has  a small  opening  at  the  smaller  end 
sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  the  doll's  head  passing  through 
it.  When  the  head  has  been  shown,  the  lower  part  of  the  bag 
is  turned  over  the  doll  and  its  body  shown,  “ so  that  there  can 
be  no  deception  ! ” The  conjuror  then  says  (still  holding  the 
head  above  the  top  of  the  bag),  “ I will  now  show  you  the 
wonderful  cap  by  which  the  old  gentleman  is  at  once  rendered 
invisible  ; ” and  producing  it  from  his  pocket,  he  places  it 
upon  the  head  of  the  doll  for  a moment,  and  then  removes  it ; 
the  head  then  disappears  in  the  bag,  which  is  then  turned  in- 
side out,  and  no  trace  of  the  doll  can  be  perceived,  though  the 
bag  be  thrown  on  the  floor,  stamped  upon,  etc. 

And  now  for  the  secret  and  the  method  of  performing  this 
really  surprising  though  very  simple  trick.  The  head  is  re- 
movable and  only  fastened  to  the  neck  by  a peg  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  long  ; the  bag  or  dress  is  made  full  at  the 
bottom,  i.  e.,  about  the  size  of  a hat,  and  has  an  opening  at 
the  top  just  large  enough  to  allow  the  doll’s  head  to  pass 
through  it ; at  the  lower  edge  of  this  bag  must  be  made  a small 
pocket,  just  large  enough  to  contain  easily  the  doll,  and  on  the 


442 


PARLOR  MAGIC. 


outside  of  the  bag  must  be  a red  streak,  by  way  of  ornament, 
coming  from  the  top  directly  down  to  the  pocket,  so  that  it 
may  be  seen  exactly  where  the  pocket  is.  This  side  of  the 
bag  must  be  held  nearest  to  the  performer. 

In  performing  the  trick  the  doll  is  introduced  at  the  bottom 
of  the  bag,  and  passed  upwards  until  the  head  is  shown 
through  the  opening  at  the  top  ; and  when  the  performer  says, 
“ I will  now  show  you  the  cap,”  he,  holding  the  head  of  the 
doll  in  his  left  hand,  quickly  passes  the  body  into  his  pocket, 
where  he  has  the  cap,  which  he  produces,  leaving  the  body  in 
its  place.  He  then  for  a moment  places  the  cap  on  the  doll’s 
head,  and  replaces  it  in  his  pocket  ; then  placing  his  right 
hand  in  the  bag,  he  slowly  draws  down  the  head,  which  he 
slips  into  the  small  pocket  in  the  bag,  and  shows  his  hand 
open  and  empty.  He  then  catches  hold  of  the  lower  edge  of 
the  bag  at  the  pocket,  holding,  of  course,  the  head  of  the  doll 
in  his  hand,  and  strikes  the  bag  against  the  table  ground,  etc  , 
and  says,  “ I told  you  the  old  gentleman  would  become  invisi- 
ble.” He  then  says,  “ I will  try  to  bring  him  back  again 
and  introducing  his  hand  into  the  bag,  he  takes  the  head  from 
the  pocket  and  shows  it  through  the  opening  at  the  top  of  the 
bag,  and  retaining  it  in  his  hand,  he  throws  the  bag  on  the 
floor  and  tramples  upon  it. 

If  well  done,  we  consider  this  trick,  though  common,  one  of 
the  best  that  is  performed.  It  will  be  as  well  to  have  two 
dolls  made  exactly  alike,  one  with  the  head  fixed,  to  be  handed 
round,  and  the  other  with  the  movable  head  to  be  used  in  the 
trick.  We  sometimes  use  a pocketless  dress,  and  “ palm  ” the 
head. 

TO  PASS  A DIME,  OR  OTHER  SMALL  ARTICLE, 
THROUGH  A TABLE. 

This  trick,  like  the  preceding  one,  is  very  amusing,  and  if 
well,  and  what  we  may  call  cleanly  done,  is  really  very  aston- 
ishing. The  conjuror,  seating  himself  at  a table,  borrows  two 
articles  of  any  kind  sufficiently  small  to  be  concealed  in  the 
hands  ; these  he  places  on  the  edge  of  the  table  before  him, 
and  says,  I take  this  one,  as  you  see,  in  my  right  hand,  and 
hold  it  at  arm’s  length,  and  the  other  I take  in  my  left  hand — 
my  hands  never  meet.  I now  place  my  left  hand  under  the 
table  and  my  right  hand  above  it,  and  upon  my  giving  the 
word  “ Pass  ! ” the  dime  which  you  saw  me  take  in  my  right 
hand  will  pass  through  the  table  to  the  ball  of  cotton  in  my 
left,  which  you  see  is  the  case. 

This  trick  is  very  easy  of  accomplishment,  if  but  a little  time 
and  patience  be  bestowed  upon  it.  The  dime,  piece  of 
India-rubber,  or  any  other  small  article  must  be  placed  on  the 
edge  of  the  table,  and  the  fingers  must  be  placed  over  it  ex- 
actly the  same  way  as  if  it  were  really  desired  to  take  it  in  the 
hand  ; but  instead  of  doing  so  the  fingers  merely  push  it  over 
the  edge  of  the  table,  and,  the  knees  of  the  performer  being 
closed,  it  falls  into  his  lap.  It  is  then  picked  up  with  the  left 
hand,  and  the  right  hand  being  brought  sharply  upon  the 
upper  surface  of  the  table,  the  dime  appears  to  have  passed 
through  it. 

THE  CUP  AND  CENT. 

This  too,  if  well  performed,  is  a most  astounding  trick. 
Three  coins  of  one  cent  each  are  shown,  and  a small  cap  or 


cup.  The  cents  are  thrown  on  the  table,  picked  up  again, 
arranged  one  on  the  other,  and  the  cap  placed  over  them.  A 
hat  is  then  introduced,  and  shown  to  be  empty  ; this  is  then 
held  in  the  left  hand  under  the  table,  the  cap  removed  with  the 
right  hand,  the  cents  shown  and  recovered.  The  conjuror 
then  says,  “Pass!”  when  the  cents  are  heard  to  fall  in  the 
hat  ; the  cap  on  the  table  is  raised,  and  they  are  gone,  and  in 
their  place  a small  die  or  three  cent  piece  appears.  The  cents 
are  then  taken  in  the  left  hand,  held  under  the  table,  and  com- 
manded to  pass  ; and  on  raising  the  cap  they  again  appear  be- 
neath it. 

This  trick  is  very  simple  though  ingenious,  and  the  solution 
of  it  is  as  follows : The  cap  is  of  leather  or  any  similar 

stiff  material,  and  made  to  fit  over  three  coins  of  one  cent 
each  easily ; and  the  “trick”  cents  are  six  riveted  together, 
the  upper  one  being  entire,  but  the  other  five  being  turned 
out,  leaving  nothing  but  their  outer  rims.  Three  coins 
of  one  cent  each  are  shown,  as  also  the  cap ; and  after 
showing  the  cents,  while  gathering  them  in  the  hand,  “ palm” 
them  and  place  the  “trick”  cents  (inside  of  which  is  the 
die)  on  the  table,  and  cover  them  with  the  cap.  Then  tak- 
ing the  hat  in  the  left  hand,  command  the  cents  to  pass,  and 
at  the  word  drop  the  genuine  cents  into  the  hat,  at  the  same 
time  raising  the  cap  on  the  table,  and  by  pinching  the 
sides  of  it  rather  tightly  the  “ trick  ” cents  are  raised  with 
it,  and  the  die  or  three  cent-pieces  appear,  then  covering 
the  die  or  three  cent-pieces  with  the  cap  and  the  “trick” 
cents  concealed  in  it,  show  the  genuine  cents  in  the  hat, 
and  command  them  to  return  ; and  holding  the  genuine 
cents  in  the  left  hand,  lift  the  cap,  and  the  cents  again 
appear.  Then  taking  the  cap  in  the  right  hand,  adroitly 
drop  the  “ trick  ” cents  into  it  and  tender  the  cap  for 
scrutiny. 

The  table-cloth  should  be  a thick  and  soft  one,  to  prevent 
the  spectators  from  hearing  the  die  fall  as  the  “ trick”  cents 
are  placed  on  the  table. 

THE  SHOWER  OF  SUGARPLUMS. 

This  is  a capital  finale  to  an  evening’s  amusement,  particu- 
larly with  young  children.  A small  bag,  capable  of  holding 
about  a pint,  must  be  made  of  a piece  of  figured  calico,  of  a 
conical  shape,  but  open  at  the  bottom  or  larger  end,  on  each 
side  of  which  must  be  inserted  a flat  thin  piece  of  whalebone  ; 
at  the  upper  or  smaller  end  must  be  a small  hook  made  of 
wire — a lady’s  hair-pin  will  answer  the  purpose  perfectly.  The 
trick  is  performed  in  this  way  : — 

The  bottom  of  the  bag  must  be  opened  by  pressing  the  op- 
posite ends  of  the  two  pieces  of  whalebone,  when,  of  course, 
they  will  bend  and  divide,  and  the  bag  must  then  be  filled  with 
sugarplums,  care  being  taken  to  put  the  small  bonbons  at  the 
top  of  the  bag,  and  the  large  ones  at  the  bottom  next  the 
whalebone,  which  will  prevent  the  small  ones  from  falling  out. 
The  bag  when  filled  must  on  the  first  opportunity  be  sus- 
pended by  its  hook  at  the  back  of  a chair  having  a stuffed 
back,  so  that  it  cannot  be  seen. 

When  the  trick  is  to  be  performed,  a large  handkerchief 
must  be  shown,  with  a request  that  it  may  be  examined.  It 


PARLOR  MAGIC. 


443 


is  then  laid  over  the  back  of  the  chair.  A little  girl  must  then 
be  asked  if  she  is  afraid  of  being  out  in  the  rain,  and  on  her 
answering  in  the  negative  she  must  be  requested  to  kneel  down 
in  the  middle  of  the  room.  The  performer  must  then  place 
his  left  hand  on  the  handkerchief,  and  feeling  the  hook  which 
supports  the  bag,  he  raises  it  with  the  handkerchief,  and  holds 
it  above  the  little  girl’s  head  ; then  passing  his  right  hand  from 
the  fourth  finger  and  thumb  of  the  left  hand  which  hold  the 
handkerchief  and  bag,  downwards,  he  can  easily  feel  the  bottom 
of  the  bag,  and  on  pressing  the  opposite  ends  of  the  whalebone, 
they  bend  and  open,  and  the  contents  of  the  bag  of  course  fall 
out  in  a shower,  and  a general  scramble  among  the  children 
takes  place. 

TO  REMOVE  AN  EGG  FROM  ONE  WINE-GLASS  TO 
ANOTHER  WITHOUT  TOUCHING  EITHER 
THE  EGG  OR  THE  GLASSES. 

Place  two  wine-glasses  touching  each  other  and  in  a direct 
line  from  you,  and  in  the  one  nearer  to  you  must  be  placed  an 
egg  with  its  smaller  end  downwards.  Then  blow  with  the 
mouth  suddenly  and  sharply  and  strongly  against  the  side  of 
the  egg,  but  in  a downward  direction,  when  the  egg  will  be 
lifted  up,  and  falling  over  will  lodge  in  the  other  glass. 

THE  EGG  IN  THE  BAG. 

This,  too,  is  a capital  trick,  if  quietly  and  neatly  performed, 
and  the  more  slowly  the  better. 

A small  bag  is  produced,  rather  larger  than  a sheet  of  note- 
paper,  into  which  an  egg  (or  rather  the  shell  of  one  out  of 
which  the  contents  have  been  blown)  is  dropped.  The  comer 
of  the  bag  must  then  be  squeezed  round  it  to  show  that  it  is 
there,  and  it  may  be  felt  by  any  one  present.  The  corner  of 
the  open  end  of  the  bag  is  then  held  by  the  finger  and  thumb 
of  the  left  hand,  and  the  right  placed  in  the  bag,  which  is  then 
held  open  end  downwards,  and  the  right  hand  withdrawn 
empty.  The  bag  is  then  seized  by  the  right  hand,  and  struck 
violently  against  the  table,  and  then  crumpled  up  in  the 
hands.  It  is  then  held  with  the  mouth  upwards,  the  right 
hand  is  again  placed  in  the  bag,  and  the  egg  unbroken  pro- 
duced. 

The  trick  is  performed  in  this  way  : The  bag  is  made  dou- 
ble on  one  side,  thus  forming  a second  bag,  the  mouth  of 
which  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  other.  After  the  egg  has  been 
dropped  in  the  bag  and  felt  to  be  there,  it  is  held  in  the  right 
hand,  while  the  bag  is  held  bottom  upwards,  and  then 
dropped  in  the  second  bag.  The  right  hand  is  then  with- 
drawn. When  the  edge  of  the  bag  is  seized  by  the  right  hand, 
the  egg  must  be  also  held  in  the  same  hand  in  the  bag,  and  it 
is  thus  preserved  from  being  broken  when  the  bag  is  struck 
against  the  table,  etc.  The  mouth  of  the  bag  being  then  held 
upwards,  the  egg  of  course  falls  into  the  first  bag,  and  is  then 
taken  out  and  shown. 


TO  FIX  A PENKNIFE  BY  ITS  POINT  IN  THE  CEIL- 
ING, AND  AFTERWARD  PLACE  A QUARTER 
SO  EXACTLY  UNDER  IT  THAT  WHEN  DIS- 
LODGED BY  STRIKING  THE  CEILING  THE 
KNIFE  SHALL  FALL  ON  THE  QUARTER. 

This  is  a most  ingenious  trick,  and  is  done  in  this  way. 
Mounting  a table,  stick  the  penknife  by  its  point  into  the  ceil- 
ing, but  only  sufficiently  to  support  it.  Then  after  a deal  of 
examination  of  its  position,  etc.,  place  a piece  of  brown  paper 
on  the  floor,  on  which  put  the  quarter,  and  then  say  you  will 
undertake  to  place  the  quarter  so  exactly  under  it  that,  when 
dislodged,  the  knife  shall  fall  upon  it.  When  wonder  is  ex- 
cited, and  it  is  declared  to  be  impossible,  call  for  a glass  of 
water  ; then  mounting  on  the  table,  dip  the  penknife  in  the 
water  and  withdraw  the  glass  ; a drop  of  water  will  soon  fall 
on  the  paper,  and  on  that  very  spot  place  the  quarter.  You 
then  strike  the  ceiling  with  your  fist,  when  the  knife  will  fall, 
of  course,  on  the  quarter.  The  knife  chosen  for  the  purpose 
should  be  one  having  rather  a heavy  pointed  handle,  as  the 
drop  of  water  will  then  fall  from  the  most  central  point. 

TO  PRODUCE  A CANNON-BALL  FROM  A HAT. 

A ball  must  be  turned  out  of  any  kind  of  soft  light  wood, 
and  must  have  a hole  bored  in  it  large  enough  to  admit  the 
middle  finger,  and  it  should  be  painted  black.  The  trick  is 
performed  in  this  way  : On  the  front  of  the  conjuring  table, 
i.  e.,  the  side  next  the  spectators,  should  be  placed  a few  layers 
of  books,  high  enough  to  conceal  from  view  the  ball  or  any 
other  apparatus  with  which  it  is  intended  to  perform.  On  the 
side  of  the  books  next  the  performer  the  ball  should  be  placed, 
with  the  hole  in  it  towards  him.  The  hat  should  be  placed  on 
the  books  on  its  side  on  the  left-hand  end  of  the  table,  with  its 
crown  next  the  spectators.  When  the  trick  is  to  be  performed 
the  hat  should  be  shown  to  be  entirely  empty,  and  then  re- 
turned to  its  position  on  the  books  ; then,  having  placed  a hat- 
brush or  silk  handkerchief  at  the  right  hand  of  the  table,  say, 
“This  trick  cannot  be  performed  unless  the  hat  is  perfectly 
smooth,”  and  while  leaning  to  the  right  to  reach  the  brush  or 
handkerchief,  which  diverts  attention  to  that  end  of  the  table, 
the  middle  finger  of  the  left  hand  must  be  placed  in  the  hole 
in  the  ball,  which  is  thus  slipped  into  the  hat,  which  must  then 
be  carefully  brushed  and  held  crown  uppermost.  The  brush 
should  then  be  put  down,  and  the  right  thumb  placed  on  the 
rim  of  the  hat,  with  the  fingers  extended  underneath  so  as  to 
support  the  ball  in  the  hat,  and  the  left  hand  should  then  be 
placed  in  the  same  position,  and  the  hat.  with  the  ball  in  it 
carried  and  placed  upon  another  table.  A small  ball  must 
then  be  produced,  and  a boy  asked  if  he  thinks  he  can  hold  it 
in  his  mouth,  and  told  to  try.  The  ball  is  then  taken  in  the 
right  hand,  pretended  to  be  thrown  against  the  hat,  “palmed,” 
and  concealed  in  the  pocket.  The  boy  should  then  be  asked 
if  he  will  again  take  the  ball  in  his  mouth,  and  while  opening 
it  the  cannon-ball  is  suddenly  taken  from  under  the  hat  and 
placed  in  front  of  his  face. 


PHYSICS  WITHOUT  APPLIANCES. 


r 


444 


A Cheap  Magnifying  Lamp — Measuring  the  Illuminat- 
ing Power  of  a Candle  and  an  Argand  Lamp. 


N ordinary  looking-glass,  a lighted  taper,  and  a 
foot  rule,  or  a measuring  tape,  are  quite  sufficient 
to  demonstrate  the  simple  geometrical  laws  of 
reflection  ; for,  with  their  aid,  it  is  very  easy  to 
show  that  the  image  of  the  candle  in  the  mirror 
is  virtually  situated  at  a distance  behind  the  mir- 
ror equal  to  the  actual  distance  of  the  candle  front, 
and  that,  when  a ray  falls  obliquely  on  the  mir- 
ror, the  angle  of  incidence  is  equal  to  the  angle  of  reflection. 
A teacher  who  wishes  to  go  further  into  the  matter,  and  to  de- 
monstrate the  laws  of  reflection  at  curved  surfaces,  usually 
provides  himself  with  the  appropriate  silvered  mirrors  of  convex 
and  concave  form.  Failing  these,  the  exterior  and  interior 
surfaces  of  the  bowl  of  a bright  silver  spoon  will  probably  be  as 
satisfactory  a substitute  as  any.  We  have  found  even  a saucer  of 
common  glazed  earthenware  to  form  a very  fair  concave  mirror, 
giving  upon  a small  tissue  paper  screen  a beautiful  little 
inverted  image  of  a distant  gas  flame.  To  illustrate  the 
geometrical  laws  of  refraction  through  lenses,  a good  reading- 
glass  of  large  size  is  a desirable  acquisition.  Spectacle-lenses, 
though  of  a smaller  size,  and  therefore  admitting  less  light,  are 
also  of  service.  In  the  absence  of  any  of  these  articles,  it  is 
generally  possible  to  fall  back  upon  a water  decanter,  provided 
. one  can  be  found  of  a good  globular  form,  and  not  spoiled  for 
optical  purposes  by  having  ornamental  work  cut  upon  the  sides 
of  the  globe.  It  is  held  a few  inches  away  from  a white  wall 
and  a candle  is  placed  at  the  opposite  side,  so  that  its  light 
falls  through  the  decanter  on  to  the  wall.  The  candle  is 
moved  toward  or  away  from  the  decanter  until  the  position  is 
found  in  which  its  rays  focus  themselves  upon  the  wall,  giving 
a clear  inverted  image  of  the  candle-flame  upon  the  wall.  The 
experiment  may  be  varied  by  setting  down  the  candle  on  the 
table,  and  then  moving  the  decanter  to  and  fro  until  a definite 
image  is  obtained.  If  a large  hand-reading-glass  be  available, 
the  image  will  be  much  clearer  than  with  the  improvised  water- 
lens  ; and  a further  improvement  in  the  manner  of  experiment- 
ing  may  be  made  by  using  a screen  of  white  paper  or  card 
instead  of  a whitened  wall  on  which  to  receive  the  image.  The 
first  sheet  of  paper  should  be  set  up  in  simple  fashion  at 
one  end  of  the  table.  The  candle  should  be  placed  at  the 
other  end  of  the  table,  and  the  reading-lens  moved  about  be- 


tween them  until  a point  is  found  at  which  it  throws  upon  the 
screen  a good  clear  image  of  the  candle.  It  will  be  found 
that  there  are  two  such  points,  one  near  the  candle,  the  other 
near  the  screen.  In  each  case  the  image  of  the  candle  will  be 
inverted,  but  in  the  first  case  it  will  be  a magnified  and,  in  the 
second,  a diminished  image,  the  size  of  the  image,  as  compared 
with  that  of  the  real  flame,  being  proportional  to  their  respect- 
ive distances  from  the  lens. 

When  the  lens  has  been  placed  in  a position  of  good  focus, 
the  candle  may  be  removed  and  placed  where  the  screen  stood  ; 
if  now  the  screen  is  placed  where  the  candle  was,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  image  is  again  visible  on  the  screen,  still  in- 
verted, though  altered  in  magnitude.  This  experiment,  in 
fact,  proves  the  law  of  conjugate  foci. 

The  young  beginner  in  science  who  repeats  these  experi- 
ments for  himself  will  begin  to  understand  how  it  is  that  in  the 
photographer’s  camera  the  image  in  the  instrument  is  inverted, 
and  how  it  can  also  be  true  that  the  images  cast  on  the  sensi- 
tive retina  of  the  eye  are  also  inverted.  The  retina  at  the  back 
of  the  eyeball  answers  to  the  white  screen  on  which  the  image 
is  thrown  by  the  lens  in  front  of  it.  It  is  possible,  indeed,  to 
show  in  actual  fact  that  the  image  in  the  eyeball  is  inverted  ; 
the  experiment  is  very  simple,  but  we  believe  that  this  is  the 
first  time  that  it  has  been  described  in  print.  Take  a candle,  and 
hold  it  in  your  right  hand  as  you  stand  opposite  a looking-glass. 
Turn  your  head  slightly  to  the  left  while  you  look  at  the  image 
of  yourself  in  the  glass.  Open  your  eyes  very  wide,  and  look 
carefully  at  the  image  of  your  left  eye.  Move  the  candle  about 
gently,  up,  down,  forward,  etc.,  so  that  the  light  falls  more  or 
less  obliquely  on  to  the  eyeball.  You  will  presently  notice  a 
little  patch  of  light  in  the  extreme  outer  corner  of  the  eye  ; it  is 
the  image  of  the  candle  on  the  inside  of  the  eyeball,  which  you 
see  through  the  semi-transparent  horny  substance  of  the  eye. 
If  you  move  the  candle  up,  the  little  image  moves  down,  and 
if  you  succeed  well,  you  will  discern  that  it  is  an  inverted  image, 
the  tip  of  the  flame  being  downward.  You  thus  prove  to  your 
own  satisfaction  that  the  image  of  the  candle  in  your  eyeball  is 
really  upside  down. 

A magnifying-glass  of  very  simple  construction  a few 
years  ago  found  a great  sale  in  the  streets  of  London,  at  the 
price  of  one  penny.  A bulb  blown  at  the  end  of  a short  glass 
tube  is  filled  with  water.  When  held  in  front  of  the  eye, 
this  forms  a capital  lens  for  examining  objects  of  microscopic 
dimensions,  which  may  be  secured  in  place  by  a bit  of  wire 
twisted  round  the  stem. 


PHYSICS  WITHOUT  APPLIANCES. 


445 


The  principle  by  which  the  intensity  of  two  lights  is  com- 
pared in  the  photometer  is  very  easily  shown.  We  can  measure, 
by  tlie  following  process,  the  relative  brightness  of  an  Argand 
oil-lamp,  and  of  an  ordinary  candle.  Both  these  lights  are  set 
upon  the  table,  and  are  so  arranged  that  each  casts  on  to  a screen 
of  white  paper  a shadow  of  a tall,  narrow  object.  The  most 
handy  object  for  this  purpose  is  another  candle  unlighted.  The 
Argand  lamp,  being  the  brighter  light,  will  cast  the  deeper 
shadow  of  the  two,  unless  it  is  placed  farther  away.  The  meas- 
ure of  the  brightness  is  obtained  by  moving  the  brighter  light 
just  so  far  off  that  the  intensity  of  the  two  shadows  is  equal,  for 
then  we  know  that  the  relative  intensities  of  the  two  lights  are 
proportional  to  the  squares  of  their  distances  from  the  photo- 
meter. All  that  remains,  therefore,  is  to  measure  the  distances 
and  calculate  out  the  intensities.  If,  for  example,  the  distance  of 


the  lamp  is  double  that  of  the  candle  when  the  two  shadows 
are  equally  dark,  we  know  that  the  brightness  of  the  lamp  is 
four  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  candle. 

Many  other  facts  in  optics  can  be  shown  with  no  greater 
trouble  than  that  entailed  by  such  simple  experiments  as  we 
have  described.  The  pendant  luster  of  a chandelier  will  pro- 
vide an  excellent  prism  of  glass  for  showing  the  dispersion  of 
light  into  its  component  tints.  A couple  of  spectacle  glasses 
appropriately  chosen  will,  when  pressed  together,  afford  capital 
“ Newton’s  rings”  at  the  point  where  they  touch.  Diffraction 
bands  of  gorgeous  hue  may  be  observed  by  looking  at  a distant 
gaslight,  or  at  the  point  of  light  reflected  by  a silvered  bead  in 
sunshine,  through  a piece  of  fine  gauze,  or  through  a sparrow’s 
feather  held  close  in  front  of  the  eye.  And  yet  more  remark- 
able effects  of  diffraction  are  obtained  if  the  point  of  light  be 
looked  at  through  substances  of  still  finer  structure,  such  as  the 


a 


preparations  of  woody  structure,  and  of  the  eyes  of  insects 
which  are  sold  as  microscopic  objects.  But  the  explanation 
of  these  beautiful  phenomena  would  lead  us  far  beyond  oui 
subject. 

Expansion  of  Air — To  keep  Hot  and  Cold  Water 
apart. 

The  science  of  heat  constitutes  one  of  those  departments 
of  physics  in  which  both  the  uninitiated  beginner  and  the 
advanced  student  can  find  food  for  thought.  To  follow  out 
the  theoretical  teachings  of  the  science  of  heat  requires  a knowl- 
edge of  abstruse  mathematical  formulae  ; but,  on  the  other 
hand,  a very  large  proportion  of  the  fundamental  facts  of  ex- 
periment upon  which  the  science  depends  can  be  illustrated 
with  the  simplest  means. 

The  property  possessed  by  almost  all  material  bodies  of 
expanding  when  they  are  warmed  affords  us  the  means  of  as- 
certaining the  degree  to  which  they  are  warmed.  Thus  the 
expansion  of  the  quicksilver  in  the  bulbs  of  our  thermometers 
shows  us  the  degree  of  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air. 
Again,  the  heat  imparted  to  the  air  within  a paper  fire-balloon 
makes  it  expand  and  become  specifically  lighter  than  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere  through  which  it  rises.  In  general  it 
may  be  asserted  that  matter,  in  whichever  state  it  may  be — solid, 
liquid,  or  gaseous — expands  when  heat  is  imparted  to  it,  and 
contracts  when  heat  is  taken  from  it.  An  empty  wine  bottle 
is  placed  with  its  mouth  downward  in  a deep  dish  or  jar  con- 
taining water,  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  projecting  over  the 
side  of  the  jar.  Heat  is  then  applied  by  means  of  a spirit- 
lamp  ; or,  if  this  is  not  available,  by  burning  under  it 
a piece  of  cotton-wool  soaked  in  spirits  and  held  on 
the  end  of  a fork.  The  glass  of  the  bottle  becomes  hot — 
if  too  hot  it  may  crack — and  the  air  inside  shares  its  warmth 
and  begins  to  expand.  There  being  only  a limited  space  in- 
side the  bottle,  some  of  the  air  will  be  forced  out  and  will  rise 
in  bubbles  through  the  water.  If  now  the  flame  be  removed, 
the  reverse  operation  of  contraction  by  cooling  may  be  wit- 
nessed ; for,  as  the  air  inside  the  bottle  cools,  it  will  occupy  a 
smaller  and  smaller  amount  of  space,  and  the  water  will  gradu- 
ally rise  up  in  the  bottle-neck.  Of  course,  this  is  seen  better 
with  a bottle  of  clear  glass  than  with  one  of  dark  or  opaque 
tint. 

The  contraction  of  a liquid  on  cooling  can  be  even  more 
simply  shown.  Take  a common  medicine  bottle,  warm  it 
gently  (by  rinsing  it  out  with  a little  hot  water)  so  that  it  shall 
not  crack  by  the  sudden  heating,  and  then  fill  it  btimful  of 
boiling  water.  Leave  it  to  cool  ; and  in  less  than  half  an  hour 
you  will  find  that  the  water  which  you  poured  in  to  overflow- 
ing has  shrunk  down  into  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  having  con- 
tracted as  it  cools. 

It  was  mentioned  above  that  the  hot  air  in  a fire  balloon 
raises  it,  being  lighter  than  the  cold  air.  In  the  same  way  hot 
water  will  rise  through  cold,  and  float  on  the  top  of  it,  being 
specifically  lighter.  You  may  prove  this  in  several  ways.  Fill 
a deep  jar  with  water,  and  then,  taking  a red-hot  poker,  plunge 
about  an  inch  of  the  tip  of  it  into  the  surface  of  the  water. 
Presently  the  whole  of  the  water  at  the  top  will  be  boiling 
furiously  ; but  the  water  at  the  bottom  will  be  just  as  cool  as 


PHYSICS  WITHOUT  APPLIANCES. 


before,  for  the  hotter  water  will  not  have  gone  down,  but  will 
have  floated  at  the  top,  being  lighter  in  consequence  of  expan- 
sion. The  same  thing  can  be  shown  very  prettily  by  the 
following  simple  experiment : — Fill  a wide  and  deep  glass  jar — 
the  glass  of  a parlor  aquarium  will  do  excellently — to  about 
half  its  depth  with  cold  water.  Provide  yourself  also  with  a 
kettleful  of  boiling  water,  a funnel,  a bit  of  wood  about  three 
inches  square,  and  with  some  ink — red  ink  if  possible.  Pour 
into  the  kettle  enough  of  the  ink  to  color  it  with  a perceptible 
tint  : this  is  simply  that  you  may  be  able  to  distinguish  between 
the  colorless  cold  water  and  the  colored  hot  water  which  you 
are  going  to  cause  to  float  at  the  top.  The  only  difficulty  of  the 
experiment  is  how  to  pour  out  the  hot  water  without  letting  it 
mix  with  the  cold  water.  A bit  of  wood  (or  cardboard)  is  laid 
on  the  water  as  a float,  and  you  must  pour  the  hot  water  on  to 
this  to  break  the  force  of  its  fall.  The  funnel  will  also  help  to 
break  the  fall  of  the  hot  water,  and  will  aid  you  to  guide  the 
stream  on  to  the  middle  of  the  float.  With  these  precautions 
you  need  not  fear  failure,  and  you  will  enjoy  the  spectacle  so 
seldom  seen,  though  so  often  actually  occurring,  of  hot  water 
floating  on  the  top  of  cold  water. 

SINGING  AND  SENSITIVE  FLAMES. 


Much  notice  was  attracted  some  years  ago  by  the  discovery 
of  singing  and  sensitive  flames.  A sensitive  flame  is  not  easily 


L' 


made,  unless  where  gas  can  be  burned  at  a much  higher  pres- 
sure than  is  to  be  found  in  the  case  of  the  gas  supplied  by  the 
companies  for  house-lighting.  To  make  a singing-flame  requires 
the  proper  glass  tubes,  and  an  apparatus  for  generating  hydro- 
gen gas.  The  roaring-tube,  which  we  are  now  about  to  de- 
scribe, is  a good  substitute,  however,  and  is  also  due  to  the 


generation  of  very  rapid  vibrations,  although  in  this  case  the 
way  in  which  the  heat  sets  up  the  vibrations  cannot  be  very 
simply  explained.  Let  a common  paraffine  lamp-chimney  be 
chosen,  and  let  us  thrust  up  loosely  into  its  wider  or  bulbous 
portion  a piece  of  iron  wire  gauze  such  as  is  often  employed  for 
window-blinds.  If  this  be  not  at  hand,  a few  scraps  of  wire 
twisted  together,  or  even  a few  hairpins,  will  suffice.  The 
lamp-chimney  must  then  be  held  over  the  flame  of  a spirit- 
lamp,  or  other  hot  flame,  until  the  wire  gauze  glows  with  a 
red  heat.  Now  remove  the  lamp  or  lift  the  chimney  off  it,  so 
that  the  gauze  may  cool.  It  will  emit  a loud  note  like  a 
powerful  (though  rather  harsh)  organ-pipe,  lasting  for  about  a 
quarter  of  a minute,  or  until  the  gauze  has  cooled.  Tubes  cst 
different  sizes  produce  different  notes. 

It  is  now  well  known  that  the  quality  of  different  sounds 
depends  upon  the  form  or  character  of  the  invisible  sound- 
waves, and  that  different  instruments  make  sounds  that  have 
characters  of  their  own,  because  their  peculiar  shapes  throw 
the  air  into  waves  of  particular  kinds.  The  different  vOwel- 
sounds  are  caused  by  putting  the  mouth  into  particular  shapes 
in  order  to  produce  waves  of  a particular  quality.  Take  a jew’s- 
harp  and  put  it  to  the  mouth  as  if  you  were  going  to  play  it. 
Shape  the  mouth  as  if  you  were  going  to  say  the  vowel  O,  and 
on  striking  the  harp  you  hear  that  sound.  Alter  the  shape  of 
the  mouth  to  say  A,  and  the  harp  sounds  the  vowel  accordingly. 
The  special  forms  of  vibration  corresponding  to  the  different 
vowel-sounds  can  be  rendered  evident  to  the  eye  in  a very 
beautiful  way  by  the  simplest  conceivable  means.  A saucerful 
of  soapy  water  (prepared  from  yellow  kitchen  soap  and  soft 
water,  or  with  cold  water  that  has  previously  been  boiled),  and 
a brass  curtain-ring,  is  all  that  is  needed.  A film  of  soapy 
water  shows,  as  all  children  know  when  they  blow  bubbles,  the 
loveliest  rainbow-tints  when  thin  enough.  A flat  film  can  be 
made  by  dipping  a brass  curtain-ring  into  the  soapy  water,  and 
then  lifting  it  out.  When  the  colors  have  begun  to  show  on 
the  edge  of  the  film,  sing  any  of  the  vowels,  or  the  whole  of 
them,  one  after  the  other,  near  the  film.  It  will  be  thrown 
into  beautiful  rippling  patterns  of  color,  which  differ  with  the 
different  sounds.  Instead  of  a curtain-ring,  the  ring  made  by 
closing  together  the  tips  of  finger  and  thumb  will  answer  the 
purpose  of  proving  a frame  on  which  to  produce  the  phoneido- 
scopic  film. 


TRANSMISSION  OF  SOUND. 

Acoustical  experiments  require,  for  the  most  part,  the  aid  of 
some  good  instrument  or  valuable  piece  of  apparatus.  Never- 
theless, a few  instructive  illustrations  of  the  principle  of  science 
can  be  improvised  without  difficulty.  Firstly,  there  is  the 
familiar  experiment  brought  into  fashion  by  Professor  Tyndall, 
of  setting  a row  of  ivory  billiard  balls,  or  glass  solitaire  marbles, 
along  a groove  between  two  wooden  boards,  and  showing  how 
their  elasticity  enables  them  to  transmit  from  one  to  another  a 
wave  of  moving  energy  imparted  to  the  first  of  the  row,  thus 
affording  a type  of  the  transmission  of  sound-waves  from  parti- 
cle to  particle  through  elastic  media.  Then  we  may  show 
how  sounds  travel  through  solid  bodies  by  resting  against  a 
music-box,  or  other  musical  instrument,  a broomstick,  or  any 


a very  thin  visiting  card.  A loud,  clear  note  will  be  heard  if  the 
nicks  have  been  evenly  cut,  which,  beginning  with  a shrill 
pitch,  will  gradually  fall  with  a dolorous  cadence  into  the  bass 
end  of  the  scale,  and  finally  die  out  in  separately  audible 
ticks. 

REGELATION  DEMONSTRATED. 

If  a piece  of  ice  be  placed  on  two  chairs  and  a copper  wire 
passed  around  it,  with  a weight  to  make  it  press  on  the  ice,  in 


very  strong  in  another,  the  “ strength  ” of  the  material  (that 
is  to  say,  the  resistance  it  offers  before  it  will  break)  depend- 
ing on  the  way  in  which  a force  is  applied  to  it.  It  is  possible 
to  lift  a decanter  full  of  water  by  means  of  a single  straw. 
To  do  this  the  straw  must  be  bent,  as  shown  in  the  above 
illustration,  so  that  the  weight  comes  longitudinally  upon  the 
straw.  The  straw  is  a very  weak  thing  if  it  has  to  resist 
force  applied  laterally.  Lay  a single  straw  horizontally,  s® 
that  the  two  ends  are  supported,  and  then  hang  weights  on  to 


PHYSICS  WITHOUT  APPLIANCES. 


447 


convenient  rod  of  wood,  at  the  other  end  of  which  we  place 
our  ear. 

Another  familiar  illustration  is  afforded  by  means  of  threads : — 
A large  spoon  is  tied  to  the  middle  of  a thin  silken  or  hempen 
thread,  the  ends  of  which  are  thrust  into  the  ears  upon  the 
ends  of  the  thumbs.  If  the  spoon  be  dangled  against  the  edge 
of  the  table  it  will  resound,  and  the  tones  reach  the  ear  like  a 
loud  church-bell.  The  thread  telephone,  cr  “ lover’s  tele- 
graph,” is  upon  the  same  principle,  the  thread  transmitting  the 
whispered  words  to  a distance,  without  that  loss — by  spreading 
in  all  directions — which  takes  place  in  the  open  air. 

The  discovery  that  a musical  tone  is  the  result  of  regularly 
recurring  vibrations,  the  number  of  which  determines  the  pitch 
of  the  tone,  was  made  by  Galileo  without  any  more  formal 
apparatus  than  a mill-edged  coin  along  the  rim  of  which  he 
drew  his  thumbnail,  and  found  it  to  produce  a sound.  We 
can  show  this  better  by  taking  a common  toy  gyroscope-top 
with  a heavy  leaden  wheel,  such  as  are  sold  at  every  toy  shop. 
With  a strong  penknife  or  a file,  cut  a series  of  fine  notches  or 
grooves  across  the  rim,  so  that  it  shall  have  a milled  edge  like  a 
coin.  Now  spin  it,  and  while  it  spins,  gently  hold  against  the 
revolving  wheel  the  edge  of  a sheet  of  stiff  writing-paper,  or  of 


the  course  of  a few  hours  the  weight  will  have  dragged  the  wire 
through  the  ice,  as  if  it  were  no  harder  than  a piece  of  cheese, 
yet  the  ice  has  healed  up  as  fast  as  the  wire  cut  into  it, 
and  it  is  still  one  solid  block.  This  is  termed  regelation, 
and  the  extraordinary  fact  can  be  accounted  for  in  the  following 
way  : — 

In  the  neighborhood  of  the  wire,  where  it  passes  through  the 
ice,  the  pressures  are  not  uniform,  for  just  below  the  wire  the 
portions  of  the  ice  are  under  pressure,  owing  to  the  pull  of  the 
heavy  weight,  while  immediately  above  the  wire  the  ice  is  sub- 
jected to  a stress  tending  to  draw  the  particles  asunder,  or,  in 
other  words,  it  is  subjected  to  a pull  or  “negative  pressure.” 
The  pressure  on  the  ice  under  the  wire  lowers  its  melting 
point,  and  causes  very  small  quantities  of  it  to  melt  ; these 
liquid  portions  immediately  are  squeezed  out,  and  find  their 
way  round  the  wire  to  the  space  above  it,  where,  the  pressure 
being  reduced,  they  again  freeze  hard. 

TO  LIFT  A DECANTER  WITH  A STRAW. 

The  following  simple  experiment  illustrates  the  principle 
that  a substance  which  is  very  weak  in  one  direction  may  be 


448 


PHYSICS  WITHOUT  APPLIANCES. 


the  middle  of  it — a very  few  ounces  will  break  it  across.  But 
let  the  weights  be  fixed  to  one  end  of  the  straw,  and  the 
straw  itself  be  hung  downward  so  that  the  pull  is  exerted 
along  it,  and  it  will  support  one  or  two  pounds  at  least. 
When  bent,  as  in  the  figure  inside  the  bottle,  most  of  the 
weight  is  applied  as  a thrust  against  the  end  of  the  straw  ; the 
bottle  tilts  slightly  until  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  whole  is 
below  the  point  from  which  it  hangs  between  finger  and 
thumb  ; but  in  this  position  the  sideway  thrust  against  the 
middle  of  the  straw  is  very  small,  and  the  material  is  strong 
enough  to  stand  the  strain  to  which  it  is  subjected  lengthways. 

MELTING  LEAD  ON  A CARD. 

Twist  up  the  edges  of  a common  playing-card  or  other  bit 
of  cardboard,  so  as  to  fashion  it  into  a light  tray.  On  this 
tray  place  a layer  of  small  shot  or  bits  of  lead,  and  heat  it 
over  the  flames  of  a lamp.  The  lead  will  melt,  but  the  card 
will  not  burn.  It  may  be  charred  a little  round  the  edges, 
but  immediately  below  the  lead  it  will  not  be  burned,  for 
here  again  the  lead  conducts  off  the  heat  on  one  side  as  fast 


as  it  is  supplied  on  the  other.  Lastly,  we  give  an  experiment 
which,  like  the  two  preceding,  proves  that  a good  conduct- 
ing substance  may  protect  a delicate  fabric  from  burning  by 
conducting  away  the  heat  rapidly  from  it.  Lay  a piece  of 
muslin  quite  flat  upon  a piece  of  metal.  A live  coal  placed  on 
the  muslin  will  not  burn  it,  for  the  metal  takes  away  the  heat 
too  fast.  If  the  muslin  is,  however,  laid  on  a bad  conductor, 
such  as  a piece  of  wood,  it  will  not  be  protected,  and  the 
live  coal  will  kindle  the  muslin. 

A MINIATURE  DIVING  BELL. 

A wine-glass  is  turned  mouth  downward  and  plunged  into 
a jar  of  water.  The  water  rises  up  only  a very  little  way  into 


the  cloth,  as  shown  in  our  illustration,  suffices  to  accomplish 
the  trick,  for  the  little  coin  is  seen  to  advance  gently  toward 
the  finger  until  it  is  carried  forward  beyond  the  glass. 

While  the  fibers  are  drawn  forward  slowly,  they  drag  the 
coin  with  them  to  a minute  distance  ; but  when  the  slip  occurs 
and  they  fly  backward,  they  do  so  very  rapidly,  and  slip  back 
under  the  coin  before  there  is  time  for  the  energy  of  their 
movement  to  be  imparted  to  the  coin  to  set  it  in  motion.  So 
the  coin  is  gradually  worked  toward  the  operator. 


the  mouth  of  the  wine-glass,  owing  to  the  air  which  it  con- 
tains. The  deeper  the  wine-glass  is  plunged  the  more  the  air  is 
compressed,  and  the  higher  does  the  water  rise  in  the  miniature 
bell.  To  compress  the  contained  air  into  one-half  of  its  orig- 
inal volume  it  would  be  necessary  to  plunge  the  wine-glass 
about  thirty-four  feet  deep  into  the  water  ; for  to  halve  the 
volume  of  the  air  inside  we  must  double  the  external  pressure. 
The  pressure  of  the  air  is  already  several  pounds  to  each 
square  inch  of  surface.  A few  flies  or  other  insects  may,  with- 
out incurring  the  charge  of  cruelty  to  animals,  be  made  to  do 
duty  as  divers  inside  the  diving  bell  during  this  experiment. 

EXPERIMENT  WITH  COIN. 

A simple  experiment,  depending  partly  upon  the  inertia  ot 
matter  and  partly  upon  elasticity,  is  often  shown  as  an  after- 
dinner  trick.  Upon  a linen  table-cloth  is  placed  a five-cent 
piece,  between  two  quarters,  or  larger  and  thicker  coins.  Over 
this  an  empty  wine-glass  is  placed,  and  the  puzzle  is  how  to 
get  out  the  smaller  coin  without  touching  the  glass.  The 
very  simple  operation  of  scratching  with  the  finger-nail  upon 


ASTRONOMY. 


449 


STRONOMY  (from  the  Greek,  astron,  a 
star,  and  nomos , a law)  is,  comprehen- 
sively, that  science  which  explains  the 
nature  and  motions  of  the  bodies  fill- 
^ ing  infinite  space,  including  our  own 
globe,  in  its  character  of  a planet  or  mem- 
ber  of  the  solar  system.  The  science  may 
be  divided  into  two  departments — i.  Descriptive  As- 
tronomy, or  an  account  of  the  systems  of  bodies 
occupying  space  ; 2.  Mechanical  Astronomy , or  an 
explanation  of  the  physical  laws  which  have  pro- 
duced and  which  sustain  the  arrangements  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  and  of  all  the  various  results  of 
the  arrangement  and  relations  of  these  bodies.  Ura- 
nography is  a subordinate  department  of  the  science, 
presenting  an  account  of  the  arrangements  which 
have  been  made  by  astronomers  for  delineating  the 
starry  heavens,  and  working  the  many  mathematical 
problems  of  which  they  are  the  subject. 

DESCRIPTIVE  ASTRONOMY. 

The  field  contemplated  by  the  astronomer  is  no  less  than 
infinite  SPACE.  So  at  least,  he  may  well  presume  space  to 
be,  seeing  that  every  fresh  power  which  he  adds  to  his  tele- 
scope allows  him  to  penetrate  into  remoter  regions  of  it,  and 
still  there  is  no  end.  In  this  space,  systems,  consisting  of 
suns  and  revolving  planets,  and  other  systems  again,  consist- 
ing of  a numberless  series  of  such  lesser  systems,  are  sus- 
pended by  the  influence  of  gravitation,  operating  from  one  to 
another,  yet  each  body  at  such  a distance  from  another,  as, 
though  the  mind  of  man  can  in  some  instances  measure,  it 
can  in  none  conceive.  We  begin  with  what  is  usually  called 
the  Solar  System — that  is,  the  particular  solar  system  to  which 
our  earth  belongs. 

THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

The  solar  system,  so  named  from  sol  (Latin),  the  sun,  con- 
sists of  the  sun  in  the  center,  numerous  planets,  and  an  un- 
known number  of  bodies  named  comets.  The  word  planet  is 
from  the  Greek  planao,  to  wander,  because  the  few  such 
bodies  known  to  the  ancients  were  chiefly  remarkable  in  their 
eyes  on  account  of  their  constantly  shifting  their  places  with 


reference  to  the  other  luminaries  of  the  sky.  Comets  are  so 
named  from  coma  (Latin),  a head  of  hair,  because  they  seem 
to  consist  of  a bright  spot,  with  a long  brush  streaming  be- 
hind. 

Some  of  the  planets  have  other  planets  moving  round  them 
as  centers — the  moon,  for  instance,  round  the  earth.  These 
are  called  secondary  planets,  moons  or  satellites  ; while  those 
that  move  round  the  sun  are  called  primary  planets.  The 
primary  planets  consist — 1st,  of  eight  larger  planets,  including 
the  Earth  ; their  names,  in  the  order  of  their  nearness  to  the 
sun,  are — Mercury,  Venus,  the  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
Herschel  or  Uranus,  and  Neptune.  2d.  A group  of  small 
planets  or  planetoids,  called  also  asteroids,  considerable  in  num- 
ber. The  discovery  of  a new  asteroid  by  Professor  Borelli, 
places  the  entire  number  of  planets  in  the  solar  system  at  one 
hundred  and  eighteen,  against  six  known  in  1781,  when  Sir 
W.  Herschel  discovered  Uranus. 

. The  planets  move  round  the  sun  on  nearly  one  level  or 
plane,  corresponding  with  the  center  of  his  body,  and  in  one 
direction,  from  west  to  east.  The  secondary  planets,  in  like 
manner,  move  in  planes  round  the  centers  of  their  primaries, 
and  in  the  same  direction,  from  west  to  east.  These  are  de- 
nominated revolutionary  motions  ; and  it  is  to  be  observed 
that  they  are  double  in  the  case  of  the  satellites,  which  have 
at  once  a revolution  round  the  primary,  and  a revolution,  in 
company  with  the  primary,  round  the  sun.  The  path  de- 
scribed by  a planet  in  its  revolution  is  called  its  orbit. 

Each  planet,  secondary  as  well  as  primary,  and  the  sun  also, 
has  a motion  in  its  own  body,  like  that  of  a bobbin  upon  a 
spindle.  An  imaginary  line,  forming,  as  it  were,  the  spindle 
of  the  sun  or  planet,  is  denominated  the  axis,  and  the  two  ex- 
tremities of  the  axis  are  called  the  poles.  The  axes  of  the  sun 
and  planets  are  all  nearly  at  a right  angle  with  the  plane  of 
the  revolutionary  movements.  The  motion  on  the  axis  is 
called  the  rotatory  motion,  from  rota,  the  Latin  for  a wheel. 
The  sun,  the  primary  planets,  and  the  satellites,  with  the 
doubtful  exception  of  two  attending  on  Uranus,  move  on  their 
axes  in  the  same  direction  as  the  revolutionary  movements, 
from  west  to  east. 

The  Sun  is  a sphere  or  globe  of  882,000  miles  in  diameter,  or 
1,384,472  times  the  bulk  of  the  earth,  moving  round  its  axis 
in  25  days.  When  viewed  through  a telescope,  the  surface 
appears  intensely  bright  and  luminous,  as  if  giving  out  both 
heat  and  light  to  the  surrounding  planets.  But  on  this  sur- 
face there  occasionally  appear  dark  spots,  generally  surround* 


ASTRONOMY. 


y 


45° 


ed  with  a border  of  less  dark  appearance  ; some  of  which 
spots  have  been  calculated  to  be  no  less  than  45,000  miles  in 
breadth,  or  nearly  twice  as  much  as  the  circumference  of  the 
earth.  The  region  of  the  sun’s  body  on  which  the  spots  ap- 
pear, is  confined  to  a broad  space  engirdling  his  center.  They 
are  sometimes  observed  to  come  into  sight  at  his  western  limb, 
to  pass  across  his  body  in  the  course  of  twelve  or  thirteen 
days,  and  then  disappear.  They  are  sometimes  observed  to 
contract  with  great  rapidity,  and  disappear  like  something 
melted  and  absorbed  into  a burning  fluid.  Upon  the  bright 
parts  of  the  sun’s  body  there  are  also  sometimes  observed 
streaks  of  unusual  brightness,  as  if  produced  by  the  ridges  of 
an  agitated  and  luminous  fluid.  It  has  been  surmised,  that 
the  sun  is  a dark  body,  enveloped  in  an  atmosphere  calculated 
for  giving  out  heat  and  light,  and  that  the  spots  are  produced 
by  slight  breaks  or  openings  in  that  atmosphere,  showing  the 
dark  mass  within.  Though  so  much  larger  than  the  earth,  the 


can  only  be  seen  occasionally  in  the  morning  or  evening,  as  it 
never  rises  before,  or  sets  after  the  sun,  at  a greater  distance 
of  time  than  1 hour  and  50  minutes.  It  appears  to  the  naked 
eye  as  a small  and  brilliant  star,  but  when  observed  through  a 
telescope,  is  horned  like  the  moon,  because  we  only  see  a part 
of  the  surface  which  the  sun  is  illuminating.  Mountains  of 
great  height  have  been  observed  on  the  surface  of  this  planet, 
particularly  in  its  lower  or  southern  hemisphere.  One  has 
been  calculated  at  ioi  miles  in  height,  being  about  eight  times 
higher,  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the  planet,  than  the 
loftiest  mountains  upon  earth.  The  matter  of  Mercury  is  of 
much  greater  density  than  that  of  the  earth,  equaling  lead  in 
weight  ; so  that  a human  being  placed  upon  its  surface  would 
be  so  strongly  drawn  toward  the  ground  as  scarcely  to  be  able 
to  crawl. 

Venus  is  a globe  of  about  7,800  miles  in  diameter,  or  nearly 
the  size  of  the  earth,  rotating  on  its  axis  in  23  hours,  21  min- 


Rate  0/  movement  0/  the  Planets 
in  miles  per  minute . 


Mercury 1796 

Venus 1334 

Earth 1133 

Mars 905 

Vesta 905 

Juno 905 

Ceres  693 

Pallas  693 

Jupiter 490 

Saturn 363 

Uranus 255 

Moon 38 


Densities  0/  Planets  compared 
with  water , which  is  cotisidered  as 
one. 

The  Sun  ...  .1,  2-i3ths. 

Mercury 9,  i-6th. 

Venus 5,  n-isths. 

Earth 4 J 

Mars 3,  2-7ths. 

Jupiter 1,  i-24th. 

Saturn o,  13-32CIS. 

Uranus. . . . o,  99-iooths. 


Inclinations  0/  Orhits  to  the 
Ecliptic. 

Mercury. 

7°  o'  9"  1. 

Venus. 

30  23'  28"  5. 

Mars. 
i°  51'  6"  2. 

Vesta. 

7°  S'  9" 

Juno. 

13“  4'  9"  7. 

Ceres. 

10°  37'  26"  2. 

Pallas. 

34°  34'  55" 

Jupiter. 
i°  18'  51"  3. 

Saturn. 

2"  29'  35"  7. 

Uranus, 
o'*  46'  28"  4. 


matter  of  the  sun  is  of  only  about  a third  of  the  density  or 
compactness  of  that  of  our  planet,  or  little  more  than  the 
density  of  water. 

The  sun  is  surrounded  to  a great  distance  by  a faint  light, 
or  luminous  matter  of  extreme  thinness,  shaped  like  a lens  or 
magnifying-glass,  the  body  of  the  sun  being  in  the  center,  and 
the  luminous  matter  extending  in  the  plane  of  the  planetary 
revolutions,  till  it  terminates  in  a point.  At  particular  sea- 
sons, and  in  favorable  states  of  the  atmosphere,  it  may  be  ob- 
served before  sunrise,  or  after  sunset,  in  the  form  of  a cone 
pointing  obliquely  above  the  place  where  the  sun  is  either 
about  to  appear  or  which  he  has  just  left.  It  is  termed  the 
Zodiacal  Light. 

Mercury,  the  nearest  planet  to  the  sun,  is  a globe  of  about 
2,950  miles  in  diameter,  rotating  on  its  axis  in  24  hours  and  5 J 
minutes,  and  revolving  round  the  central  luminary,  at  a dis- 
tance of  37,000,000  of  miles  in  88  days.  From  the  earth  it 

Sk 


utes,  and  19  seconds,  and  revolving  round  the  sun,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  68,000,000  of  miles  in  225  days.  Like  Mercury,  it 
is  visible  to  an  observer  on  the  earth  only  in  the  morning  and 
evening,  but  for  a greater  space  of  time  before  sunrise  and 
after  sunset.  It  appears  to  us  the  most  brilliant  and  beautiful 
of  all  the  planetary  and  stellar  bodies,  occasionally  giving  so 
much  light  as  to  produce  a sensible  shadow.  Observed  through 
a telescope,  it  appears  horned,  on  account  of  our  seeing  only 
a part  of  its  luminous  surface.  The  illuminated  part  of  Venus 
occasionally  presents  slight  spots.  It  has  been  ascertained 
that  its  surface  is  very  unequal,  the  greatest  mountains  being 
in  the  southern  hemisphere,  as  in  the  case  of  both  Mercury 
and  the  Earth.  The  higher  mountains  in  Venus  range  between 
10  and  22  miles  in  altitude.  The  planet  is  also  enveloped  in 
an  atmosphere  like  that  by  which  animal  and  vegetable  life  is 
supported  on  earth,  and  it  has  consequently  a twilight.  Venus 
performs  its  revolution  round  the  sun  in  225  days.  Mercury 


ASTRONOMY. 


451 


Mid  Venus  have  been  termed  the  Inferior  Planets,  as  being 
placed  within  the  orbit  of  the  Earth. 

The  Earth , the  third  planet  in  order,  and  one  of  the 
smaller  size,  though  not  the  smallest,  is  impoitant  to  us,  as 
the  theater  on  which  our  race  have  been  placed  to  “live, 
move,  and  have  their  being.”  It  is  7,902  miles  in  mean 
diameter,  rotating  on  its  axis  in  24  hours,  at  a mean  distance 
of  95,000,000  of  miles  from  the  sun,  round  which  it  revolves 
in  365  days,  5 hours,  56  minutes,  and  57  seconds.  As  a planet 
viewed  from  another  of  the  planets,  suppose  the  moon,  “ it 
would  present  a pretty,  variegated,  and  sometimes  a mottled 
appearance.  The  distinction  between  its  seas,  oceans,  con- 
tinents, and  islands,  would  be  clearly  marked  ; they  would 
appear  like  brighter  and  darker  spots  upon  its  disk.  The  con- 
tinents would  appear  bright,  and  the  ocean  of  a darker  hue, 
because  water  absorbs  the  greater  part  of  the  solar  light  that 
falls  upon  it.  The  level  plains  (excepting,  perhaps,  such  re- 
gions as  the  Arabian  deserts  of  sand)  would  appear  of  a some- 
what darker  color  than  the  more  elevated  and  mountainous 
regions,  as  we  find  to  be  the  case  on  the  surface  of  the  moon. 
The  islands  would  appear  like  small  bright  specks  on  the 
darker  surface  of  the  ocean  ; and  the  lakes  and  Mediter- 
ranean seas  like  darker  spots  on  broad  streaks  intersecting  the 
bright  parts,  or  the  land.  By  its  revolution  round  the  axis, 
successive  portions  of  the  surface  would  be  brought  into  view, 
and  present  a different  aspect  from  the  parts  which  pre- 
ceded.” 

The  form  of  the  earth,  and  probably  that  of  every  other 
planet,  is  not  strictly  spherical,  but  spheroidal  ; that  is  flat- 
tened a little  at  the  poles,  or  extremities  of  the  axis.  The 
diameter  of  the  earth  at  the  axis  is  26  miles  less  than  in  the 
cross  direction.  This  peculiarity  of  the  form  is  a consequence 
of  the  rotatory  motion,  as  will  be  afterward  explained. 

The  earth  is  attended  by  one  satellite,  the  Moon , which  is  a 
globe  of  2,160  miles  in  diameter,  and  consequently  about  a 


TELESCOPIC  APPEARANCE  OF  THE  MOON. 

49th  part  of  the  bulk  of  the  earth,  revolving  round  its  primary 
in  27  days,  7 hours,  43  minutes,  and  11  seconds,  at  the  distance 
of  240,000  miles.  The  moon  is  400  times  nearer  the  earth 


than  the  sun  is  ; but,  its  diameter  being  at  the  same  time  400 
times  less  than  that  of  the  sun,  it  appears  to  us  of  about  the 
same  size.  The  moon  rotates  on  her  axis  in  exactly  the  same 
time  as  she  revolves  round  the  earth.  She  consequently  pre- 
sents at  all  times  the  same  part  of  her  surface  toward  the 
earth.  Inspected  through  a telescope,  her  surface  appears  of 
unequal  brightness  and  extremely  rugged.  The  dark  parts, 
however,  are  not  seas,  as  has  been  supposed,  but  more  like 
the  beds  of  seas,  or  great  alluvial  plains.  No  appearance  of 
water,  or  of  clouds,  or  of  an  atmosphere,  has  been  detected. 
The  surface  presents  numerous  mountains,  some  of  them  about 
a mile  and  three  quarters  in  height,  as  has  been  ascertained  by 
measurement  of  the  shadows  which  they  cast  on  the  neigh- 
boring surface.  The  tops  of  the  mountains  of  the  moon  are 


generally  shaped  like  a cup  or  basin,  with  a small  eminence 
rising  from  the  center,  like  many  volcanic  hills  on  the  earth. 
It  has  hence  been  surmised  that  the  moon  is  in  a volcanic 
state , as  the  earth  appears  to  have  been  for  many  ages  before 
the  creation  of  man,  and  that  it  is  perhaps  undergoing  pro- 
cesses calculated  to  make  it  a fit  scene  for  animal  and  vege- 
table life. 

The  moon  turning  on  its  axis  once  in  a little  more  than  27 
days,  presents  every  part  of  its  surface  in  succession  to  the 
sun  in  that  time,  as  the  earth  does  in  24  hours.  The  day  of 
the  moon  is  consequently  nearly  a fortnight  long,  and  its 
nights  of  the  same  duration.  The  light  of  the  sun,  falling 
upon  the  moon,  is  partly  absorbed  into  its  body ; but  a small 
portion  is  reflected  or  thrown  back,  and  becomes  what  we  call 
moonlight.  The  illuminated  part  from  which  we  derive  moon- 
light, is  at  all  times  increasing  or  diminishing  in  our  eyes,  as 
the  moon  proceeds  in  her  revolution  around  our  globe.  When 
the  satellite  is  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  sun,  we,  being 
between  the  two,  see  the  whole  of  the  illuminated  surface, 
which  we  accordingly  term  full  moon.  As  the  moon  ad- 
vances in  her  course,  the  luminous  side  is  gradually  averted 
from  us,  and  the  moon  is  said  to  wane.  At  length,  when 
the  satellite  has  got  between  the  earth  and  the  sun,  the 
luminous  side  is  entirely  lost  sight  of.  The  moon  is  then  said 
to  change.  Proceeding  in  her  revolution,  she  soon  turns  a 
bright  edge  toward  us,  which  we  call  the  new  moon.  This 
gradually  increases  in  breadth,  till  a moiety  of  the  circle  is 
quite  filled  up  ; it  is  then  said  to  be  half  moon.  The  luminary, 
when  on  the  increase  from  new  to  half,  is  termed  a crescent, 
from  crescens,  Latin  for  increasing  ; and  this  word  has  been 


45  2 


ASTRONOMY. 


applied  to  other  objects  of  the  same  shape— for  instance,  to  a 
curved  line  of  buildings. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  new  moon,  we  usually  see  the  dark 
part  of  the  body  faintly  illuminated,  an  appearance  termed 
the  old  moon  in  the  new  moon  s arms.  This  faint  illumination 
is  produced  by  the  reflection  of  the  sun’s  light  from  the  earth, 
or  what  the  inhabitants  of  the  moon,  if  there  were  any,  might 
be  supposed  to  consider  as  moonlight.  The  earth,  which 
occupies  one  invariable  place  in  the  sky  of  the  moon,  with  a 
surface  thirteen  times  larger  than  the  apparent  size  of  the 
moon  in  our  eyes,  is  then  at  the  full , shining  with  great  luster 
on  the  sunless  side  of  its  satellite,  and  receiving  back  a small 
portion  of  its  own  reflected  light.  The  light,  then,  which 
makes  the  dark  part  of  the  moon  visible  to  us,  may  be  said  to 
perform  three  journeys,  first  from  the  sun  to  the  earth,  then 
from  the  earth  to  the  moon,  and  finally  from  the  moon  back 
to  the  earth,  before  our  eyes  are  enabled  to  perceive  this 
object. 

Mars , the  fourth  of  the  primary  planets,  is  a globe  of  4,189 
miles  in  diameter,  or  little  more  than  a half  of  that  of  the 
earth  ; consequently,  the  bulk  of  this  planet  is  only  about  a 
fifth  of  that  of  our  globe.  It  performs  a rotation  on  its  axis  in 
24  hours,  39  minutes,  and  13^  seconds,  and  revolves  round 
the  sun,  at  a distance  of  142,000,000  of  miles,  in  686  days,  22 
hours,  and  18  seconds.  Mars  appears  to  the  naked  eye  of  a 
red  color  ; from  which  circumstance  it  was,  probably,  that 
the  ancients  bestowed  upon  it  the  name  of  the  god  of  war. 
Inspected  through  a telescope,  it  is  found  to  be  occasionally 
marked  by  large  spots  and  dull  streaks,  of  various  forms,  and 
by  an  unusual  brightness  of  the  poles.  As  the  bright  polar 
parts  sometimes  project  from  the  circular  outline  of  the  planet, 
it  has  been  conjectured  that  these  are  masses  of  snow, 
similar  to  those  which  beset  the  poles  of  the  earth. 

Vesta,  Ceres,  Pallas,  and  Juno  are  among  the  globes,  re- 
volving between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter,  in  paths  near 
and  crossing  each  other,  and  which  are  not  only  much  more 
elliptical  than  the  paths  of  the  other  planets,  but  also  rise  and 
sink  much  further  from  the  plane  of  the  general  planetary  rev- 
olutions. 

Vesta  is  of  a bulk  only  1-15, oooth  part  of  the  bulk  of  the 
earth,  with  a surface  not  exceeding  that  of  the  kingdom  of 
Spain.  It  revolves  round  the  sun  in  3 years,  66  days,  and 
4 hours,  at  a mean  distance  of  225,500,000  miles.  Though 
the  smallest  of  all  the  planets,  it  gives  a very  brilliant  light, 
insomuch  that  it  can  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye. 

Juno  is  1,425  miles  in  diameter,  and  presents,  when  in- 
spected through  the  telescope,  a white  and  well-defined  ap- 
pearance. Its  orbit  is  the  most  eccentric  of  all  the  planetary 
orbits,  being  253,000,000  of  miles  from  the  sun  at  the  greatest, 
and  only  126,000,000,  or  less  than  one-half,  at  the  least  dis- 
tance. In  the  half  of  the  course  nearest  to  the  sun,  the  motion 
of  the  planet  is,  by  virtue  of  a natural  law  afterward  to  be 
explained,  more  than  twice  as  rapid  as  in  the  other  part. 

Ceres  has  been  variously  represented  as  of  1,624  and  160 
miles  in  diameter.  The  astronomer  who  calculated  its 
diameter  at  1,624  miles,  at  the  same  time  believed  himself  to 
have  ascertained  that  it  has  a dense  atmosphere,  extending 
675  miles  from  its  surface.  It  is  of  a reddish  color,  and  ap- 


pears about  the  size  of  a star  of  the  eighth  magnitude.  Ceres 
revolves  round  the  sun,  at  a distance  of  260,000,000  of  miles, 
in  4 years,  7 months,  and  10  days. 

Pallas  has  been  represented  as  of  2,099  miles  in  diameter, 
with  an  atmosphere  extending  468  miles  above  its  surface. 
Another  astronomer  has  allowed  it  a diameter  of  only  80 
miles.  It  revolves  round  the  sun,  at  a mean  distance  of  266,- 
000,000  of  miles,  in  4 years,  7 months,  and  11  days.  How- 
ever unimportant  it  may  appear  beside  the  large  planets,  it 
has  a peculiar  interest  in  the  eyes  of  astronomers,  on  account 
of  its  orbit  having  a greater  inclination  to  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic  than  those  of  all  the  larger  planets  put  together. 

Jupiter  is  the  largest  of  all  the  planets.  Its  diameter  is 
nearly  eleven  times  that  of  the  earth,  or  89,170  miles,  and  its 
volume  or  mass  is  consequently  1,281  times  that  of  our  globe. 
The  density  of  Jupiter  is  only  a fourth  of  that  of  the  earth,  or 
about  the  lightness  of  water  ; and  a human  being,  if  transfer- 
red to  it,  would  be  able  to  leap  with  ease  over  a pretty  large 
house.  It  performs  a rotation  on  its  axis  in  9 hours,  55 
minutes,  and  33  seconds,  or  about  two-fifths  of  our  day.  It 
revolves  round  the  sun,  at  a distance  of  490,000,000  of  miles, 
in  4,330  days,  14  hours,  and  39  minutes,  or  nearly  twelve  of 
our  years.  Viewed  through  a telescope,  Jupiter  appears  sur- 
rounded by  dark  lines,  or  belts,  which  occasionally  shift,  melt 
into  each  other,  or  separate,  but  sometimes  are  observed  with 
little  variation  for  several  months.  These  belts  are  generally 
near  the  equator  of  the  planet,  and  of  a broad  and  straight 
form  ; but  they  have  been  observed  over  his  whole  surface, 
and  of  a lighter,  narrower,  and  more  streaky  and  wavy  appear- 
ance. It  is  supposed  that  the  dark  parts  are  lines  of  the  body 
of  the  planet,  seen  through  openings  in  a bright,  cloudy 
atmosphere. 

Jupiter  is  attended  by  four  satellites,  which  revolve  round 
it,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  moon  round  our  globe,  keeping, 
like  it,  one  face  invariably  presented  to  their  primary.  They 
are  of  about  the  same  size,  or  a little  larger  diameter  than  our 
moon  ; the  first  having  a diameter  of  2,508,  the  second  of 
2,068,  the  third  of  3,377,  and  the  fourth  of  2,890  miles.  The 
first  revolves  round  the  primary  planet  in  1 day,  18  hours,  28 
minutes ; the  second  in  3 days,  13  hours,  14  minutes  ; the 
third  in  7 days,  3 hours,  43  minutes  : and  the  fourth  in  16 
days,  16  hours,  32  minutes.  These  satellites  frequently 
eclipse  the  sun  to  Jupiter;  they  are  also  eclipsed  by  the 
primary  planet,  but  never  all  at  the  same  time,  so  that  his 
dark  side  is  never  altogether  without  moonlight. 

Saturn,  seen  through  a telescope,  is  the  most  remarkable 
of  all  the  planets,  being  surrounded  by  a ring,  and  attended 
by  seven  satellites.  In  bulk  this  is  the  second  of  the  planets, 
being  79,042  miles  in  diameter,  or  about  995  times  the  volume 
of  the  earth.  Its  surface  appears  slightly  marked  by  belts 
like  those  of  Jupiter.  It  performs  a rotation  on  its  axis  in  10 
hours,  16  minutes,  and  revolves  round  the  sun,  at  a distance 
of  900,000,000  of  miles,  in  10,746  days,  19  hours,  16  minutes, 
or  about  29J  of  our  years.  At  such  a distance  from  the  sun, 
that  luminary  must  be  diminished  to  one-eightieth  of  the  size 
he  bears  in  our  eyes,  and  the  heat  and  light  in  the  same  pro- 
portion. The  matter  of  Saturn  is  one-eighth  of  the  density  of 
our  earth. 


ASTRONOMY. 


453 


The  ring  of  Saturn  surrounds  the  body  of  the  planet  in  the 
plane  of  its  equator.  It  is  thin,  like  the  rim  of  a spinning- 
wheel,  and  is  always  seen  with  its  edge  presented  more  or  less 
directly  toward  us.  It  is  luminous  with  the  sun’s  light,  and 
casts  a shadow  on  the  surface  of  the  planet,  the  shadow  of 
which  is  also  sometimes  seen  falling  on  part  of  the  ring.  The 
distance  of  the  inner  edge  from  the  planet  is  calculated  at 
about  19,000  miles ; its  entire  breadth  from  the  inner  to  the 
outer  edge  is  28,538  ; the  thickness  is  not  more  than  ioo.  In 
certain  positions  of  the  planet  we  can  see  its  surface  at  a con- 
siderable angle,  and  the  openings  or  loops  which  it  forms  on 
the  sides  of  the  planet.  At  other  times  we  see  its  dark  side, 
or  only  its  edge.  From  observations  made  upon  it  in  favor- 
able circumstances,  it  is  found  to  be  apparently  divided  near 
the  outer  edge  by  a dark  line  of  nearly  1,800  miles  in  breadth, 
as  if  it  were  divided  into  two  concentric  rings.  From  other 
appearances,  it  has  been  surmised  to  have  other  divisions,  or 
to  be  a collection  of  several  concentric  rings.  It  is  also 
occasionally  marked  by  small  spots.  The  ring  of  Saturn 
rotates  on  its  own  plane  in  10  hours,  32  minutes,  15  seconds, 
and  a part  of  a second,  being  about  the  same  time  with  the 
rotation  of  the  planet. 

The  seven  satellites  of  Saturn  revolve  around  it,  on  the  ex- 
terior of  the  ring,  and  almost  all  of  them  in  nearly  the  same 
plane.  They  are  so  small  as  not  to  be  visible  without  a power- 
ful telescope.  The  two  inner  ones  are  very  near  to  thfc  outer 
edge  of  the  ring,  and  can  only  be  discerned  when  that  object 
is  presented  so  exactly  edgeways  as  to  be  almost  invisible. 
They  have  then  been  seen  passing  like  two  small  bright  beads 
along  the  minute  thread  of  light  formed  by  the  edge  of  the 
ring.  The  three  next  satellites  are  also  very  small  ; the  sixth 
is  larger,  and  placed  at  a great  interval  from  the  rest.  The 
seventh  is  the  largest ; it  is  about  the  size  of  the  planet  Mars, 
and  is  situated  at  nearly  thrice  the  distance  of  the  sixth,  or 
about  2,300,000  miles  from  the  body  of  Saturn.  The  revolu- 
tions of  these  satellites  range  from  1 to  79  days  ; and  it  has 
been  ascertained  of  some  of  them  that,  according  to  the  usual 
law  of  secondary  planets,  their  rotations  on  their  axes  and 
their  revolutions  round  their  primary  are  performed  in  the 
same  time,  so  that,  like  our  moon,  they  always  present  the 
same  face  to  the  center  of  their  system.  The  orbit  of  the 
seventh  satellite  is  much  inclined  to  the  plane  of  Saturn’s 
equator. 

Uranus,  or  Herschel,  the  remotest  planet  known  in  the 
solar  system,  is  a globe  of  35,112  miles  in  diameter,  rotating 
on  its  axis  in  7 hours,  and  performing  a revolution  round  the 
sun,  at  a distance  of  1,800,000,000  of  miles,  in  84  of  our 
years.  The  sun  to  this  remote  planet  must  appear  only  a 
400th  part  of  the  size  which  he  bears  in  our  eyes.  Two  satel- 
lites are  known,  and  other  four  are  suspected,  to  attend  upon 
Uranus.  The  two  which  have  been  observed  circulate  round 
their  primary  in  orbits  almost  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic, 
and  are  further  supposed  to  move  in  a direction  contrary  to 
that  of  all  the  other  planetary  motions — namely,  from  east  to 
west. 

Some  idea  may  be  obtained  of  the  comparative  size  of  the 
principal  objects  of  the  solar  system,  by  supposing  a globe  of 
two  feet  diameter,  placed  in  the  center  of  a level  plain,  to 


represent  the  sun  ; a grain  of  mustard-seed,  placed  on  the 
circumference  of  a circle  164  feet  in  diameter,  for  Mercury  ; a 
pea,  on  a circle  of  284  feet,  for  Venus  ; another  pea,  on  a 
circle  of  430  feet,  for  the  Earth  ; a large  pin’s  head,  on  a 
circle  of  654  feet,  for  Mars  ; four  minute  grains  of  sand,  in 
circles  of  from  1,000  to  1,200  feet,  for  Vesta,  Ceres,  Pallas, 
and  Juno  ; a moderate  sized  orange,  on  a circle  of  nearly  half 
a mile  in  diameter,  for  Jupiter  ; a small  orange,  on  a circle 


four-fifths  of  a mile  in  diameter,  for  Saturn  ; and  a small 
plum  or  full-sized  cherry,  on  a circle  of  a mile  and  a half  in 
diameter,  for  Uranus.  It  is  calculated  that  the  united  mass 
of  the  whole  of  the  planets  is  not  above  a 600th  part  of  the 
mass  of  the  sun.  The  sun  and  planets  are  represented,  with 
an  approximation  to  correctness,  in  philosophical  toys  termed 
orreries,  of  which  the  appearance  is  conveyed  in  the  preced- 
ing engraving. 

COMETS. 

Comets  are  light  vapory  bodies,  which  move  round  the  sun 
in  orbits  much  less  circular  than  those  of  the  planets.  Their 
orbits,  in  other  words,  are  very  long  ellipses,  or  ovals,  having 
the  sun  near  one  of  the  ends.  Comets  usually  have  two  parts, 
a body  or  nucleus,  and  a tail  ; but  some  have  a body  only. 
The  body  appears  as  a thin  vapory,  luminous  mass,  of  globular 
form  ; it  is  so  thin,  that,  in  some  cases,  the  stars  have  been 
seen  through  it.  The  tail  is  a lighter  or  thinner  luminous 
vapor  surrounding  the  body,  and  streaming  far  out  from  it,  in 
one  direction.  A vacant  space  has  been  observed  between  the 
body  and  the  enveloping  matter  of  the  tail  ; and  it  is  equally 
remarkable  that  the  tail  has  in  some  instances  appeared  less 
bright  along  the  middle,  immediately  behind  the  nucleus,  as  if 
it  were  a stream  which  that  nucleus  had  in  some  measure 
parted  into  two. 

Out  of  the  great  multitude — certainly  not  less  than  1,000 — 
which  are  supposed  to  exist,  about  150  have  been  made  the 
subject  of  scientific  observation.  Instead  of  revolving,  like 
the  planets,  nearly  on  the  plane  of  the  sun’s  equator,  it  is 
found  that  they  approach  his  body  from  all  parts  of  surround- 
ing space.  At  first,  they  are  seen  slowly  advancing,  with  a 
comparatively  faint  appearance.  As  they  approach  the  sun, 
the  motion  becomes  quicker,  and  at  length  they  pass  round 


454 


ASTRONOMY. 


nim  with  very  great  rapidity,  and  at  a comparatively  small 
distance  from  his  body.  The  comet  of  1680  approached  within 
one-sixth  of  his  diameter.  After  passing,  they  are  seen  to 
emerge  from  his  rays,  with  an  immense  increase  to  their 
former  brilliancy  and  to  the  length  of  their  tails.  Their 
motion  then  becomes  gradually  slower,  and  their  brilliancy 
diminishes,  and  at  length  they  are  lost  in  distance!  It  has 
been  ascertained  that  their  movement  round  the  sun  is  in 
accordance  with  the  same  law  which  regulates  the  planetary 
movements,  being  always  the  quicker  the  nearer  to  his  body, 
and  the  slower  the  more  distant.  In  the  remote  parts  of  space 
their  motions  must  be  extremely  slow. 

Three  comets  have  been  observed  to  return,  and  their 
periods  of  revolution  have  been  calculated.  The  most  re- 
markable of  these  is  one  usually  denominated  Halley’s  Comet, 
from  the  astronomer  who  first  calculated  its  period.  It  revolves 
round  the  sun  in  about  seventy-five  years,  its  last  appearance 
being  at  the  close  of  1835.  Another,  called  Enke’s  Comet, 
from  Professor  Enke,  of  Berlin,  has  been  found  to  revolve  once 
in  1,207  days,  or  3j  years  ; but,  in  this  case,  the  revolving 
body  is  found  at  each  successive  approach  to  the  sun,  to  be  a 
little  earlier  than  on  the  previous  occasion,  showing  that  its 
orbit  is  gradually  lessening,  so  that  it  may  be  expected  ulti- 
mately to  fall  into  the  sun.  This  fact  has  suggested  that  some 
part  of  that  space  through  which  the  comet  passes,  must  be 
occupied  by  a matter  presenting  some  resistance  to  the  move- 
ment of  any  denser  body  ; and  it  is  supposed  that  this  matter 
may  prove  to  be  the  same  which  has  been  described  as  con- 
stituting the  zodiacal  light.  It  is  called  a resisting  medium  ; 
and  future  observations  upon  it  are  expected  to  be  attended 
with  results  of  a most  important  nature,  seeing  that,  if  there 
be  such  a matter  extending  beyond  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  that 
planet,  in  whose  welfare  we  are  so  much  interested,  will  be 
exposed  to  the  same  ultimate  fate  with  Enke’s  Comet. 

The  third,  named  Beila’s  Comet,  from  M.  Beila,  of  Joseph- 
stadt,  revolves  round  the  sun  in  64  years.  It  is  very  small, 
and  has  no  tail.  In  1832,  this  comet  passed  through  the 
earth’s  path  about  a month  before  the  arrival  of  our  planet  at 
the  same  point.  If  the  earth  had  been  a month  earlier  at  that 
point,  or  the  comet  a month  later  in  crossing  it,  the  two 
bodies  would  have  been  brought  together,  and  the  earth,  in  all 
probability,  would  have  instantly  become  unfit  for  the  existence 
of  the  human  family. 

Comets  often  pass  unobserved,  in  consequence  of  the  part 
of  the  heavens  in  which  they  move  being  then  under  daylight. 
During  a total  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  happened  sixty  years 
before  Christ,  a large  comet,  not  formerly  seen,  became  visi- 
ble, near  the  body  of  the  obscured  luminary.  On  many  occa- 
sions, their  smallness  and  distance  render  them  visible  only 
by  the  aid  of  the  telescope.  On  other  occasions,  they  are  of 
vast  size.  The  comet  now  called  Halley’s,  at  its  appearance 
in  1456,  covered  a sixth  part  of  the  visible  extent  of  the 
heavens,  and  was  likened  to  a Turkish  scimitar.  That  of 
1680,  which  was  observed  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  had  a tail 
calculated  to  be  123,000,000  of  miles  in  length,  a space 
greater  than  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun.  There 
was  a comet  in  1744,  which  had  six  tails,  spread  out  like  a 
fan  across  a large  space  in  the  heavens.  The  tails  of  comets 


usually  stretch  in  the  direction  opposite  to  the  sun,  both  in 
advancing  and  retiring,  and  with  a slight  wave  at  the  outer 
extremity,  as  if  that  part  experienced  some  resistance. 

THE  STARS. 

The  idea  at  which  astronomers  have  arrived  respecting  the 
stars,  is,  that  they  are  all  of  them  suns,  resembling  our  own, 
but  diminished  to  the  appearance  of  mere  specks  of  light  by 
the  great  distance  at  which  they  are  placed.  As  a necessary 
consequence  to  this  supposition,  it  may  be  presumed  that  they 
are  centers  of  light  and  heat  to  systems  of  revolving  planets, 
each  of  which  may  be  further  presumed  to  be  the  theater  of 
forms  of  beings,  bearing  some  analogy  to  those  which  exist 
upon  earth. 

The  stars,  seen  by  the  naked  eye  on  a clear  night,  are  about 
two  thousand  in  number.  This,  allowing  a like  number  for 
the  half  of  the  sky  not  seen,  gives  about  four  thousand,  in  all, 
of  visible  stars.  These  are  of  different  degrees  of  brilliancy, 
probably  in  the  main  in  proportion  to  their  respective  dis- 
tances from  our  system,  but  also  perhaps  in  some  measure  in 
proportion  to  their  respective  actual  sizes.  Astronomers  class 
the  stars  under  different  magnitudes,  not  with  regard  to  ap- 
parent size,  for  none  of  them  present  a measurable  disk,  but 
with  a regard  to  the  various  quantities  of  light  flowing  round 
them  ; .thus,  there  are  stars  of  the  first  magnitude,  the  second 
magnitude,  and  so  on.  Only  six  or  seven  varieties  of  magni- 
tude are  within  our  natural  vision  ; but  with  the  telescope  vast 
numbers  of  more  distant  stars  are  brought  into  view  ; and 
the  magnitudes  are  now  extended  by  astronomers  to  at  least 
sixteen. 

The  stars  are  at  a distance  from  our  system  so  very  great, 
that  the  mind  can  form  no  idea  of  it.  The  brilliant  one  called 
Sirius  or  the  Dog-star,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  nearest, 
merely  because  it  is  the  most  luminous,  has  been  reckoned  by 
tolerably  clear  calculation  to  give  only  1-20, 000, oooth  part  of 
the  light  of  the  sun  ; hence,  supposing  it  to  be  of  the  same 
size,  and  every  other  way  alike,  it  should  be  distant  from  our 
earth  not  less  than  1,960,000,000,000,000,000  miles.  An  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  calculate  the  distance  of  Sirius  by  a 
trigonometrical  problem.  It  may  be  readily  supposed  that 
the  position  of  a spectator  upon  the  earth  with  respect  to 
celestial  objects  must  vary  considerably  at  different  parts  of 
the  year  : for  instance,  on  the  21st  of  June,  he  must  be  in  ex- 
actly the  opposite  part  of  the  orbit  from  what  he  was  on  the 
21st  of  December — indeed,  no  less  than  190,000,000  of  miles 
from  it,  or  twice  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun.  This 
change  of  position  with  relation  to  celestial  objects  is  called 
parallax.  Now,  it  has  been  found  that  Sirius  is  so  distant, 
that  an  angle  formed  between  it  and  the  two  extremities  of 
the  earth’s  orbit  is  too  small  to  be  appreciated.  Were  it  so 
much  as  one  second,  or  the  3,600th  part  of  a degree,  it  could  be 
appreciated  by  the  nice  instruments  we  now  possess ; but  it  is 
not  even  this.  It  is  hence  concluded  that  Sirius  must  be  at 
least  19,200,000,000  of  miles  distant,  however  much  more  ! 
Supposing  this  to  be  its  distance,  its  light  would  take  three 
years  to  reach  us,  though  traveling,  as  it  does,  at  the  rate  of 
192,000  miles  in  a second  of  time  ! 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


PUBLIC  MEETINGS. 

PUBLIC  meeting  is  the  assemblage  of 
a portion  of  the  people,  for  the  expression 
of  opinion  upon  matters  of  local  or  gen- 
eral concern.  The  proceedings  are  but 
few  and  simple ; yet,  to  preserve  order 
during  its  session,  and  to  give  effect  to  its 
n,  the  meeting  has  to  be  guided  by 
defined  rules  from  the  time  of  its  projection  to  the 
moment  of  its  close. 

A DEMOCRATIC  MEETING! 

The  citizens  of  Blank,  in  favor  of  the  policy  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party,  are  requested  to  meet  on  Saturday  Evening,  Sep- 
tember gth,  at  the  house  of  Jasper  Clyde,  Bridge  Street,  at  7 
o’clock,  to  take  such  measures  as  are  deemed  advisable  to  pro- 
mote the  success  of  the  party  in  the  coming  election. 

The  notice  is  also  published  in  the  county  newspaper,  should 
there  be  one. 

Meanwhile,  the  proposers  of  the  affair,  either  after  a caucus 
or  individually,  obtain  the  consent  of  some  speaker,  say  a Mr. 
Joseph  Becker,  to  be  present  and  give  his  views  on  public 
topics.  In  that  case,  the  advertisement  closes  with  an  an- 
nouncement like  this : 

“A.  B.,  Esq.,  has  accepted  an  invitation  to  address  the 
meeting.” 

The  projectors  meanwhile  meet  in  caucus,  and  agree  upon 
officers.  They  select  for  chairman  Mr.  Charles  Kendrick,  an 
old  resident  and  a man  of  standing,  and  Mr.  John  Travers,  to 
act  as  secretary,  and  these  gentlemen  consent  to  take  the  posi- 
tions assigned  them. 

When  the  evening  comes,  and  the  meeting  has  assembled, 
no  business  is  begun  until  half  an  hour  after  the  hour  named. 
This  interval  is  called  “ thirty  minutes’  grace,”  and  is  always 
allowed,  through  custom,  for  the  difference  in  watches. 

At  o’clock,  Mr.  William  Irwin  steps  forward  and  says: 

“The  meeting  will  please  come  to  order.” 

h 


Every  one  hereupon  suspends  conversation,  and,  so  soon  as 
all  is  quiet,  Mr.  Irwin  continues  : 

“I ’move  that  Mr.  Charles  Kendrick  act  as  President  of 
this  meeting.” 

Mr.  Parke  Neville  says  : 

“ I second  the  motion.” 

Then  Mr.  Irwin  puts  the  question  thus  : 

“ It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  Mr.  Charles  Kendrick 
act  as  president  of  this  meeting.  So  many  as  are  in  favor  of 
the  motion  will  signify  their  assent  by  saying  ‘ aye  ! ’ ” 

As  soon  as  those  in  the  affirmative  have  voted,  he  will  say  : 

“ Those  who  are  opposed,  will  say  ‘ no  ! ’” 

If  there  are  more  ayes  than  noes,  as  there  will  be,  unless 
Mr.  Kendrick  be  very  unpopular  indeed,  he  will  say  : 

“ The  ayes  have  it.  The  motion  is  carried.  Mr.  Kendrick 
will  take  the  chair.” 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  noes  prevail,  he  will  say  : 

“ The  noes  have  it.  The  motion  is  lost.” 

Thereupon  he  will  nominate  some  other,  or  put  the  ques- 
tion upon  other  nominations. 

As  soon  as  a chairman  is  chosen,  he  will  take  his  place. 

Mr.  Thomas  Turbot  then  says  : 

“ I move  that  Mr.  John  Travers  act  as  secretary  ®f  this 
meeting.” 

This  motion  is  seconded,  and  the  chairman  puts  the  ques- 
tion and  declares  the  result. 

The  form  of  putting  the  question  to  the  chairman  may  be 
simplified  thus  : 

“ Mr.  Charles  Kendrick  has  been  nominated  as  president  of 
this  meeting.  Those  in  favor,  will  say  ‘ aye  ! ’ — Contrary 
opinion,  ‘no  ! ’” 

The  meeting  is  now  organized.  The  chairman  will  direct 
the  secretary  to  read  the  call.  When  that  has  been  done,  he 
will  say  : 

“ You  have  heard  the  call  under  which  we  have  assembled  ; 
what  is  your  further  pleasure  ? ” 

Hereupon,  Mr.  John  Smith  says  : 

“ I move  that  a committee  of  three  be  appointed  to  draft 
resolutions  expressive  of  the  sense  of  this  meeting.” 

This  is  seconded. 

*£ 


45  6 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


The  chairman  then  says  : 

“ Gentlemen,  you  have  heard  the  motion;  are  you  ready 
for  the  question?  ” 

If  any  one  desires  to  speak  against  the  resolution,  he  arises 
and  says  : 

“ Mr.  Chairman  ! ” 

The  chairman  turns  toward  the  speaker,  and  listens  to  him, 
and  so  to  each  in  succession.  When  they  are  all  done,  or  in 
case  no  one  responds  to  the  call,  he  puts  the  question  in  the 
customary  form  previously  given,  and  declares  the  result. 

The  resolution  being  adopted,  the  chairman  says  : 

“ How  shall  that  committee  be  appointed?  ” 

If  there  be  no  reply,  or  a reply  of  “chair,”  the  chairman 
names  the  mover  of  the  resolution  and  two  others  as  a com- 
mittee. The  committee  withdraws  to  prepare  the  resolutions, 
or  to  examine  those  previously  prepared  for  the  purpose. 

During  the  absence  of  the  committee  is  a proper  time  for 
the  speaker  or  speakers  to  address  the  meeting.  When  the 
speeches  are  over,  the  chairman  of  the  committee  comes  for- 
ward and  says  : 

“ Mr.  Chairman,  the  committee  begs  leave  to  report  the  fol- 
lowing resolutions  : ” 

He  then  reads  the  resolutions,  and  hands  them  to  the  sec- 
retary. 

The  chairman  now  says  : 

“You  have  heard  the  report  of  the  committee  ; what  order 
do  you  take  on  it  ? ” 

Some  one  now  moves  that  the  report  be  accepted,  and  the 
resolutions  be  adopted.  To  save  time,  the  chairman  will  put 
the  question  solely  on  the  adoption  of  the  resolutions.  If  no 
objection  is  made,  and  no  amendment  offered,  he  will  put  the 
question,  and  declare  the  result. 

As  a general  thing,  a committee  may  be  avoided,  as  a use- 
less formality,  and  the  resolutions  be  offered  by  one  of  the 
projectors  of  the  meeting. 

So  soon  as  the  resolutions  are  adopted,  and  the  speeches  are 
over,  the  chairman  should  ask  : 

“ What  is  the  further  pleasure  of  this  meeting  ? ” 

If  there  be  no  further  business,  some  one  moves  an  adjourn- 
ment. The  chairman  does  not  ask  if  the  meeting  be  ready 
for  the  question,  since  an  adjournment  is  not  debatable,  but 
puts  the  question  direct.  If  carried,  he  says  : 

“ This  meeting  stands  adjourned  without  day.” 

If  the  meeting  thinks  proper  to  adjourn  to  meet  at  another 
time,  the  time  is  fixed  by  a previous  resolution,  and  then, 
when  it  adjourns,  the  chairman  declares  it  adjourned  to  the 
time  fixed  upon. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  foregoing  form,  by  varying  the  call, 
and  changing  the  business  to  suit,  will  answer  for  any  other 
political  party,  or  for  any  other  purpose. 

When  a public  meeting  is  called  by  any  executive  or  other 
committee,  the  name  of  the  chairman  of  that  committee 
should  be  appended  to  the  call,  and  the  committee  itself 
should  prepare  business  for  the  action  of  the  meeting,  as 
much  as  possible. 

The  duty  of  the  secretary  of  a public  meeting  is  merely  nom- 
inal, unless  it  is  desired  to  publish  an  account  of  its  proceed- 
ings. In  the  latter  case,  the  record  of  the  foregoing  meeting, 


which  is  a form  for  any  other  meeting,  varied,  under  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case,  would  read  thus  : 

“ At  a meeting  of  the  Democratic  citizens  of  Blank,  held 
pursuant  to  public  notice,  on  Saturday  evening,  September 
gth,  at  7 o’clock,  at  the  house  of  Jasper  Glyde,  Mr.  Charles 
Kendrick  was  called  to  the  chair,  and  Mr.  John  Travers  ap- 
pointed secretary. 

“ On  mofion  of  Mr.  John  Smith,  a committee  of  three,  con- 
sisting of  Messrs.  John  Smith,  Henry  Magraw,  and  Casper 
Evans,  was  appointed  to  draft  resolutions  expressive  of  the 
sense  of  the  meeting. 

“ During  the  absence  of  the  committee,  the  meeting  was 
effectively  addressed  by  Joseph  Becker,  Esq. 

“ The  committee,  through  its  chairman,  reported  the  fol- 
lowing resolutions,  which  were  unanimously  adopted  : 

[Here  the  secretary  inserts  the  resolutions .] 

“ On  motion,  the  meeting  adjourned.” 


ORGANIZING  ASSOCIATIONS. 

When  it  is  advisable  to  form  a society,  club,  or  other  asso- 
ciation, for  any  specific  purpose,  those  who  agree  in  regard  to 
its  formation  may  meet  upon  private  notice  or  public  call. 
The  mode  of  organizing  the  meeting  is  similar  to  that  of  any 
other. 

As  soon  as  the  meeting  has  been  organized,  and  the  chair- 
man announces  that  it  is  ready  to  proceed  to  business,  some 
one  of  the  originators,  previously  agreed  upon,  should  rise, 
and  advocate  the  formation  of  the  club  or  society  required  for 
the  purpose  set  forth  in  the  call,  and  end  by  moving  the  ap- 
pointment of  a committee  to  draft  a constitution  and  by-laws. 
This  committee  should  be  instructed  to  report  at  the  next 
meeting.  A convenient  time  of  adjournment  is  fixed  on,  and 
if  there  be  no  further  business,  the  meeting  adjourns. 

When  the  time  for  the  second  meeting  arrives,  the  same 
officers  continue,  without  any  new  motion.  If  either  be 
absent,  his  place  is  supplied,  on  motion,  by  some  other.  The 
Committee  on  the  Constitution  and  By-laws  reports.  If  the 
constitution  is  not  acceptable,  those  present  suggest  amend- 
ments. As  soon  as  it  has  taken  the  required  shape,  it  is 
adopted,  and  signed  by  those  present.  The  by-laws  are 
treated  in  the  same  way. 

The  society  is  now  formed,  but  not  fully  organized.  The 
officers  provided  for  by  the  constitution  have  now  to  be 
elected.  This  may  be  done  at  that  meeting,  or  the  society 
may  be  adjourned  over  for  that  purpose.  So  soon  as  it  has 
been  done,  the  chairman  of  the  meeting  gives  way  to  the 
newly-elected  president,  or,  in  his  absence,  to  a vice-presi- 
dent ; the  secretary  of  the  meeting  vacates  his  seat,  which  is 
taken  by  the  newly  elected  secretary  or  secretaries,  and  thus 
the  organization  of  the  new  body  is  complete. 

PUBLIC  CELEBRATIONS. 

Public  celebrations  may  be  made  by  some  public  society,  or 
by  the  citizens  at  large.  If  by  the  latter,  a meeting  is  gener- 
ally called,  subject  to  the  customary  rules,  and  a committee  of 
arrangements  appointed,  who  take  charge  of  the  business.  A 
society  appoints  a like  committee. 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


457 


The  committee  of  arrangements  meet,  and  appoint  a chair- 
man and  secretary.  As  soon  as  this  is  done,  the  mode  of  cele- 
bration is  determined  upon.  In  the  case  of  the  Fourth  of 
July,  some  fit  person  is  generally  invited  to  deliver  an  oration, 
and  another  to  read  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  A sub- 
committee is  appointed  to  secure  a proper  room,  unless  the 
celebration  takes  place  in  the  open  air,  when  the  committee 
has  in  charge  the  erection  of  a stand. 

The  proper  sub-committees  are  : 

t.  On  correspondence.  The  duty  of  this  committee  is  to 
invite  such  distinguished  guests  as  are  desirable. 

2.  On  orator.  This  committee  invites  the  orator  selected. 

3.  On  place.  This  committee  attends  to  hiring  a room 
and  fitting  it  up,  cr,  if  it  be  an  out-of-door  celebration,  see  to 
the  erection  of  a stand  for  the  officers  and  speaker,  and  seats 
for  the  auditors. 

4.  On  printing.  This  committee  attends  to  the  necessary 
advertising  and  printing. 

All  these  report  their  action  to  the  main  committee  as  it 
adjourns  from  time  to  time. 

The  day  having  arrived,  at  the  hour  named,  the  officers  and 
speakers  being  ready,  and  the  audience  assembled,  the  chair- 
man of  the  committee  of  arrangements  calls  the  meeting  to 
order,  nominates  the  president  of  the  day,  and  puts  the  ques- 
tion on  his  acceptance.  The  latter  now  takes  his  seat,  and 
the  other  officers  are  appointed.  So  soon  as  this  is  done,  a 
clergyman,  if  there  be  one  named  for  the  purpose,  delivers  a 
short  prayer.  The  chairman  of  the  day  next  announces  by 
name  the  reader  of  the  Declaration,  and  says  : 

“ Mr.  [naming  him],  will  read  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence.” 

The  Declaration  being  read,  the  chairman  says  : 

“ Mr.  [naming  him],  the  orator  of  the  day.”* 

The  orator  now  comes  forward,  and  delivers  his  oration,  at 
the  close  of  which  the  exercises  are  determined,  and  after  a 
benediction,  if  a clergyman  be  present,  the  meeting  adjourns 
without  any  formal  motion. 

If  a band  of  music  can  be  had,  it  is  always  engaged  on  such 
an  occasion,  and  plays  national  and  patriotic  airs  previous  to 
the  taking  the  chair,  at  the  close  of  the  proceedings,  and  at 
the  various  intervals. 

The  public  celebration  of  their  own  anniversaries  by  public 
societies,  if  done  by  orations,  follows  the  same  form. 

CONVENTIONS. 

A convention  is  a number  of  delegates  assembled  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  out  the  views  of  constituents,  and  is  gifted 
with  powers  over  that  of  an  ordinary  meeting.  It  is  the  legis- 
lature of  a party  ; and,  consequently,  is  governed  by  the  same 
rules  of  action,  or  very  nearly,  as  any  other  legislative  body. 

A convention  may  be  called,  either  by  some  committee 
gifted  with  the  power,  or  by  invitation  of  the  leading  friends 
of  a particular  cause  or  measure.  The  call  should  contain 
some  general  directions  as  to  the  mode  of  electing  delegates. 

The  night  before  the  meeting,  it  is  usual  for  the  friends  of 
particular  men  or  measures,  among  its  delegates,  to  hold  a 
caucus,  in  order  to  devise  the  plan  of  action  necessary  to 
secure  the  success  of  the  man  or  measures  they  prefer.  Here 


they  discuss  acts  and  views  with  a freedom  which  cannot  be 
permitted  in  open  convention,  and  agree  upon  their  common 
ground  on  the  following  day.  Part  of  their  proceedings  will 
leak  out  in  spite  of  all  precaution  ; but  care  should  be  taken 
to  admit  none  but  those  who  are  friendly,  in  order  that  as 
much  secrecy  as  possible  may  be  attained. 

There  are  two  sets  of  officers  in  a convention — temporary  and 
permanent.  The  first  is  merely  for  the  purpose  of  conducting 
the  business  preparatory  to  organization.  The  possession  of 
the  permanent  president  is  often  a matter  of  great  importance 
when  there  are  two  parties  in  a convention.  If  the  temporary 
president  appoints  the  committee  which  is  to  nominate  per- 
manent officers,  it  may  be  important  to  gain  him.  In  that 
case  there  is  a struggle  who  shall  nominate  first,  and  some- 
times there  are  several  nominations  for  temporary  chairman. 
To  avoid  this  indecent  competition,  it  is  usual  to  give  the 
delegation  from  each  county,  district,  or  township,  the  right 
to  name  one  member  of  the  committee  on  permanent  organiza- 
tion. Until  the  permanent  officers  have  been  chosen,  and 
have  taken  their  seats,  none  but  preliminary  business  is  to  be 
transacted. 

The  whole  machinery  of  a convention  resembles  that  of  one 
of  the  houses  of  legislature.  But  a convention  for  a political 
or  social  purpose  never  formally  goes  into  committee  of  the 
whole.  When  there  is  an  interval,  and  the  main  body  is  wait- 
ing for  the  report  of  a committee,  or  after  the  business  is  done, 
and  previous  to  adjournment,  it  is  customary  to  call  on  various 
prominent  men  to  address  the  convention,  which  thus  goes 
into  quasi-committee,  without  the  formality  of  a motion. 

Frequently,  the  permanent  chairman  of  a convention  is 
chosen  on  account  of  his  wealth  or  position  ; but  the  custom 
is  a bad  one.  A convention  is  essentially  a business  convoca- 
tion ; the  time  of  its  members  is  more  or  less  valuable  ; and 
no  chairman  should  be  installed  unless  he  is  familiar  with  the 
duties  of  his  position,  and  capable  of  conducting  affairs  with 
promptness,  dignity,  and  force. 

It  is  a custom  to  give  the  thanks  of  the  convention  to  its 
officers,  just  previous  to  adjournment.  In  that  case,  the  mem- 
ber who  makes  the  motion  puts,  himself,  the  question  upon 
its  adoption,  and  declares  the  result. 

FORMS  OF  CONSTITUTIONS. 

A constitution  is  the  formal  written  agreement  making  the 
fundamental  law  which  binds  the  parties  who  associate.  In 
preparation  of  this,  useless  words  should  be  avoided. 

The  constitution,  after  having  been  adopted,  should  be  en- 
grossed in  a blank  book,  and  signed  by  the  members. 
Amendments  or  alterations  should  be  entered  in  the  same 
book,  with  the  date  of  their  adoption,  in  the  shape  of  a copy 
from  the  minutes  ; and  a side-note  inserted  in  the  margin  of 
the  constitution,  opposite  the  article  amended,  showing  on 
what  page  the  amendment  may  be  found. 

LYCEUMS  OR  INSTITUTES. 

Preamble. — Whereas,  experience  has  shown  that  knowl- 
edge can  be  more  readily  acquired  by  combination  of  effort 
than  singly,  we,  whose  names  are  hereunto  annexed,  have 
agreed  to  form  an  association  to  be  known  as  [ here  insert  title\ 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


*— 

’ 45s 


and  for  its  better  government,  do  hereby  establish  the  follow- 
ing constitution  : 

Article  I. — The  name,  style,  and  title  of  this  association 
shall  be  [ here  insert  name\,  and  its  objects  shall  be  the  increase 
and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  its  members. 

Article  II. — I.  The  officers  of  this  association  shall  con- 
sist of  a president,  two  vice-presidents,  a corresponding  secre- 
tary, a recording  secretary,  a treasurer,  a librarian,  and  a 
curator,  who  shall  be  elected  annually  on  [here  insert  time  of 
election  and  mode , whether  by  open  voice  or  by  hallo t], 

2.  The  said  officers  shall  hold  their  offices  until  their  suc- 
cessors shall  have  been  elected  ; and  their  powers  and  duties 
shall  be  similar  to  those  of  like  officers  in  like  associations. 

Article  III. — There  shall  be  appointed  by  the  president, 
immediately  after  his  election,  by  and  with  the  consent  of  the 
association,  the  following  standing  committees,  to  consist  of 
five  members  each,  namely  : on  finance,  library,  museum,  lect- 
ures, and  printing,  who  shall  perform  such  duties  and  take 
charge  of  such  business  as  may  be  assigned  to  them  by  vote  of 
the  association. 

Article  IV. — i.  Any  person  residing  within  [here  state 
limits ],  who  is  above  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  may  become 
a resident  member  of  this  association,  by  consent  of  a major- 
ity of  the  members  present  at  any  stated  meeting  succeeding 
the  one  at  which  his  name  shall  have  been  proposed  ; any  per- 
son residing  without  the  limits  aforesaid  may  be  chosen,  in 
like  manner,  a corresponding  member  ; and  any  person  who 
is  eminent  in  science  or  literature,  may  be  elected  an  hon- 
orary member. 

2.  Each  and  every  resident  member,  upon  his  election, 
shall  sign  this  constitution,  and  pay  over  to  the  recording  sec- 
retary the  sum  of  [here  insert  the  sum],  and  shall  pay  the  like 
sum  annually  in  advance  ; but  no  dues  or  contributions  shall 
be  demanded  of  corresponding  or  honorary  members. 

Article  V. — i.  This  association  shall  be  divided  into  the 
following  sections,  namely  : i.  Natural  Science  ; 2.  Arts  ; 

3.  History  ; 4.  Agriculture  and  Horticulture  ; 5.  Mental  and 
Moral  Philosophy  ; 6.  General  Literature  ; to  each  of  which 
sections  shall  be  referred  all  papers  or  business  appropriate  to 
its  department ; and  to  one  or  more  of  these  sections  each 
member,  immediately  after  his  election,  shall  attach  himself. 

2.  Each  section  shall  report,  from  time  to  time,  upon  the 
business  intrusted  to  it,  as  this  association  shall  direct. 

Article  VI. — This  association  shall  meet  monthly  [here 
insert  time],  and  at  such  other  times  as  it  may  be  called  upon 
by  the  president,  upon  the  written  request  of  six  members  ; of 
each  of  which  meetings  due  notice  shall  be  given,  and  at  each 
and  all  of  these  meetings  six  members  shall  constitute  a quo- 
rum for  the  transaction  of  business. 

Article  VII. — The  rules  of  order  embraced  in  “ The  Rules 
of  Debate  and  Chairman’s  Assistant,”  shall  govern  the  deliber- 
ations of  this  association  so  far  as  the  same  may  apply  ; and 
the  order  of  business  therein  laid  down  shall  be  followed,  un- 
less suspended  or  transposed  by  a two-thirds  vote. 

Article  VIII. — Any  member  who  shall  be  guilty  of  any 
public,  felonious  offence  against  the  law,  or  who  shall  perse- 
vere in  a course  of  conduct  degrading  of  itself  or  calculated 
to  bring  this  association  into  odium,  may  be  expelled  by  a two- 


thirds  vote  of  the  members  present  at  any  stated  meeting; 
and  any  member  who  shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  pay  his  dues 
for  more  than  one  year,  shall  thereby  cease  to  be  a member  of 
this  association ; but  no  member  shall  be  expelled  until  due 
notice  shall  have  been  given  him  of  the  charges  brought 
against  him,  and  until  he  shall  have  had  the  opportunity  of 
being  confronted  with  his  accusers,  and  of  being  heard  in  his 
own  defence. 

Article  IX. — This  constitution  may  be  altered,  amended, 
or  abrogated,  at  any  stated  meeting,  by  a vote  of  two-thirds 
of  the  members  present  ; provided,  that  written  notice  of  said 
alteration,  amendment,  or  abrogation,  shall  have  been  given 
at  a previous  stated  meeting. 

DUTIES  OF  OFFICERS. 

THE  PRESIDING  OFFICER. 

The  chairman  should  have  made  himself  fully  acquainted 
with  the  rules  of  order  and  the  usages  of  deliberative  bodies. 
He  should  be  prompt,  dignified,  and  impartial.  He  should 
be  quick  of  eye  to  note  any  member  who  rises,  and  quick  of 
speech  to  declare  him  in  possession  of  the  floor.  He  should 
suffer  no  member  to  violate  order,  without  instant  rebuke. 
His  voice  should  be  steady,  distinct  and  clear,  so  that  all  may 
hear  readily.  When  he  puts  the  question,  states  a point  of 
order,  or  otherwise  addresses  the  body,  he  should  rise  ; and 
when  he  has  finished,  resume  his  seat.  His  constant  attention 
is  necessary,  and  his  eye  should  never  wander  from  the  speaker 
before  him  ; nor  should  he,  in  any  way,  show  a neglect  of  the 
business.  No  matter  what  disturbance  may  arise,  his  cool- 
ness and  temper  must  be  preserved.  If  his  decision  be  ap- 
pealed from,  he  should  show  no  resentment— an  appeal  being 
a matter  of  privilege — but  should  put  the  appeal  in  the  same 
indifferent  manner  as  though  it  were  an  ordinary  question. 
He  should  always  remember  that  he  has  been  placed  there  to 
guide  and  control  the  machinery  of  the  moment,  and  not  to 
give  his  own  views,  or  display  his  own  abilities  in  an  organ- 
ized association.  He  will  sign  all  orders  for  the  payment  of 
money,  ordered  by  the  body. 

THE  RECORDING  OFFICER. 

The  secretary  or  clerk,  at  the  commencement  of  proceed- 
'ings,  will  seat  himself  at  his  table  ; and,  at  the  order  of  the 
chairman,  will  read  the  minutes  of  the  previous  meeting.  He 
must  note  down  the  proceedings,  and  write  them  down  in  full, 
previous  to  another  meeting.  He  must  file  all  resolutions  and 
other  papers  before  the  body,  and  allow  none  to  go  from  his 
custody  without  due  authority.  He  must  read  all  resolutions 
and  papers,  when  requested  to  do  so  by  the  chair.  He  must 
turn  over  his  records  and  papers  in  good  order  to  his  suc- 
cessor on  leaving  his  office.  He  must  countersign  all  orders 
on  the  treasurer,  which  have  been  signed  by  the  president,  as 
this  counter-signature  is  the  evidence  that  the  society  has  ap- 
proved the  order. 

THE  TREASURER. 

The  treasurer  must  enter,  in  a book  to  be  provided  for  the 
purpose,  all  money  received,  and  all  payments  made,  on  ac- 
count of  the  body.  He  must  pay  out  no  money,  except  on 
an  order,  signed  by  the  president,  and  countersigned  by  the 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


459 


secretary.  He  must  retain  these  orders,  as  his  vouchers.  lie 
must  turn  over  his  books,  in  good  order,  to  his  successor  on 
leaving  his  office.  He  must  give  bonds  in  such  needful  sum 
as  it  deems  best,  if  the  body  require. 

THE  LIBRARIAN. 

The  librarian  will  take  upon  him  the  charge  of  the  books 
and  manuscripts  not  pertaining  to  the  duties  of  other  officers. 
Of  these  he  must  keep  a catalogue.  He  must  keep  a record 
of  all  books  borrowed,  by  whom  and  when  returned  ; and 
must  only  loan  them  under  such  regulations  as  the  body  see 
fit  to  adopt.  He  must  turn  over  his  catalogue  and  records  to 
his  successor  on  leaving  his  office. 

THE  CURATORS. 

The  curators  will  take  charge  of  all  specimens  of  nature  or 
art,  or  otherwise,  and  all  property  of  the  body,  not  in  charge 
of  other  officers.  This  they  will  have  catalogued,  and  will 
keep  it  under  such  restrictions  as  may  be  imposed  on  them  by 
the  main  body.  They  must  turn  over  their  catalogue  papers 
and  property  to  their  successors  on  leaving  their  office. 

THE  COMMITTEE  ON  CORRESPONDENCE. 

The  committee  will  take  charge  of  all  correspondence  or- 
dered by  the  body,  and  if  there  be  no  corresponding  secretary, 
will  conduct  it  with  all  parties,  at  direction  of  the  body, 
through  its  chairman.  It  will  report,  from  time  to  time,  as 
directed,  and  will  keep  copies  of  letters  sent,  and  a file  of 
those  received,  which  it  will  turn  over  to  its  successors,  on  its 
discharge.  If  there  be  a corresponding  secretary,  he  will  per- 
form the  duties  assigned  above  to  the  committee  of  corre- 
spondence. 

THE  COMMITTEE  ON  FINANCE. 

The  committee  on  finance  will  devise  the  ways  and  means 
to  obtain  the  necessary  funds  for  the  body,  and  report  thereon 
from  time  to  time  ; and  will  attend  to  such  other  duties  as 
may  be  assigned  to  them. 

OTHER  COMMITTEES. 

Other  committees  will  attend  to  such  business  as  may  be  as- 
signed to  them  by  the  main  body,  reporting  thereon  as  may 
be  required. 

BY-LAWS. 

The  old  custom  of  appending  a distinct  set  of  By-Laws  has 
fallen  into  disuse.  The  main  points  will  be  found  embodied 
in  the  Constitution  in  the.  forms  given.  Any  others,  or  any 
modifications  of  the  rules  necessary,  may  be  provided  for  in 
the  Constitution,  or  enacted  by  a majority  vote.  But,  if  it  be 
thought  necessary,  that  portion  of  the  Constitution  that  con- 
tains provisions  that  were  formerly  so  placed,  can  be  made 
distinct. 

OFFICIAL  FORMS. 

THE  PRESIDENT. 

On  taking  his  seat,  says  : 

“The  meeting  [or  society,  or  club,  or  association , as  the  case 
may  be]  will  come  to  order.” 

If  there  have  been  a meeting  previous  : 

“ The  secretary  will  please  to  read  the  minutes.” 

After  the  minutes  have  been  read  : 


“You  have  heard  the  minutes  of  the  previous  meeting  read. 
What  order  do  you  take  on  them  ? ” 

When  a motion  has  been  made  and  seconded  : 

“ It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  [here  state  the  mo- 
tion].  Are  you  ready  for  the  question  ? ” 

If  a member  arises  to  speak,  recognize  him  by  naming  hint 
by  his  place,  or  in  any  way  which  will  identify  him  without 
using  his  name,  if  possible. 

In  putting  the  question  : 

“ It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  [here  state  the  mo- 
tion\.  So  many  as  are  in  favor  of  the  motion  will  signify  their 
assent  by  saying  ‘ Aye  ! ’ ” 

When  the  ayes  have  voted,  say  : 

“ Those  to  the  contrary  opinion,  * No  ! ’ ” 

Or,  have  the  resolution  read,  and  say  : 

“ It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  the  resolution  just 
read  be  passed.  So  many  as  are  in  favor,”  etc. 

On  a call  for  the  previous  question  : 

“ Shall  the  main  question  be  now  put?  Those  in  the  af- 
firmative will,”  etc. 

On  an  appeal,  state  the  decision,  and,  if  you  think  proper, 
the  reasons  therefor,  and  that  it  has  been  appealed  from,  and 
then  : 

“ Shall  the  decision  of  the  chair  stand?  Those  in  the  af- 
firmative,” etc. 

Should  it  be  sustained,  say : 

“ The  ayes  have  it.  The  decision  of  the  chair  stands  as 
the  judgment  of  this  meeting”  [or  society,  etc.,  as  the  case  may 
be\. 

Should  it  not  be  sustained,  say  : 

“ The  noes  have  it.  The  decision  of  the  chair  is  reversed.” 
In  announcing  the  result  of  a question,  if  it  be  carried, 
say  : 

“ The  ayes  appear  to  have  it — the  ayes  have  it — the  motion 
[or  amendment,  as  the  case  may  be]  is  carried.” 

If  it  be  lost  : 

“ The  noes  appear  to  have  it — the  noes  have  it — the  motion 
is  lost.” 

If  a division  be  called  for  : 

“ A division  is  called  for.  Those  in  favor  of  the  motion 
will  rise.” 

Count  them.  When  counted,  announce  the  number,  and 
say : 

“ Those  opposed  will  rise.” 

Count  them,  report  the  number,  and  declare  the  result. 

If  the  yeas  and  nays  be  called  for,  and  no  objection  be 
made,  he  states  the  question,  if  needed,  and  says  : 

“ As  the  roll  is  called,  members  will  vote  in  the  affirmative 
or  negative.  The  secretary  will  call  the  roll.” 

After  the  ayes  and  nays  have  been  determined,  the  chair- 
man states  the  number  and  declares  the  result. 

If  no  quorum  be  present  at  the  hour  of  meeting,  after  wait- 
ing a reasonable  time,  he  says  : 

“ The  hour  for  which  this  meeting  was  called  having  ar- 
rived and  past,  and  no  quorum  being  present,  what  order  is  to 
be  taken  ?” 

Or,  he  may  simply  announce  the  fact,  and  wait  for  a mem 
ber  to  move  an  adjournment. 


4&o 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


If  during  a meeting  some  member  calls  for  a count,  he 
counts,  and  announces  if  a quorum  be  present  or  not.  If  not, 
he  says : 

“ This  meeting  is  in  want  of  a quorum.  What  order  is  to 
be  taken  ? ” 

Or  he  may  state  the  fact  only,  and  wait  for  a motion  to  ad- 
journ. But  while  there  is  no  quorum  present,  business  must 
be  suspended. 

After  the  minutes  have  been  adopted,  he  says : 

“ The  next  business  in  order  is  the  reports  of  standing  com- 
mittees.” 

If  none,  or  after  they  have  reported,  he  says  : 

“ The  reports  of  special  committees  are  next  in  order.” 

And  so  he  announces  each  business  in  its  proper  succession. 
When  the  hour  for  the  orders  of  the  day  arrives,  on  call  of 
a member,  he  says  : 

“ Shall  the  orders  of  the  day  be  taken  up  ? So  many  as  are 
in  favor,”  etc. 

In  case  of  disorder  in  committee  of  the  whole,  which  its 
chairman  cannot  repress,  the  presiding  officer  may  say  : 

“The  committee  of  the  whole  is  dissolved.  The  society 
[or  club , or  association,  as  the  case  may  be]  will  come  to  order. 
Members  will  take  their  seats.” 

He  will  then  take  the  chair,  instead  of  the  chairman  of  the 
committee  of  the  whole. 

In  taking  the  question  on  amendment,  he  says  : 

“ The  question  will  be  on  the  amendment  offered  by  the 
member  from  [naming  his  place,  or  otherwise  indicating  him]," 
and  then  puts  the  question. 

If  on  an  amendment  to  an  amendment,  then  : 

“The  question  will  be  on  the  amendment  to  the  amend- 
ment,” and  the  rest  as  before. 

If  either  the  amendment  or  the  amendment  to  the  amend- 
ment be  carried,  he  will  say  : 

“ The  question  now  recurs  on  the  resolution  as  amended. 
Are  you  ready  for  the  question  ? ” 

And  if  no  member  rises  to  speak,  he  will  put  the  question. 
On  the  motion  to  amend  by  striking  out  words  from  a reso- 
lution, he  says  : 

“ It  is  moved  to  amend  by  striking  out  the  words  [, naming 
them].  Shall  those  words  stand  ? ” And  then  he  puts  the 
question. 

Objection  being  made  to  the  reading  of  a paper,  he  will 
say  : 

“Shall  the  paper  [naming  it]  be  read?”  and  then  put  the 
question. 

And  on  an  objection  being  made  to  the  reception  of  a re- 
port, he  will  say  : 

“Shall  the  report  of  the  committee  be  received?”  and 
after  the  demand  he  puts  the  question. 

When  in  doubt  as  to  which  member  was  up  first,  he  says  : 

“ The  chair  is  in  doubt  as  to  which  member  is  entitled  to 
the  floor.  The  society  [or  club,  or  association,  as  the  case  may 

be]  will  decide.  Was  the  gentleman  from  [indicating 

any  one]  first  up  ? ” And  puts  the  question.  If  the  body  decide 
against  that  member,  he  puts  the  question  on  the  next,  and  so 
through,  until  the  society  decides  that  some  one  of  them  has 
the  floor.  If  but  two  contend,  however,  and  the  society  de- 


cide against  the  first  named,  the  decision  virtually  entitles  the 
other  to  the  floor  without  further  vote. 

If  a member  is  out  of  order,  he  will  say  : 

“The  member  [indicating  him]  is  out  of  order.”  He  will 
make  him  take  his  seat,  and  then  state  wherein  the  member 
is  out  of  order. 

If  the  point  of  order  is  raised  by  a member,  he  will  say  : 

“ The  member  [indicating  him]  will  state  his  point  of  or. 
der.”  When  this  has  been  done,  he  decides  the  point. 

On  a question  of  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  says  : 

“ It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  when  this  meeting 
[or  club,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be]  adjourns,  it  adjourn  to 
[naming  time  and  place].  Are  you  ready  for  the  question  ? ” 
And  if  no  one  rises  to  speak,  puts  the  question. 

On  a question  of  adjournment,  he  says : 

“It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  this  meeting  [or 
club,  etc.]  do  now  adjourn  ; ” and  puts  the  question. 

When  adjournment  is  carried,  he  says  : 

“ This  society  [or  club,  etc.]  stands  adjourned  to”  [naming 
time  and  place]  ; or  if  without  any  time,  he  says  : 

“ This  society  [or  club,  etc. ] stands  adjourned  without  day.” 

THE  RECORDING  SECRETARY. 

The  secretary  commences  his  minutes  thus  : 

“At  a stated  [or  special,  or  adjourned  stated,  or  adjourned 
special,  as  the  case  may  be]  meeting  of  [here  insert  the  name  of 
the  body],  held  on  [here  insert  the  time  and  place  of  meeting], 
Mr.  [insert  chairmans  name]  in  the  chair,  and  [here  insert 
secretary's  name]  acting  as  secretary — 

“ The  minutes  of  the  preceding  meeting  were  read  and  ap- 
proved.” 

If  the  reading  of  the  minutes  was  dispensed  with,  say  so, 
instead  of  the  preceding  line. 

Then  give  a statement  of  what  was  done,  without  com- 
ments, as  succinctly  as  possible,  down  to  the  adjournment. 

In  countersigning  an  order  for  money,  or  in  giving  a certi- 
fied copy  of  the  minutes,  or  an  extract  from  them,  always 
sign  the  name  on  the  left-hand  corner  of  each  sheet  except  the 
last.  On  the  last,  the  signature  on  the  same  comer  should  be 
preceded— if  an  order  for  money — by  the  word  teste  or  attest ; 
and  if  it  be  a copy  of  minutes,  by  the  words  “ A true  copy  of 
the  minutes.” 

In  case  of  an  adjournment  for  want  of  a quomm,  say  : 

“ At  a stated  [or  special,  etc.]  meeting  called  at  [name  place 
and  time],  no  quomm  being  present,  the  meeting  adjourned.” 
In  recording  the  yeas  and  nays,  prepare  a list  of  the  mem- 
bers, or  have  it  on  hand,  and  after  the  name  of  each  have  two 
columns  ruled. 

Where  a member  votes  “aye,”  write  it  in  the  first  column, 
or  head  one  column  “ aye,”  and  the  other  “ no,”  and  make  a 
mark  in  the  proper  column,  opposite  the  name.'  Where  he 
votes  “no,”  write  it  on  the  second.  Add  up,  and  enter  the 
number  at  the  foot  of  each  column.  Indorse  the  resolution 
or  motion  voted  upon  the  back  of  the  list. 

Where  a report  is  made,  it  is  not  necessary  in  the  minutes 
to  do  more  than  give  an  abstract  of  its  contents,  or  a sentence 
or  two  indicating  its  nature.  The  report  should,  however,  be 
indorsed  with  its  title,  and  the  date  of  its  report,  and  filed. 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


461 


A list  of  the  orders  of  the  day  should  always  be  made  out 
, previous  to  every  meeting,  for  the  convenience  of  the  presid- 
ing officer. 

CORRESPONDING  SECRETARY. 

In  addressing  a letter  for  the  body,  write  the  words  “Cor- 
responding Secretary,”  as  concluding  part  of  the  signature, 
and  retain  a copy  of  the  letter  sent,  with  a record  of  the  time 
it  was  dispatched,  stating  whether  by  mail  or  private  hand. 

THE  TREASURER. 

The  form  of  account  of  the  treasurer  is  very  simple.  But 
where  the  accounts  are  complicated,  a regular  set  of  books 
should  be  opened,  and  kept  by  double  entry. 

THE  COMMITTEES. 

The  chairman  of  the  committee  of  the  whole,  when  the 
committee  has  risen,  will  say  to  the  president  of  the  main 
body,  if  it  have  concluded  its  business  : 

“ Mr.  President : The  committee  of  the  whole  has,  accord- 
ing to  order,  gone  through  the  business  assigned  to  it,  and 
asks  leave  to  report.” 

Leave  being  granted,  he  reports  what  has  been  done. 

Or,  not  having  concluded — 

“ The  committee  of  the  whole  has,  according  to  order,  con- 
sidered the  business  assigned  to  it,  and  made  progress  therein, 
but  not  having  time  to  conclude  the  same,  asks  leave  to  sit 
again.” 

Or,  if  rising  from  the  want  of  a quorum — 

“ The  committee  of  the  whole,  has,  according  to  order,  con- 
sidered [ proceeded  to  consider]  the  business  assigned  to  it,  but 
has  risen  for  want  of  a quorum.” 

In  putting  the  question  for  rising — 

“ It  has  been  moved  and  seconded  that  this  committee  do 
now  rise  and  report  [or  report  progress],  So  many  as  are  in 
favor,  ” etc. 

All  written  reports  are  headed  after  a similar  form.  If  from 
a standing  committee,  thus  : 

“ The  committee  on  [insert  name  of  committee]  respectfully 
report .”  And  then  let  the  report  follow. 

If  a special  committee — 

The  committee  to  which  was  referred  [here  state  the  special 
matter  of  reference ],  have  considered  the  same,  and  respect- 
fully report,”  etc. 

And  all  reports  conclude  with  : 

*■  All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted." 

A minority  report  is  headed  . 

“ The  undersigned,  the  minority  of  a committee  to  which 
was  referred,”  etc. 

And  concludes  as  in  a majority  report. 

RULES  OF  ORDER. 

QUORUM. 

1.  A quorum  is  a sufficient  number  to  legally  transact  busi- 
ness. A majority  of  the  members  of  any  association  consti- 
tutes a natural  quorum  ; but  a smaller  number  is  usually  made 
a quorum  by  a provision  to  that  effect  in  the  constitution  or 
by-laws,  through  motives  of  convenience. 

2.  If  there  be  a quorum  present  at  the  hour  named  for  the 


meeting,  or  within  thirty  minutes  thereafter,  the  presiding 
officer  takes  the  elixir,  and  calls  the  association  to  order ; if 
not,  he  waits  a reasonable  time,  and  from  the  chair  announces 
that  no  quorum  is  present.  Thereupon  no  further  business  is 
in  order,  except  to  adjourn  for  want  of  a quorum.  But  it  will 
be  in  order  to  call  the  roll  of  members,  and  to  make  endeavot 
to  obtain  the  presence  of  enough  to  form  a quorum. 

3.  During  the  transaction  of  business,  should  it  be  observed 
that  no  quorum  is  present,  the  chair  may  announce  the  fact, 
or  any  member  may  call  for  a count.  If,  on  counting,  it  be 
found  that  there  is  no  quorum,  business  is  suspended  until  a 
quorum  be  found.  If  not  to  be  had,  the  meeting  must  be  ad- 
journed. 

4.  If,  on  calling  the  ayes  and  noes,  or  on  division,  a 
quorum  be  not  found,  the  vote  is  null,  and  at  the  next  meet- 
ing the  unfinished  business  is  in  the  exact  state  it  was  when 
the  absence  of  a quorum  was  discovered. 

CALL. 

1.  On  a call  of  the  body,  each  member  rises  as  he  is  called, 
and  answers  to  his  name,  and  the  absentees  are  noted.  In  a 
small  body  it  is  not  necessary  to  rise. 

MINUTES. 

1.  The  presiding  officer  having  taken  the  chair,  and  a 
quorum  being  present,  the  minutes  are  read.  If  there  be  any 
mistakes  in  the  record,  these  are  amended,  and  then  the  min- 
utes are  adopted.  If,  under  any  circumstances  requiring 
haste,  or  in  the  absence  of  the  journal,  the  reading  of  the 
minutes  be  suspended,  they  may  be  either  read  and  adopted 
at  another  stage  of  the  proceedings,  or  at  the  next  succeeding 
meeting.  Nevertheless,  the  minutes  being  a record  of  facts, 
any  error  subsequently  discovered  may  be  amended  at  any 
time.  This  may  be  done  by  unanimous  consent ; or,  if  objec- 
tions be  made,  then  any  member  who  voted  in  the  affirmative 
on  their  adoption,  can  move  a reconsideration  of  the  motion 
to  adopt.  This  last  motion  prevailing,  the  minutes  are  open 
to  amendment  ; and  after  being  amended,  the  motion  on  their 
adoption  as  amended  is  put. 

2.  The  rule  of  record  in  ordinary  associations  is  somewhat 
different  from  that  in  legislative  bodies.  The  minutes  of  the 
former  stand  in  lieu  of  the  journals  of  the  latter.  The  former 
never  contain  a question  which  is  interrupted  by  a vote  to  ad- 
journ, or  to  proceed  to  the  order  of  the  day  ; the  latter  always 
do.  Even  propositions  withdrawn,  or  ruled  out  of  order,  may 
be  entered,  as  so  treated.  The  minutes  are  to  be  full  and  ex- 
plicit, and  a true  record  of  all  that  was  done,  but  not  of  all 
that  was  said,  unless  the  latter  be  necessary  to  the  clear  under- 
standing of  the  business. 

3.  Proceedings  in  committee  of  the  whole  are,  of  course, 
not  entered  on  the  minutes — the  entry  merely  that  the  com- 
mittee rose  and  reported  thus,  and  so,  and  what  was  done 
thereon  by  the  association. 

PRESIDING  OFFICER. 

In  the  absence  of  the  president,  or  in  ease  he  declines,  the 
vice-president  takes  the  chair.  If  there  be  more  than  one 
vice-president,  then  they  take  it  in  their  numerical  order,  unless 
the  association,  by  vote,  designate  a particular  one.  If  neither 


I 


462 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


president  nor  vice-president  be  present,  some  member  is 
called  to  act  temporarily  as  chairman,  on  motion  put  by  the 
mover  thereof. 

RECORDING  OFFICER. 

In  the  absence  of  the  secretary,  or,  if  more  than  one,  in  the 
absence  of  all,  a temporary  secretary  must  be  appointed  on 
motion.  * 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  BUSINESS. 

This,  in  associations,  is  usually  provided  for  in  the  by-laws. 
If  not  otherwise  provided  for,  it  is  as  follows:  1.  Reading  the 
minutes ; 2.  Reports  of  standing  committees  ; 3.  Reports  of 
special  committees;  4.  Special  orders;  5.  Unfinished  business; 

6.  New  business.  The  election  of  new  members,  unless  other- 
wise ordered,  is  always  in  order  ; and  the  election  of  officers 
ranks  as  a special  order  ; but  an  election  of  members  is  not  in 
order  while  other  business  is  pending,  or  while  a member  has 
the  floor. 

ORDERS. 

There  is  only  one  case  where  a member  has  a right  to  insist 
on  anything,  and  that  is  where  he  calls  for  the  execution  of  an 
existing  order.  No  debate  nor  delay  can  be  had  on  it  ; but 
where  it  is  for  an  order  of  the  day,  fixing  some  particular 
business  to  be  taken  up,  then  the  president,  on  call  of  a mem- 
ber, puts  the  question  whether  the  association  will  proceed  to 
the  order  of  the  day.  If  it  is  decided  in  the  negative,  that  is, 
in  effect,  a reversal  of  the  former  order,  and  the  association 
decides  to  proceed  to  other  business. 

COMMITTEES. 

1.  Standing  committees  are  appointed  under  the  constitution 
or  by-laws  of  the  association,  or  by  resolution,  and  sit  perma- 
nently, while  special  committees  are  usually  appointed  by 
resolution  to  attend  to  some  particular  business,  which  being 
done,  they  are  usually  discharged. 

2.  The  first-named  person  acts  as  chairman  of  any  commit- 
tee. It  is  true  that  the  committee  possesses  the  inherent 
power  to  choose  its  own  chairman  ; but  custom  prevents  this 
power  from  being  used.  Should  a committee  select  some 
other  than  the  first  named  as  chairman,  it  would  be  considered 
a wanton  insult. 

3.  It  is  always  proper  to  place  the  mover  of  a successful 
motion  on  any  committee  arising  through  his  resolution,  and 
to  name  him  first  ; but  if  the  committee  is  upon  an  inquiry 
into  his  conduct,  or  where  its  deliberation  concerns  himself 
personally,  or  his  manifest  interest,  the  rule  is  not  followed. 

4.  As  near  as  they  will  apply,  the  rules  of  order  of  the 
main  body  govern  the  deliberations  of  committees. 

5.  A committee  to  whom  a resolution  or  affirmative  prop- 
osition is  committed  should  always  have  a majority  of  mem- 
bers, if  they  can  be  had,  favorable  to  such  resolution  or  propo- 
sition. 

6.  Unless  otherwise  ordered,  the  chair  appoints  all  commit- 
tees. 

7.  When  there  is  a standing  committee  on  any  subject,  any- 
thing referring  to  such  subject  should  be  referred  to  that  com- 
mittee alone  ; but  it  may  be  given  to  a special  committee,  if 
the  association  think  proper. 

8.  Standing  committees  require  no  order  to  report.  They 


are  always  in  session,  and  should  report  at  every  meeting,  if 
only  to  report  progress. 

9.  A committee  cannot  sit  while  the  main  body  is  in  ses- 
sion, unless  so  ordered  to  do. 

10  A majority  of  a committee  must  concur  in  a report ; 
but  the  minority  are  never  refused  leave  to  bring  in  a counter 
report. 

11.  Sometimes  a majority  cannot  be  found,  when  the  com- 
mittee should  report  the  fact  of  their  disagreement,  and  ask 
leave  to  be  discharged  ; they  are  then  to  be  discharged,  and 
either  a new  committee  raised,  or  the  subject  brought  before  a 
committee  of  the  whole,  or  before  the  main  body. 

12.  Persons  appointed  upon  a committee  should  join  that 
committee  so  soon  as  they  are  notified  of  their  appointment, 
unless  they  are  excused  ; as  it  is  the  duty  of  the  first  named 
member  of  the  committee  to  call  his  fellow's  together  as  soon 
as  possible. 

COMMITTEE  OF  THE  WHOLE. 

1.  If  it  be  necessary  to  go  into  committee  of  the  whole 
society,  either  for  a general  or  specific  purpose,  it  is  done  by 
motion,  when  the  chairman  vacates  the  chair,  and  calls  some 
member  to  it  to  act  as  chairman  ; though  the  committee  of  the 
whole,  if  it  chooses,  can  select  another  chairman  like  any 
other  committee.  This  it  never  does. 

The  quorum  of  the  committee  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
main  body.  If  a quorum  be  found  wanting,  the  committee 
has  to  rise,  the  regular  chairman  takes  his  seat,  and  the  chair- 
man of  the  committee  informs  him  that  the  committee  rises 
for  want  of  a quorum.  Then  the  usual  course  is  taken  in  re- 
gard to  the  absence  of  a quorum. 

2.  If  any  communication  be  made  to  the  main  body  while 
in  committee  of  the  whole,  the  committee  cannot  receive  it. 
If  its  reception  be  necessary,  the  committee  have  to  rise. 

3.  If  there  be  confusion  or  disturbance  in  committee  of  the 
whole,  the  president  may  take  the  chair,  declare  the  com- 
mittee dissolved,  and  reduce  the  body  to  order.  In  that  case 
it  requires  another  motion  for  that  committee  to  sit  again. 

4.  A committee  of  the  whole  cannot  adjourn,  but  it  must 
rise.  It  cannot  take  the  previous  question,  nor  take  the  ayes 
and  noes. 

5.  If  the  business  before  the  committee  of  the  whole  be 
unfinished,  it  rises  on  motion,  the  regular  presiding  officer 
takes  the  chair,  and  the  chairman  of  the  committee  reports 
that  the  committee  of  the  whole  have,  according  to  order, 
considered  the  business  assigned  to  them,  and  have  made  prog- 
ress therein,  but,  not  having  time  to  conclude  the  same,  ask 
leave  to  sit  again.  Leave  is  then  granted  on  motion.  If  the 
subject  be  a special  one,  and  it  is  concluded,  the  motion  is 
that  the  committee  rise  and  report  proceedings  ; then,  when 
the  president  takes  the  chair,  the  chairman  of  the  committee 
reports  that  the  committee  have  gone  through  the  business  re- 
ferred to  them,  and  ask  leave  to  report.  Leave  is  then  given 
to  report  then,  or  at  some  other  time,  either  by  motion,  or, 
should  there  be  no  objection,  on  the  call  of  some  member. 

6.  In  committee,  members  may  speak  oftener  than  once  on 
the  same  subject,  and  are  not  confined  strictly  to  the  subject- 
matter.  With  these  and  the  foregoing  exceptions,  the  same 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


463 


rules  of  order  govern  the  committee  of  the  whole  as  govern 
the  main  body. 

7.  A motion  to  rise  and  report  progress  is  in  order  at  any 
stage  of  the  business,  and  is  to  be  decided  without  debate. 
When  they  have  reported,  they  may  be  discharged  on  motion, 
which  brings  the  matter  laid  before  them  directly  before  the 
association  itself. 

COMMITMENT. 

1.  If  it  be  desired  to  refer  a resolution,  address  or  other 
matter  to  a committee,  it  is  done  on  motion.  If  to  a special 
committee,  the  chair  names  the  committee.  Any  member 
present  may  suggest  one  member  on  that  committee,  and  if 
the  main  body  do  not  object  the  chair  will  name  him,  since 
the  silence  of  members  in  that  case  is  equivalent  to  a direct 
appointment  of  that  person  by  the  association.  But  such  a 
course  is  unusual,  and  generally  improper. 

2.  Though  the  majority  on  a committee  should  be  favorable 
to  a measure,  the  minority  may  be  of  those  who  are  opposed 
to  it  in  some  particulars.  But  those  totally  opposed  to  it 
should  never  be  appointed  ; and  if  any  one  of  that  view  be 
named,  he  should  rise  and  state  the  fact,  when  the  main  body 
will  excuse  him  from  serving. 

3.  If  it  be  a written  matter  which  is  referred,  the  secretary 
delivers  it  to  the  first  named  of  the  committee. 

4.  A committee  meets  when  and  where  it  pleases,  unless  the 
time  and  place  is  fixed  for  it.  But  it  cannot  act  unless  its 
members  assemble  together. 

5.  The  committee  cannot  change  the  title  or  subject  of  the 
matter  before  it,  but  otherwise  have  full  power  over  it. 

6.  If  it  be  a written  matter  before  it,  if  it  originate  with 
the  committee,  the  writing  must  be  considered  paragraph  by 
paragraph,  and  the  question  put  on  each.  After  each  para- 
graph is  approved  or  amended,  it  is  then  considered  as  a 
whole.  If  it  has  been  referred,  the  committee  only  report 
the  amendments  they  recommend  separately  ; as  they  have  no 
right  to  amend  a paper  belonging  to  the  main  body. 

7.  When  the  committee  is  through,  some  member  moves 
that  it  rise,  and  report  the  matter  to  the  main  body,  with  or 
without  amendments,  as  the  case  may  be. 

REPORTS  OF  COMMITTEES. 

The  chairman  of  the  committee,  standing  in  his  place,  in- 
forms the  association  that  the  committee  to  which  was  in- 
trusted such  a matter,  naming  it,  have  directed  him  to  report 
thereon,  and  moves  that  the  report  be  received.  The  cry  of 
“ Receive  !”  or  “ Report  ! ” or  “ Read  it  1 ” from  any  one, 
generally  dispenses  with  the  formality  of  a question.  He  then 
reads  the  report,  whatever  it  may  be,  and  delivers  the  written 
report  to  the  secretary.  Then  it  lies  on  the  table  until  called 
up  by  a motion.  The  committee  is  dissolved,  and  can  act  no 
more  unless  reconstituted  for  the  purpose  by  a vote. 

MOTIONS. 

1.  A motion  is  a proposition  by  two  members ; conse- 
quently, if  not  seconded,  it  is  not  to  be  entertained.  This  is 
different,  however,  in  the  case  of  an  appeal,  where  the  ques- 
tion may  be  put  on  the  demand  of  one  member. 

2.  A motion  must  be  put  in  writing,  if  any  member  desires 


it,  and  read,  when  required  for  information.  But  if  the  de- 
mand for  the  reading  be  repeated,  so  as  to  show  itself  a mere 
pretext  for  delay,  the  association  may  order  it  to  be  read  no 
more. 

3.  A motion  for  adjournment  cannot  be  made  while  one 
member  is  speaking  ; because  it  is  a breach  of  order  for  one 
to  speak  when  another  has  the  floor,  except  to  a point  of  order  ; 
consequently,  even  a privileged  motion  cannot  be  entertained. 
And  even  on  a call  to  order,  decided  against  him,  he  must  still 
be  allowed  to  go  on,  provided  he  does  not  persist  in  the  same 
violation  of  order  in  his  remarks. 

AMENDMENTS. 

1.  An  amendment  takes  the  place  of  the  question  it  is  pro- 
posed to  amend,  and  must  be  decided  first.  So  an  amend- 
ment to  an  amendment  must  be  decided  before  the  first 
amendment. 

2.  But  amendments  cannot  be  piled  one  on  the  other  ; that 
is,  while  you  can  amend  an  amendment,  you  cannot  amend 
the  second  amendment. 

3.  For  example  : it  is  moved  to  give  the  thanks  of  the  asso- 
ciation for  his  kind  gift  of  fifty  volumes  to  the  society.  It  is 
moved  to  amend  by  striking  out  the  word  “kind  ” and  insert- 
ing “ generous.”  This  is  an  amendment.  It  is  then  moved 
to  strike  out  the  word  “generous”  and  insert  that  of  “lib- 
eral.” This  is  an  amendment  to  the  amendment.  It  is  then 
proposed  to  strike  out  the  word  “liberal,”  and  insert  that  of 
" munificent.”  This  third  amendment  is  out  of  order. 

4.  Nor  can  amendments  be  made  to  certain  privileged  ques- 
tions. Thus,  an  amendment  to  a motion  to  adjourn,  for  the 
previous  question,  a call  of  the  house,  or  to  lay  on  the  table. 

5.  But  an  amendment,  though  inconsistent  with  one  pre- 
viously adopted,  is  still  in  order.  It  is  for  the  association 
alone  to  decide  whether,  by  the  passage  of  the  second  amend- 
ment, it  will  recede  from  its  former  action. 

6.  On  an  amendment  being  moved,  a member  who  has 
spoken  to  the  main  question,  may  speak  to  the  amendment. 

7.  If  it  be  proposed  to  amend  by  leaving  out  certain  words, 
it  may  be  moved  to  amend  the  amendment  by  leaving  out  a 
part  of  the  words  of  the  amendment,  which  is  equivalent  to 
letting  those  words  remain. 

8.  For  example  : the  original  words  being  “ Resolved  that 
we  have  heard  with  feelings  of  lively  satisfaction  that  the  au- 
thorities of  our  town  propose  to  tax  dogs,  and  approve  their 
action,”  it  is  moved  to  amend  by  striking  out  the  words  “ with 
feelings  of  lively  satisfaction.”  If  it  be  moved  to  amend  the 
amendment,  by  striking  out  the  words  “ with  feelings  of  sat- 
isfaction,” the  question  would  be  : Shall  those  words  stand  as 
part  of  the  resolution?  If  carried,  the  word  “lively”  is 
struck  out,  and  the  rest  remains.  The  question  then  recurs 
on  the  resolution  as  amended. 

9.  When  it  is  proposed  to  amend  by  inserting  a paragraph, 
or  part  of  one,  the  friends  of  this  should  make  it  perfect  by 
amendments  ; because  if  it  be  inserted  it  cannot  be  amended, 
since  it  has  been  agreed  to  in  that  form.  So  if  proposed  to 
amend  by  striking  out  a paragraph,  the  friends  of  the  para- 
graph should  also  make  it  as  perfect,  by  amendments,  as  pos- 
sible ; for  if  the  striking  out  be  negatived,  that  is  equivalent 


4<M 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


to  agreeing  to  it  in  that  form,  and  amendments  are  not  ad- 
missible. 

10.  When  it  is  moved  to  amend  by  striking  out  certain  words 
and  inserting  others,  the  manner  of  stating  the  question  is, 
first  to  read  the  whole  passage  to  be  amended,  as  it  stands  at 
present ; then  the  words  proposed  to  be  struck  out ; next  those 
to  be  inserted  ; and,  lastly,  the  whole  passage  as  it  will  be 
when  amended.  And  the  question,  if  desired,  is  then  to  be 
divided,  and  put  first  on  striking  out.  If  carried,  it  is  next 
on  inserting  the  words  proposed.  If  that  be  lost,  it  may  be 
moved  to  insert  others. 

11.  A motion  is  made  to  amend  by  striking  out  certain 
words  and  inserting  others  in  their  place,  which  is  negatived. 
Then  it  is  moved  to  strike  out  the  same  words,  and  to  insert 
others  of  a tenor  entirely  different  from  those  first  proposed, 
which  is  negatived.  Then  it  is  moved  to  strike  out  the  same 
words  and  insert  nothing,  which  is  agreed  to.  All  this  is  in 
order  ; because  to  strike  out  A and  insert  B,  is  one  proposition. 
To  strike  out  A and  insert  C is  another  proposition.  To 
strike  out  A and  insert  nothing,  is  another  proposition.  The 
rejection  of  either  proposition  does  not  preclude  the  offering 
of  a new  one.  But  a motion  to  strike  out  alone  being  voted 
down,  is  equivalent  to  voting  that  the  words  should  stand,  and 
amendments  are  not  in  order.  Jefferson  thinks  that  even  if 
the  question  be  divided,  and  taken  first  on  the  striking  out, 
and  that  fails,  amendments  are  in  order,  because  the  proposi- 
tion is  only  half  put.  There  is  force  in  this,  and  it  seems  to 
be  the  practice. 

12.  After  the  paragraph  is  amended,  it  nevertheless  may  be 
further  amended  by  striking  it  entirely  out. 

PRIVILEGED  QUESTIONS. 

1.  “ When  a question  is  under  debate,  no  motion  shall  be 
received  but  to  adjourn,  to  lay  on  the  table,  to  postpone  in- 
definitely, to  postpone  to  a day  certain,  to  commit,  or  to 
amend  ; which  several  motions  shall  have  precedence  in  the 
order  they  stand  arranged  ; and  the  motion  to  adjourn  shall 
be  always  in  order,  and  shall  be  decided  without  debate.” 

2.  These  privileged  questions  shall  not  only  be  entertained 
while  the  main  question  is  pending,  but  will  be  put  before  it. 

3.  A motion  to  adjourn  takes  precedence  of  all  others,  be- 
cause otherwise  the  body  might  be  kept  sitting  against  its  will, 
and  indefinitely.  Yet  even  this  question  cannot  be  entertained 
after  another  question  is  actually  put,  and  while  members  are 
voting  upon  it. 

4.  An  order  of  the  day — that  is,  a question  which  has  pre- 
viously been  set  down  to  be  argued  or  determined  on  that  day 
— takes  place  of  all  questions  except  adjournment.  If,  for 
instance,  a matter  be  set  down  for  7 o’clock,  then  at  that  hour, 
although  another  question  may  be  before  the  body,  a motion  to 
proceed  to  take  up  the  order  of  the  day  must  be  received  by 
the  chair. 

5.  These  privileged  questions  sometimes  conflict  with  each 
other,  but  are  reconciled  under  known  rules. 

6.  If  the  previous  question  be  first  moved,  it  is  first  put. 
This  cuts  off  all  the  others.  The  society,  having  decided  to 
take  the  question,  must  vote  on  it  as  it  stands — postponement, 
commitment,  and  amendment  being  out  of  order. 


7.  If  postponement  be  carried,  of  course  the  question  can- 
not be  either  committed,  amended,  nor  the  previous  question 
be  carried,  for  the  subject  is  not  before  the  body. 

8.  If  committed,  the  same  rules  and  reasons  follow. 

g.  If  amendment  is  first  moved,  the  question  on  that  must 
be  determined  before  the  previous  question. 

10.  If  amendment  and  postponement  are  proposed,  the  lat- 
ter is  put  first.  The  reason  is,  that  the  amendment  is  not 
suppressed,  but  comes  up  again  in  its  orderwhenever  the  main 
question  is  again  considered. 

11.  If  a motion  for  amendment  be  followed  by  one  for  com' 
mitment,  the  latter  shall  be  put  first. 

12.  The  previous  question  cannot  be  put  on  the  motion  to 
postpone,  commit,  or  amend  the  main  question. 

13.  The  motion  for  .the  previous  question,  or  for  commit- 
ment or  amendment,  cannot  be  postponed. 

14.  A motion  made  for  reading  papers  relative  to  the  ques- 
tion discussed  must  be  put  before  the  main  question. 

] 5.  A motion  made  and  seconded  cannot  be  withdrawn  with- 
out leave,  though,  if  no  member  object,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
put  the  question. 

16.  When  different  sums  or  dates  are  used  in  filling  blanks, 
the  question  shall  first  be  put  on  the  largest  sum  and  the  long- 
est time. 

17.  In  commitment,  the  motions  to  commit  are  privileged 
in  the  following  order  : I.  Committee  of  the  Whole  ; 2.  Stand- 
ing Committee  ; 3.  Special  Committee. 

18.  A motion  to  lay  on  the  table  must  be  put  before  either 
postponement,  commitment,  or  amendment,  although  neither 
of  these  last  can  be  laid  on  the  table. 

19.  A postponement  can  be  amended  as  to  time,  and  an 
amendment  can  be  amended  ; but  if  it  be  proposed  to  amend  by 
inserting  anything,  a motion  to  amend  or  perfect  the  matter  pro- 
posed to  be  inserted  must  be  put  to  a vote  before  the  question 
to  insert.  The  same  rule  follows  in  regard  to  striking  out. 

20.  A question  of  privilege,  such  as  a quarrel  between 
members,  or  affecting  the  character  of  members,  or  the  main 
body,  must  be  disposed  of  before  the  original  question  be 
disposed  of. 

21.  Questions  on  leave  to  withdraw  motions,  or  appeals 
from  the  decision  of  the  chair,  have  a precedence  over  the 
main  question. 

PREVIOUS  QUESTION. 

1.  When  any  question  is  before  the  association,  any  mem- 
ber may  move  that  the  main  question  be  put  ; and  this  is 
termed  moving  the  previous  question.  If  the  motion  pass  in 
the  affirmative,  the  main  question  is  put  immediately,  and  no 
further  debate  is  allowed  upon  the  matter  at  issue. 

2.  This  is  frequently  styled  “ the  gag  law,”  becuase  its 
adoption  cuts  off  all  debate.  When  a subject  in  the  judgment 
of  the  majority  has  been  exhausted,  or  when  personalities 
have  been  introduced,  and  disorders  are  threatened,  it  is  a 
very  proper  and  wise  thing  ; but  it  should  not  generally  be 
brought  to  bear  so  long  as  members  who  desire  to  speak  are 
unheard. 

DIVISION  OF  THE  QUESTION. 

i.  A question  which  contains  more  parts  than  one  may  be 
divided,  on  the  demand  of  a member,  provided  the  main  body 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


465 


concur.  If  the  question  contain  parts  which  are  evidently  in- 
compatible, the  presiding  officer  may  divide  them  of  his  own 
will,  unless  the  body  deny  him  the  power. 

2.  When  a question  is  divided,  after  the  question  has  been 
taken  on  the  first  member  of  it,  the  second  member  is  still 
open  to  amendment  and  debate,  unless  the  previous  question 
be  taken  upon  it. 

COEXISTING  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Occasionally  there  are  two  questions  up  at  the  same  time — 
one  primarily,  and  the  other  secondarily.  Are  both  subject 
to  debate  ? 

2.  When  it  has  been  moved  to  commit  a question,  the  main 
question  is  debatable  under  that  motion  ; but  no  amendment 
can  be  entertained,  because  the  question  of  commitment  will 
be  first  put. 

EQUIVALENT  QUESTIONS. 

Where  questions  are  equivalent,  so  that  the  rejection  of  one 
is  the  affirming  the  other,  that  necessarily  determines  the 
latter.  Thus,  a vote  against  striking  out  is  virtually  the  same 
as  a vote  to  agree  ; a vote  to  reject  is  equivalent  to  a vote  to 
adopt ; but,  on  a motion  to  strike  out  A and  insert  B being 
decided  in  the  negative,  this  does  not  preclude  the  motion  to 
strike  out  A and  insert  C,  these  being  separate  questions. 

THE  QUESTION. 

1.  The  question  is  first  to  be  put  on  the  affirmative,  and 
then  on  the  negative  side. 

2.  After  the  question  has  been  put,  debate  upon  it  is  out  of 
order  ; but  after  the  presiding  officer  has  put  the  affirmative, 
any  member  who  has  not  spoken  before  on  the  question  may 
speak  before  the  negative  be  put,  for  it  is  not  a full  question 
until  the  negative  be  put, 

3.  But  on  trifling  matters,  such  as  leave  to  bring  in  reports 
of  committees,  withdrawing  motions,  reading  papers,  and  such 
like,  the  consent  of  the  main  body  will  be  supposed  without 
the  formality  of  a question,  unless  some  one  should  object, 
for  the  absence  of  an  objection  in  such  cases  testifies  to  unani- 
mous consent. 

DIVISION. 

1.  The  affirmative  and  negative  voices  having  been  heard 
upon  a question,  the  presiding  officer  declares  by  the  sound 
what  is  the  result.  If  he  have  doubts  as  to  the  relative 
strength  of  the  yeas  and  nays,  or  if  any  member  demands  it, 
before  other  business  has  been  gone  into,  then  a division  is 
ordered. 

2.  The  mode  of  dividing  is  for  those  in  the  affirmative  to 
rise,  when  the  presiding  officer  counts  those  up,  and  announces 
the  number.  These  sit,  and  those  in  the  negative  arise,  to  be 
counted  in  like  manner. 

3.  One-fifth  of  the  members  present  may  call  for  the  yeas 
and  nays,  each  member’s  name  being  called,  and  his  answer 
entered  by  the  secretary. 

In  case  of  any  disorder  during  a division  or  calling  of  the 
yeas  and  nays,  the  presiding  officer  decides  the  question  of 
order ; and  the  decision  is  not  the  subject  of  appeal  at  this 
time,  although  it  may  be  revised  after  the  division  or  call  is 
over.  (See  Rule  XXXIII.) 


RECONSIDERATION. 

1.  A question  which  has  been  decided  either  in  the  affirma- 
tive or  in  the  negative,  may  be  reconsidered  upon  the  motion 
of  a member  who  has  voted  with  the  majority.  But  this 
motion  for  reconsideration  will  not  be  in  order,  unless  made 
during  the  meeting  whereat  the  question  was  decided. 

2.  The  effect  of  the  adoption  of  a motion  to  reconsider  is  to 
place  the  question  in  the  position  it  occupied  before  the  vote 
on  its  adoption  or  rejection  was  taken  ; consequently  it  is  as 
open  to  amendment,  postponement,  commitment,  or  laying  on 
the  table,  as  it  was  at  that  time. 

APPEALS. 

1.  An  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  chair  is  a matter  of 
right,  and  brings  under  review  and  opens  to  debate  the 
grounds  of  such  decision. 

2.  The  presiding  officer,  by  usage  and  courtesy,  has  the 
right  to  assign  his  reasons  for  his  decision  before  the  question 
is  put  on  the  appeal. 

3.  The  question  on  an  appeal  is,  whether  the  decision  of  the 
presiding  officer  shall  stand  as  the  judgment  of  the  body  itself. 
If  a majority  vote  in  the  affirmative,  the  decision  stands  ; if 
not,  it  is  reversed. 

4.  An  appeal  cannot  be  put  on  an  appeal  ; that  is,  a second 
appeal  cannot  be  entertained  while  the  first  remains  undis- 
posed of. 

5.  A mere  opinion  of  the  chair,  drawn  out  by  an  interroga- 
tion on  points  of  order,  is  not  subject  to  an  appeal.  To  be 
appealed  from,  it  must  be  an  actual  decision  on  a question 
coming  up  legitimately  in  the  progress  of  business. 

PAPERS. 

1.  When  papers  have  been  laid  before  the  main  body,  or 
referred  to  a committee,  every  member  has  a right  to  hear 
them  once  read  at  the  secretary’s  table,  before  he  can  be  com- 
pelled to  vote  on  them. 

2.  But  he  has  not  a right,  therefore,  to  have  papers  read  inde- 
pendently of  the  will  of  a majority  of  his  colleagues.  If  the 
reading  be  demanded  purely  for  information,  and  not  for 
delay,  and  no  one  objects,  the  chairman  will  direct  it  to  be 
done,  without  putting  it  to  the  question.  But  should  any  one 
object,  the  question  must  be  put. 

3.  Nor  can  any  member  have  a right,  without  a question 
first  put,  to  have  any  thing  read,  which  is  not  before  the 
body. 

4.  Nor  can  a member  have  a right  to  read  a paper,  in  his 
place,  not  even  his  own  speech,  if  it  be  objected  to,  without 
the  leave  of  the  body.  But  this  rule  is  not  usually  enforced, 
unless  there  be  a gross  or  intentional  abuse  of  the  time  and 
patience  of  the  body. 

COMMUNICATIONS. 

When  a communication  addressed  to  the  main  body  is  pre- 
sented, the  question  is  to  be  put  whether  it  shall  be  received. 
But  a general  cry  of  “ Receive  ! ” or,  even  if  there  be  no 
objection,  the  silence  of  the  body,  is  sufficient  to  dispense 
with  the  formality  of  the  question.  In  that  case,  or  in  case 
the  vote  on  its  reception  be  in  the  affirmative,  it  is  to  be  read, 
unless  otherwise  disposed  of. 


466 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


THINGS  ON  THE  TABLE. 

1.  Matters  which  have  been  laid  on  the  table  can  only  be 
called  up  when  the  class  of  business  to  which  they  belong  is 
in  order. 

2.  If  laid  on  the  table  by  a motion,  they  can  only  be  lifted 
from  it  by  a motion.  If  laid  there  under  rules,  as  a matter 
of  course,  they  can  be  called  up  by  any  member  as  a matter 
of  right,  when  the  business  to  which  they  belong  is  reached  in 
its  regular  order. 

3.  But  it  is  deemed  discourteous,  when  the  matter  lies  on  the 
table,  to  call  it  up  in  the  absence  of  the  mover,  or  against  his 
wishes,  if  present,  provided  it  refers  to  a matter  of  local  or 
private  concern,  in  the  mover’s  special  charge  ; and  provided, 
further,  that  it  is  not  designed  or  calculated  to  delay  final  ac- 
tion on  any  measure  or  proposition  before  the  body,  or  impede 
the  progress  of  business. 

RESOLUTIONS. 

All  resolutions  must  be  committed  to  writing,  if  demanded, 
and  the  name  of  the  mover  should  be  signed  thereto. 

RIGHTS  OF  MEMBERS. 

1.  It  is  the  right  of  a member  to  have  the  question  put  on 
his  motion,  and  a refusal  to  do  this  is  a breach  of  order  on  the 
part  of  the  chair. 

2.  It  is  the  right  of  a member  to  insist  on  the  execution  of 
a standing  order  of  the  body. 

3.  And  it  is  the  right  of  a member,  if  he  observe  that  a 
quorum  is  not  present  during  the  transaction  of  business,  to 
call  for  a count. 

ORDER  AND  DECORUM. 

1.  When  the  presiding  officer  takes  the  chair  every  member 
is  to  be  seated. 

2.  When  any  member  means  to  speak,  he  is  to  stand  up, 
uncovered,  and  to  address  himself — not  to  those  around,  or  to 
any  particular  member— but  to  the  presiding  officer,  who 
calls  him  by  his  name  ; or,  better  still,  indicates  him  by  his 
position,  or  otherwise,  that  the  body  may  take  notice  who  it 
is  that  speaks.  But  a member  who  is  indisposed  may  be  in- 
dulged to  speak  sitting. 

3.  When  a member  stands  up  to  speak,  no  question  is  to  be 
put ; but  he  is  to  be  heard,  unless  the  body  overrules  him. 

4.  If  two  or  more  rise  to  speak  nearly  together,  the  chair- 
man decides  who  was  first  up,  and  calls  him  by  name  or  loca- 
tion ; whereupon  he  proceeds,  unless  he  voluntarily  sits  down, 
and  gives  way  to  the  other.  But  if  the  chairman  is  not  clear 
in  his  mind,  or  the  body  does  not  acquiesce  in  his  decision, 
the  question  is  to  be  put  as  to  which  was  first  up. 

5.  No  man  can  speak  more  than  once  to  the  same  question, 

; not  even  though  he  change  his  opinion  in  the  meanwhile,  un- 
less by  unanimous  consent. 

6.  But  if  he  be  the  mover,  proposer,  or  introducer  of  the 
question  pending,  he  may  close  the  debate  ; but  only  after 
every  one  desiring  to  speak  on  it  shall  have  been  heard. 

7.  Or  he  may  be  permitted  to  speak  again,  to  clear  a matter 
of  fact  ; or  merely  to  explain  himself  in  some  material  part  of 
his  speech  ; or  to  the  manner  and  words  of  the  question  keep- 
ing himself  to  that  only,  and  not  traveling  into  the  merits  of 




it  ; or  to  the  orders  of  the  body,  if  they  be  transgressed,  keep- 
ing within  that  line. 

8.  If  the  chairman  rise  to  state  a point  of  order,  give  infor- 
mation, or  otherwise  speak  within  his  privilege,  the  member 
standing  up  must  resume  his  seat,  that  the  chairman  may  be 
first  heard. 

9.  No  one  is  to  speak  impertinently  or  beside  the  question, 
superfluously  or  tediously. 

10.  No  person  is  to  use  indecent  language  against  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  body  ; and  no  prior  determination  of  which  is 
to  be  reflected  on  by  any  member,  unless  he  means  to  con- 
clude with  a motion  to  rescind  it.  While  a proposition  is 
under  consideration,  however,  though  it  has  been  even  re- 
ported by  a committee,  reflections  upon  it  are  not  reflections 
upon  the  body  itself. 

11.  No  person,  in  speaking,  is  to  mention  a member  then 
present  by  his  name  ; but  to  describe  him  by  his  seat,  or  as 
one  who  spoke  last  ; or  on  the  other  side  of  the  question  ; or 
in  some  other  indirect  way  to  identify  him. 

12.  Nor  is  he  to  digress  from  the  matter  to  fall  upon  the 
person  ; nor  to  use  even  unmanly  words  against  a member ; 
nor  to  arraign  the  motives  of  those  who  propose  or  advocate 
it.  All  such  violations  of  order  it  is  the  duty  of  the  chair  to 
immediately  suppress. 

13.  When  a member  shall  be  called  to  order  by  a member 
or  the  chair,  he  shall  sit  down  until  the  point  of  order  is  de- 
cided. The  member  who  makes  the  call  shall  state  his  point 
of  order,  and  the  question  shall  be  decided  by  the  chair,  with- 
out debate  ; subject,  of  course,  to  an  appeal. 

14.  While  the  chair  is  putting  a question,  or  addressing  the 
body,  none  shall  walk  out  of  or  across  the  room  ; nor,  in  such 
case,  nor  while  a member  is  speaking,  shall  entertain  private 
discourse  ; nor,  while  a member  is  speaking,  shall  pass  be- 
tween him  and  the  chair.  Every  member  shall  remain  uncov- 
ered while  the  body  is  in  session.  No  member,  or  other  per- 
son, shall  visit  or  remain  near  the  secretary’s  table  while  the 
ayes  and  noes  are  being  called,  or  the  ballots  counted. 

15.  No  one  is  to  disturb  another  in  his  speech  by  hissing, 
coughing,  spitting,  or  rude  exclamations  ; nor  stand  up  to  in- 
terrupt him  ; nor  pass  between  the  chair  and  the  speaking 
member,  nor  go  across  the  house  while  he  is  speaking  ; nor 
walk  up  and  down  the  floor  ; nor  take  books  or  papers  from 
the  table,  or  write  there.  Nevertheless,  if  no  attention  is 
paid  to  what  the  member  says,  it  is  a piece  of  prudence  for 
him  to  sit  down,  as  the  ill-manners  of  his  colleagues  are 
prima  facie  evidence  that  he  is  saying  nothing  worth  the 
hearing. 

16.  If  repeated  calls  do  not  produce  order,  the  chair  may 
call  any  member  by  name  who  obstinately  persists  in  irregular- 
ity, whereupon  the  main  body  may  require  the  member  to  sit 
down.  He  must  be  heard  in  exculpation,  if  it  is  intended  to 
proceed  further,  and  then  withdraw  to  await  the  further  action 
of  his  colleagues,  who  may  pass  a vote  of  censure  upon  him  ; 
or,  if  he  persist,  may  act  in  his  case  in  the  manner  prescribed 
in  the  by-laws  of  the  body. 

17.  Disorderly  words  are  not  to  be  noted  until  the  member 
finishes  his  speech,  unless  they  are  manifestly  personal,  inde- 
cent, blasphemous,  or  reflecting  upon  the  house.  The  offen- 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


467 


sive  words  are  to  be  taken  down  by  the  member  who  objects, 
or  by  the  secretary,  at  his  request.  If  the  chair  thinks  they 
are  not  disorderly,  he  directs  them  not  to  be  taken  down  by 
the  secretary,  unless  there  be  a general  cry  to  the  contrary. 
They  are  to  be  read,  when  taken  down,  to  the  member,  who 
may  deny  them  ; in  which  case  the  body  shall  decide  by  vote 
whether  they  are  his  or  not.  If  they  are  voted  to  be  his,  or 
if  he  acknowledge  them,  he  must  justify  them  satisfactorily, 
explain  the  use  of  them,  or  apologize.  If  the  offended  mem- 
ber still  persists,  and  is  not  satisfied,  the  sense  of  the  body 
may  be  taken,  during  which  both  members  must  withdraw. 
But  when  business  has  intervened,  or  any  member  spoken 
after  the  offensive  words,  they  cannot  be  taken  down. 

18.  Disorderly  words  spoken  in  committee  must  be  written 
down,  as  in  the  main  body  ; but  the  committee  can  only  re- 
port them  to  the  latter  for  its  action. 

19.  Blasphemous  or  seditious  words,  or  words  reflecting  on 
the  religious  belief  of  members  or  on  religion  generally,  are 
not  in  order. 

20.  No  member  can  be  present  when  anything  w'hich  con- 
cerns himself  is  debating,  much  less  vote  upon  it  ; nor  is 
any  member  to  speak  to  the  merit  of  it  until  he  withdraws. 
Nevertheless,  he  may  be  heard  upon  it,  before  he  withdraws. 

21.  No  member  is  to  come  into  the  place  of  meeting,  or 
remain  there,  with  his  head  covered,  nor  put  on  his  hat  while 
there. 

22.  A question  of  order  may  be  adjourned  for  a time,  to 
look  into  precedents. 

23.  When  a member  is  called  to  order,  he  shall  sit  down  at 
once,  unless  permitted  to  explain.  If  the  body  be  appealed 
to,  it  shall  decide  the  question  without  debate  ; if  there  be  no 
appeal,  the  decision  of  the  chair  shall  be  submitted  to.  If  the 
decision  be  in  favor  of  the  member,  he  shall  be  allowed  to 
proceed  ; if  against  him,  he  shall  not  proceed  without  the 
leave  of  the  body  ; and  the  body  may,  if  it  think  proper,  pro- 
ceed to  censure  him. 

24.  All  decisions  of  the  presiding  officer  are  liable  to  be  re- 
versed, altered,  or  amended  by  the  body. 

ADJOURNMENTS  AND  RECESSES. 

An  adjournment  is  the  closing  of  a session  for  the  day  to  be 
resumed  on  another  day  ; on  which  day  the  regular  routine  of 
business  is  commenced  anew,  except  when  superseded  by  a 
special  order. 

A recess  is  a suspension  of  business  from  one  hour  of  a 
day  to  another  hour  of  the  same  day  ; at  which  hour  business 
is  taken  up  at  the  point  where  it  was  left,  unless  a special 
order  takes  its  place. 

A motion  to  adjourn  cannot  be  amended,  by  adding  the 
day  and  hour.  It  must  be  put  simply  that  this  body  do  now 
adjourn  ; and,  if  carried  in  the  affirmative,  it  is  adjourned  to 
the  next  sitting  day,  or  without  day,  as  the  case  may  be.  But 
any  special  time  of  adjournment  may  be  fixed  by  a previous 
resolution. 

If  a question  be  put  for  adjournment  it  is  no  adjournment 
till  so  pronounced  by  the  chair.  And  it  is  a breach  of  cour- 
tesy for  a member  to  leave  his  place  until  the  chair  has  pro- 
nounced on  the  question  of  adjournment. 


SUSPENSION  OF  RULES. 

By  unanimous  consent  any  rule  or  order  may  be  suspended 
in  part  or  whole  ; but  the  object  of  suspending  the  rule  must 
be  stated  in  the  motion,  and  when  that  object  has  failed  or 
been  attained,  the  rule  regains  its  former  force. 


FORCE  OF  WORDS. 

Throughout  these  rules,  whenever  the  word  “body”  or 
“main  body”  has  been  used,  it  means  the  society,  club,  as- 
sociation, or  other  organized  body  to  which  the  rules  are  made 
to  apply. 

TIE-VOTE. 


Where  a presiding  officer  is  not  chosen  out  of  the  body  it- 
self, as  in  the  case  of  the  Vice-President  of  the  United  States, 
the  Lieutenant  Governor  of  a State,  or  the  Mayor  of  a city  or 
town,  who  may  preside  over  the  Common  Council,  he  has 
naturally  no  vote.  The  Constitution  in  the  case  of  the  two 
first,  and  the  charter  in  case  of  the  last,  give  them  the  privi- 
lege of  deciding  in  case  of  a tie,  and  they  do  not  vote  other- 
wise. 

But  in  the  case  of  the  Speaker  of  Congress,  or  of  a House  of 
Assembly,  or  a State  Senate  choosing  its  own  presiding  offi- 
cer, the  Speaker  or  President  votes  like  any  other  member, 
only  it  is  customary  for  the  clerk,  in  calling  the  roll,  to  call 
him  by  his  title,  and  not  by  his  name.  Hence  in  ordinary 
societies  the  presiding  officer  votes  on  all  questions,  and  must 
vote  if  it  be  pressed,  or  be  guilty  of  contempt  of  the  main 
body,  as  in  the  case  of  any  other  member.  The  effect  of  a 
tie  vote  then  is  merely  that  the  question  before  the  body,  not 
having  a majority  of  votes,  is  lost. 


OF  RESOLUTIONS. 

A written  resolution  is  the  formal  record  of  opinion  upon 
one  or  more  subjects,  expressed  by  a body  of  men.  As  in  al- 
most every  species  of  written  composition,  the  language  should 
be  simple,  terse  and  forcible. 

A resolution  may  or  may  not  be  prefaced  by  a preamble.  If 
it  be  so  constructed,  the  preamble  should  set  forth  briefly  the 
cause  of  the  resolution  which  is  to  follow.  This  preamble 
is  usually  commenced  with  the  word  “ Whereas.” 

After  this  comes  the  resolution  or  resolutions — which  com- 
mence with  the  word  “Resolved.” 

A good  resolution — one  that  is  pithy  and  forcible — requires 
some  care  in  its  composition.  Unless  the  writer  be  a very  ex- 
perienced one,  he  had  better  avoid  all  figures  of  rhetoric,  and 
confine  himself  to  a plain  statement  of  the  opinion  he  wishes 
to  convey. 

As  example  is  always  useful,  we  will  take  a subject,  and 
show  the  preferable  form  of  a preamble  and  resolution 
upon  it. 

We  will  suppose  that  a party  majority  in  the  legislature 
passes  a registry  law,  which  is  not  approved  by  the  opposite 
party,  and  a public  meeting  of  the  members  of  the  latter  de- 
sire to  condemn  it.  The  following  preamble  and  resolutions 
may  be  suggested  : 

“Whereas,  It  is  proper  for  the  people,  in  their  public  as- 
semblages, to  express  their  views  of  the  conduct  of  those  in 
office,  and  to  award  to  the  latter  their  approval  or  censure  : 
and 


468 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


“ Whereas,  The  late  legislature  of  this  State  have  passed  an 
oppressive  registry  bill,  odious  in  its  principles,  and  burden- 
some in  its  details  ; therefore, 

“ Resolved , That  the  act  referred  to  meets  our  unqualified 
disapproval  and  decided  condemnation  ; that  we  will  spare  no 
efforts  to  promote  its  abrogation  ; and  that  we  will  vote  for 
no  candidate  for  senate  or  assembly  who  is  not  pledged  to  its 
speedy  repeal.” 

Now,  the  above  is  not  more  wordy  than  such  resolutions 
usually  are,  yet  it  can  be  easily  simplified. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  aver  that  it  is  proper  for  the  people  to 
express  their  views  on  official  conduct,  “ in  their  public  as- 
semblages,” since  it  is  their  right  to  do  that  also  in  other 
places.  The  rest  of  the  first  paragraph  is  a mere  repetition. 
And,  finally,  the  whole  is  a matter  generally  admitted,-  and, 
therefore,  not  the  subject  of  affirmation.  The  preamble  had 
better  begin  with  the  second  paragraph.  But  that  contains 
useless  words  also.  Any  thing  which  is  oppressive  is  apt  to 
be  odious  in  its  principles  and  burdensome  in  its  details,  and 
vice  versa. 

The  resolution  itself  contains  superfluous  matter  in  its 
phrases — “decided  condemnation”  or  “unqualified  disap- 
proval ” should  be  stricken  out,  and  the  remainder  of  the  par- 
agraph condensed. 

Again  : the  statements  of  the  preamble  may  be  as  fully  ex- 
pressed in  the  body  of  the  resolution  itself,  and  may  be  prop- 
erly omitted. 

Following  these  hints,  the  resolution  would  read  as  follows  : 

“ Resolved , That  we  are  opposed  to  the  present  oppressive 
registry  law,  and  that  we  will  vote  for  no  candidate  for  either 
house  of  the  legislature  who  is  not  pledged  to  its  speedy  re- 
peal.” 

With  these  remarks  upon  composition,  we  proceed  to  lay 
before  the  reader  a series  of  resolutions  upon  various  ordinary 
subjects,  which  may  possibly  afford  him  hints,  or  serve  for  the 
nucleus  of  others. 

VARIOUS  RESOLUTIONS. 

RESOLUTIONS  OF  CONDOLENCE  ON  THE  DEATH  OF  A MEMBER 
OF  A FIRE  COMPANY. 

Whereas,  It  has  seemed  good  to  the  Almighty  Disposer  of 
events  to  remove  from  our  midst  our  late  worthy  and  esteemed 
fellow-member,  Philip  Flint ; and 

Whereas,  The  intimate  relations  long  held  by  the  deceased 
with  the  members  of  this  company  render  it  proper  that  we 
should  place  upon  record  our  appreciation  of  his  services  as  a 
fireman,  and  his  merits  as  a man  ; therefore, 

Resolved,  That  we  deplore  the  loss  of  Philip  Flint,  with 
deep  feelings  of  regret,  softened  only  by  the  confident  hope 
that  his  spirit  is  with  those  who,  having  fought  the  good  fight 
here,  are  enjoying  perfect  happiness  in  a better  world. 

Resolved , That  we  tender  to  his  afflicted  relatives  our  sin- 
cere condolence,  and  our  earnest  sympathy  in  their  affliction 
at  the  loss  of  one  who  was  a good  citizen,  a devoted  fireman, 
and  an  upright  man. 

Resolved,  That  the  members  of  this  company  will  attend 
our  deceased  member  to  the  grave  in  a body  ; that  the  engine- 
house  be  hung  with  the  emblems  of  mourning  until  after  the 


funeral  ceremony  shall  have  been  performed,  and  that  the  hall 
of  meeting  be  draped  with  black  for  thirty  days. 

Resolved,  That  a copy  of  the  foregoing  resolution,  signed 
by  the  president,  and  certified  by  the  secretary,  be  transmitted 
to  the  relatives  of  the  deceased. 

RESOLUTIONS  OF  INSTRUCTION  TO  MEMBERS  OF  THE  LEGIS- 
LATURE. 

Whereas,  From  the  situation  of  this  county  [or  “ town,”  or 
“village,”],  the  general  road  law  of  the  State  is  partly  inap- 
plicable to  us,  and  highly  inefficient,  and  the  circumstances  of 
the  case  require  a specific  law  ; therefore 

Be  it  resolved,  by  the  people  of  [insert  name  here ],  in  town  meet- 
ing assembled,  That  the  Senate  and  Representatives  of  this 
district  in  the  legislature  be,  and  hereby  are,  instructed  to 
procure  the  passage  of  a law  exempting  this  county  [or  “ vil- 
lage,” or  “ town,”  as  the  case  may  be]  from  the  action  of  the 
general  road  law,  and  placing  the  working  and  repair  of  the 
roads  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  local  authorities. 

RESOLUTIONS  OF  THANKS  TO  THE  OFFICERS  OF  A CONVENTION. 

Resolved,  That  the  thanks  of  this  convention  are  hereby 
given  to  the  president  for  the  able,  dignified,  and  impartial 
manner  in  which  he  has  presided  over  its  deliberations,  and  to 
the  other  officers  for  the  satisfactory  manner  in  which  they 
have  fulfilled  the  duties  assigned  to  them. 

[On  a resolution  of  this  kind  the  question  is  always  to  be  put 
by  the  member  who  makes  the  motion — it  being  personal  to  the 
presiding  officer .] 

RESOLUTIONS  AT  A MEETING  OF  STOCKHOLDERS  IN  FAVOR 
OF  A CERTAIN  ROUTE. 

Resolved,  That  the  proposed  horse  railroad  should  be  lo- 
cated upon  the  summit  of  the  Palisades,  and  not  on  the  shore 
below,  for  these  reasons  : 

1 . The  shore  route  is  narrow,  and  being  limited  by  the  river 
on  one  side  and  the  steep  Palisades  on  the  other,  is  incapable 
of  the  expanded  population  which  may  be  expected  on  the 
space  above,  and  is  not  likely  to  furnish  those  profits  in  the 
future  which  shall  reimburse  stockholders  for  the  present 
outlay. 

2.  There  is  now  a road  being  constructed  from  Hoboken  to 
Union  Hill,  on  the  upper  route.  This  will  probably  be  ex- 
tended to  Bull’s  Ferry,  and  thus  connecting  with  this  line  an 
unbroken  communication  will  be  secured  between  the  upper 
terminus  of  our  road  and  the  ferry  at  Hoboken. 

3.  The  slightly  increased  cost  of  grading  in  the  upper  route 
is  more  than  made  up  by  the  fact  that  the  right  of  way  in  the 
lower  route  will  cost  a vast  deal  more. 

Resolved , That,  for  the  foregoing  and  other  reasons,  the 
directors  be  instructed  to  select  the  upper,  and  not  the  lower, 
route  for  the  line  of  the  proposed  road. 

OF  REPORTS. 

A report  is  the  written  statement  of  a person  having  a par- 
ticular matter  in  charge,  of  the  acts  officially  performed,  or  of 
a committee  concerning  the  results  of  an  investigation  or  mat- 
ter confided  to  their  care.  The  matter  of  the  report  is  regu- 
lated by  the  same  rules  as  regards  its  style  and  nature,  as 
govern  resolutions. 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


469 


RECAPITULATION  OF  CERTAIN  POINTS. 

In  order  to  impress  certain  points  more  strongly  on  the 
mind,  we  present  in  a condensed  form  the  rules  in  regard  to 
matters  likely  to  confuse  the  reader. 

I.  MOTIONS  IN  ORDER  DURING  DEBATE. 

These  in  their  order  of  precedence  are  : 

1.  To  adjourn. 

2.  To  lay  on  the  table. 

3.  To  postpone  indefinitely. 

4.  To  postpone  to  a day  certain. 

5.  To  commit. 

6.  To  amend. 

II.  MOTIONS  IN  THEIR  ORDER  OF  PRECEDENCE. 

1.  To  fix  time  [and  place,  if  desired]  of  adjournment. 

2.  To  adjourn. 

3.  For  the  order  of  the  day. 

4.  To  lay  on  the  table. 

5.  For  the  previous  question. 

6.  To  postpone  indefinitely. 

7.  To  postpone  to  a time  certain. 

8.  To  commit. 

9.  To  amend. 

III.  MOTIONS  IN  ORDER  WHEN  A MEMBER  HAS  THE 

FLOOR. 

1.  Call  to  order. 

2.  Appeal  from  decision  of  the  Chair. 

3.  Objection  to  considering  a question. 

[Not  in  order  if  debate  have  already  begun  on  the  subject.] 

4.  That  the  question  be  discussed. 

5.  For  the  order  of  the  day. 

IV.  MOTIONS  OPENING  MAIN  QUESTIONS  TO  DEBATE. 

1.  To  strike  out  enacting  clause  of  bill,  or  ordinance,  [of 
course,  not  applicable  in  private  societies,  and  used  in  State 
or  Municipal  Legislatures  when  it  is  desirable  to  force  the 
fight  on  the  measure  at  the  second  reading.] 

2.  To  commit  the  question. 

3.  To  refer. 

4.  To  postpone  indefinitely. 

5.  To  reconsider  a debatable  question. 

V.  SUCCESSFUL  MOTIONS  THAT  CANNOT  BE  RECON- 

SIDERED. 

1.  Adjournment. 

2.  To  take  from  the  table. 

3.  To  reconsider. 

4.  That  the  committee  rise. 

5.  To  suspend  the  rules. 

VI.  MATTERS  NOT  SUBJECT  TO  AMENDMENT. 

1.  Motion  to  adjourn. 

2.  Amendment  to  an  amendment. 

3.  An  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  Chair. 

4.  A call  to  order. 

5.  Motion  for  leave  to  continue  speaking  after  having  been 
pronounced  out  of  order. 

6.  Motion  to  lay  on  the  table. 


7.  Objections  to  the  consideration  of  a question. 

8.  Motion  for  the  order  of  the  day. 

9.  Motion  to  indefinitely  postpone. 

10.  Call  for  the  previous  question. 

11.  Motion  to  reconsider. 

12.  Motion  that  the  committee  rise. 

13.  Motion  that  a question  be  discussed. 

14.  Motion  to  suspend  the  rules. 

15.  Motion  to  take  from  the  table. 

16.  Motion  to  take  up  a question  out  of  the  proper  order. 

17.  Motion  for  leave  to  withdraw  a motion. 

VII.  NON-DEBATABLE  MATTERS. 

1.  A motion  to  adjourn.  But  a motion  to  fix  the  time  to 
which  the  Society  shall  adjourn,  when  it  does  adjourn,  is  de- 
batable. 

2.  An  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  Chair,  when  a 
question  of  decorum  is  in  debate,  or  to  the  priority  of  business. 
And  no  appeal  can  be  made  the  subject  of  debate  while  the 
previous  question  is  pending. 

3.  A call  to  order  is  not  debatable. 

4.  Motion  to  extend  the  limit  of  debate. 

5.  Motion  to  have  leave  to  continue  speaking  after  having 
been  pronounced  out  of  order. 

6.  Motion  to  lay  on  the  table. 

7.  Motion  to  limit  debate. 

8.  Objection  to  the  consideration  of  a question  proposed. 

9.  Motion  for  the  order  of  the  day. 

10.  Motion  for  the  previous  question. 

11.  Questions  in  regard  to  priority  of  business. 

12.  Call  for  the  reading  of  papers. 

13.  To  reconsider  an  undebatable  question. 

14.  Motion  that  the  committee  rise. 

15.  Motion  to  allow  the  question  to  be  discussed. 

16.  Motion  to  suspend  the  rules. 

17.  Motion  to  take  from  the  table. 

18.  Motion  to  take  up  a question  out  of  proper  order. 

19.  Leave  to  withdraw  a motion. 

VIII.  FORMS  OF  PUTTING  CERTAIN  QUESTIONS. 

In  putting  the  question  on  an  appeal,  the  Chair  does  not 
ask  if  the  decision  of  the  Chair  be  overruled,  but — “ Shall  the 
decision  of  the  Chair  be  sustained?  ” or  “ Shall  the  decision  of 
the  Chair  stand?”  If  there  be  a tie  vote,  the  decision  of  the 
Chair  is  overruled,  because  of  the  lack  of  a majority. 

. In  putting  the  question  on  striking  out  certain  words,  it  is 
put — “ Shall  these  words  [naming  them]  stand  as  part  of  the 
resolution  ?”  If  there  be  a tie  vote,  they  are  struck  out,  be- 
cause a majority  have  not  pronounced  in  their  favor. 

On  a demand  for  the  order  of  the  day,  the  question  is  put — 
“ Will  the  Society  [council,  club,  whatever  it  is]  now  proceed 
to  the  older  [or  orders]  of  the  day  ? ” 

On  a demand  for  the  previous  question,  the  form  is— 
“ Shall  the  Main  Question  be  now  put  ? ” 

On  an  objection  to  the  consideration  of  a question,  if  made 
at  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  the  subject,  the  form  is — < 
“ Shall  the  question  be  considered?  ” 

On  putting  the  yeas  and  nays — “As  many  as  are  in  favor  oj 


470 


THE  RULES  OF  DEBATE,  AND  HOW  TO  CONDUCT  ONE. 


the  motion  [or  resolutions]  will  when  their  names  ate  called, 
answer.  Aye.  Those  of  the  contrary  opinion , No.  Air.  Secre- 
tary, call  the  roll." 

On  a call  for  the  yeas  and  nays — “ As  many  as  are  in  favor 
of  calling  the  yeas  and  nays,  will,  when  their  names  are  called, 
say,  Aye.  Air.  Secretary,  call  the  roll."  When  the  requisite 
number  have  answered  the  Secretary  suspends  calling,  reports 
result  to  Chair,  who  says — [naming  the  number,]  “ In  the 
affirmative.  The  yeas  and  nays  are  ordered."  Or,  if  there  be 
no  objection,  he  may  say — “ I hose  in  favor  of  calling  the  yeas 
and  nays  will  rise  and  remain  standing  till  counted.”  He 
then  counts  them  audibly,  and  announces  the  number  and  re- 
sult. But  if  any  member  cries  “ vote  ! ” or  otherwise  dissents, 
the  roll  must  be  called  for  the  ayes  only. 

IX.  TWO-THIRDS  VOTE. 

There  is  no  such  thing  naturally  as  the  necessity  of  a two- 
thirds  vote.  By  the  rules  of  order,  a majority  suffices  to 
order  the  previous  question,  to  limit  the  time  of  speeches,  to 
limit  the  debate — which  last  is  virtually  ordering  the  previous 
question  at  a fixed  hour— or  to  consider  a question  when  ob- 
jected to  ; while  to  suspend  the  rules,  or  amend  them,  or  to 
make  a special  order,  or  to  move  for  the  discussion  of  a non- 
debatable  question,  or  to  take  up  a question  out  of  its  order 
— the  three  last  amounting  to  a suspension  of  the  rules — re- 
quires unanimous  consent. 

But  while  this  is  the  practice  in  legislative  bodies,  in  or- 
dinary organizations,  where  celerity  in  the  dispatch  of  business 
is  not  of  great  importance,  where  the  previous  question  is 
looked  upon  as  a device  to  prevent  the  minority  from  express- 
ing an  opinion,  and  where  a suspension  of  the  rules  is  more 
frequently  necessary,  the  following  special  rule  is  sometimes 
adopted  : 

It  shall  require  a two-thirds  vote  of  the  members  present  at 


any  meeting  to  call  the  previous  question,  to  limit  debate,  to 
fix  a specified  hour  for  closing  debate,  to  consider  a question 
when  objected  to  on  its  introduction,  to  make  a special  order, 
to  suspend,  or  to  amend  the  rules,  to  order  the  discussion  of  a 
subject  non-debatable  under  the  rules,  or  to  take  up  a ques- 
tion out  of  its  order. 

This  may  be  placed  in  the  constitution  or  by-laws  of  the 
society,  when  it  will  become  paramount  law,  to  which  the 
rules  of  order  opposed  to  it  must  yield. 

The  safest  mode,  however,  will  be  found  to  adhere  to  the 
parliamentary  rules. 

X.  MATTER-OF-COURSE  QUESTION. 

To  expedite  business,  that  to  which  no  one  objects,  when 
stated  by  the  chair,  is  considered  ordered.  Thus,  the  recep- 
tion of  a report,  calling  for  division,  reception  of  communi- 
cation, withdrawal  of  a motion  before  the  house,  leave  to 
continue  speech  in  order  after  being  pronounced  out  of  order, 
etc.,  are  permitted  without  a vote,  if  no  objection  be  made. 
So  in  making  a motion,  which  strictly  (when  not  a question  of 
order,  an  objection  to  the  consideration  of  a question  or  a call 
for  the  order  of  the  day)  requires  to  be  seconded,  it  is  always 
taken  for  granted  that  it  has  been,  unless  some  one  should 
violate  courtesy  so  far  as  to  inquire.  In  that  case,  it  must  be 
seconded,  or  it  falls  to  the  ground. 

It  is  considered  unfair  to  insist  upon  the  seconding  of  a 
motion,  because  it  violates  the  natural  right  of  a member  to 
get  a proposition  in  good  faith  before  the  house  ; but,  if  his 
motion  be  made  for  dilatory  purposes,  or  to  annoy  and  weary 
out  the  majority,  or  be  in  effect,  though  not  in  shape,  offen- 
sive to  the  house,  it  is  eminently  proper  that  he  should  have 
at  least  one  member  to  back  him  in  his  attempt  ; and  it  is  no 
discourtesy  to  cut  off  his  discourtesy  by  demanding  the  sec- 
onder. 


PHRENOLOGY. 


HRENOLOGY  is  a Greek  compound, 
signifying  a discours?  on  the  mind. 
The  system  which  exclusively  passes 
by  this  name,  was  founded  by  Dr.  Fran- 
cis Joseph  Gall,  a German  physician, 
bom  in  1757.  The  brain  is  the  organ  by  and 
through  which  mind  in  this  life  is  manifested. 
This  truth  is  now  disputed  scarcely  anywhere. 

Phrenologists  conjectured  that  different  brains 
differ  in  quality,  but  were  long  without  any  indica- 
tions of  these  differences.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Temperaments  has  thrown  considerable,  though  not 
perfect,  light  on  this  point,  and  for  this  we  are  in- 
debted to  Dr.  Thomas,  of  Paris.  There  are  four 
temperaments,  accompanied  with  different  degrees 
of  power  and  activity,  in  other  words,  quality  of 
brain.  These  are  the  bilious , the  nervous , the  san- 
guine, and  the  lymphatic.  These  temperaments  were 
observed  and  distinguished  long  before  the  discov- 
ery of  phrenology,  though  to  little  purpose.  They 
figure  in  the  fanciful  philosophy  of  Burton,  and  sim- 
ilar writers  of  former  times,  and  much  nonsense 
is  written  connected  with  them.  Phrenology  has 
adopted  them,  and  made  them  intelligible  and  use- 
ful. They  are  supposed  to  depend  upon  the  con- 
stitution of  particular  bodily  systems.  The  muscular 
and  fibrous  systems  being  predominantly  active, 
seem  to  give  rise  to  the  bilious  temperament.  The 
name  is  equivocal,  and  therefore  not  well  applied  ; 
the  other  three  are  more  appropriate.  The  brain 
and  nerves  predominating  in  activity,  give  the  nerv- 
ous ; the  lungs,  heart  and  blood-vessels,  the  san- 
guine ; while  the  glands  and  assimilating  organs 
present  the  lymphatic  temperament.  The  predom- 
inance of  these  several  bodily  systems  is  indicated 
by  certain  sufficiently  obvious  external  signs,  whence 
our  power  of  recognizing  them.  The  nervous  tem- 


perament is  marked  by  silky,  thin  hair,  thin  skin, 
small,  thin  muscles,  quick  muscular  motion,  pale- 
ness, and  often  delicate  health.  The  whole  nervous 
system,  brain  included,  is  active,  and  the  mental 
manifestations  vivacious.  It  is  the  temperament  of 
genius  and  refinement.  The  bilious  has  black,  hard, 
and  wiry  hair,  dark  or  black  eyes,  dark  skin,  moder- 
rate  fullness,  but  much  firmness  of  flesh,  with  a harsh 
outline  of  countenance  and  person.  The  bilious 
temperament  gives  much  energy  of  brain  and  men- 
tal manifestation,  and  the  countenance  is  marked 
and  decided  ; this  is  the  temperament  for  enduring 
much  mental  as  well  as  bodily  labor.  The  sanguine 
temperament  has  well  - defined  forms,  moderate 
plumpness  and  firmness  of  flesh,  light  or  red  hair, 
blue  eyes,  and  fair  and  often  ruddy  countenance. 
It  is  accompanied  with  great  activity  of  the  blood- 
vessels, an  animated  countenance,  and  a love  of  out- 
door exercises.  With  a mixture  of  the  bilious — for 
in  most  individuals  the  temperaments  are  mixed, 
often  all  four  occurring  in  one  person — it  would  give 
the  soldier’s  temperament.  The  brain  is  active. 
The  lymphatic  temperament  is  indicated  by  a round 
form,  as  in  the  fat  and  corpulent,  soft  flesh,  full  cel- 
lular tissue,  fair  hair,  and  pale  skin.  The  vital  ac- 
tion is  languid,  the  circulation  weak  and  slow.  The 
brain  also  is  slow  and  feeble  in  its  action,  and  the 
mental  manifestations  correspond. 

THE  PRIMITIVE  FACULTIES  OF  MIND,  AS 
CONNECTED  WITH  THEIR  ORGANS 
IN  THE  BRAIN. 

Mind,  which  was  considered  by  the  metaphysicians  as  a sin- 
gle thing  or  essence,  was  said  by  them  to  be  capable  of  being 
in  different  states,  in  each  of  which  states  it  made  one  of  its 
various  manifestations,  as  memory,  judgment,  anger,  etc.  In 
no  particular  does  the  phrenological  hypothesis  differ  more 
from  the  metaphysical  than  in  this.  The  phrenological  doc- 
trine is,  that  the  brain,  the  organ  of  the  mind,  is  divided  into 


PHRENOLOGY. 


various  faculties,  each  of  which  has  its  own  mode  of  acting. 
It  is  held — 

First.  That  by  accurate  observation  of  human  actions,  it  is 
possible  to  discriminate  the  dispositions  and  intellectual  power 
of  man,  such  as  love,  anger,  benevolence,  observation,  reflec- 
tion, etc. 

Secondly.  That  the  true  form  of  the  brain  can  be  ascertained 
from  the  external  form  of  the  head  ; the  brain,  though  the 
softer  substance,  being  what  rules  the  shape  of  the  skull,  just 
as  a shell  takes  its  form  from  the  animal  within. 

Thirdly.  The  organs  or  parts  into  which  the  brain  is  divided, 
all  of  which  organs  are  possessed  by  every  individual  except  in 
the  case  of  idiocy,  appear  on  the  brain’s  surface  in  folds  or 
convolutions,  somewhat  like  the  bowels  or  viscera  of  an  ani- 
mal, but  have  a well-ascertained  fibrous  connection  through 
the  whole  substance  of  the  brain  with  one  point  at  its  base, 
called  the  medulla  oblongata,  which  unites  the  brain  to  the 
spinal  cord.  The  organs  have  thus  each  a conical  form  from 
the  medulla  oblongata  to  the  surface  ; the  whole  being  not  in- 
aptly compared  to  the  stalks  and  flower  of  a cauliflower. 

Fourthly.  The  brain  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts  called 
hemispheres : on  each  side  of  the  fosse  or  division  between 
these  hemispheres  the  same  organ  occurs  ; all  the  organs  are 
therefore  double,  in  analogy  with  the  eyes,  ears,  etc.  But 
when  the  term  organ  is  used,  both  organs  are  meant.  The 
organs  which  are  situated  close  to  the  middle  line  drawn  verti- 
cally on  the  head,  though  close  to  each  other,  are  nevertheless 
double  ; for  example,  Individuality,  Benevolence,  Firmness,  etc. 

Fifthly.  Beside  the  brain  proper,  there  is  a smaller  brain, 
attached  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  base  of  the  brain,  called  the 
cerebellum. 

Sixthly.  The  brain,  including  the  cerebellum,  is  divided 
into  the  anterior,  middle,  and  posterior  lobes.  The  cerebellum 
forms  part  of  the  posterior  lobe.  The  anterior  lobe  contains 
all  of  the  intellectual  faculties  ; the  posterior  and  lower  range 
of  the  middle  lobe  are  the  regions  of  the  animal  propensities  ; 
while  the  moral  sentiments  are  found,  with  a sort  of  local 
pre-eminence,  to  have  their  organs  developed  on  the  top  or 
coronal  surface  of  the  head. 

The  gradation  in  size  of  the  organs  is  thus  denoted: 


Very  Small. 
Small. 

Rather  Small. 


Moderate. 
Rather  Full. 
Full. 


Rather  Large. 
Large. 

Very  Large. 


It  has  been  found  convenient  to  express  these  degrees  in 
numbers,  thus : — 


1. 

2.  (Idiocy.) 

4.  (Very  Small.) 
5- 

6.  (Small.) 

7- 


8.  (Rather  Small.) 
9- 

10.  (Moderate.) 

1 1. 

12.  (Rather  Full.) 
14.  (Full.) 


15- 

16.  (Rather  Large.) 
l7- 

18.  (Large.) 

19. 

20.  (Very  Large.) 

21. 


The  intermediate  numbers,  3,  5,  7,  &c.,  denote  something 
between  the  two  denominations,  and  have  been  found  useful. 

In  practice,  the  general  size  of  the  head  is  measured,  in 
several  directions,  with  calliper  compasses.  Twenty  males, 
from  25  to  50  years  of  age,  measured,  from  the  occipital  spine 
(the  bony  knot  over  the  hollow  of  the  neck)  to  the  point  over 
the  nose  between  the  eyebrows,  on  an  average,  7J  inches; 
some  of  them  being  as  high  as  8j,  and  others  as  low  as  6J. 


From  the  occipital  spine  to  the  hollow  of  the  ear,  the  average 
was  qf,  some  being  as  high  as  5,  others  as  low  as  3$.  From 
the  hollow  of  the  ear  to  the  point  between  the  eyebrows,  as 
above,  average  nearly  5 ; some  being  5^,  others  4j.  From 
the  same  hollow  of  the  ear  to  the  top  of  the  head,  about  an 
inch  behind  the  center  (the  organ  of  Firmness),  the  average 
was  5 ,a6  ; some  being  6£,  others  5^.  Across  the  head,  from  a 
little  below  the  tops  of  the  ears  (from  Destructiveness  to 
Destructiveness),  the  average  was  5 p0  ; some  being  6^,  others 
5L  The  averages  are  in  these  twenty  individuals  higher  than 
those  of  the  natives  of  Britain  generally,  some  of  them  being 
large,  and  none  small. 

Phrenologists  further  distinguish  between  power  and  activity 
in  the  organs  of  the  brain.  Power,  in  whatever  degree  pos- 
sessed, is  capability  of  feeling,  perceiving,  or  thinking ; while 
activity  is  the  exercise  of  power,  or  the  putting  into  action  the 
organ  with  more  or  less  intensity. 

The  powers  of  mind,  as  manifested  by  the  organs,  are 
called  faculties.  A faculty  may  be  defined  to  be  a particular 
power  of  thinking  or  feeling.  A faculty  has  seven  character- 
istics, in  order  to  our  concluding  it  primitive  and  distinct  in 
the  mind,  namely,  I.  When  it  exists  in  one  kind  of  animal 
and  not  in  another  ; 2.  When  it  varies  in  the  two  sexes  of  the 
same  species  ; 3.  When  it  is  not  in  proportion  to  the  other 
faculties  of  the  same  individual ; 4.  When  it  appears  earlier  or 
later  in  life  than  the  other  faculties  ; 5.  When  it  may  act  or 
repose  singly ; 6.  When  it  is  propagated  from  parent  to  child ; 
and,  7.  When  it  may  singly  preserve  health,  or  singly  manifest 
disease. 

Division  or  Classification  of  the  Faculties. — The  facul- 
ties have  been  divided  by  Gall  and  Spurzheim  into  two  great 
orders— Feeling  and  Intellect,  or  Affective  and  Intel- 
lectual Faculties.  The  Feelings  are  divided  into  two 
genera— the  Propensities  and  the  Sentiments.  By  a propensity 
is  meant  an  internal  impulse,  which  incites  to  a certain  action 
and  no  more  ; by  a sentiment,  a feeling  which,  although  it  has 
inclination,  has  also  an  emotion  superadded. 

The  second  order  of  faculties,  the  Intellectual,  also  suffers 
division  into  the  Perceptive  or  Knowing,  and  the  Reflective 
Faculties.  The  Perceptive  Faculties  are  again  divided  into 
three  genera — 1st,  the  External  Senses  and  Voluntary  Motion  ; 
2d,  the  Internal  powers  which  perceive  existence,  or  make  man 
and  animals  acquainted  with  external  objects  and  their  physi- 
cal qualities  ; and,  3d,  the  powers  which  perceive  the  relations 
of  external  objects.  The  fourth  genus  comprises  the  Reflective 
Faculties,  which  act  on  all  the  other  powers  ; in  other  words, 
compare,  discriminate,  and  judge. 

The  following  is  a table  of  the  names  of  the  organs  synop 
tically  given  : — 

affective. 


I.— Propensities. 


II. — Sentiments. 


1.  Amativeness. 

2.  Philoprogenitiveness. 

3.  Inhabitiveness  and  Concentra- 

tiveness. 

4.  Adhesiveness. 

5.  Combativeness. 

6.  Destructiveness. 
[Alimentiveness.] 

| Love  of  Life.] 

7.  Secretiveness. 

8.  Acquisitiveness. 

9.  Constructiveness. 


10.  Self-Esteem. 

11.  Love  of  Approbation. 

12.  Cautiousness. 

13.  Benevolence. 

14.  Veneration. 

15.  Firmness. 

16.  Conscientiousness. 

17.  Hope. 

18.  Wonder. 

19.  Ideality. 

20.  Wit,  or  Ludicrousness. 

21.  Imitation. 


PHRENOLOGY. 


473 


INTELLECTUAL. 


I.— Perceptive. 

22.  Individuality. 

23.  Form. 

24.  Size. 

23.  Weight 

26.  Coloring. 

27.  Locality. 

28.  Number. 

2q.  Order. 


30.  Eventuality. 

31.  Time. 

32.  Tune. 

33.  Language. 

II. — Reflective. 

34.  Comparison. 

35.  Causality. 


ORDER  FIRST.— FEELINGS. 

GENUS  I.— PROPENSITIES. 

The  propensities  are  common  to  man  and  the  lower  animals  ; 
they  neither  perceive  nor  reason,  but  only  feel. 

No.  I. — Amativeness. — This  organ  is  situated  immediately 
over  the  nape  of  the  neck,  and  fills  up  the  space  between  the 
ears  behind,  or  rather  between  the  mastoid  processes,  or  pro- 
jecting bones  behind  the  ears.  It  generally  forms  a projection 
in  that  part,  and  gives  a thickness  to  the  neck  when  it  is  large, 
and  a spareness  when  small. 

As  the  basis  of  the  domestic  affections,  it  is  one  of  great 
importance,  and  its  regulation  has  ever  been  one  of  the  prime 
objects  of  moral  systems,  laws,  and  institutions. 

No.  2. — Philoprogenitiveness. — This,  in  man  as  well  as 
animals,  is  the  feeling  of  the  love  of  his  offspring.  It  depends 
on  no  other  faculty,  as  reason  or  benevolence  ; it  is  primitive  ; 
and  in  the  mother,  who,  for  wise  reasons,  is  gifted  with  it  most 
strongly,  its  object,  the  infant,  instantly  rouses  it  to  a high 
state  of  excitement.  It  is  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  back 
of  the  head,  and  when  large  projects  like  a portion  of  an  ostrich 
egg.  The  organ  is  one  of  the  easiest  to  distinguish  in  the 
human  head.  Those  who  are  flat  and  perpendicular  there, 
instead  of  being  delighted  are  annoyed  by  children.  It  is 
generally  smaller  in  males  than  in  females,  though  sometimes 
found  larger  ; and  men  so  organized  delight  to  carry  about  and 
nurse  children.  The  feeling  gives  a tender  sympathy  gener- 
ally with  weakness  and  helplessness  ; and  we  find  it  often 
returned  by  the  young  themselves  to  the  old  and  feeble.  It  is 
essential  to  a soft  kind  attendant  on  the  sick,  to  a nurse  or 
nursery-maid,  and  to  a teacher  of  youth.  It  induces  women 
to  make  pets  of  small  and  gentle  animals,  when  tyrant  circum- 
stances have  kept  them  single,  and  denied  them  offspring  of 
their  own.  Its  feelings  are,  by  a kind  Providence,  rendered 
so  delightful,  that  they  are  extremely  apt  to  be  carried  the 
length  of  excess  ; and  spoiling  and  pampering  children  into 
vicious  selfishness  is  the  ruinous  consequence. 

No.  3. — Inhabitiveness  — Concentrativeness. — The 
organ  is  situated  immediately  above  the  preceding.  The  pur- 
pose of  a faculty  which  prompts  men  to  settle  instead  of  roam- 
ing, which  latter  habit  is  inconsistent  with  agriculture,  com- 
merce, and  civilization,  is  obvious  ; nostalgia,  or  home-sick- 
ness, is  the  disease  of  the  feeling. 

No.  4. — Adhesiveness. — This  organ  is  at  the  middle  of 
the  posterior  edge  of  the  parietal  bone.  It  attaches  men,  and 
even  animals,  to  each  other,  and  is  the  foundation  of  that 
pleasure  which  we  feel,  not  only  in  bestowing  but  receiving 
friendship.  It  is  the  faculty  which  prompts  the  embrace  and 
the  shake  of  the  hand,  and  gives  the  joy  of  being  reunited  to 
friends.  Acting  in  conjunction  with  Amativeness,  it  gives 
constancy  and  duration  to  the  attachments  of  the  married. 


Amativeness  alone  will  not  be  found  sufficient  for  this.  Hence 
the  frequent  misery  of  sudden  love  marriages,  as  they  are 
called,  founded  on  that  single  impulse.  The  feeling  attaches 
many  persons  to  pets,  such  as  birds,  dogs,  rabbits,  horses,  and 
other  animals,  especially  when  combined  with  Philoprogeni- 
tiveness. With  this  combination,  the  girl  lavishes  caresses  on 
her  doll  and  on  her  little  companions. 

No.  5. — Combativeness. — The  organ  of  this  propensity  is 
situated  behind,  and  a little  upward  from,  the  ear;  anatomi- 
cally, at  the  posterior-inferior  angle  of  the  parietal  bone.  A 
small  endowment  of  this  faculty  manifests  itself  in  that  over- 
gentle and  indolent  character,  which  is  easily  aggressed  upon, 
easily  repelled  by  the  appearance  of  difficulty  and  trouble,  and 
which  naturally  seeks  the  shades  and  eddy-corners  of  life. 
Nations  so  organized — the  Hindoos,  for  example — are  easily 
conquered  by  others,  under  whom  they  naturally  sink  into  a 
condition  more  or  less  of  servitude.  A large  endowment,  on 
the  other  hand,  shows  itself  in  a love  of  danger  for  its  own 
sake,  a delight  in  adventurous  military  life,  and  a tendency  to 
bluster,  controversy,  and  turmoils  of  all  kinds.  Persons  with 
large  combativeness  may  be  readily  recognized  in  private 
society  by  their  disposition  to  contradict  and  wrangle.  They 
challenge  the  clearest  propositions,  and  take  a pleasure  in 
doubting  where  everybody  else  is  convinced.  The  generality 
of  boys  manifest  an  active  combativeness  in  their  adventurous 
spirit,  hence  their  disposition  to  fighting,  and  to  the  working  of 
all  kinds  of  petty  mischief.  To  control  and  guide  the  propen- 
sity is  one  of  the  most  delicate,  but  almost  most  important, 
duties  of  the  educator.  When  combativeness  is  deranged,  we 
have  a violent  and  noisy,  and  often  a dangerous  patient. 
Intoxication  generally  affords  a great  stimulus  to  it,  hence, 
drunken  quarrels  and  fightings. 

No.  6. — Destructiveness. — This  organ  is  situated  on  both 
sides  of  the  head,  immediately  over  the  external  opening  of  the 
ear,  extending  a little  forward  and  backward  from  it,  and 
rising  a trifle  above  the  top  or  upper  flap  of  the  ear.  It  cor- 
responds to  the  lower  portion  of  the  squamous  plate  of  the 
temporal  bone.  When  the  organ  is  large,  the  opening  of  the 
ear  is  depressed.  It  is  still  generally  considered  as  giving  the 
impulse  to  kill  and  destroy  ; but,  in  man,  this  propensity  is 
shown  to  have,  under  the  control  of  the  higher  sentiments 
and  intellect,  a legitimate  sphere  of  exercise.  It  prompts 
beasts  and  birds  of  prey  to  keep  down  the  redundant  breeds 
of  the  lower  animals,  and  enables  man  to  “ kill  ” that  he  may 
“eat.”  Anger,  resentment,  and  indignation,  in  all  their  shapes, 
likewise  spring  from  this  faculty. 

A small  endowment  of  this  faculty  is  one  of  the  elements  of 
a “ soft  ” character.  Persons  so  organized  Seem  to  want  that 
which  gives  momentum  to  human  operations,  like  an  axe  want- 
ing in  back  weight. 

Alimentiveness,  or  Appetite  for  Food. — Alimentive- 
ness  is  the  desire  of,  or  appetite  for,  food.  In  this  feeling,  as 
such,  the  stomach  is  not  concerned  ; its  functions  are  strictly 
confined  to  the  reception  and  digestion  of  our  food. 

Alimentiveness,  from  its  near  neighborhood  to  Destructive- 
ness, seems  to  have  a peculiar  influence  on  that  faculty,  rousing 
it  to  great  energy  when  its  own  enjoyments  are  endangered  or 
interrupted. 


PHRENOLOGY. 


r 


474 


Love  of  Life. — The  self-preservation  involved  in  the  love 
of  life  is  certainly  not  accounted  for  by  any  known  organ  or 
combination  of  organs.  Cautiousness  is  fear  of  injury,  fear 
of  death  ; but  it  is  not  love  of  life.  This  feeling  is  powerfully 
manifested  by  some  when  their  life  is  in  no  danger,  but  who 
look  upon  the  close  of  life  as  a very  great  evil. 

No.  7. — Secretiveness. — The  order  of  this  faculty  will  be 
observed  to  be  situated  immediately  above  that  of  Destructive- 
ness, at  the  inferior  edge  of  the  parietal  bone,  or  in  the  middle 
of  the  side  of  the  brain.  The  legitimate  use  of  the  faculty  is 
to  exercise  that  control  over  the  outward  manifestation  of  the 
other  faculties  which  is  necessary  to  a prudent  reserve. 
Without  it,  and  of  course,  in  those  in  whom  the  organ  is  small 
and  the  manifestation  weak,  the  feelings  express  themselves 
too  openly. 

No.  8. — Acquisitiveness. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is 
situated  farther  forward  than,  and  a little  above.  Secretiveness, 
at  the  anterior-inferior  angle  of  the  parietal  bone. 

The  faculty  of  Acquisitiveness  could  not,  and  no  faculty 
could,  be  given  to  man  by  his  Creator  for  a mean,  groveling, 
and  immoral  use  ; accordingly,  when  we  consider  it  aright,  we 
recognize  in  it  the  dignity  of  the  greatest  utility.  In  a word, 
it  is  the  faculty  through  whose  impulse  man  accumulates  capital, 
and  nations  are  rendered  rich,  great,  and  powerful.  Without 
the  faculty,  man  would  be  content  to  satisfy  his  daily  wants, 
although  even  in  this  he  would  fail ; but  the  surplus  which, 
under  the  impulse  of  this  faculty,  he  contributes  to  the  store 
of  wealth  which  accumulates  from  generation  to  generation, 
would  not  exist.  Under  proper  regulation,  then,  the  faculty 
is  of  the  greatest  value  to  man  ; by  means  of  it  he  “ gathers 
up  the  fragments,  that  nothing  may  be  lost.”  Excessive  pur- 
suit of  wealth  is,  however,  an  abuse  of  the  faculty,  and  too 
much  the  vice  of  civilization,  when  it  advances,  as  it  has 
hitherto  done,  without  adequate  moral  improvement. 

No.  9. --Constructiveness. — The  situation  of  this  organ 
is  immediately  behind  the  temples,  in  the  frontal  bone,  above 
the  spheno-temporal  suture.  The  faculty  of  which  this  organ 
is  the  instrument,  is  the  power  of  mechanically  making,  con- 
structing, and  fashioning,  by  changing  the  forms  of  matter. 
Many  of  the  inferior  animals  possess  it,  as  the  bee,  the  beaver, 
birds,  and  insects.  Some  savages  have  it  in  such  small  en- 
dowments as  never  to  have  built  huts  or  made  clothes,  or 
even  the  simplest  instruments  for  catching  fish.  In  all  opera- 
tives who  excel  in  their  arts — engravers,  joiners,  tailors,  &c. — 
and  in  children  who  early  manifest  a turn  for  drawing  figures, 
and  cutting  them  out  in  paper,  the  organ  is  large. 

GENUS  II— SENTIMENTS. 

X.  SENTIMENTS  COMMON  TO  MAN  AND 
THE  LOWER  ANIMALS. 

No.  10. — Self-Esteem. — The  situation  of  this  organ  is  at  the 
top  of  the  back  of  the  head,  at  the  center  ; forming,  as  it  were, 
the  curve  or  turn  between  the  back  and  top  of  the  head, 
Technically,  it  is  a little  above  the  posterior  or  sagittal  angle 
of  the  parietal  bones.  When  it  is  large,  the  head  rises  far  up- 
ward and  backward  from  the  ear,  in  the  direction  of  the  or- 
gan. The  legitimate  use  of  the  faculty  of  Self-Esteem,  or 
Self-Love,  is  that  degree  of  self-complacency  which  enhances 


the  pleasures  of  life,  and  which  gives  the  individual  confidence 
in  his  own  powers,  and  leads  him  to  apply  them  to  the  best 
advantage.  It  is  sometimes  called  proper  pride,  or  self-respect, 
in  which  form  it  aids  the  moral  sentiments  in  resisting  tempta- 
tions to  vice  and  self-degradation  ; this  is  called  being  above 
doing  a criminal,  a vicious,  or  a mean  action.  Its  deficiency 
renders  an  individual  too  humble,  and  the  world  take  him  at 
his  word,  and  push  him  aside.  In  large  and  uncontrolled  en- 
dowment, it  produces  great  abuses,  and  causes  much  annoyance 
and  often  misery  to  others.  It  is  the  quarreling,  insulting, 
domineering,  tyrannizing,  dueling  faculty.  In  children  it  is 
pettishness,  forwardness,  and  self-will,  and  produces  disobedi- 
ence. In  adults,  it  gives  arrogance,  superciliousness  and  sel- 
fishness. 

No.  1 1. — Love  of  Approbation. — This  organ  is  situated  on 
each  side  close  to  Self  Esteem,  and  commences  about  half  an 
inch  from  the  lambdoidal  suture.  It  gives,  when  large,  a 
marked  fullness  to  the  upper  part  of  the  back  of  the  head. 

The  faculty,  unless  kept  in  subordination  bya  very  large  and 
vigilant  Conscientiousness,  prompts  to  all  the  conventional 
insincerities  and  flatteries  of  society,  from  the  dread  that  the 
truth  will  offend  Self-Esteem,  and  draw  down  on  the  teller  of 
it  disapprobation.  When  Secretiveness  is  large  and  Conscien- 
tiousness small,  Love  of  Approbation  is  profuse  in  the  un- 
meaning compliments  of  society. 

No.  12. — Cautiousness — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  situat- 
ed about  the  middle  of  the  parietal  bone  on  both  sides. 

It  has  been  said  that  fear  is  the  fundamental  feeling  of  this 
faculty.  It  is  an  important  element  in  prudence,  which 
places  the  individual  on  his  guard  and  warns  him  not  to  be  rash 
in  his  moral  as  well  as  his  physical  movements.  In  general, 
the  organ  is  large  in  children — a wise  and  beneficent  provision 
for  their  protection.  The  organ  is  often  diseased,  and  then  pro- 
duces causeless  dread  of  evil,  despondency,  and  often  suicide. 

ii.  SUPERIOR  SENTIMENTS  PROPER  TO 
MAN. 

No.  13. — Benevolence. — The  organ  of  this  sentiment  is  situ- 
ated at  the  upper  part  of  the  frontal  bone,  immediately  before 
the  fontanel,  in  the  middle  of  the  top  of  the  forehead,  where  it 
turns  to  form  part  of  the  top  of  the  head,  or  coronal  surface.  It 
is  easily  distinguished  ; and  when  large,  gives  a round  elevated 
swell  to  that  region.  When  the  organ  is  small  the  forehead  or 
top-front  is  low,  flat,  and  retreating. 

The  faculty  of  Benevolence  gives  more  than  compassion  for, 
and  a desire  to  relieve,  suffering  ; it  gives  a wish  that  others 
should  be  positively  happy  ; prompts  to  active,  laborious,  and 
continued  exertions  ; and,  unless  Acquisitiveness  be  very  large 
and  powerful,  to  liberal  giving  to  promote  its  favorite  object. 
It  differs  essentially  in  its  charity,  “which  suffereth  long  and  is 
kind,”  “ and  vauntelh  not  itself,”  from  that  which  springs  from 
Love  of  Approbation. 

No.  14. — Veneration. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  occupies 
the  center  of  the  coronal  region  just  at  the  fontanel — the  cen- 
ter of  the  top  of  the  head.  The  function  of  the  faculty  is  the 
sentiment  of  veneration,  or  deference  in  general  for  superior- 
ity, for  greatness,  and  goodness.  Its  highest  object  is  the 
Deity.  It  is  remarkable  in  how  many  instances  the  painters 


PHRENOLOGY. 


475 


of  sacred  subjects  have  given  large  development  of  this  organ 
in  the  heads  of  their  apostles  and  saints — no  doubt,  because 
the  pious  individuals  whom  they  would  naturally  select  as 
studies  for  such  characters,  possessed  the  organ  large.  Vener- 
ation has  no  special  object ; it  finds  appropriate  exercise  with 
regard  to  whatever  is  deemed  superior.  Without  this  sentiment 
to  make  man  look  up  to  man,  a people  would  be  like  a rope 
of  sand,  and  society  could  not  exist. 

No.  15. — Firmness. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  occupies 
the  top  of  the  head,  behind  Veneration,  in  the  middle  line. 
It  is  a faculty  of  peculiar  character.  It  gives  fortitude,  con- 
stancy, perseverance,  and  determination  ; and  when  too  pow- 
erful, it  produces  obstinacy,  stubbornness,  and  infatuation. 
With  Self-Esteem,  it  renders  the  individual  absolutely  im- 
practicable. The  want  of  it  is  a great  defect  in  character  ; it 
is  unsteadiness  of  purpose. 

No.  16. — Conscientiousness. — The  organ  of  this  senti- 
ment is  situated  on  each  side  of  the  organ  of  Firmness,  between 
the  latter  organ  and  that  of  Cautiousness. 

Conscientiousness  gives  the  emotion  of  justice,  but  intellect 
is  necessary  to  show  on  which  side  justice  lies.  The  judge 
must  hear  both  sides  before  deciding,  and  his  very  wish  to  be 
just  will  prompt  him  to  do  so.  This  faculty  regulates  all  the 
other  faculties  by  its  rigid  rules.  Conscientiousness  not  only 
curbs  our  faculties  when  too  powerful,  but  stimulates  those 
that  are  too  weak,  and  prompts  us  to  duty  even  against  strong 
inclinations.  To  cultivate  it  in  children  is  most  important. 

No.  17. — Hope. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  has  its  place 
on  each  side  of  Veneration,  partly  under  the  frontal,  and  partly 
under  the  parietal  bone.  When  not  regulated  by  the  intellect, 
Hope  leads  to  rash  speculation,  and,  in  combination  with 
Acquisitiveness,  to  gambling,  both  at  the  gaming-table  and 
in  the  counting-house.  It  tends  to  render  the  individual 
credulous,  and  often  indolent.  In  religion,  hope  leads  to  faith, 
and  strongly  disposes  to  a belief  in  a happy  life  to  come. 

No.  18. — Wonder. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  situated 
on  each  side  of  that  of  Benevolence,  with  one  other  organ, 
that  of  Imitation,  interposed.  Technically,  it  has  its  place  in 
the  lateral  parts  of  the  anterior  region  of  the  vertex. 

Persons  with  the  faculty  powerfully  developed  are  fond  of 
news,  especially  if  striking  and  wonderful,  and  are  always  ex- 
pressing astonishment ; their  reading  is  much  in  the  regions 
of  the  marvelous,  tales  of  wonder,  of  enchanters,  ghosts,  and 
witches. 

No.  19. — Ideality. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  situated 
farther  down,  but  close  to  that  of  Wonder,  along  the  temporal 
ridge  of  the  frontal  bone. 

The  faculty  delights  in  the  perfect,  the  exquisite,  the  beau- 
ideal — something  beyond  the  scenes  of  reality — something  in 
the  regions  of  romance  and  fancy — of  the  beautiful  and  the 
sublime.  Those  writers  and  speakers  who  possess  it  large, 
adorn  all  they  say  or  write  with  its  vivid  inspirations.  It  is 
the  organ  of  imagery.  The  faculty  renders  conversation  ele- 
vated, animated,  and  eloquent,  the  opposite  of  dry  and  dull. 

No.  20. — Wit,  or  the  Ludicrous. — The  organ  of  this 
faculty  is  situated  before,  and  a little  lower  than  that  of  Ideal- 
ity. When  large,  it  gives  a breadth  to  the  upper  region  of 
the  forehead. 


No.  21. — Imitation. — This  organ  is  situated  on  each  side 
of  that  of  Benevolence.  The  Imitative  arts  depend  on  this 
faculty  ; and  its  organ  is  found  large,  accordingly,  in  painters 
and  sculptors  of  eminence. 

ORDER  SECOND.— INTELLECTUAL  FACUL- 
TIES. 

By  these  faculties  man  and  animals  perceive  or  gain  knowl- 
edge of  the  external  world,  and  likewise  of  their  own  mental 
operations.  The  object  of  the  faculties  is  to  know  what  ex- 
ists, and  to  perceive  qualities  and  relations.  Dr.  Spurzheim 
divided  them  into  three  genera : — 1.  The  External  Senses  ; 
2.  The  Internal  Senses,  or  Perceptive  Faculties,  which  procure 
knowledge  of  external  objects,  their  physical  qualities  and  re- 
lations ; 3.  The  Reflecting  Faculties. 

Genus  I. — External  Senses. — By  these,  man  and  the 
inferior  animals  are  brought  into  communication  with  the  ex- 
ternal material  world.  The  Senses,  as  generally  received,  are 
five  in  number — Touch , Taste , Smell,  Heating,  and  Sight. 
There  are  certainly  two  more,  namely,  the  sense  of  Hunger 
and  Thirst,  and  the  Muscular  sense,  or  that  by  which  we  feel 
the  state  of  our  muscles  as  acted  upon  by  gravitation  and  the 
resistance  of  matter.  Without  this  last  sense  we  could  not 
keep  our  balance,  or  suit  our  movements  to  the  laws  of  the 
mechanical  world. 

Genus  II. — Intellectual  Faculties,  which  Procure 
Knowledge  of  External  Objects,  of  their  Physical 
Qualities,  and  Various  Relations. — These  faculties  corre- 
spond in  some  degree  with  the  perceptive  powers  of  the  meta- 
physi«ians,  and  form  ideas. 

No.  22. — Individuality. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  situ- 
ated in  the  middle  of  the  lower  part  of  the  forehead,  imme- 
diately above  the  top  of  the  nose.  It  takes  cognizance  of 
individual  existences — of  a horse  for  example.  As  Individu- 
ality merely  observes  existences  without  regard  to  their  modes 
of  action,  it  is  the  faculty  of  the  naturalist.  Those  who 
possess  it  large  and  active,  observe  the  minutest  objects  ; 
nothing  escapes  them,  and  they  remember  even  the  minutest 
objects  so  well,  that  they  will  miss  them  when  taken  away. 
On  the  contrary,  those  who  have  it  small,  observe  nothing, 
and  give  the  most  imperfect  account  of  the  objects  which 
have  been  in  their  way. 

No.  23. — Form. — This  organ  is  situated  on  each  side  of, 
and  close  to  the  aista  galli,  and  occupies  the  space  between 
the  eyes.  In  those  who  have  it  large,  the  eyes  are  wide 
asunder  and  vice  versa.  As  every  material  object  must  have 
a form,  regular  or  irregular,  this  faculty  was  given  to  man  and 
animals  to  perceive  forms,  and  they  could  not  exist  without 
it.  When  large,  it  constitutes  an  essential  element  in  a talent 
for  drawing,  but  requires  Size  and  Constructiveness  to  perfect 
the  talent. 

No.  24. — Size. — Every  object  has  a size  or  dimension. 
Hence  a faculty  is  necessary  to  cognize  this  quality.  The  or- 
gan is  situated  at  the  inner  extremities  of  the  eyebrows,  where 
they  turn  upon  the  nose.  A perception  of  Size  is  important  to 
our  movements  and  actions,  and  essential  to  our  safety.  Ther# 
is  no  accuracy  in  drawing  or  perspective  without  this  organ. 


PHRENOLOGY. 


476 


Jrrye' 

Vo. 


No.  25. — Weight. — Weight  is  a quality  of  matter  quite  dis- 
tinct from  all  its  other  qualities.  The  weight  of  any  material 
object  is  only  another  name  for  its  degree  of  gravitating  ten- 
dency— its  attractability  to  the  earth.  A power  to  perceive  the 
different  degrees  of  this  attraction  is  essential  to  man’s  move- 
ments, safety,  and  even  existence.  There  must  be  a faculty  for 
that  perception,  and  that  faculty  must  have  a cerebral  instru- 
ment or  organ.  Phrenologists  have  generally  localized  that 
organ  in  the  superorbital  ridge  or  eyebrow,  immediately  next 
to  Size,  and  farther  from  the  top  of  the  nose. 

No.  26. — Coloring. — As  every  object  must  have  a color  in 
order  to  be  visible,  it  seems  necessary  that  there  should  be  a 
faculty  to  cognize  this  quality.  The  organ  is  the  next  outward 
from  Weight  in  the  eyebrows,  occupying  the  precise  center  of 
each  eyebrow. 

No.  27. — Locality. — Objects  themselves  are  cognized  by  In- 
dividuality; but  their  place,  the  direction  where  they  lie,  the 
way  to  them  depend  on  another  faculty,  a faculty  given  for  that 
purpose.  Without  such  a power,  men  and  animals  must,  in 
situations  where  objects  were  numerous,  and  complicated  in 
their  positions,  as  woods,  have  lost  their  way.  No  man  could 
find  his  own  home,  no  bird  its  own  nest,  no  mouse  its  own 
hole.  The  faculty,  when  active,  prompts  the  individual  to 
localize  everything,  and  think  of  it  as  in  its  place.  One  glance 
at  a paragraph  or  advertisement  in  a newspaper  fixes  its  place 
in  their  minds,  so  that  they  will  turn  overt  he  largest  and  most 
voluminous  newspaper,  and  know  in  what  column,  and  partof 
a column,  they  will  find  it  ; or  direct  others  to  do  so.  A per- 
son with  the  faculty  powerful,  will  go  in  the  dark  to  find  what 
he  wants,  and  will  find  it  if  in  its  place.  Skillful  chess-players 
invariably  have  the  organ  of  Locality  large,  and  it  is  believed 
that  it  is  the  organ  of  which  they  make  the  principal  use  ; for 
it  gives  the  power  of  conceiving,  before  making  a move,  the 
effect  of  new  relative  positions  of  the  pieces. 

No.  28. — Number. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  placed  at 
the  outer  extremity  of  the  eyebrows  and  angle  of  the  eye.  It 
occasions,  when  large,  a fullness  or  breadth  of  the  temple,  and 
often  draws  downward  the  external  corner  of  the  eye.  When 
it  is  small,  the  part  is  flat  and  narrow  between  the  eye  and 
the  temple.  Their  number  is  a very  important  relation  or  con- 
dition of  things,  and  requires  a distinct  perspective  power. 
Our  safety,  and  even  existence,  may  depend  on  a clear  percep- 
tion of  Number. 

No.  29. — Order. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  placed  in  the 
eyebrow,  between  Coloring  and  Number,  and  is  large  and 
prominent,  and  often  pointed  like  a limpet-shell,  in  those  who 
are  remarkable  for  love  of  method,  arrangement,  and  symme- 
try, and  are  annoyed  by  confusion  and  irregularity.  The 
marked  love  of  order  in  some  persons,  and  their  suffering  from 
disorder,  are  feelings  which  no  other  faculty,  or  combination  of 
faculties,  seems  to  embrace. 

No.  30. — Eventuality. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  situated 
in  the  very  center  of  the  forehead,  and  when  large,  gives  to 
this  part  of  the  head  a rounded  prominence.  Individuality 
has  been  called  the  faculty  of  nouns:  Eventuality  is  the  faculty 
of  verbs.  The  first  perceives  mere  existence ; the  other  motion, 
change,  event,  history.  All  knowledge  must  be  of  one  or  the 
other  of  these  two  descriptions — either  things  that  are  or 


things  that  happen.  In  the  following  examples — the  MAN 
speaks,  the  WIND  blows , the  DAY  dawns,  the  nouns  cognized  by 
Individuality  are  printed  in  capitals,  while  the  verbs,  addressed 
to  Eventuality,  are  in  italics. 

No.  31. — Time. — Whatever  be  the  essence  of  time  as  an  en- 
tity, it  is  a reality  to  man,  cognizable  by  a faculty  by  which  he 
observes  its  lapse.  Some  persons  are  called  walking  time- 
pieces ; they  can  tell  the  hour  without  looking  at  a watch  ; and 
some  even  can  do  so,  nearly,  when  waking  in  the  night.  The 
faculty  also  marks  the  minute  divisions  of  duration,  and  their 
relations  and  harmonies,  which  are  called  time  in  music,  and 
rhythm  in  versification. 

No.  32. — Tune. — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  situated  still 
further  out  than  that  of  Time,  giving  roundness  to  the  point 
where  the  forehead  turns  to  form  the  temples.  It  is  large  in 
great  musicians  ; and  when  small  and  hollow,  there  is  an  utter 
incapacity  to  distinguish  either  melody  or  harmony. 

No.  33. — Language. — A faculty  is  given  to  man  and  ani- 
mals which  connects  feelings  with  signs  and  cries  ; but  to  man 
alone  is  given  articulate  speech.  The  comparative  facility  with 
which  different  men  clothe  their  thoughts  in  words,  depends 
on  the  size  of  this  organ,  which  is  situated  in  the  super-orbital 
plate,  immediately  over  the  eyeball,  and  when  large,  pushes  the 
eye  outward,  and  sometimes  downward,  producing,  in  the 
latter  case,  a wrinkling  or  pursing  of  the  lower  eyelid.  There 
is  no  fluent  speaker  deficient  in  this  organ. 

Internal  Excitement  of  the  Knowing  Organs — Spec- 
tral Illusions. — The  Knowing  Organs  are  for  the  most  part 
called  into  activity  by  external  objects,  such  as  forms,  colors, 
sounds,  individual  things,  &c.;  but  internal  causes  often  excite 
them, and  when  they  are  in  action  objects  will  be  perceived  which 
have  no  external  existence,  and  which,  nevertheless,  the  indi- 
vidual will  believe  to  be  real.  This  is  the  explanation  of 
visions,  specters  and  ghosts,  and  at  once  explains  the  firm  be- 
lief of  many  that  they  have  appeared  to  them,  and  the  fact  that 
it  never  happens  that  two  persons  see  the  same  specters  at  the 
same  time. 

GENUS  III.— REFLECTIVE  FACULTIES. 

The  Intellectual  Faculties  already  considered,  give  us 
knowledge  of  objects,  and  the  qualities  and  relations  of  ob- 
jects, also  of  the  changes  they  undergo,  or  events. 

No.  34. — Comparison. — Every  faculty  can  compare  its  own 
objects.  Coloring  can  compare  colors;  Weight,  weights; 
Form,  forms;  Tune,  sounds;  but  Comparison  can  compare  a 
color  with  a note,  or  a form  with  a weight,  &c.  Analogy  is  a 
comparison  not  of  things  but  of  their  relations. 

No.  35. — Causality. — This  is  the  highest  and  noblest  of  the 
intellectual  powers,  and  is  the  last  in  the  phrenological  analysis 
of  the  faculties.  Dr.  Spurzheim  so  named  it,  from  observing  that 
it  traces  the  connection  between  cause  and  effect,  and  sees  the  re- 
lation of  ideas  to  each  other  in  respect  of  necessary  consequence. 
Its  organs  are  situated  on  each  side  of  Comparison.  With  a 
powerful  perception  of  causation,  the  individual  reasons  from 
cause  to  effect  by  logical  or  necessary  consequence.  It  is  the  fac- 
ulty which  sees  principles  and  acts  upon  them,  while  the  other 
two  faculties  only  try  experiments.  Resource  in  difficulties,  and 
sound  judgment  in  life,  are  the  result  of  powerful  Causality. 


4 


HE  mode  of  forming  ropes 
and  cables  is  shown  in 
Fig.  i.  A number  of 

/$?>  are  SpUn  right- 

handed  (with  the  sun,  or 
from  left  to  right)  into  the  yarn, 
b.  A number  of  yarns,  varying 
according  to  the  size  and  quality 
of  the  strand  requited  (ropes 
made  of  small  fine  yarn  are  the 
strongest  and  best),  are  then  twist- 
ed, left-handed,  into  the  strand,  c. 
Three  strands  laid  together,  right- 
handed,  form  the  rope,  d.  (At  e is  the  vacant  space 
caused  by  the  strand  c being  “ unlaid  ” to  show  its 
structure.)  This  three-strand  right-handed  rope  is  the 
rope  used  for  general  purposes  and  for  the  “ running 
rigging  ” of  ships.  For  “ standing  rigging  ’’  — shrouds 
and  stays — it  is  customary  to  use  right-handed  rope 
composed  of  four  strands  laid  round  a fifth  smaller 
strand,  called  the  heart,  which  passes  straight  up  the 
middle.  Left-handed  rope  is  sometimes  met  with, 
but  not  often.  Ropes  are  built  up  in  this  way  for 
the  sake  of  getting  the  twist  right  and  left  alter- 
nately, which  is  the  only  way  of  preventing  them 
from  untwisting  under  strain.  Without  the  twist  the 
fibers  would  fall  to  pieces. 

Three  ropes  like  d,  laid  together  left-handed, 
form  the  cable,  /,  the  largest  kind  of  rope.  All  left- 
handed  rope  is  called  cable-laid ; but,  strictly  speak- 


ing, only  nine-stranded  rope  like  f should  be  so 
called.  Formerly,  ordinary  right-handed  rope  was 
called  hawser-laid,  but  that  term  is  obsolete  or  has 
come  to  mean  the  same  as  “ cable-laid.” 

There  are  many  kinds  of  cord,  such  as  window- 
sash  lines,  &c.,  which  are  not  “laid,”  but  “plaited,” 
and  are  therefore  in  no  sense  rope.  These  cannot 
be  spliced  or  made  into  the  more  complicated  knots. 
Miniature  rope,  called  huniber-line,  is  about  the 
smallest  genuine  laid  , rope,  and  is  good  for  practic- 
ing knots  upon.  The  smallest  rope  so  called  by 
sailors  is  inch-rope,  i.  <?.,  i in.  in  circumference,  not 


Fig.  i.  Fig.  2. 


diameter.  Rope  exposed  to  the  wet  should  be 
made  of  yarns  soaked  in  tar.  This  makes  the  neat- 
est knots  and  splices,  the  fibers  sticking  together 
better,’  but  it  makes  the  fingers  in  a sad  mess.  Un- 
tarred rope  is  nearly  as  good  for  practicing  on. 

4 


KNOTS  AND  SPLICES. 


String  is  composed  of  two  or  three  yarns  laid 
either  way. 

Spun-yarn  is  a kind  of  soft  string,  made  by  twist- 
ing, right-handed,  two  or  three  yarns  from  old  rope. 

Worming  is  filling  up  the  channels  between  the 
strands  of  a rope,  either  to  improve  its  appearance 
or  to  fit  it  for  serving  or  parcelling  ( a , Fig.  2). 

Parcelling  is  covering  the  rope  with  strips  of  old 
canvas  soaked  in  tar  to  keep  out  the  wet.  Follow 
the  “ lay  ” of  the  strands  from  left  to  right  (d,  Fig. 
2),  then  cover  over  or  serve  the  parcelling  with 

Fig.  3.  Fig  4.  Fig.  5.  Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7.  Fig.  8.  Fig.  9.  Fig.  10. 


spun-yarn  ( b , Fig.  2),  going  against  the  lay,  or  from 
right  to  left.  “ Service  ” is  also  put  on  without 
parcelling,  over  a plain  rope  or  over  worming. 

Marling  is  used  instead  of  service  to  keep  parcel- 
ling in  its  place.  It  is  a kind  of  “ chain-stitch  ” as 
known  to  ladies  (c,  Fig.  2).  Work  it  towards  you. 

Any  bend  or  loop  in  a rope  is  called  a bight,  as  a 
or  b in  Fig.  3.  The  standing  part  is  that  which  is 
not  bent  about  in  forming  the  knot  ; the  base,  in 
fact,  upon  which  the  end — the  part  being  manipu- 
lated— is  worked.  If  you  seize  one  of  the  bends  of 
a coil  of  rope,  and  draw  it  out  without  finding  the 
ends,  you  have  hold  of  the  “ bight  ” of  it. 

The  plain  Overhand  Knot  (Fig.  4)  is  the 
simplest  of  all.  It  is  made  at  the  end  of  a rope,  to 
prevent  it  passing  through  a hole  (as  in  sewing)  or 
to  prevent  the  strands  from  separating  too  far. 

The  Figure  of  Eight  Knot  (Fig.  5)  is  better 
than  the  overhand,  as  it  does  not  “ jam  ” under  strain 
and  is  easy  to  undo. 

The  Boat  Knot  or  Marlingspike  Hitch  (Fig. 
6)  is  simply  an  overhand  knot  with  the  end  held  by 


a piece  of  wood  instead  of  being  taken  through  the 
bight.  On  withdrawing  this  the  knot  falls  to  pieces. 

The  Bowline  is  the  best  of  all  knots.  It  forms  a 
loop  which  neither  jams  nor  slips,  and  is  easy  to 
undo.  Two  ropes  may  be  joined  by  a bowline  at 
the  end  of  each.  It  may  be  thrown  over  or  made 
fast  round  a post,  it  forms  a sling  for  a cask,  and 
fifty  other  things.  Having  formed  a bight  as  in  Fig. 
7,  hold  the  crossing  b in  the  right  finger  and  thumb; 
with  the  left  hand  take  the  bight  at  a , and  draw  it 
over  the  end  as  in  Fig.  8:  being  twisted  by  this 
operation,  it  tends  to  take  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  9; 
let  it  do  so,  but  still  keep  the  crossing  in  order  be- 
tween the  finger  and  thumb  ; now  draw  out  the  end 
a little,  and  work  it  in  as  in  Fig.  10;  adjust  the  loop 
to  the  size  required,  and  pull  it  tight. 

A Running  Bowline  is  begun  as  in  Fig.  n.  tak- 
ing c as  the  crossing  and  d as  the  bight  described 
above.  Fig.  12  shows  it  finished, — the  best  slip- 
knot known,  free  from  any  risk  of  jamming. 


One  merit  of  the  bowline  is  that  it  can  be  made 
on  a rope  with  one  end  fixed  and  out  of  reach  ; but 
it  can  even  be  made  in  the  middle  of  a rope  when 
there  is  no  time  to  look  for  the  ends.  This  is  a 
bowline  on  a bight.  When  a sailor  hears  the  cry, 
“ Man  overboard  ! ” he  seizes  a bight  in  the  first 
coil  of  rope  he  meets  with,  forms  a bowline  on  it, 
and  throws  it  to  the  drowning  man  in  less  time  than 
it  takes  to  describe  it,  because  he  is  not  detained 


Fig.  15.  Fig.  16. 


Fig.  17. 


looking  for  the  end.  Figs.  13  and  14,  correspond- 
ing to  7 and  9,  show  that  it  is  commenced  as  a com- 
mon bowline,  only  with  a double  instead  of  a single 


KNOTS  AND  SPLICES. 


rope  ; but  instead  of  treating  the  looped  end,  e,  like 
the  end  in  Fig.  10,  open  it  out  and  pass  it  round  or 
behind  the  whole  thing  (see  the  dotted  lines);  then 
draw  tight  again,  as  in  Fig.  15. 

A Bowline  with  Four  Bights  is  made  with 
two  double  ropes.  It  has  four  large  loops,  instead 
of  the  two  in  Fig.  15,  and  may  be  used,  for  instance, 
to  support  the  different  parts  of  a man’s  body  while 
being  drawn  out  of  the  water  insensible. 

Figs.  16  and  17  show  two  ways  of  slinging  a cask, 
& c.,  in  the  loop  of  a single  bowline.  In  Fig.  17  the 
rope  must  be  arranged  before  the  bowline  is  made. 

Fig.  18  is  a simple  running  knot,  but  inferior  to 
the  bowline.  It  is  often  used  for  tying  up  parcels, 
when  an  overhand  knot  at  a is  made  to  prevent  the 
end  slipping  through. 

The  Hangman’s  Knot  is  useful  for  the  same 


Fic.  18. 


Fig.  20. 


Fig.  2i. 


and  other  purposes  and  does  not  jam  so  much,  besides 
being  more  ornamental.  Form  bights  as  in  Fig.  19; 
work  the  end  round  and  round,  as  many  times  as 
you  like,  towards  the  loop  a , Fig.  20;  pass  it  through 
a ; pull  b so  as  to  nip  the  end  tightly  in  a (Fig.  21). 
When  made  with  care  this  is  a pretty  knot. 

A rope  may  be  secured  to  a post  or  spar  by  a bow- 
line, as  to  the  cask  in  Fig.  16,  or  by 

The  Clove  Hitch  or  Builder’s  Knot,  Figs.  22 


Fig.  23. 


or  secured  to  the  standing  part  by  a “ half-hitch,”  as 
at  a in  the  latter  figure.  You  can  form  this  knot 
either  by  twisting  the  end  of  the  rope  round  the 
post,  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  23,-  or  by  forming 
a double  loop  as  in  Fig.  22,  and  passing  the  post  or 
spar  through  the  opening  a , and  then  drawing  tight. 
In  either  case  the  result  is  the  same. 

The  Timber  Hitch  (Fig  24)  holds  tight  while 
the  strain  is  on,  but  not  otherwise.  It  is  useful  in  a 
hurry,  and  easily  made. 

The  Rolling  Hitch  (Fig.  25)  holds  so  securely 
that  a weight  may  be  suspended  by  it  from  a per- 
pendicular pole,  or  the  pole  may  be  slung  by  it  in 
the  same  position.  At  a it  is  shown  drawn  tight. 
In  Fig.  26  an  extra  turn  is  taken,  which  adds  to  the 

Fig.  24. 


Fig.  25. 


Fig.  26. 


strength.  There  is  also  another  more  complicated 
form  of  the  rolling  hitch. 

In  all  these  figures  the  knot  is  drawn  loose  to 
show  the  structure. 

I he  Cat’s-paw  (Fig.  27)  is  used  for  hitching  the 
bight  or  any  part  of  a rope  to  a hook,  &c.  Form 
two  bights,  twist  them  in  opposite  directions,  and 
pass  the  hook  through  the  loops.  A weight  may 
now  be  hung  to  either  part  of  the  rope.  There  are 
several  cat’s  paws,  but  this  is  the  commonest. 


Fig.  28. 


Fig.  2q. 


The  Sheepshank  or  Dogshank  (Fig.  28)  ex- 
plains itself.  It  is  used  for  shortening  ropes  when 


480 


KNOTS  AND  SPLICES. 


it  is  undesirable  to  cut  them  to  the  length  required. 
It  comes  apart  again  when  the  strain  is  removed. 

A Blackwall  Hitch  (Fig.  29),  simple  as  it  is,  is 
a safe  way  of  hanging  a weight  from  a hook.  The 
greater  the  weight  the  tighter  the  end  is  jammed 
against  the  hook,  though  there  is  no  knot  in  it. 

The  neatest  join  for  two  ropes  is  the  Reef  Knot, 
or  Right  or  True  knot.  Twist  the  ends  as  in 
Fig.  30,  then  make  an  overhand  knot  as  in  Fig.  31. 
If  the  latter  is  twisted  in  the  right  direction,  the 
ends  will  lie  close  as  in  Fig.  32;  if  not,  they  will 
stick  out  sideways.  When  this  happens  the  knot  is 
useless,  and  is  called  a “ granny  knot,”  or  false  knot. 
Neat  as  the  true  reef  knot  is,  it  is  only  suited  for 
small  ropes  with  no  great  strain  on  them  : under 
much  strain  it  jams  and  is  difficult  to  undo.  To 


Fig.  30.  Fig.  31.  Fig.  32.  Fig.  33.  Fig.  34.  Fig.  35. 


join  large  ropes,  hold  one  in  the  left  hand  as  at  a in 
Fig.  33!  then  work  the  other  through  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  arrow.  This  is  the  Common  or  Sheet 
Bend,  or  Weaver’s  Knot.  The  reef  knot  is  that 
used  to  join  the  ends  of  each  pair  of  “reef  points” 
in  reefing  a sail.  Of  course  joining  the  two  ends  of 
a rope  together  is  the  same  as  joining  two  separate 
ropes.  The  weaver’s  knot  is  easy  to  undo,  especi- 
ally if  made  as  in  Fig.  34. 

Fig.  35  is  a Carrick  Bend,  for  joining  two  cables 
for  towing  ships,  &c. ; but  a bowline  bend  is  more 
general. 

A permanent  junction  between  two  ropes  should 


Fig.  36. 


Fig.  37. 


always  be  made  by  splicing.  Fig.  36  shows  the  com- 
mencement of  a 

Short  Spitce. — Open  out  or  unlay  the  strands, 


and  “ crutch  ” or  inter-lock  the  ends  (tightly,  not 
loosely  as  in  the  drawing);  take  any  strand,  a , pass 
it  over  the  opposing  strand  next  before  it,  f,  and 
stick  it  in  between  that  and  the  next,  e (which  must 
be  lifted  up  by  a pointed  piece  of  wood  or  iron 
called  a marlingsptke) . Pass  it  under  e and  up  be- 
tween e and  d.  Treat  all  six  strands  in  a similar 
manner.  If  great  strength  is  required,  pass  them  all 
a second  time.  When  the  ends  reappear,  untwist 
each  into  yarns  ; cut  out  half  of  each  yarn  ; 
twist  up  the  yarns  again  ; then  pass  the  six  reduced 
strands  once  more,  and  cut  off  the  ends.  This  is  to 
taper  the  splice,  to  make  it  more  sightly  (Fig.  37.) 
If  the  description  seems  obscure,  try  it  as  you  read: 
the  principle  is  to  embed  or  burrow  each  strand  of 
a into  the  substance  of  b and  vice  versa.  Splicing 
large  ropes  is  very  hard  work. 

An  Eye  Splice  (Fig.  38)  is  easily  made  by  any 
one  who  has  mastered  the  short  splice,  the  difference 
being  that  you  have  only  the  strands  of  one  rope  to 
work  in  amongst  the  strands  of  its  own  “ standing 
part.”  Both  these  splices  should  be  parcelled  and 
served  if  exposed  to  wet. 


Fig.  38. 


Fig.  39. 


Fig.  40. 


The  Long  Splice  is  stronger  and  more  elegant 
than  the  short  splice,  and  must  be  used  if  the  rope 
has  to  run  through  pulleys,  &c.,  as  it  does  not  in- 
crease its  thickness.  Unlay  a much  greater  length 
of  each  rope  than  is  shown  in  Fig.  36  ; inter-lock  or 
“crutch”  the  strands  as  before.  Now  untwist  a 
still  further — for  several  whole  turns  along  its  own 
rope  a,  which  will  then  consist,  so  to  speak,  of  two 
strands  and  a vacancy.  Into  the  vacant  space  left 
by  the  removal  of  a lay  the  corresponding  strand  /, 
of  the  opposite  rope  (Fig.  36);  twist  / tighter  as 
you  lay  it  in  a,  for  part  of  its  length  is  now  com- 
posed of  two  strands  of  its  own,  b and  c , and  one  of 
its  neighbor’s,  f.  At  the  point  where  the  untwist- 
ing of  a ceases — and  where,  of  course,  the  laying  in 
of  f ceases  also — join  a and  f;  cut  off  all  but  a few 
inches  of  each;  untwist  them,  and  cut  off  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  yarns  from  each.  Tie  the  reduced 


KNOTS  AND  SPLICES. 


481 


r 


strands  with  an  overhand  knot  (as  in  Fig.  39),  which 
must  be  coaxed  into  the  vacant  place  as  neatly  as 
possible;  beyond  the  knot  reduce  a and  f by  another 
fourth;  pass  the  end  of  a over  f and  the  end  of  f 
over  #,  and  each  under  the  two  next  strands  (Fig. 
40):  when  you  have  well  stretched  the  rope,  cut  off 
the  ends  where  they  appear.  Sometimes  the  two 
are  reduced  by  half  before  knotting;  sometimes  the 
extreme  end  is  reduced  to  a fourth,  and  “ stuck  ” 
once  more.  In  the  same  way  work  one  of  a’s  strands 
— say  b — into  the  rope  b,  untwisting  d to  make  room 
for  it,  and  joining  them  like  a and  f.  You  will  now 
have  e and  c to  dispose  of.  Reduce  them,  and  tie 
their  ends  together  like  the  others,  but  at  the  original 
point  of  junction,  without  laying  them  into  either 
rope:  your  three  pair  of  strands  will  now  be  united 
at  three  different  points  in  the  rope,  some  distance 
apart,  and  there  will  be  no  material  increase  of 
thickness. 

A Grommet — (see  engraving  in  the  article  on 


Sailing) — is  a rope  ring  made  by  unlaying  one  strand 
from  a rope.  Form  a bight  of  the  required  size  at 
one  end,  and  work  the  loose  end  twice  round  it,  fol- 
lowing the  natural  crevices  of  the  strand.  You  will 
now  have  a solid  three-strand  rope  in  the  form  of  a 
ring,  and  a pair  of  ends  to  join.  Join  them  by  an 
overhand  knot,  first  tapering  them,  and  “ stick  ” the 
ends  just  as  in  a long  splice. 

Sailors  have  many  ornamental  knots  for  finishing 
the  ends  of  ropes,  to  prevent  the  strands  from  sep- 
arating: amongst  the  others  are  the  Matthew  Walker, 
the  Single  Wall,  the  Single  Wall  Crowned,  the  Double 
Wall,  the  Double  Wall  Double  Crowned,  the  Single 
Diamond,  the  Double  Diamond,  the  Stopper  Knot, 
and  others,  which  space  does  not  admit  of  our  de- 
scribing. All  the  knots  and  splices  in  common  use 
we  have  given,  and  the  reader  may  be  sure  that  few 
pieces  of  stray  information  repay  the  trouble  of 
learning — and  practicing — better  that)  c knowledge 
of  the  Art  of  Cordage. 


dm 

/A  A 


482 


A FULL  RIGGED  SHIR 


A The  foremast 
B Foretopmast 
C Foretop-gallantmast 
D Foretop-gallant-yard 
E Foretopsail-yard 
F Fore  yard 
G Mainmast 
H Maintopmast 
I Maintop-gallantmast 
J Maintop-gallant-yard 
K Maintopsail-yard 
L Main  yard 
M Mizzenmast 
N Mizzentopmast 
O Mizntp. -gallantmast 
P Mizntp. -gallant-yard 
Q Mizntp. -sail-yard 
R Cross-jack  yard 
S The  gaff 
T The  spanker-boom 
U Forechain,  or  channels 


V The  main  ditto 
W The  mizzen  ditto 

X The  quarter  galleries 

Y The  chain  or  channel 

wales 

Z Main  channel  wales 


a Cutwater  and  figure- 
head 

b Fore-shrouds  and  rat- 
lines 

c Ditto  topmast  ditto 
d Top-gallant-shrouds 
e Top-gallant  backstay 
f Topmast  backstay 
g g Topsail  ties 
Main  shrouds,  &c.,  or 
main  rigging 
i Ditto  topmast  ditto 


j Ditto  top-gallant  ditto 
k Ditto  ditto  backstay 
1 Ditto  topmast  ditto 
m Mizzen  shrouds 
n Ditto  topmast  ditto 
o Ditto  top-gallant  ditto 
p Ditto  ditto  backstay 
q Ditto  topmast  ditto 
r r r Mizzen,  mizzen-top, 
and  mizzen-top-gal- 
lant-stays 

s s s Main  ditto  ditto 
t t Stay  tackles 
u u Fore  and  main-yard 
tackles 

V V v Fore,  main,  and  miz- 
zentops  (round  tops) 
www  Fore,  main,  and 
mizzen  cross-trees 
xxx  Fore,  main,  and  miz- 
zen trucks 


y y Stun-safl , or  stud- 
ding-sail,  booms,  on 
the  fore  and  main 
yards 


1 The  jib-boom 

2 Bowsprit 

3 Spritsail-yard 

4 Dolphin-strikers 

5 Bobstays 

6 Jib-boom,  guys,  and 

stays 

7 Foretop-gallant-stay 

8 Jib-stay 

9 Foretopmast-stay 

10  Forestay 

11  ii  ii  Lifts  of  the  fore, 


main,  and  mizzen 
yards 

12  12  12  Ditto  ditto  top- 

sail yards 

13  13  13  Ditto  ditto,  top- 

gallant-yards 

14  14  Fore,  main,  and  miz 

ntp. -gallant  braces 

15  15  Ditto  ditto  ditto 

topsail-braces 

16  16  Fore-braces 

17  17  Main-braces 

18  18  Cross  - jack  - yard  - 

braces 

19  Topping-lift 

20  Vangs 

21  Signal  halyards 

22  Peak  or  gaff  halyards 

23  Foot-ropes 

24  Fore,  main,  and  mizzen 

royals 


HOME  STUDIES  FOR  YOUNG  LADIES. 


LL  girls  have  not  their 
whole  time  engrossed  by 
their  teachers  ; and  most 
have  spaces  of  holiday 
— either  they  are  at 
school  and  come  home 
for  the  vacation,  or  the 
governess  goes  to  visit  her 
friends,  or  the  whole  family 
goes  to  the  sea-side,  and 
there  is  a general  relaxa- 
tion, or  there  are  sojourns 
with  friends  and  a suspen- 
^ — sion  of  lessons.  And  in  pro- 

y~^Cr^  Jr  cess  of  time,  governesses 

cease  to  educate  them,  and 
they  are  left  to  educate  themselves. 

In  the  school-room  it  is  necessary  to  teach  the 
rudiments  of  many  things,  without  which,  in  these 
days,  it  would  hardly  be  possible  to  pass  in  the 
crowd.  Therefore,  much  must  there  be  acquired 
for  which  there  is  no  natural  bent.  The  unmathe- 
matical  must  learn  arithmetic,  enough  at  least,  to  cast 
up  accounts  ; the  unmusical  ought  to  learn  the  first 
rules  of  music;  the  unhistorical  must  know  the  outlines 
of  the  events  of  the  world  ; those  with  no  turn  for  lan- 
guage must  acquire  French  enough  to  understand, 
and  not  mispronounce  the  phrases  they  meet ; and 
what  is  least  congenial  is  necessarily  hammered  in 
with  the  most  pains,  and  forms  the  best  discipline. 

However,  in  the  voluntary  studies  of  which  we 
are  speaking,  taste  is  the  safest  guide,  for  it  gener- 
ally indicates  what  you  best  can  excel  in.  No,  the 
superlative  is  not  quite  right,  for  the  safest  guide  is 
what  your  parents  may  wish  you  to  improve  in,  or 
what  may  help  your  brothers  and  sisters  most. 
Many  a brother  is  encouraged  to  face  his  holiday 


task  or  preparation  for  an  examination  by  a sister 
working  with  him,  and  what  she  acquires  in  this 
way,  for  pure  love,  is  of  use  to  her  throughout  her  life. 

But  where  there  is  no  inducement  of  this  kind,  it 
is  the  wisest  way,  in  all  cases  of  long  holidays,  to 
resolve  upon  spending  a certain  time  every  day  upon 
some  solid  occupation.  It  is  a very  good  rule  not 
to  take  up  a story-book  in  the  forenoon,  or  till  a cer- 
tain portion  of  useful  reading  has  been  gone  through. 
It  is  the  only  way,  we  believe,  to  avoid  being  either 
dull,  vacant,  or  frivolous,  or  what  may  lead  to  any 
or  all  of  these — desultory.  The  way  to  have  the 
most  enjoyment  is  to  have  some  real  study  to  “ break 
one’s  mind  upon,”  and  give  a sense  of  duty  done — 
some  reasonable  pursuit  to  engage  the  lively  interest 
of  eye,  ear,  and  hand,  occupy  leisure  moments,  and 
afford  wholesome  zest  and  delight  to  all  the  amuse- 
ments of  mind  and  body  that  may  offer. 

The  study  may  be  of  many  kinds.  Some  young 
ladies  will  take  delight  in  pursuing  their  fractions, 
working  cube  root,  learning  algebra  or  Euclid,  and 
feeling  new  ideas  delight  them  when  they  perceive 
how  algebra  and  geometry  work  into  one  another. 
Such  tastes,  however,  look  very  frightful  to  others, 
and  for  their  sakes  we  will  not  pursue  the  subject 
farther  than  to  say  that  those  who  have  these  lik- 
ings will  have  special  comprehension,  and  therefore 
enjoyment,  of  astronomy  and  other  branches  of  phys- 
ical science  that  cannot  be  appreciated  at  all  with- 
out some  knowledge  of  mathematics.  Everybody 
learns  some  astronomy — at  least  as  much  as  is  con- 
nected with  school-room  geography  ; but,  beyond 
this,  every  person  ought  to  try  to  understand  some- 
thing of  that  wonderful  mechanism  and  order  which, 
above  all  things,  seems  to  expand  the  mind  to  some 
idea  of  the  vastness  of  the  power  and  wisdom  of 
the  Creator. 


HOME  STUDIES  FOR  YOUNG  LADIES. 


But  without  making  astronomy  a study , it  is  a se- 
rious loss  not  to  make  it  a pursuit — we  mean  so  far 
as  to  learn  to  know  the  changes  of  the  moon,  and 
to  distinguish  a planet  from  a star  ; to  observe  enough 
not  to  inform  one’s  neighbors  “ that  we  have  seen 
the  comet  beautifully,”  when  we  have  been  looking 
at  Jupiter,  whom  we  might  have  seen  every  night 
for  a month.  It  is  a great  loss  of  pleasure  not  to 
know  the  constellations,  and  every  one  can  learn 
these  with  a very  little  attention,  by  tracing  the 
stars  they  have  observed  either  on  the  celestial  globe 
or  upon  maps.  The  love  and  delight  one  thus  wins 
for  the  glorious  hunter  Orion — our  Lady’s  Distaff,  as 
the  North  calls  it — the  Pleiades  like  “ fireflies  in  a 
golden  net,”  the  grand,  glittering  Vega,  the  Lion’s 
red  heart,  the  little  diamond-twinkling  Dolphin — all 
returning  in  their  seasons  like  dear  old  friends — are 
not  to  be  thrown  away  out  of  mere  indifference  and 
inattention  to  some' of  the  most  glorious  works  of 
the  Maker  of  all  things. 

We  have  said  that  astronomy  may  be  a study  or 
may  be  a pursuit.  This  would  be  the  case  with  al- 
most everything  worth  doing  at  all.  The  thorough- 
going generally  turn  their  amusement  into  a study 
by  their  resolution  really  to  go  to  the  bottom  of 
things,  and  understand  the  principle.  Truly,  they 
only  find  that  “ the  mystery  is  gone  farther  ; ” but 
they  have  learned  to  wonder  at  the  mystery,  which 
they  will  never  be  able  to  do  without  study.  The 
maid-servant  who  tells  the  child  to  fling  away  its 
handful,  for  it  is  “ only  nasty  littering  moss,”  sees 
no  mystery,  while  the  botanist  sees  marvels  inexpli- 
cable. 

While,  however,  you  are  a little  busy  “scholar,” 
as  the  census  calls  you,  you  will  generally  find  pur- 
suits quite  enough  for  your  brain.  Collections  of 
flowers,  shells,  minerals,  fossils,  coins — all,  if  prop- 
erly arranged  in  accordance  with  some  easy  guide- 
book, will  lead  you  through  much  interesting  knowl- 
edge to  the  threshold  of  sciences  that  you  may  pur- 
sue to  some  purpose  when  your  time  is  more  your 
own.  The  collections  should  be  always  well  sorted 
and  kept  in  good  order,  without  which  they  become 
absolute  rubbish — a burden  to  the  proprietor,  a 
nuisance  to  everybody,  and  such  an  exasperation  to 
the  housemaids  and  the  authorities,  that  they  will 
probably  be  confiscated,  and  the  whole  pursuit 
quashed,  perhaps  never  to  be  resumed.  Collecting 
is  delightful  work  ; only,  as  you  grow  past  child- 


hood, it  is  just  as  well,  before  beginning  a collection, 
to  ask,  “ Is  this  a rational  thing?  ” There  is  much 
to  be  said  in  favor  of  foreign  postage  stamps,  and  of 
autographs  (except  that  collectors  get  hardened  into 
importuning  perfect  strangers  for  them)  ; but  every 
one  now  laughs  at  the  old  mania  for  amassing  used 
English  queen’s  heads,  and  in  a dozen  years  people 
will  be  wondering  what  was  the  pleasure  of  finding 
in  how  many  different  ways  the  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet can  be  twisted  together  on  the  top  of  a sheet  ot 
note-paper.  Some  collections  will  have  served  to 
give  you  interest  in  the  studies  they  are  connected 
with,  will  make  you  enjoy  your  walks,  see  with  your 
eyes,  and  read  with  an  object.  If  you  have  a 
brother  in  a fit  of  chemistry,  he  will  probably  make 
you  help  him,  and  you  had  better  learn  to  under- 
stand his  intentions,  and  the  principles  on  which  he 
works;  or,  if  not,  “The  Chemistry  of  Creation,” 
and  other  like  books,  should  be  read,  both  to  fill 
your  mind  with  wonder  at  the  marvelous  things  of 
this  earth,  and  to  give  you  clear  and  accurate  knowl- 
edge, so  that  you  may  not  fall  into  absurd  blunders 
about  gases,  etc. 

One  class  of  minds  delights  chiefly  in  these  pres- 
ent tangible  things  ; there  is  another  class  which  is 
more  interested  in  men  than  in  things ; and  of 
course  there  are  also  many,  and  these  the  more  ac- 
tive spirits,  which  have  room  for  both. 

It  is  most  advisable  that  part  of  the  day’s  deeper 
reading  should  be  historical.  Those  who  really  can- 
not bring  themselves  to  care  about  things  past,  nor 
remember  them,  may  perhaps  more  profitably  spend 
their  time  over  what  they  do  care  about  ; but  this  is 
not  common  among  educated  people,  because  there 
is  so  much  in  their  daily  lives  that  requires  a refer- 
ence to  the  past.  Scarcely  an  ornament  do  they  see 
but  has  a Greek  or  Gothic  model  ; they  are  sur- 
rounded with  pictures  of  historical  scenes  ; the 
fields,  houses,  towns,  or  ruins  around  them  have  wit- 
nessed the  great  events  that  still  influence  our  lives. 
It  must  be  a very  callous  mind  that  does  not  heed 
all  this  ; and  besides,  how  great  is  the  enjoyment  of 
thinking  about  great  characters  and  gallant  men  of 
old  ! If  you  never  read  anything  except  about  lit- 
tle boys  and  girls,  how  they  tore  their  frocks  and 
were  put  in  the  corner,  and  the  like,  your  mind  will 
grow  down  to  them,  and  you  will  think  Leonidas 
guarding  Thermopylae,  or  Cornelia  showing  her 
jewels,  or  Bruce  baffling  the  bloodhounds,  only 


HOME  STUDIES  FOR  YOUNG  LADIES. 


stupid  things,  never  to  be  thought  of  out  of  lesson- 
time  ; and  you  may  end  by  being  like  the  lady  who 
thought  “ Plutarch’s  Lives  ” very  entertaining,  till 
she  found  they  were  all  true,  when  they  at  once 
grew  stupid  ! 

But  one  thing  let  us  advise  you,  and  that  is,  don’t 
keep  to  small  books.  It  is  quite  a mistake  to  be 
afraid  of  a big  book,  and  think  it  must  be  dry.  You 
are  set  to  read  abridgments  in  the  school-room,  be- 
cause you  must  there  learn  the  framework  in  as 
small  compass  as  possible,  and  of  course  it  is  very 
likely  to  be  dull  and  dry  ; but  go  to  the  places 
where  the  abridgments  are  taken  from,  and  there 
you  will  find  that  the  people  have  room  to  spread 
out  and  seem  to  be  alive,  so  that  we  can  care 
about  them. 

You  should  also  try  to  read  the  real  great  poems. 
Some  you  have  learned  in  fragments  in  the  school- 
room ; but  there  is  no  time  there  to  let  you  really 
get  acquainted  with  them.  You  should  read  a trans- 
lation of  the  “ Iliad  ” and  “ Odyssey,”  which  you 
can  enjoy  quite  young  ; Tasso  and  Dante  you  may, 
we  hope,  one  day  read  in  Italian  ; but  you  should  es- 
pecially aspire  to  Shakespeare  and  Spenser  so  soon 
as  ever  you  are  thought  old  enough  to  be  trusted 
with  them.  The  earlier  and  the  better  you  know 
both  them  and  Milton,  the  greater  will  be  your  en- 
joyment of  them,  and  the  better  your  taste.  It  is  the 
same  with  Scott  and  Southey.  There  is  something 
specially  engaging  to  young  minds  in  the  chivalrous 
freshness  and  animated  life  of  Scott,  his  ringing 
verses,  and  high  spirit  of  honor  ; and  so,  too,  the  noble 
sentiments  and  beautiful  self-devotion  throughout 
Southey’s  “ Roderick,”  and  the  wild  beauty  and 
strange  adventure  in  his“  Thalaba  ” and  “ Kehama,” 
will  make  them  very  charming  reading  to  you  ; and  it 
is  much  the  best  way  to  read  poems  like  these  while 
you  are  young  and  have  time,  before  you  get  whirled 
off  by  the  literature  of  the  day. 

Languages  are  in  general  so  much  the  chief  study 
in  the  school-room,  that  they  would  hardly  come 
under  the  class  of  what  a young  lady  would  work  at 
alone,  unless,  indeed,  she  has  not  the  usual  amount  of 
lessons  required  of  her.  Except  the  picking  up  of 
Latin  to  help  a brother,  very  little  had  better  be  done 
in  that  way  before  the  schooling  has  ceased.  Then, 
it  may  be  feared,  it  is  too  much  the  usual  habit  to 
make  very  little  use  of  what  has  been  acquired  with 
so  much  trouble’.  It  is  not  always  easy  to  get  foreign 


books,  and  nobody  ever  thinks  of  looking  at  the  rows 
or  French  memoirs  and  histories,  with  tarnished  gold 
backs,  in  the  drawing-room  book-case.  Perhaps  the 
French  master  has  said  “ they  are  old  French,”  and 
set  his  pupil  to  read  the  “ Reaieil,"  with  which  he  is 
most  familiar.  So  she  never  becomes  acquainted  with 
the  beautiful,  idiomatic,  carefully  studied  French  that 
prevailed  before  the  Revolution;  and  as,  quite  rightly, 
her  mother  will  not  let  her  read  a ipodern  French 
novel  till  she  has  heard  its  character,  that  language, 
the  most  familiar  of  all,  remains  useless,  excepting 
if  she  goes  abroad.  Now,  French  is  particulary  well 
suited  to  history  and  biography  ; and  any  good  li- 
brary will  supply  you  with  long  lists  of  books  that 
will  furnish  very  useful  reading — Capefigue,  Thierry, 
Sandeau,and  many  another  among  the  moderns, to  say 
nothing  of  the  crowds  of  most  entertaining  memoirs  of 
older  date.  Or  the  beautiful  journals  of  Eugenie 
de  Guerin  should  be  read  by  all  ; while,  among 
lighter  books,  Souvestre’s  are  nearly  all  sure  to  be 
safe  reading  ; and  besides  these  we  might  mention 
Feval’s  “Fee  des  Greves,”  Lady  Georgiana  Fuller- 
ton’s “Comtesse  de  Bonneval,”  Mme.  Reybaud’s 
“ Cabaret  de  Gaubert,”  as  thoroughly  interesting 
and  unexceptionable. 

German  ought  likewise  to  be  kept  from  dropping 
out  of  use,  which  it  is  extremely  disposed  to  do,  al- 
though universally  learnt.  It  is  best  to  get  lists  of 
German  books  from  trustworthy  friends  ; or  failing 
these,  you  are  always  on  safe  ground  with  history. 
Fouque’s  exquisite  tales  are  despised  by  German 
masters,  as  not  being  in  perfect  language  ; but  those 
who  read  for  the  sake  of  beauty  and  poetic  ideas, 
should  assuredly  not  neglect  the  more  celebrated  of 
these. 

Either  German  or  Italian  is  sometimes  omitted  in 
the  school-room,  and  thus  affords  a field  of  enterprise 
for  after-study.  The  great  Italian  poet  will  furnish 
you  with  years  of  study,  when  once  you  have  worked 
your  way  to  him  ; and  Italian,  too,  owns  the  most 
high-minded  of  modern  novels — “ I Pronressi  Sposi,” 
which  ought  not  to  be  read  till  the  first  difficulties  of 
the  language  are  mastered. 

We  must  not,  however,  be  understood  to  urge  the 
study  of  either  of  these  languages.  Neither  of  them 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  education  of  an  Amer- 
ican lady.  What  we  do  urge  is  the  habit  of  disci- 
plining the  mind  to  a daily  habit  of  exertion.  And 
this  is  infinitely  more  necessary  after  the  age  is  past 




486 


HOME  STUDIES  FOR  YOUNG  LADIES. 


in  which  hours  and  tasks  are  prescribed  for  you. 
The  first  impulse  is  to  shake  yourself  free  from  re- 
straint, and  idle,  trifle,  or  amuse  yourself  merely  by 
way  of  feeling  your  liberty  ; but  by  the  time  this 
has  gone  on  a few  months,  unless  some  fresh  excite- 
ment has  carried  you  off,  you  will  feel  a great 
tedium,  and  yet  a disinclination  to  exert  yourself, 
which  you  would  not  have  felt  when  your  habits  of 
application  were  not  disused. 

Try,  then,  to  look  forward  to  going  on  with  some- 
thing for  yourself,  or  with  a sister  or  friend.  There 
ought  to  be  each  day  one  short  interval  of  study  re- 
quiring close  accuracy — such  as  may  be  found  in 
grammar,  logic,  mathematics ; and  another  space  of 
steady  reading,  to  inform  the  mind  and  keep  up  the 
power  of  attention  ; and  probably  likewise  some  ac- 
complishment to  be  worked  up,  such  as  music  or 
drawing.  These,  and  whatever  besides  may  please 
you,  are  likely  to  hinder  you  from  becoming  frivo- 
lous and  unsettled,  and  to  afford  you  infinitely  more 
pleasure  than  “ all  play  and  no  work.”  Young  girls  of 
your  own  age,  when  visiting  you,  will  often  be  well 
pleased  to  join  in  some  such  occupation,  and  the 
day  will  thus  have  a sort  of  ballast,  besides  that  the 
very  passage  you  have  read  together  will  ever  after 
seem  illuminated  by  the  talk  that  it  occasions. 

A friendship  will  thrive  far  better  on  substantial 
food  shared  together,  than  on  nothing  but  trifles. 
Nay,  we  believe  that  nonsense  has  not  the  power  to 
be  vigorous  and  merry  without  sense  from  which  to 
rebound  ; it  certainly  can  hardly  be  wholesome  or 
innocent. 

Girls  have  lately  found  out  a very  pleasant  way 
of  supplying  the  stimulus  that  is  apt  to  be  wanting 
on  leaving  the  school-room,  by  forming  themselves 
into  little  societies  for  improvement.  Essay  So- 
cieties is  the  generic  title,  but  they  generally  have  a 
private  one  of  their  own,  such  as  the  Kitten  Club, 
the  Querists,  Spinsters,  and  the  like.  Essay  So- 
cieties is  hardly  a good  name,  for  few  women  are  ca- 
pable of  writing  essays  at  all,  and  certainly  not 
under  twenty ; and  it  is  better  that  the  subject 
should  be  such  as  can  be  elucidated  by  intelligent 
diligence,  instead  of  by  knowledge  of  the  world,  such 
as  only  can  be  gained  by  experience. 

Let  us,  then,  suppose  the  society  to  be  called 
the  Querist  Company.  The  members  should  not  be 
too  diverse  in  age.  Eighteen  and  fifteen,  or  eight- 
een and  five-and-twenty,  can  work  together  very  well, 


but  hardly  fifteen  and  five-and-twenty,  and  in  general 
a girl  in  the  school-room  has  not  time  for  such  ex- 
tra work.  The  exceptions  are  when  there  are  no 
regular  lessons,  or  at  least  comparatively  few,  and  a 
girl,  taught  by  a father  or  mother,  can  obtain  free 
access  to  books,  but  wants  motive  and  direction  in 
making  use  of  them.  Otherwise  the  members  should 
be  all  girls  “ come  out,”  that  is,  with  their  educa- 
tion left  to  themselves.  They  should  be  in  some 
degree  known  to  one  another,  the  more  intimate  the 
better  for  the  interest  and  liveliness  of  the  affair. 
Some  are  cousins  living  at  a distance  from  one  an- 
other, others  friends  in  the  same  neighborhood  ; but 
to  be  well  known  to  at  least  two  members  is  a good 
rule,  or  the  society  loses  its  coherence  and  privacy. 
It  is  well  to  have  a head  and  referee.  The  Querists 
have  secured  a cousin  of  some  of  the  parties,  who, 
as  the  chief  querist,  queerest  of  all,  as  they  say,  goes 
by  the  official  name  of  Columbine.  The  Kitten 
Club,  on  the  other  hand,  make  one  of  their  mem- 
bers, in  rotation,  into  “ Grimalkin,”  and  commit  the 
management  to  this  ruling  power  for  the  time  being, 
making  her  dispense  the  questions,  and  decide  which 
is  the  best  answer. 

The  questions  or  subjects  are  propounded  by  the 
Querists  in  rotation,  two  a month.  More  have  been 
tried,  but  it  was  found  that  no  one  had  time  to 
attend  to  more  than  two  questions  ; indeed,  the 
chief  reason  for  sending  out  two  is  that  there  may  be 
a choice  between  them. 

The  questions  are  submitted  to  Columbine  before 
they  are  sent  round  ; each  member  receives  hers  at 
the  beginning  of  the  month,  and  returns  her  replies 
at  the  end  to  Columbine,  who  either  chooses  out  the 
best,  or,  when  two  or  three  bring  in  varieties  of  in- 
formation, selects  these,  writes  a letter  explaining 
the  grounds  of  the  choice,  and  sends  them  to  the 
nearest  member,  who  passes  them  to  the  next,  and 
so  on  round  the  whole  party.  The  best  answers  are 
carefully  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  society, 
and  are  sometimes  made  quite  ornamental  by  the 
drawing  members  of  the  club.  A few  questions 
shall  be  mentioned  as  specimens. 

Write  a short  life  of  St.  Ambrose. 

Describethecourseandinfluenceofthe  Gulf  Stream 

Translate  into  verse  or  prose,  Uhland's  “Schloss 
am  Meer.’ 

Collect  the  passages  of  poetry  that  best  describe 
the  song  of  the  nightingale. 


HOME  STUDIES  FOR  YOUNG  LADIES. 


What  celebrated  horses  are  mentioned  in  history  ? 

Parse  and  give  the  derivation  of  the  words  in  the 
lines — 

41  Mountains  on  whose  barren  breast 
The  laboring1  clouds  do  often  rest.’* 

Which  king  do  you  think  was  most  correctly 
termed  Great,  and  why  ? 

How  does  the  story  of  “ Quentin  Durward  ” de- 
part from  history  ? 

What  is  the  difference  between  genius  and  talent  ? 

Write  a story  to  illustrate  the  saying  that  every 
cloud  has  a silver  lining. 


Give  an  account  of  the  American  forest-trees. 

These  are  such  questions  as  the  Querists  put  to  one 
another.  In  answering,  the  rule  is  that  there  must 
be  no  direct  assistance  from  elders  in  the  family, 
except  in  suggesting  books  ; and  books,  though 
freely  consulted,  must  not  be  copied,  except  in 
making  acknowledged  quotations.  The  authorities 
consulted  are  written  at  the  foot  of  the  paper. 
Much  information  is  thus  gained  and  put  together 
in  a very  pleasant  manner,  and  it  is  well  worth  com- 
paring the  various  opinions,  or  the  different  infor- 
mation that  each  can  obtain. 


RCHITECTURE,  o r 
the  art  of  planning  and 
raising  edifices,  appears 
to  have  been  among  the  ear- 
liest inventions.  The  first 
habitations  of  men  were  such 
as  nature  afforded,  with  but 
little  labor  on  the  part  of  the 
occupant,  and  sufficient  to 
supply  his  simple  wants — 
grottoes,  huts,  and  tents.  In 
early  times,  the  country  of 
Judea,  which  is  mountainous 
and  rocky,  offered  cavernous 
retreats  to  the  inhabitants, 
who  accordingly  used  them  instead  of  artificial 
places  of  shelter.  From  various  passages  in  Scrip- 
ture, it  appears  that  these  caves  were  often  of  great 
extent,  for,  in  the  sides  of  the  mountain  of  Engedi, 
David  and  six  hundred  men  concealed  themselves. 
In  the  course  of  time,  art  was  employed  to  fashion 
the  rude  cavernous  retreats,  and  to  excavate  blocks 
by  which  rude  buildings  were  compiled  in  more 
convenient  situations.  The  progress  of  architecture, 
however,  from  its  first  dawn,  differed  in  almost  every 
different  locality.  Whatever  rude  structure  the 
climate  and  materials  of  any  country  obliged  its 
early  inhabitants  to  adopt  for  their  temporary  shelter, 
the  same  structure,  with  all  its  prominent  features, 
was  afterward  kept  up  by  their  refined  and  opulent 
posterity. 

From  the  cause  now  mentioned  the  Egyptian 
style  of  building  had  its  origin  in  the  cavern  and 
mound  ; the  Chinese  architecture,  with  its  pavilion 
roofs  and  pointed  minaret,  is  moulded  from  the  Tar- 


tar tent  ; the  Grecian  is  derived  from  the  wooden 
cabin  ; and  the  Gothic  from  the  bower  of  trees.  It 
is  evident  that  necessity  as  much  as  choice  or  chance 
led  to  the  adoption  of  the  different  kinds  of  edifices. 

After  mankind  had  learned  to  build  houses,  they 
commenced  the  erection  of  temples  to  their  gods, 
and  these  they  made  still  more  splendid  than  private 
dwellings.  Thus  architecture  became  a fine  art, 
which  was  first  displayed  on  the  temples,  afterward 
on  the  habitations  of  princes  and  public  buildings, 
and  at  last  became  a universal  want  in  society. 

Traces  of  these  eras  of  advancement  in  the  art  of 
erecting  buildings  are  found  in  various  quarters  of 
the  globe,  especially  in  Eastern  countries,  where  the 
remains  of  edifices  are  discovered  of  which  fable  and 
poetry  can  alone  give  any  account.  The  most  re- 
markable of  these  vestiges  of  a primitive  architecture 
are  certain  pieces  of  masonry  in  the  island  of  Sicily, 
as  well  as  in  some  other  places,  called  the  works  of 
the  Cyclops,  an  ancient  and  fabulous  race  of  giants, 
mentioned  by  Homer  in  his  Odyssey.  By  whom 
these  walls  were  actually  erected  is  unknown. 

Of  the  progressive  steps  from  comparative  rude- 
ness to  elegance  of  design,  history  affords  no  certain 
account,  and  we  are  often  left  to  gather  facts  from 
merely  casual  notices.  The  most  ancient  nations 
known  to  us,  among  whom  architecture  had  made 
some  progress,  were  the  Babylonians,  whose  most 
celebrated  buildings  were  the  temple  of  Belus,  the 
palace  and  the  hanging  gardens  of  Semiramis  ; the 
Assyrians,  whose  capital,  Nineveh,  was  rich  in  splen- 
did buildings ; the  Phoenicians,  whose  cities,  Sidon, 
Tyre,  Aradus,  and  Sarepta,  were  adorned  with  equal 
magnificence  ; the  Israelites,  whose  temple  was  con- 
sidered as  a wonder  of  architecture  ; the  Syrians 


lx  the  CapitoL  at  Albany 


ian  Cottage 


of  Charlemagne 
12™  Century. 


mms 


■ ; 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


ARCHITECTURE. 


489 


.and  the  Philistines.  No  architectural  monument  of 
these  nations  has,  however,  been  transmitted  to  us  ; 
but  we  find  subterraneous  temples  of  the  Hindoos, 
hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  upon  the  islands  Ele- 
phanta  and  Salsetta,  and  in  the  mountains  of  Elora. 
These  temples  may  be  reckoned  among  the  most 
stupendous  ever  executed  by  man.  The  circuit  of 
the  excavations  is  about  six  miles.  The  temples  are 
100  feet  high,  145  feet  long,  and  62  feet  wide.  They 
contain  thousands  of  figures,  appearing,  from  the 
style  of  their  sculpture,  to  be  of  ancient  Hindoo 
origin.  Every  thing  about  them,  in  fact,  indicates 
the  most  persevering  industry  in  executing  one  of  the 
boldest  plans. 

EGYPTIAN  STYLE  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

All  the  architectural  remains  of  ancient  times  sink  into  in- 
significance when  compared  with  those  of  Egypt.  The  obe- 
lisks, pyramids,  temples,  palaces,  and  other  structures  of  this 
country,  are  on  the  grandest  scale,  and  such  as  could  only  have 
been  perfected  by  a people  considerably  advanced  in  refine- 
ment. The  elementary  features  of  Egyptian  architecture  were 
chiefly  as  follows  : 1.  Their  walls  were  of  great  thickness,  and 
sloping  on  the  outside.  This  feature  is  supposed  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  mud  walls,  mounds,  and  caverns  of  their  an- 
cestors. 2.  The  roofs  and  covered  ways  were  flat,  or  without 
pediments,  and  composed  of  blocks  of  stone,  reaching  from  one 
wall  or  column  to  another.  The  principle  of  the  arch,  although 
known  to  the  Egyptians,  was  seldom  if  ever  employed.  3. 
Their  columns  were  numerous,  close,  short,  and  very  large, 
being  sometimes  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  diameter.  They  were 
generally  without  bases,  and  had  a great  variety  of  capitals, 
from  a simple  square  block,  ornamented  with  hieroglyphics  or 
faces,  to  an  elaborate  composition  of  palm-leaves,  not  unlike 
the  Corinthian  capital.  4.  They  used  a sort  of  concave  entab- 
lature or  cornice,  composed  of  vertical  flutings  or  leaves,  and 
a winged  globe  in  the  center.  5.  Pyramids,  well  known  for 
their  prodigious  size,  and  obelisks,  composed  of  a single  stone, 
often  exceeding  seventy  feet  in  height,  are  structures  peculiarly 
Egypt'an-  6.  Statues  of  enormous  size,  sphinxes  carved  in 
stone,  and  sculptures  in  outline  of  fabulous  deities  and  ani- 


mals, with  innumerable  hieroglyphics,  are  the  decorative  objects 
which  belong  to  this  style  of  architecture. 

The  main  character  of  Egyptian  architecture  is  that  of  great 
strength  with  irregularity  of  taste.  This  is  observable  in  the 
pillars  of  the  temples,  the  parts  on  which  the  greatest  share  of 
skill  has  been  lavished.  The  preceding  figures  are  examples. 

In  these  columns  we  may  notice  that  sturdiness  is  the  pre- 
vailing characteristic.  The  design  has  been  the  support  of  a 
great  weight,  and  that  without  any  particular  regard  to  propor- 
tion or  elegance,  either  as  a whole  or  in  parts.  When  assem- 
bled in  rows  or  groups,  the  columns  had  an  imposing  effect, 
because,  from  their  height  and  thickness,  they  filled  the  eye 
and  induced  the  idea  of  placid  and  easy  endurance.  In  Fig. 
5,  which  represents  the  exterior  of  a temple,  this  simple  and 
imposing  character  is  conspicuous. 


GRECIAN  STYLE  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

From  Egypt,  the  architectural  art  spread  to  Greece,  where  it 
passed  from  the  gigantic  to  the  chaste  and  elegant.  The 
period  in  which  it  flourished  in  the  greatest  perfection  was  that 
of  Pericles,  about  440  before  Christ,  when  some  of  the  finest 
temples  at  Athens  were  erected.  After  this,  it  declined  with 
other  arts,  and  was  carried  to  Rome,  where,  however, *t  never 
attained  the  same  high  character.  Before  describing  the  vari- 
ous orders  of  Grecian  and  Roman  architecture,  it  will  be  ad- 
vantageous to  explain  the  terms  ordinarily  employed  in  refer- 
ence to  the  component  parts  of  buildings. 

EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS. 

The  front  or  fagade  of  a building,  made  after  the  ancient 
models,  or  any  portion  of  it,  may  represent  three  parts,  occu- 
pying different  heights  : The  pedestal  is  the  lower  part,  usually 
supporting  a column  ; the  single  pedestal  is  wanting  in  most 
antique  structures,  and  its  place  supplied  by  a stylobate  j the 
stylobate  is  either  a platform  with  steps,  or  a continuous 
pedestal,  supporting  a row  of  columns.  The  lower  part  of  a 
finished  pedestal  is  called  the  plinth  ; the  middle  part  is  the 
die,  and  the  upper  part  the  cornice  of  the  pedestal,  or  surbase. 
The  column  is  the  middle  part,  situated  upon  the  pedestal  or 
stylobate.  It  is  commonly  detached  from  the  wall,  but  is  some- 
times buried  in  it  for  half  its  diameter,  and  is  then  said  to  be 
engaged.  Pilasters  are  square  or  flat  columns  attached  to 
walls.  The  lower  part  of  a column,  when  distinct,  is  called 
the  base  ; the  middle,  or  longest  part,  is  the  shaft  ; and  the 
upper  or  ornamented  part,  is  the  capital.  The  swell  of  the 
column  is  called  the  entasis.  The  height  of  columns  is  meas-  * 
ured  in  diameters  of  the  column  itself,  taken  always  at  the 
base.  The  entablature  is  the  horizontal  continuous  portion 
which  rests  upon  the  top  of  a row  of  columns.  The  lower  part 


I 


490 


ARCHITECTURE. 


of  the  entablature  is  called  the  architrave  or  epistylium.  The 
middle  part  is  the  frieze , which,  from  its  usually  containing 
sculpture,  was  called  zophorus  by  the  ancients.  The  upper  or 
projecting  part  is  the  cornice.  A pediment  is  the  triangular 
face  produced  by  the  extremity  of  a roof.  The  middle  or  flat 
portion  inclosed  by  the  cornice  of  the  pediment  is  called  the 
tympanum.  Pedestals  for  statues,  erected  on  the  summit  and 
extremities  of  a pediment,  are  called  acroteria.  An  attic  is  an 
upper  part  of  a building,  terminated  at  top  by  a horizontal  line 
instead  of  a pediment.  The  different  mouldings  in  architec- 
ture are  described  from  their  sections,  or  from  the  profile  which 
they  present  when  cut  across.  Of  these,  the  torus  is  a convex 
moulding,  the  section  of  which  is  a semi-circle,  or  nearly  so  ; 
the  astragal  is  like  the  torus,  but  smaller  ; the  ovalo  is  convex, 
but  its  outline  is  only  the  quarter  of  a circle ; the  echinus  re- 
sembles the  ovalo,  but  its  outline  is  spiral,  not  circular  ; the 
scotia  is  a deep  concave  moulding  ; the  cavetto  is  also  a con- 
cave, and  occupying  but  a quarter  of  a circle  ; the  cymatium  is 
an  undulated  moulding,  of  which  the  upper  part  is  concave 
and  the  lower  convex  ; the  ogee  or  talon  is  an  inverted  cyma- 
tium ; the  fillet  is  a small  square  or  flat  moulding.  In  archi- 
tectural measurement,  a diameter  means  the  width  of  a column 
at  the  base.  A module  is  half  a diameter.  A minute  is  a 
sixtieth  part  of  a diameter. 

In  representing  edifices  by  drawings,  architects  make  use 
of  the  plan,  elevation,  section,  and  perspective.  The  plan  is 
a map  or  design  of  a horizontal  surface,  showing  the  ichno- 
graphic  projection,  or  groundwork,  with  the  relative  position 
of  walls,  columns,  doors,  etc.  The  elevation  is  the  ortho- 
graphic projection  of  a front  or  vertical  surface  ; this  being 
represented,  not  as  it  is  actually  seen  in  perspective,  but  as  it 
would  appear  if  seen  from  an  infinite  distance.  The  section 
shows  the  interior  of  a building,  supposing  the  part  in  front 
of  an  intersecting  plane  to  be  removed.  The  perspective  shows 
the  building  as  it  actually  appears  to  the  eye,  subject  to  the 
laws  of  scenograp'nic  perspective.  The  three  former  are  used 
by  architects  for  purposes  of  admeasurement  ; the  latter  is 
used  also  by  painters,  and  is  capable  of  bringing  more  than 
one  side  into  the  same  view,  as  the  eye  actually  perceives 
them.  As  the  most  approved  features  in  modern  architecture 
are  derived  from  buildings  which  are  more  or  less  ancient,  and 
as  many  of  these  buildings  are  now  in  too  dilapidated  a state 
to  be  easily  copied,  recourse  is  had  to  such  initiative  restora- 
tions, in  drawings  and  models,  as  can  be  made  out  from  the 
fragments  and  ruins  which  remain.  In  consequence  of  the 
known  simplicity  and  regularity  of  most  antique  edifices,  the 
task  of  restoration  is  less  difficult  than  might  be  supposed. 
The  groundwork,  which  is  commonly  extant,  shows  the  length 
and  breadth  of  the  building,  with  the  position  of  its  walls, 
doors,  and  columns.  A single  column,  whether  standing  or 
fallen,  and  a fragment  of  the  entablature,  furnish  data  from 
which  the  remainder  of  the  colonnade,  and  the  height  of  the 
main  body,  can  be  made  out. 

Grecian  temples  are  well  known  to  have  been  constructed 
in  the  form  of  an  oblong  square  or  parallelogram,  having  a col- 
onnade or  row  of  columns  without,  and  a walled  cell  within. 
The  part  of  the  colonnade  which  formed  the  front  portico  was 
called  the  pronaos,  and  that  which  formed  the  back  part  the 


posticus.  There  were,  however,  various  kinds  of  temples, 
the  styles  of  which  differed  ; thus,  the  prostyle  had  a row  of 
columns  at  one  end  only  ; the  amphiproslyle  had  a row  at  each 
end  ; the  peripteral  had  a row  all  round,  with  two  inner  ones  at 
each  end  ; and  the  dipleralh3.A  a double  row  all  round,  with  two 
inner  ones  at  each  end,  making  the  front  three  columns  deep. 

The  theater  of  the  Greeks  which  was  afterward  copied  by  the 
Romans,  was  built  in  the  form  of  a horseshoe,  being  semicir- 
cular on  one  side  and  square  on  the  other.  The  semicircular 
part,  which  contained  the  audience,  was  filled  with  concentric 
seats,  ascending  from  the  center  to  the  outside.  In  the  mid- 
dle or  bottom  was  a semicircular  floor,  called  the  orchestra. 
The  opposite,  or  square  part,  contained  the  actors.  Within 
this  was  erected,  in  front  of  the  audience,  a wall,  ornamented 
with  columns  and  sculpture,  called  the  scena.  The  stage  or 
floor  between  this  part  and  the  orchestra  was  called  the  pros- 
cenium. Upon  this  floor  was  often  erected  a movable  wooden 
stage,  called  by  the  Romans  pulpitum.  The  ancient  theater 
was  open  to  the  sky,  but  a temporary  awning  was  erected  to 
shelter  the  audience  from  the  sun  and  rain. 


ORDERS. 


Aided,  doubtless,  by  the  examples  of  Egyptian  art,  the 
Greeks  gradually  improved  the  style  of  architecture,  and  orig- 
inated those  distinctions  which  are  now  called  the  “ Orders  of 
Architecture.”  By  this  phrase  is  understood  certain  modes 
of  proportioning  and  decorating  the  column  and  its  entabla- 
ture. They  were  in  use  during  the  best  days  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  for  a period  of  six  or  seven  centuries.  They  were  lost 
sight  of  in  the  dark  ages,  and  again  revived  by  the  Italians  at 
the  time  of  the  restoration  of  letters.  The  Greeks  had  three 
orders,  called  the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthan.  These  were 
adopted  and  modified  by  the  Romans,  who  also  added  two 
others  called  the  Tuscan  and  Composite. 

The  Doric  Order. — This  is  the  earliest  of  the  Greek  orders, 
and  we  see  in  it  a noble  simplicity  on  which  sub- 
sequent orders  were  founded.  One  of  the  most 
correct  examples  is  that  given  in  Fig.  6.  The 
shaft  of  the  Doric  column  had  no  base,  orna- 
mental or  otherwise,  but  rose  directly  from  the 
smooth  pavement  or  stylobate.  It  had  twenty 
(lutings,  which  were  superficial,  and  separated  by 
angular  edges.  The  perpendicular  outline  was 
nearly  straight.  The  Doric  capital  was  plain, 
being  formed  of  a few  annulets  or  rings,  a large 
echinus,  and  a flat  stone  at  top  called  the  abacus. 
The  architrave  was  plain  ; the  frieze  was  inter- 
sected by  oblong  projections  called  triglyphs,  di 
vided  into  three  parts  by  vertical  furrows,  and  or. 
namented  beneath  by  guttce , or  drops.  The 

spaces  between  the  triglyphs  were  called  metopes 

Fig.  6.  and  commonly  contained  sculptures.  To  have  a 
just  idea  of  the  Doric,  therefore,  we  must  go  back  to  the  pure 
Grecian  era.  The  finest  examples  are  those  of  the  temple  of 
Theseus  and  the  Parthenon  (Fig.  7)  at  Athens.  The  Parthe- 
non, which  is  now  a complete  ruin,  has  formed  a model 
in  modern  architecture.  It  was  built  by  the  architect  Ictinus, 
during  the  administration  of  Pericles,  and  its  decorative  sculp 


Site 


ARCHITECTURE. 


49 1 


Fig.  7. — Facade  of  the  Parthenon. 


tures  are  supposed  to  have  been  executed  under  direction  of 
Phidias.  The  platform  or  stylobate  consists  of  three  steps, 
the  uppermost  of  which 
is  227  feet  in  length 
and  101  in  breadth. 

The  number  of  col- 
umns is  eight  in  the 
portico  of  each  front, 
and  seventeen  in  each 
flank,  besides  which 
there  is  an  inner  row 
of  six  columns,  at  each 
end  of  the  cell. 

The  Ionic  Order. — In  this  order  the  shaft  begins  to 
lengthen,  and  to  possess  a degree  of  ornament,  but  still  pre- 
serving a great  degree  of  simplicity  of  outline.  In  the  best 
examples,  as  represented  in  Fig.  8,  the  column  was  eight  or  nine 
diameters  in  height.  It  had  a base  often  com-  1 
posed  of  a torus,  a scotia,  and  a second  torus, 
with  intervening  fillets.  This  is  called  the 
Attic  base.  Others  were  used  in  different  parts 
of  Greece.  The  capital  of  this  order  consisted 
of  two  parallel  double  scrolls,  called  volutes,  oc- 
cupying opposite  sides,  and  supporting  an 
abacus,  which  was  nearly  square,  but  moulded 
at  its  edges.  These  volutes  have  been  consid- 
ered as  copied  from  ringlets  of  hair,  or  per- 
haps from  the  horns  of  Jupiter  Ammon.  The 
Ionic  entablature  consisted  of  an  architrave  and 
frieze,  which  were  continuous  or  unbroken,  and 
a cornice  of  various  successive  mouldings,  at 
the  lower  part  of  which  was  often  a row  of  den- 
tels,  or  square  teeth.  The  examples  at  Athens 
of  the  Ionic  order  were  the  temple  of  Erec- 
theus,  and  the  temple  on  the  Ilissus,  both  now 
destroyed.  Modern  imitations  are  common  in  public  edifices. 

The  Corinthian  order. — This  was  the  lightest  and  most 
highly  decorated  of  the  Grecian  orders.  The  base  of  the 
column  resembled  that  of  the  Ionic,  but  was  more  compli- 
cated. The  shaft  was  often  ten  diameters  in 
height,  and  was  fluted  like  the  Ionic.  The  cap-  i 
ital  was  shaped  like  an  inverted  bell,  and  cov- 
ered on  the  outside  with  two  rows  of  leaves  of  : 
the  plant  acanthus,  above  which  were  eight  pairs 
of  small  volutes.  Its  abacus  was  moulded  and 
concave  on  its  sides,  and  truncated  at  the  cor- 
ners, with  a flower  on  the  center  of  each  side. 

The  entablature  of  the  Corinthian  order  resem- 
bled that  of  the  Ionic,  but  was  more  complicated 
and  ornamented,  and  had,  under  the  cornice,  a 
row  of  large  oblong  projections,  bearing  a leaf  or 
scroll  on  their  under  side,  and  called  modillions. 

No  vestiges  of  this  order  are  now  found  in  the 
remains  of  Corinth,  and  the  most  legitimate 
example  at  Athens  is  in  the  choragic  monument 
of  Lysicrates.  The  Corinthian  order  was  much  Fig.  9. 
employed  in  the  subsequent  structures  of  Rome  and  its  col- 
onies. The  finest  Roman  example  of  this  order  is  that  of 


Fig.  8- 


three  columns  in  the  Campo  Vaccina,  at  Rome,  which  are  com- 
monly considered  as  the  remains  of  the  temple  of  J upiter  Stator. 

Caryatides. — The  Greeks  sometimes  departed  so  far  from 
the  strict  use  of  the  orders  as  to  introduce  statues,  in  the  place 
of  columns,  to  support  the  entablature.  Statues  of  slaves, 
heroes,  and  gods,  appear  to  have  been  employed  occasionally 
for  this  purpose.  The  principal  specimen  of  this  kind  of 
architecture  which  remains,  is  in  a portico  called  Pandroseum, 
attached  to  the  temple  of  Erectbeus  at  Athens,  in  which  stat- 
ues of  Carian  females,  called  Caryatides,  are  substituted  for 
columns. 

ROMAN  STYLE  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

Roman  architecture  possessed  no  originality  of  any  value  ; 
it  was  founded  on  copies  of  the  Greek  models,  and; 
these  were  modified  to  suit  circumstances  and  1 
tastes.  The  number  of  orders  was  augmented  by 
the  addition  of  the  Tuscan  and  Composite. 

Tuscan  order. — This  order  is  not  unlike  the 
Doric,  and  is  chaste  and  elegant.  As  represented 
in  Fig.  10,  the  shaft  had  a simple  base,  ornamented 
with  one  torus,  and  an  astragal  below  the  capital. 

The  proportions  were  seven  diameters  in  height. 

Its  entablature,  somewhat  like  the  Ionic,  consisted 
of  plain  running  surfaces. 

The  Composite  order. — Of  this  there  were 
various  kinds,  differing  less  or  more  either  in  the 
ornaments  of  the  column  or  in  the  entablature. 

The  simplest  of  this  hybrid  order  was  that  which 
we  represent  in  Fig.  11,  which  may  be  observed 
to  combine  parts  and  proportions  of  the  Doric, 
the  Ionic,  and  the  Tuscan. 

The  temples  of  the  Romans 
sometimes  resembled  those  of 
the  Greeks,  but  often  differed 
from  them.  The  Pantheon, 
which  is  the  most  perfectly  pre- 
erved  temple  of  the  Augustan 
age,  is  a circular  building, 
lighted  only  from  an  aperture  in 
the  dome,  and  having  a Corin- 
thian portico  in  front.  The 
amphitheater  differed  from  the 
theater,  in  being  a completely 
circular  or  rather  elliptical  build- 
ing, filled  on  all  sides  with  as- 
cending seats  for  spectators,  and 
leaving  only  the  central  spac», 
called  the  anna,  for  the  con".- 
batants  and  public  shows.  The 
Coliseum  is  a stupendous  structure  of  this  kind.  The  aque- 
ducts were  stone  canals,  supported  on  massive  arcades,  and 
conveying  large  streams  of  water  for  the  supply  of  cities.  The 
triumphal  arches  were  commonly  solid  oblong  structures  orna- 
mented with  sculptures,  and  open  with  lofty  arches  for  pas- 
sengers below.  The  edifice  of  this  kind  most  entire  in  the 
present  day  is  the  triumphal  arch  of  Constantine,  at  Rome, 
represented  in  Fig.  13. 


Fig.  10. 


iSL 

Fig.  11. 


Fig. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


r 


492 


The  basilica  of  the  Romans  was  a hall  of  justice,  used  also 
as  an  exchange  or  place  of 
meeting  for  merchants.  It 
was  lined  on  the  inside  with 
colonnades  of  two  stories,  or 
with  two  tiers  of  columns, 
one  over  the  other.  The 
earliest  Christian  churches  at 
Rome  were  sometimes  called 
basilica,  from  their  possessing 
an  internal  colonnade.  The 
monumental  pillars  were 
Fig.  13.  towers  in  the  shape  of  a col- 

umn on  a pedestal,  bearing  a statue  on  the  summit,  which 
was  approached  by  a spiral  staircase  within.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  column  was  solid.  The  thermce , or  baths,  were 
vast  structures,  in  which  multitudes  of  people  could  bathe  at 
once.  They  were  supplied  with  warm  and  cold  water  and 
fitted  up  with  numerous  rooms  for  purposes  of  exercise  and 
recreation. 

ITALIAN  STYLE  ©F  ARCHITECTURE. 

After  the  dismemberment  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  arts 
degenerated  so  far  that  a custom  became  prevalent  of  erecting 
new  buildings  with  the  fragments  of  old  ones,  which  were  di- 
lapidated and  torn  down  for  the 
purpose.  This  gave  rise  to  an  ir- 
regular style  of  building,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  imitated,  especially  in 
Italy,  during  the  dark  ages.  It 
consisted  of  Grecian  and  Roman 
details,  combined  under  new  forms, 
and  piled  up  into  structures  wholly 
unlike  the  unique  originals.  Hence 
the  names  Graeco-Gothic  and  Rom- 
anesque architecture  have  been 
given  to  it.  After  this  came  the  Italian  style,  which  was  pro- 
fessedly a revival  of  the  classic  styles  of  Greece  and  Rome,  but 
adopted  to  new  manners  and  wants— a kind  of  transition 
from  ancient  to  modern  times.  Its  great  master  was  Andrea 
Palladio,  a Venetian  (born  1518 — died  1580). 

There  is  considerable  variety  and  beauty  in  the  foliate  and 
other  enrichments  of  an  architectural  character  in  many  struc- 
tures in  Italy,  but  very  little  ornament  enters  into  the  colum- 
nar composition  of  Italian  architecture.  Friezes,  iustead  of 
being  sculptured,  are  swollen  ; the  shafts  of  columns  are  very 
seldom  fluted,  and  their  capitals  are  generally  poor  in  the  ex- 
treme ; mouldings  are  indeed  sometimes  carved,  but  not  often  ; 
rustic  masonry,  ill-formed  festoons,  and  gouty  balustrades,  for 
the  most  part  supply  the  place  of  chaste  and  classic  orna- 
ments. 

THE  CHINESE  STYLE. 

The  ancient  Tartars  and  wandering  shepherds  of  Asia  appear 
to  have  lived  from  time  immemorial  in  tents,  a kind  of  habita- 
tion adapted  to  their  erratic  life.  The  Chinese  have  made  the 
tent  the  elementary  feature  of  their  architecture  ; and  of  their 


Fig.  14. 


1 

p 

1 

\ 

1 

Ml 

_ 1 

style  any  one  may  form  an  idea,  by  inspecting  the  figures  which 
are  depicted  upon  common 
China  ware.  Chinese  roofs  are 
concave  on  the  upper  side,  as  if 
made  of  canvas  instead  of  wood. 
A Chinese  portico  is  not  unlike 
the  awnings  spread  over  shop 
windows  in  summer  time.  The 
veranda,  sometimes  copied  in 
dwelling-houses,  is  a structure  of 
this  sort.  The  Chinese  towers 
and  pagodas  have  concave  roofs, 
like  awnings,  projecting  over 
FlG'  i5‘  their  several  stories.  A repre- 

sentation of  this  barbaric  style  of  erection  is  given  in  Fig.  15. 
Such  structures  are  built  with  wood  or  brick  ; stone  is  seldom 
employed. 

THE  SARACENIC,  MOORISH,  AND  BYZAN- 
TINE STYLES. 

The  Arabs,  or  Saracens,  as  they  are  more  usually  called,  and 
the  Moors,  introduced  into  Spain  certain  forms  of  architecture 
which  differed  considerably  from  the  Grecian  in  appearance, 

though  founded  on  its  re- 
mains in  Asia  and  Africa. 
The  chief  peculiarity  of  this 
architecture  was  the  form  of 
the  arch  ; the  Saracens  are 
understood  to  have  made  it 
of  greater  depth  than  width, 
thus  constituting  more  than 
half  a circle  or  ellipse,  and 
therefore  ui.philosophical  and 
comparatively  insecure  (Fig. 
16)  ; while  the  Moorish  style 
was  principally  distinguished 
by  arches  in  the  form  of  a 
horse-shoe  or  a crescent. 

We  associate  with  these 
styles  another,  which  arose  at 
Constantinople,  called  the 


iUL 


Fig.  16. 


Byzantine,  likewise  formed  on  the  remains  of  Grecian  art,  and 
partaking  of  a slightly  Eastern  character.  It  became  known 
in  western  Europe  along  with  the  Lombard,  another  degener- 
ate Grecian  style,  about  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries. 

SAXON  STYLE. 

This  style  commenced  at  the  establishment  of  Christianity 
among  the  Saxons  in  the  sixth  century,  and  is  called  Saxon, 
from  its  having  prevailed  during  the  reigns  of  the  Saxon  and 
Norman  kings  in  England. 

GOTHIC  OR  POINTED  STYLE. 

The  term  Gothic  is  a modern  error,  which,  being  now  im- 
possible to  correct,  is  suffered  to  remain  as  the  generally  dis- 
tinguishing appellation  of  the  kind  of  architecture  possessing 
pointed  arches.  This  style  originated  in  Germany  about  the 


X 


4 


ARCHITECTURE. 


493 


middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  was  zealously  pursued  as 
the  leading  fashion  for  ecclesiastical  structures  all  over  Europe. 
Executed  by  a class  of  skilled  artisans,  who  wandered  from 
country  to  country,  the  finest  specimens  of  the  pointed  style 
are  the  cathedrals  of  Strasburg,  Cologne,  and  Antwerp,  and 
the  splendid  abbeys  of  Melrose  and  Westminster. 

In  this  fanciful  and  picturesque  style  of  architecture,  the 
slender  columns,  always  united  in  groups,  rise  to  a lofty  height, 
resembling  the  giants  of  the  grove,  in  whose  dark  shade  the 
ancient  Teuton  used  to  build  his  altar.  In  the  obscure  depth 
of  the  dome,  the  mind  is  awakened  to  solemn  devotional 
feelings. 

When  the  circular  arch  totally  disappeared  in  1220,  the  early 
English  style  commenced.  The  windows  of  this  style  were  at 
first  very  narrow  in  comparison  with  their  height  ; they  were 
called  lancet-shaped,  and  were  considered  very  elegant ; two 
or  three  were  frequently  seen  together, connected  by  dripstones. 
In  a short  time,  however,  the  windows  became  wider,  and  di- 
visions and  ornaments  were  introduced.  Sometimes  the  same 
window  was  divided  into  several  lights,  and  frequently  finished 
at  the  top  by  a light  in  the  form  of  a lozenge,  circle,  trefoil,  or 
other  ornament. 

About  the  year  1300,  the  architecture  became  more  orna- 
mental, and  from  this  circumstance  received  the  name  of  the 
decorated  English  style,  which  is  considered  the  most  beauti- 
ful for  ecclesiastical  buildings. 

The  transition  from  the  decorated  to  the  florid  or  perpendic- 
ular style  was  very  gradual.  Ornament  after  ornament  was 
added,  till  simplicity  disappeared  beneath  the  extravagant  ad- 
ditions ; and  about  the  year  1380,  the  architecture  became  so 
overloaded  and  profuse,  that  it  obtained  the  title  of  florid, 
which  by  some  persons  is  called  the  perpendicular,  because  the 
lines  of  division  run  in  upright  or  perpendicular  lines  from  top 
to  bottom,  which  is  not  the  case  in  any  other  style. 


DEFINITIONS  OF  PARTS. 


North 

Transept. 


Nttse. 


Choir. 


(South 
Transept. 


Gothic  architecture  being  for  the  most  part  displayed  in 
ecclesiastical  edifices,  it  may  be  of  service  to  explain  the  usual 
plan  of  construction  of  these  buildings.  A church  or  cathedral 
is  commonly  built  in  the  form  of  a cross,  having  a tower,  lan- 
tern, or  spire,  erected  over 
the  place  of  intersection. 

The  part  of  the  cross  situ- 
ated toward  the  west  is 
called  the  nave.  The  op- 
posite or  eastward  part  is 
called  the  choir,  and  within 
this  is  the  chancel.  The 
transverse  portion,  forming 
the  arms  of  the  cross,  is 
called  the  transept,  one  limb  being  called  the  northern  and  the 
other  the  southern  transept. 

Generally,  the  nave  is  larger  than  the  choir.  If  the  nave, 
choir,  and  transepts  be  all  of  the  same  dimensions  the  form  is 
that  of  a Greek  cross.  When  the  nave  is  longer  than  the  other 
parts,  forming  a cross  of  an  ordinary  shape,  the  edifice  is  said 
to  be  in  the  form  of  a Latin  cross.  The  different  open  parts 
usually  receive  the  name  of  ailes  or  aisles,  from  a word  signi- 


fying a wing;  the  nave  or  largest  open  space  is  called  the  main 
aisle.  Originally,  the  floors  of  all  such  edifices  were  open  and 
unencumbered  with  fixed  pews  or  seats,  and  as  the  floors  were 
ordinarily  of  mosaic  or  tesselated  pavement,  the  effect  was  ex- 
ceedingly grand. 

The  roofing  of  Gothic 
churches  is  of  stone,  in  the 
form  of  groins , in  which  the 
arches  are  poised  with  in- 
tersecting points,  and  the 
whole  skillfully  adjusted  so 
as  to  bear  on  the  side  rows 
of  pillars.  Any  high  build- 
ing erected  above  the  roof 
is  called  a steeple  ; if  square 
topped,  it  is  a tower ; if 
long  and  acute,  a spire; 
and  if  short  and  light,  a 
lantern.  Towers  of  great 
height  in  proportion  to 
their  diameter  are  called 
turrets. 

The  walls  of  Gothic 
churches,  on  which  the  outer  strain  of  the  roof  arches  ulti- 
mately rests,  require  to  be  of  great  strength  ; and  the  impart- 
ing this  necessary  degree  of  resistance  without  clumsiness  is 
the  glory  of  this  style  of  architecture. 

The  plan  adopted  is  to  erect  exterior 
buttresses  (Fig.  18).  These  rise  by 
gradations  from  a broad  basis  to 
narrow  pointed  pinnacles,  and 
placed  opposite  the  points  of  pres- 
sure, secure,  without  the  slightest 
appearance  of  clumsiness,  the  gen- 
eral stability  of  the  building.  Slant- 
ing braces,  which  spring  from  the 
buttresses  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
roof,  are  called  flying  buttresses ; 
such,  however,  are  not  always  re- 
quired in  those  modern  edifices  in 
which  the  roof  is  of  wood  and  lead. 

The  summit  or  upper  edge  of  the 
wall,  if  straight,  is  called  a parapet ; 
if  indented,  a battlement.  Gothic  win- 
dows were  commonly  crowned  with 
an  acute  arch  ; they  were  long  and  narrow,  or,  if  wide,  were 
divided  into  perpendicular  lights  by  mullions.  The  lateral 
spaces  on  the  upper  and  outer  side  of  the  arch  are  spandrelles ; 
and  the  ornaments  in  the  top,  collectively  taken,  are  the  tra- 
cery. An  onel,  or  bay  window,  is  a window  which  projects  from 
the  general  surface  of  the  wall.  A wheel,  or  rose  window,  is 
large  and  circular.  A corbel  is  a bracket  or  short  projection 
from  a wall,  serving  to  sustain  a statue  or  the  springing  of  an 
arch.  The  Gothic  term  gable  indicates  the  erect  end  of  a roof, 
and  answers  to  the  Grecian  pediment,  but  is  more  acute. 

NORMAN,  TUDOR,  AND  MODERN  GOTHIC. 

Throughout  England  may  be  seen  many  aged  castles,  some 


Fig.  17 


ARCHITECTURE. 


494 


still  in  a state  of  good  preservation,  but  the  greater  number  in 
ruins,  and  occupying,  with  their  picturesque  remains,  the  sum- 
mit of  a rising  ground  or  rocky  precipice.  These  castles  are 
of  a style  which  prevailed  during  the  feudal  ages  in  Europe, 
and  was  brought  to  this  country  by  the  Normans,  who  erected 
them  as  fastnesses,  into  which  they  might  retire  and  oppress 
the  country  at  pleasure. 

The  feudal  castles  in  England,  like  those  on  the  Rhine, 
consisted  for  the  most  part  of  a single  strong  tower  or  keep, 
■the  wails  of  which  were  from  six  to  ten  feet  thick,  and  the 
windows  only  holes  of  one  or  two  feet  square,  placed  at  irreg- 
ular intervals.  The  several  floors  were  built  on  arches,  and 
the  roof  was  flat  or  battlemented,  with  notches  in  the  parapet, 
from  which  the  inhabitants  or  retainers  of  the  chieftain  might 
defend  themselves  with  instruments  of  war.  The  accommo- 
dations for  living  were  generally  mean,  and  what  would  now 
be  called  uncomfortable.  Around  or  in  front  of  the  main 
tower  tnere  was  usually  a court-yard,  protected  by  a high  wall, 
and  the  arched  entrance  was  carefully  secured  by  a falling  gate 
or  portcullis.  Outside,  there  was  in  many  cases  a regular  wet 
ditch  or  fosse.  Castles  of  greater  magnitude  consisted  of  two 
or  more  towers  and  inner  buildings,  including  a chapel  and 
offices  for  domestics,  and  stables  for  horses  and  other  animals. 
Some  of  them  were  on  a great  scale,  and  possessed  consider- 
able grandeur  of  design. 

As  society  advanced  and  civil  tranquillity  was  established, 
these  military  strengths  gradually  assumed  a character  of 
greater  elegance  and  less  the  appearance  of  defense.  The  wet 
ditch  disappeared,  and  was  superseded  by  a lawn  or  shrub- 
bery. Instead  of  the  draw-bridge  and  portcullis,  there  was  a 
regular  approach  and  gate  of  ordinary  construction.  The  win- 
dows became  larger,  and  were  fitted  with  glass  frames,  and 
stone  was  abandoned  for  the  greater  comfort  of  wooden  floors. 
Instead,  also,  of  a bare  region  around,  in  which  no  foe  might 
lurk,  gardens  were  established,  and  a long  avenue  of  trees  led 
to  the  front  of  the  modernized  mansion.  In  some  instances, 
the  pepper-box  turrets  at  the  upper  corners  of  the  building 
remained.  Of  the  class  of  structures  that  sprung  up  in  this 
period  of  transition,  which  we  may  refer  in  England  to  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth,  and  in  Scotland  to  the  seventeenth 
centuries,  there  are  several  highly  interesting  remains.  These 
edifices  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  were  no  longer  called  cas- 
tles ; they  took  the  name  of  halls,  and  as  such  had  attained  so 
great  a pitch  of  magnificence  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII. 
and  Elizabeth,  as  to  have  subsequently  given  a name  to  a new 
style — the  Tudor  ox  Elizabethan,  Latterly,  and  with  no  very 
distinct  reference  to  any  particular  period,  this  remarkable 


fashion  of  building  has  been  pretty  generally  called  the  old 
English  style  of  architecture.  One  of  the  best  existing  speci- 
mens of  the  Tudor  era  of  architecture  is  Haddon  Hall  in 
Derbyshire,  the  property  of  the  Duke  of  Rutland. 

MODERN  BRITISH  ARCHITECTURE. 

During  the  sixteenth  century,  an  extraordinary  effort  was 
made  in  Italy  to  restore  the  purity  of  Grecian  architecture; 
and  in  this  attempt  Palladio  was  followed  by  the  not  less  emi- 
nent Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti,  who,  at  an  advanced  age,  in 
1546,  undertook  the  continuation  of  the  building  of  St.  Peter’s 
at  Rome,  a work  on  which  the  greatest  splendors  of  the 
Italian  style  are  lavished.  Into  England,  this  revived  taste 
for  the  Grecian  was  introduced  at  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  by  Inigo  Jones,  to  whose  contemptuous  obser- 
vations on  the  German  or  pointed  style  the  term  Gothic  has 
been  traced  ; and  after  his  decease,  the  Grecian,  or  more  prop- 
erly the  Italianized  Grecian,  was  perpetuated  on  a scale  still 
more  extensive  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren.  The  edifices  erected 
by  this  great  master  are  characterized  by  the  finest  taste,  and 
his  spires  in  particular  are  models  of  elegance.  The  greatest 
work  of  Wren  was  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral  in  London,  in  which 
the  Italian  is  seen  in  all  its  glory. 

The  eighteenth  century  was  an  era  of  decline  in  architec- 
tural taste.  Every  other  style  merged  in  that  of  a spiritless 
and  often  mean  Graeco-Italian,  out  of  which  the  architects  of 
the  nineteenth  century  have  apparently  had  a difficulty  to 
emerge.  Latterly,  there  has  been  a revival  in  England  of  a 
purer  kind  of  Grecian,  and  also,  as  we  have  already  said,  of 
old  English,  and  the  Gothic  or  pointed  style,  and  in  most  in- 
stances with  good  effect.  It  is  only  to  be  lamented  that,  by 
the  manner  in  which  state  patronage  is  distributed  in  this 
branch  of  the  fine  arts,  some  of  the  largest  and  most  expensive 
structures — Buckingham  Palace  and  the  National  Gallery,  for 
example — have  been  erected  on  the  poorest  conceptions  of  the 
Grecian  style,  and  with  a general  effect  far  from  pleasing.  In 
Paris,  there  now  exist  some  modern  structures  after  correct 
Grecian  models,  which  cannot  be  too  highly  praised  ; we 
would,  in  particular,  instance  the  building  called  the  Madel- 
eine, the  Bourse,  and  the  interior  of  the  church  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve, which  are  exceedingly  worthy  of  being  visited  by 
young  and  aspiring  architects  from  Britain.  Of  the  superb 
buildings  springing  up  on  all  sides  of  this  vast  continent,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  speak.  While  those  already  in  existence,  not- 
ably in  Washington,  are  admirable  copies  of  the  great  Greek 
and  Roman  periods,  the  so-called  Queen  Anne  is  now  the 
especial  craze. 


THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


*95 


PROPERTIES  AND  USES. 

HE  atmosphere,  the  vapor  of  the  sphere,  is  that 
j transparent,  elastic,  and  invisible  fluid 
uz3-  which  encompasses  the  earth  on  all  sides 
to  the  height  of  about  forty-five  miles.  It 
revolves  with  the  earth  round  its  axis,  and  is  car- 
ried with  it  in  its  orbit  or  course  round  the  sun. 
The  existence  of  this  fluid  is  essential  not  only  to 
animal,  but  also  to  vegetable  life.  Where  it  is 
very  rare , as  on  the  tops  of  lofty  mountains,  re- 
spiration or  breathing  is  found  to  be  very  difficult ; and  it  is 
known  that  if  an  animal  be  placed  within  the  exhausted  re- 
ceiver of  an  air-pump,  it  will  immediately  die. 

Without  an  atmosphere  there  would  be  neither  rain  nor 
dews  to  refresh  and  fertilize  the  earth.  It  decomposes  and 
dissipates  the  mephitic  or  infectious  vapors  which  are  con- 
tinually exhaling  from  the  earth  ; and  it  is  the  grand  agent 
which,  by  tempering  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  renders 
every  clime  habitable  to  man.  It  is  to  its  reflecting  and 
refracting  powers  that  we  owe  the  morning  and  the  evening 
twilight,  and  the  general  diffusion  of  the  sun’s  light  over  the 
whole  heavens.  If  it  were  divested  of  these  powers,  instead 
of  the  gradual  approach  of  night  which  prepares  the  world  for 
the  change,  the  transition  from  the  brightness  of  day  to  the 
darkness  of  midnight  would  be  instantaneous.  And  it  is  en- 
tirely owing  to  the  reflective  powers  of  the  atmosphere  that 
the  sun  is  enabled  to  light  up  the  heavens.  For  if  his  rays 
were  not  reflected  and  diffused  through  the  heavens,  only  that 
part  of  the  sky  in  which  he  appears  would  be  enlightened, 
while  in  every  other  direction  the  sky  would  be  as  dark  as 
midnight,  and  the  stars  would  be  visible  at  noonday. 


REFLECTION— TWILIGHT. 

In  the  morning,  when  the  sun  is  eighteen  degrees  below  the 
horizon,  his  rays  pass  over  our  heads  into  the  higher  regions  of 
the  atmosphere,  from  which  they  are  reflected  toward  the  earth. 
The  day  is  then  said  to  dawn  ; and  the  light  continues  to  in- 
crease till  the  sun  appears  above  the  horizon.  In  the  even- 
ing, in  like  manner,  we  have  light  from  the  sun  till  after  he 
has  sunk  eighteen  degrees  below  the  horizon.  This  light, 
which  grows  fainter  and  fainter  till  it  is  lost  in  the  darkness  of 
night,  is  called  twilight. 





REFRACTION. 

The  density  of  the  atmosphere  increases  in  proportion  to  its 
proximity  to  the  earth;  for  the  nearer  any  portion  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  to  the  earth,  the  more  it  is  compressed  by  the 
parts  which  lie  above  it ; just  as  if  a quantity  of  wool  were 
piled  up  upon  a floor,  those  flakes  which  are  lower  would  be 
more  pressed,  and  therefore  heavier  or  denser  than  the  flakes 
or  layers  which  are  above  them.  Hence,  when  the  rays  of 
light  enter  the  atmosphere,  they  are  refracted  or  bent  toward 
the  earth,  or  the  eye  of  the  observer,  in  a curved  line, 

WEIGHT  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 

Compared  with  the  more  solid  parts  of  the  earth  the  at- 
mosphere is  exceedingly  light  ; but  as  a whole  it  presses  upon 
the  earth’s  surface  with  an  amazing  weight.  The  mercury  in 
a barometer  is  supported  by  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere; 
and  by  this  instrument  it  appears  that  a column  of  the  atmo- 
sphere of  any  given  diameter,  from  its  highest  boundary  down 
to  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  equal  in  weight  to  a column  of  met* 
cury  of  the  same  diameter  of  the  height  of  thirty  inches.  It 
also  appears  (and  upon  this  principle  the  common  pump  is 
constructed)  that  a column  of  the  atmosphere  is  equal  in 
weight  to  a column  of  water  having  the  same  base,  thirty-two 
feet  high.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  whole  atmosphere  would 
be  equal  in  weight  to  a stratum  of  mercury  covering  the  earth 
to  the  depth  of  thirty  inches  ; or  to  an  ocean  of  water  sur- 
rounding it  to  the  depth  of  thirty-two  feet ; or  to  a globe  of  lead 
sixty  miles  in  diameter.  It  has  also  been  calculated  that  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  upon  every  square  inch  of  the 
earth’s  surface  is  equal  to  a weight  of  about  fifteen  pounds  ; 
and  consequently  the  pressure  which  it  exerts  upon  an  ordi- 
nary-sized man,  the  surface  of  whose  body  amounts  to  about 
fifteen  square  feet,  will  be  32,505  pounds,  or  in  other  words, 
upwards  of  fourteen  tons  ! This  pressure,  which  we  do  not 
even  feel,  would  crush  and  destroy  us  were  it  not  equal  in 
every  part,  and  counterbalanced  by  the  spring  or  elasticity  of 
the  air  within  us. 

EVAPORATION— CLOUDS— RAIN— DEW- 
SNOW— HAIL. 

That  process  by  which  water  is  raised  in  vapors  by  the 
agency  of  the  sun  and  air  from  seas,  lakes,  rivers,  and  moist 
places  of  the  earth,  is  called  evaporation.  These  vapors 
being  specifically  lighter  than  the  air  which  is  near  the  earth’s 

4 


THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


r~ 

| 496 


surface,  ascend  in  it  till  they  reach  a stratum  of  their  own 
weight,  when  they  remain  stationary.  As  long  as  they  are 
blended  and  united  with  the  air,  or,  as  is  said,  are  held  in 
solution  by  it,  they  continue  invisible,  just  as  salt  when  dis- 
solved in  water  is  invisible.  But  when  the  air  becomes  satur- 
ated by  the  accession  of  fresh  vapors,  or  when  its  dissolving 
power  is  diminished  by  a decrease  of  temperature,  they  are 
condensed,  and  the  watery  particles  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed become  visible,  either  in  the  form  of  clouds  or  mists 
floating  through,  or  suspended  in  the  atmosphere, — or  in  that 
of  rain,  hail,  or  snow,  falling  to  the  ground. 

Though  there  appears  to  be  an  endless  variety  in  the  fig- 
ures of  the  clouds,  yet  they  are  found  to  assume  regular  and 
systematic  forms,  which  has  led  to  their  classification  into 
cirrus,  cumulus,  and  stratus,  with  their  combinations. 
Cirro-cumulus,  cirro-stratus,  etc.  The  cirrus  clouds  are 
those  of  the  least  density,  and  consequently  of  the  greatest 
elevation.  The  term  in  Latin  signifies  curled  or  frizzled  hair; 
also  fringed  or  fibrous.  The  cumulus  are  those  convex  and 
conical  masses  which  are  formed  in  the  lower  regions  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  term  in  Latin  means  piled  or  heaped  up. 
The  stratus  is  a widely  extended  sheet  of  clouds  often  reach- 
ing to  the  earth.  It  is  properly  the  cloud  of  the  night.  The 
term  in  Latin  signifies  spread  or  extended.  To  these  may  be 
added  the  nimbus  or  rain  cloud. 

Clouds  extending  to,  or  in  contact  with,  the  earth,  are  called 
mists  or  fogs.  They  are  produced  by  a certain  degree  of 
chillness  in  the  lower  stratum  of  the  atmosphere  ;*  and  in  the 
warmer  regions  of  the  earth,  they  either  vanish  before  the 
sun,  or  rise  higher  into  the  air  as  clouds.  In  cold  climates, 
particularly  in  the  polar  regions,  they  are  very  frequent  ; and 
in  some  places,  as  off  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland,  they  are 
almost  continual.  This  renders  navigation  very  dangerous  in 
those  seas,  particularly  during  the  season  of  the  icebergs. 

To  the  vapors  which  fall  from  the  atmosphere  in  the  form 
of  rain,  hail,  and  snow,  the  earth  is  indebted  for  its  springs, 
brooks,  and  rivers,  which,  flowing  into  the  sea,  restore  to  it 
the  waters  formerly  drawn  from  it  by  evaporation.  Hence  we 
see  that  a constant  circulation  of  water  is  carried  on,  for  the 
benefit  of  mankind,  between  the  earth  and  the  sky.  The 
water  that  is  raised  by  evaporation  from  the  sea  is  purified  in 
the  air,  and  distributed  over  the  earth  by  the  clouds  for  the 
purpose  of  vegetation  ; and  it  is  still  further  prepared  for  the 
use  of  men  and  animals,  by  being  impregnated  with  the  min- 
eral particles  which  it  meets  with  in  filtering  through  the  earth 
before  it  makes  its  appearance  again  in  the  form  of  springs. 
Rain-water,  though  the  purest  kind  of  water,  is  from  that  very 
circumstance  too  insipid  for  drinking. 

RAIN— DEW— SNOW— HAIL. 

In  the  warm  regions  of  the  earth  evaporation  is  most 
abundant  ; and  so,  as  we  should  expect,  is  the  quantity  of  rain. 

* That  is,  when  the  lower  stratum  of  the  atmosphere  is  cooler  than  the 
land  or  the  water  over  which  it  rests.  The  temperature  of  the  surface  of 
the  sea  in  those  parts  of  the  world  is  greater  than  that  of  the  air  which  is 
over  it,  because  when  the  upper  stratum  of  water  is  cooled,  it  descends,  be- 
ing heavier,  and  its  place  is  supplied  by  warmer  water  from  below.  But 
the  high  temperature  of  the  waters  brought  by  the  Gulf  Stream  is  the  chief 
cause  of  the  fogs  in  this  part  of  the  Atlantic. 


In  the  torrid  zone  the  annual  average  quantity  of  rain  has  been 
computed  to  be  about  one  hundred  inches,  while  in  the  north 
temperate  zone  it  is  little  more  than  thirty  inches,  that  is,  less 
than  one-third.  By  inches  of  rain  is  meant  the  depth  which 
rain  falling  upon  a square  inch  of  surface  would  acquire  sup- 
posing none  of  it  to  be  absorbed  by  the  ground.* 

In  the  torrid  zone,  the  temperature  ranges  within  compara- 
tively small  limits  ; and  the  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere 
occur  from  year  to  year  with  a regular  and  uniform  succession 
unknown  in  this  part  of  the  world.  The  winds  are  either 
permanent  or  periodical  ; and  the  rains  regularly  descend  at 
a certain  season  of  the  year,  and  never  at  any  other.  In  fact, 
the  only  divisions  of  the  year  in  those  regions  are  the  dry  and 
rainy  season s.f  In  the  northern  half  of  the  torrid  zone  it  is 
the  rainy  season,  when  the  sun  is  north  of  the  equator ; and 
the  dry  season,  when  the  sun  is  south  of  the  equator.  And  in 
the  southern  half  of  the  torrid  zone,  the  seasons,  in  like  man- 
ner, depend  upon  the  place  of  the  sun.  Wherever  the  sun  is 
vertical  or  overhead,  the  rains  and  clouds  are  almost  con- 
stant,! because  the  atmosphere  is  not  able  to  contain  all  the 
vapors  which  are  raised  by  the  increased  heat ; and  thus  we 
see  that  a provision  has  been  made  for  protecting  the  earth 
from  the  perpendicular  rays  of  the  sun. 

Generally  speaking,  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  mountains  and 
elevated  regions  are  more  subject  to  rain  than  plains  and 
level  countries  in  the  same  latitude  ; and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  places  near  the  sea,  as  islands  and  coasts,  when  com- 
pared with  places  remote  from  the  sea  (as  the  interior  of  a 
country)  though  under  the  same  parallel.  The  reason  is  ob- 
vious ; the  mountains  intercept  the  clouds  and  bring  them 
down  in  rain  ; and  thus  they  are  often  almost  all  brought 
down  before  they  are  carried  over  countries  very  remote  from 
the  sea ; so  that  the  nearer  a place  is  to  the  sea,  from  which 
the  vapors  arise,  the  more  frequently  is  its  atmosphere  satu- 
rated with  them  ; and,  of  course,  the  more  likely  it  is  to  re- 
ceive a large  portion  of  them  in  rain. 


DEW. 

That  moisture  which  in  warm  and  dry  weather,  after  sunset, 
is  insensibly  precipitated  from  the  atmosphere  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  is  called  dew.  In  the  warm  regions  of  the 
earth,  particularly  in  tracts  of  country  destitute  of  rain,  the 
dews  are  exceedingly  heavy  ; and  it  need  scarcely  be  ob- 
served that  they  are  of  the  greatest  use  in  refreshing  the  earth 
and  promoting  vegetation. 

When  the  dew  which  falls  upon  the  earth  is  frozen  by  the 
cold,  it  is  called  hoar-frost.  But  mildew  is  not  of  atmos- 
pheric origin. 


* The  instrument  for  measuring  the  depth  of  rain  is  called  a pluviometer 
or  rain-gauge. 

+ It  is  only  in  the  temperate  zones  that  the  four  seasons  are  known. 
From  the  sixtieth  degree  of  latitude  to  the  poles  only  two  seasons  take 
place,  a long  and  severe  winter,  and  a short,  warm,  but  ineffectual  sum- 
mer ; and  within  the  tropics,  it  may  be  said  to  be  perpetual  summer. 

X The  rain  does  not  fall  during  the  night,  nor  till  about  (tie  middle  of  th« 
day,  and  it  ceases  in  four  or  five  hours. 


HOW  TO  GET  UP  A FAIR. 


How  to  arrange  a Fancy  Fair — Amusements — Refreshment 
Stall — Flower  Stall — Live  Stock  Stall — Poor  People’s  Stall. 


HE  IDEA  OF  OR- 
GANIZING  A 
FANCY  FAIR,  on 

the  occasion  of  subscrib- 
ing to  any  charitable  in- 
stitution has  become  a 
great  feature  of  the  present  age. 
It  affords  opportunities  to  many 
idle  people  of  pleasantly  exerting 
themselves,  discovers  and  brings 
forward  obscure  talents,  promotes 
intercourse  and  amusement,  and 
frequently  insures  most  advan- 
* v tageous  returns. 

How  to  Get  up  a Fair. — The  purpose  for 
which  the  funds  realized  are  intended  should  be 
clearly  stated  and  circulated  among  all  who  are  wanted 
to  take  part  in  conducting  the  bazaar,  and  every 
means  should  be  employed  to  secure  profitable  assist- 
ance in  the  enterprise.  A committee  of  ladies  should 
be  formed,  and  their  decisions,  when  duly  weighed 
and  approved,  carefully  carried  out.  To  them  belongs 
the  onus  of  providing  the  field  of  operations  and  ap- 
pointing the  workers  therein. 

The  two  most  popular  stalls  are  always  the 
refreshment-stall  and  the  flower-stall.  The  holders 
of  these  must  be  chosen  with  much  care,  or  but  in- 


different results  will  ensue.  The  latter  require 
special  talent  for  artistic  decoration  and  arrange- 
ment, the  former  for  quickness,  skill,  and  neatness. 
The  other  stalls  are  apportioned  to  such  ladies  as  are 
willing  to  undertake  them. 

A suitable  room  must  now  be  hired.  One  long, 
large  room,  with  smaller  ones  opening  into  it,  is  the 
best.  These  latter  are  used  for  exhibitions,  conjuring 
rooms,  cloak-rooms,  etc.  School-rooms  are  just  the 
kind  of  room  required,  and  are  frequently  lent  for 
this  purpose. 

How  to  Arrange  a Fair. — The  room  must  be 
made  to  look  as  artistic  and  inviting  as  possible.  If 
evergreens  can  be  easily  and  inexpensively  procured 
to  festoon  the  walls  and  wreathe  pillars,  they  look 
very  handsome.  The  effect  can  be  enhanced  by  the 
introduction  of  natural  or  artificial  flowers. 

Sometimes  flags  and  banners  are  arranged  singly 
or  in  groups  on  the  walls.  They  look  very  well 
Appropriate  mottoes  worked  on  perforated  card- 
board with  shaded  wools,  or  of  grouped  autumn 
leaves,  or  of  wadding  frosted  with  glass-powder,  add 
much  to  the  appearance. 

The  center  of  the  room  may  be  arranged  to  form 
a rockery,  through  which,  if  practicable,  a waterpipe 
may  be  conducted,  having  a jet  fixed  to  the  upper 
end.  This  serves  to  keep  the  plants  from  withering, 
and  is  very  cool  and  refreshing  to  the  assembly.  Ferns, 
geraniums,  mosses,  and  almost  any  flowers  save  those 
with  a very  powerful  odor,  may  be  employed  for 


498 


HOW  TO  GET  UP  A FAIR. 


this  purpose  ; and  when  the  pots  are  concealed  by 
means  of  virgin  cork  a very  pretty  effect  can  be  pro- 
duced. 

A very  easily-made  ornament  consists  of  an  ordi- 
nary wooden  bucket  covered  with  fir-cones,  nutshells, 
short  bits  of  wood,  etc.  When  these  have  been  firmly 
glued  on,  varnish  the  whole  with  mahogany  varnish, 
or  gild  it  with  gold  paint.  A row  of  cones  placed 
round  the  top  stands  up  as  an  edge.  Now  get  some 
of  the  large  hedge-ferns  and  place  them  in  the  bucket, 
concealing  the  earth  by  means  of  moss.  If  a hole 
has  been  made  in  the  bottom  of  the  bucket,  the  ferns 
will  take  no  harm.  A few  such  buckets,  placed  in 
nooks  and  corners  where  they  will  not  inconvenience 
any  one,  will  look  very  well.  The  ferns  and  buckets 
can  be  offered  for  sale  also,  to  be  taken  away  at  the 
close  of  the  bazaar. 

All  the  windows  in  the  room  should  be  hung 
with  curtains  either  of  lace  or  muslin,  held  back  by 
bows  of  ribbon.  They  serve  to  temper  the  light  and 
give  a cooler  look  to  the  room. 

A platform,  if  the  room  has  not  one  already, 
must  be  put  up,  with  a piano,  harp,  etc.,  placed  there- 
on for  the  amusement  of  the  company.  Programmes 
should  be  drawn  up,  and  sold  to  add  to  the  funds. 
An  agreeable  little  entertainment  can  be  provided, 
consisting  of  recitations,  vocal  and  instrumental 
music  ; or  a music-stall  may  be  provided,  at  which  a 
competent  pianist  shall  preside,  to  play  over  new 
music.  This  will  be  found  amusing  to  all  present, 
and  the  music  will  sell  readily.  The  piano  provided 
must  be  a good  one,  but  not  too  loud  in  tone,  so  that 
it  may  not  interfere  with  what  is  passing  in  other 
parts  of  the  room. 

It  is  a fallacy  to  suppose  that  people  do  not  require 
further  amusement  than  what  appertains  to  the  fair 
proper.  When  a visitor  has  made  the  tour  of  the 
room  once  or  twice,  examined  the  articles,  and  pur- 
chased such  as  please  her,  she  naturally  wishes  for 
something  more  to  do.  Raffles,  etc.,  are  very  amusing, 
it  is  true,  but  then  all  cannot  join  in  every  raffle,  and 
somehow  things  lose  their  interest  when  one  is  not 
part  of  it  oneself,  so  to  speak.  It  is  very  usual  to 
have  what  is  known  as  a “ Fine  Art  Exhibition.” 

When  skillfully  and  originally  managed  this  is  very  amusing. 
Most  people  will  know  what  this  is,  but  for  the  benefit  of  those 
who  have  not  seen  or.e,  the  following  explanation  may  be  use- 
ful : — If  a small  room  can  be  spared  for  the  purpose,  so  much 
the  better,  but  if  not,  a screen  placed  in  one  corner  will  answer 
the  purpose  quite  as  well.  Near  this  stands  the  keeper  with  a 


number  of  catalogues,  which  she  sells  to  the  passers-by.  She 
should  occasionally  call  out  some  of  the  most  attractive  features 
of  the  exhibition.  Behind  the  screen  shelves  must  be  fixed,  on 
which  the  articles  are  placed  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
mentioned  in  the  catalogue.  The  ingenuity  of  the  keeper  of 
the  exhibition  must  be  exercised  to  provide  new  ideas,  as  many 
of  them  are  now  well  known,  and  unless  originality  is  shown 
the  interest  will  flag.  Such  articles  as  a ball  of  different  shades 
of  wool,  designated  in  the  catalogue  as  “ A Fancy  Ball,” 
“ Ruins  in  China  ” (a  broken  plate),  “ A Peer  of  Great  Britain  ” 
(a  photograph  of  Brighton  Pier),  “ The  Belle  of  the  Village  ” (a 
large  dinner-bell),  and  so  on,  are  all  somewhat  hackneyed  now, 
but  they  give  some  idea  of  the  plan  to  be  followed. 

Another  amusement,  especially  for  children,  is 
a show  called  “ The  Zoological  Gardens,”  or  a me- 
nagerie. Another  screen  or  room  is  devoted  to  this 
purpose.  In  the  show  are  several  clock-work  toys 
representing  various  animals.  These,  when  wound 
up,  walk  after  one  another  along  a shelf  or  table 
prepared  for  them.  Sometimes  the  show  is  called 

Noah’s  Ark,”  in  which  case  an  ark  is  provided,  into 
which  the  animals  retire  after  promenading  round 
the  table.  This  is  a source  of  great  amusement  to 
children,  and  shrieks  of  delight  are  frequently  heard 
as  each  little  animal  steadily  proceeds  on  its  way. 
The  toys  can  be  offered  for  sale  when  the  bazaar  is 
closing,  or  be  packed  away  to  do  duty  at  some  future 
period. 

Frequently  one  of  the  side  rooms  is  set  apart  as  a 
Hall  of  Magic,  in  which  a conjurer  with  mysterious 
feats  and  witty  words  charms  both  old  and  young. 

Of  course  all  these  amusements  add  greatly  to  the 
funds,  and  no  pains  should  be  spared  to  augment 
them.  A good  band  is  always  an  attraction  to  any 
assembly,  and  if  the  bazaar  be  held  in  the  open  air 
it  is  especially  desirable. 

The  Refreshment-Stall  may  be  said  to  be  the 
busiest  and  most  prominent  stall  in  the  room,  and  it 
usually  proves  very  remunerative  ; the  corner  in  which 
it  is  placed  is  rarely  deserted.  Everything  should 
be  made  to  look  as  dainty  and  tempting  as  possible. 
Several  assistants  are  absolutely  necessary,  each  pre- 
siding over  a different  department.  One  should  take 
the  urns,  another  the  sweetmeats,  a third  the  more 
substantial  fare,  and  a fourth  should  be  appointed  ex- 
clusively to  take  the  money  and  keep  the  accounts. 
This  last  is  a most  important  role , and  should  not  be 
allotted  to  any  but  the  most  conscientiously  care- 
ful. 

This  stall  can  be  rendered  especially  attractive  by  bonbon - 
nilres,  which  can  be  made  in  any  shape,  either  as  books  or 


HOW  TO  GET  UP  A FAIR. 


499 


little  cases,  and  should  be  filled  with  sweetmeats  or  preserved 
fruit.  Many  useful  and  pretty  articles  maybe  attached  to  boxes 

J of  sweets,  and  thus  sold.  For  boys,  boxes  of  sweets,  etc.,  have 
an  especial  attraction  ; and  as  there  is  not  much  for  a boy  in  a 
bazaar,  this  feature  of  the  refreshment-stall  should  not  be  ex- 
cluded, if  only  for  their  sakes. 

The  Flower-Stall  . — This  stall  is  always,  and 
deservedly,  the  most  attractive.  It  looks  charming 
indeed  if  only  a little  taste  and  skill  be  brought  to 
bear  upon  it.  In  any  large  city  or  town,  flowers  form 
one  of  the  most  profitable  features  of  the  Fair. 

The  stall  may  be  of  a variety  of  forms.  We  have 
seen  one  in  the  shape  of  a huge  basket  with  wreaths 
and  festoons  of  ivy  round  the  edge,  the  center  being 
composed  of  bouquets  of  growing  plants.  In  an- 
other instance  it  was  a ship  freighted  with  flowers. 
The  prettiest  style  is  a kind  of  grotto,  formed  of 
light  woodwork  entirely  hidden  by  bark  and  cork. 
In  all  the  nooks  and  crevices  of  the  framework  pots 
of  ferns  must  be  placed,  to  appear  as  though  growing 
there.  The  flowers  rise  above  this  in  the  form  of  a 
tower.  Baskets  and  ornamental  flowerpots  should 
be  hung  from  the  roof,  and  filled  with  ferns,  flowers, 
moss,  etc.  Another  way  which  has  an  exceedingly 
good  effect  is  to  have  the  stall  arranged  as  a bank 
on  which  the  flowers  appear  growing,  interspersed 
with  ferns,  small  shrubs,  etc.  Button-holes,  however, 
find  the  most  ready  sale.  Almost  any  gentleman 
will  at  least  buy  a button-hole,  though  he  may  be 
one  of  those  who  are  perfectly  dismayed  at  the  idea 
of  buying  anything  else. 

It  will  be  as  well  to  have  a zinc  tray  to  hold  the 
flowers,  that  they  may  be  kept  fresh  after  having  been 
made  up  into  tiny  bouquets. 

The  stall-keeper,  too,  must  be  very  careful  to 
notice  when  any  flowers  begin  to  droop  and  wither. 
These  should  at  once  be  removed  and  replaced  by 
fresh  ones  if  possible  ; but  in  any  case  they  must  not 
be  allowed  to  remain,  or  the  whole  stall  will  look 
shabby. 

Live-Stock  Stall. — This  is  rather  a novelty,  and 
generally  a success.  The  stall  should  be  rather  apart 
from  the  others,  and  not  so  much  decorated,  or  it  will 
prove  inconvenient.  A long  table,  on  which  to  place 
the  various  cages  and  hampers,  is  essential.  Puppies, 
squirrels,  guinea-pigs,  kittens,  canaries  and  other 
birds,  white  mice,  and  a parrot  previously  educated 
in  a manner  appropriate  to  the  occasion.  These,  and 
many  more  that  will  doubtless  suggest  themselves, 
will  be  found  to  sell  easily.  They  must  be  carefully 

kr 


tended  during  the  time  they  are  offered  for  sale. 
Food  and  water  must  be  given  when  required,  and 
no  one  should  be  allowed  to  tease  them. 

Poor  People's  Stall. — This  stall,  as  its  name 
implies,  should  be  devoted  to  those  articles  which 
are  intended  to  be  sold  for  giving  away  to  the  poor. 
Many  ladies  living  in  both  town  and  country  have 
not  time  for  making  garments  for  the  poor,  but  are 
pleased  to  buy  them  when  ready-made.  Every  kind 
of  garment  for  children — nightdresses,  chemises, 
pinafores,  socks,  dresses,  capes,  hoods,  babies’  caps, 
comforters,  knitted  gloves  and  mittens,  aprons,  be- 
sides garments  for  adults — will  be  readily  sold.  This 
stall  cannot,  of  course,  present  the  attractive  appear- 
ance common  to  the  others,  but  the  usefulness  of 
the  articles  displayed  will  prevent  the  returns  being 
insignificant. 

HOW  TO  PREPARE  ARTICLES. 

Soliciting  Contributions  from  Friends— How  to  Sell— Marking  Prices. 

What  can  I make  for  the  Fair?  is  a question  that  is  asked 
by  hundreds  of  persons  every  year  : a question  that  is  rarely 
found  easy  to  answer.  To  combine  salable  qualities  with 
ornamental — both  being  necessary  in  this  case — is  not  always 
a simple  matter.  For  those  who  have  a table  of  their  own, 
the  difficulty  is,  of  course,  increased.  They  may  ask  their 
friends  to  contribute,  but  the  chief  onus  falls  on  the  possessor 
of  the  stall,  and  unless  abundance  of  money  helps  them  to  a 
fair  haven,  there  will  be  many  contrary  winds  to  blow  them 
from  port. 

Soliciting  Contributions  from  Friends. — As  in  planning 
a picnic  one  promises  to  provide  wine,  another  fruit,  a third 
sweetmeats  and  so  on,  so,  in  making  collections  for  bazaars, 
the  same  system  should  be  established  ; otherwise  the  unfor. 
tunate  collector  finds  her  stall  covered  with  crewel-work,  cro- 
chet, etc.,  as  the  case  may  be,  while  it  is  destitute  of  any  other 
attraction.  This  would  be  very  disheartening,  for  how  is  it 
possible  to  make  the  stall  attractive  with  but  one  feature  ? 

The  fair  canvasser,  therefore,  must  be  very  careful  to  obtain 
the  greatest  possible  variety  of  contributions  in  order  to  in- 
sure a ready  sale.  One  friend,  perhaps,  is  gifted  with  a talent 
for  etching.  She  should  be  asked  to  supply  d’oyleys,  comb- 
bags,  brush-bags,  &c.  Another  is  a good  designer.  Let  her 
trace  designs  on  velvet,  canvas,  etc.,  for  mantel-boards,  sofa 
cushions,  footstools,  etc.,  etc.  These  designs  may  be  worked 
by  some  other  friend  or  offered  for  sale  as  they  are,  and  will 
prove  very  acceptable  to  many  people  who  wish  to  work  their 
own  cushions,  etc.,  but  who  cannot  design  their  patterns. 

Another  friend,  who  has  a talent  for  flower-painting,  could 
doubtless  be  induced  to  provide  handscreens,  mats,  lamp- 
shades, etc.,  with  groups  of  flowers  painted  thereon,  either  in 
silk,  satin,  velvet,  muslin,  or  cardboard.  Another  could  sup- 
ply crewel-work,  another  lace,  and  so  on. 

Many  clever-fingered  girls  are  unable  to  aid  in  a charitab*e  purpose 

jg 


5°° 


HOW  TO  GET  UP  A FAIR. 


not  from  disinclination  but  because  they  cannot  afford  to  buy  the  requi- 
site materials.  A good  plan,  therefore,  by  means  of  which  their  help 
may  be  utilized  would  be  to  ascertain  what  they  would  like  to  make, 
and  then  either  give  them  the  materials  yourself,  or  let  some  opulent 
but  otherwise  useless  individual  do  so.  Much  may  be  procured  in  this 
manner,  and  great  pleasure  will  be  experienced  by  these  willing  helpers, 
who  would  otherwise  be  debarred  from  such  enjoyment. 

School-girls  are  often  powerful  allies  in  this  work,  as  they 
canvass  among  their  numerous  friends,  often  obtaining  thus  a 
fair  number  of  salable  little  articles.  It  is  wonderful  how 
many  tasteful  and  useful  additions  can  be  made  by  means  of 
a little  ingenuity,  a skillful  hand,  and  a willing  heart. 

It  is  a very  great  mistake  to  pile  up  a stall  with  a heteroge- 
neous mass  of  little  elegant  nothings,  which  are  ornamental 
doubtless,  but  certainly  not  useful  ; equally  absurd,  too,  is  it 
to  exclude  them.  The  great  object  is  to  combine  utility  and 
elegance  ; when  that  is  arrived  at  the  stall-holder  may  congrat- 
ulate herself  upon  her  success.  Let  it  be  well  remembered, 
the  most  practical  articles  always  sell  the  best. 

How  to  Sell. — There  are  always  several  assistants  to  every 
stall.  These  assistants  are  of  great  use  in  selling  articles,  as 
they  are  not  obliged  to  remain  at  the  stall,  but  can  go  freely 
about  the  room,  carrying  articles  for  sale  to  every  part.  They 
should  endeavor  to  sell  as  much  as  possible  without  annoying 
people.  To  be  teased  and  worried  to  buy  irritates  most 
people,  and  does  much  harm  to  the  cause.  The  medium  be- 
tween persecution  and  diffidence  must  be  aimed  at,  and  when 
attained  great  results  may  be  expected. 

Marking'  Prices. — This  very  important  matter  is  often 
mismanaged,  and  has  caused  the  failure  of  more  than  one  ven- 
ture. The  tendency  to  over-price  the  articles  is  great,  and 
too  frequently  yielded  to.  It  is  absurd  to  suppose  that  people 
will  give  extravagant  prices  for  things  whose  value  is  not 
more  than  half  the  money  asked,  just  because  the  object  is 
a charitable  one.  They  do  not  object  to  give  the  full  value, 
but  more  than  that  is  felt  to  be  an  imposition,  and  the  conse- 
quence is  that  the  loose  purse-strings  are  tightly  drawn,  and 
no  persuasion  avails  to  slacken  them. 

Let  the  prices,  therefore,  be  reasonable  ; lock  over  all  that 
are  sent  ready-priced  by  friends,  altering  such  as  are  exorbi- 
tant. The  results  of  the  sale  will  be  greater,  and  the  number 
of  articles  left  on  hand  at  the  close  of  the  bazaar  much  dimin- 
ished. 

With  the  articles  remaining  after  the  close  of  the  bazaar  it 
is  usual  to  have  a sale  by  auction,  thus  disposing  of  many 
more.  The  mode  of  conducting  an  auction  needs  no  descrip- 
tion. The  auctioneer  chosen  must  be  one  who  possesses 
plenty  of  humor  and  a good  voice,  or  his  efforts  will  not  be  suc- 
cessful. The  surplus  of  the  refreshment-stall  may  also  be  got 
rid  of  by  the  same  means. 

HOW  TO  ARRANGE  AND  PLAN  A STALL. 

Drapery— Color— Open-air  Stalls — Fitting  up. 

The  first  consideration  is  the  arrangement  and  decoration 
of  the  stall.  A long  table  is  the  only  thing  supplied,  as  a 
rule,  upon  which  one  may  exercise  one’s  ingenuity  and  taste. 
The  ordinary  plan  is  to  have  poles  fastened  by  carpenters — 
four  of  medium  height  to  the  four  corners  of  the  table,  and 


four  higher  ones  at  the  back  and  front.  Over  these  the  dra- 
pery is  arranged  ; and  it  must  be  confessed  that  as  regards 
this  part  of  the  affair  a considerable  want  of  variety  and  origi- 
nality may  be  noticed.  White  muslin  over  glazed  pink  calico 
carries  all  before  it  as  a general  rule.  It  looks  very  pretty, 
fresh,  and  clean,  no  doubt ; but  after  along  course  of  bazaars, 
all  white  muslin  and  pink  calico,  the  eye  longs  for  variety. 

But  we  must  first  describe  the  mode  of  arranging  the  dra- 
pery. In  the  first  place,  pink  glazed  calico  is  rolled  tightly 
round  all  the  poles,  and  these  may  be  covered  again  with 
sprigged  muslin,  if  desired.  Pink  calico  is  then  nailed  all  along 
the  table  ; then  white  lace  curtains  are  hung  over  the  poles, 
hanging  down  at  either  end  of  the  stall,  giving  a light  and 
graceful  look  to  the  whole.  This  is  a much  better  plan  than 
making  a roof  to  the  stall  of  pink  calico,  which  adds  greaTy 
to  the  heat  and  very  little  to  the  appearance.  A valance  of 
pink  calico  is  then  nailed  along  the  edges  of  the  table,  and 
covered  with  white  lace  like  the  curtains,  slightly  fulled  in. 
The  stall  is  then  ready  for  arrangement. 

In  some  cases  the  poles  are  arranged  in  such  a manner  that 
the  stall  looks  like  a gabled  cottage,  or  resembles  (as  in  one 
instance  we  have  observed)  a Noah’s  Ark  with  the  front  out. 

A variety  is  sometimes  made  by  substituting  calico  of  a pale 
green  shade  for  the  pink.  The  effect  is  much  cooler,  but  the 
green  will  never  be  very  popular,  as  it  proves  so  very  unbe- 
coming to  the  owners  of  the  stalls,  casting  pale  yellow  reflets 
which  would  prove  trying  to  the  most  perfect  complexion. 
The  pink  calico  is,  on  the  contrary,  becoming,  subdued  as  it 
is  by  the  white  lace,  leno,  or  muslin  over  it. 

Another  way  of  arranging  a stall  is  to  have  a pair  of  curtains  fastened 
over  a pole  fixed  to  the  wall  and  looped  back  slightly  by  ribbon,  so  as 
to  display  the  wares  effectively.  There  should  be  a handsome  valance 
of  lace  at  the  top  of  the  curtains, which  last  being  transparent  it  is  neces- 
sary to  line  with  calico  or  some  such  material.  We  have  seen  stalls  so 
arranged,  the  lining  in  each  case  being  of  a different  color — blue,  pink, 
mauve,  green,  crimson,  etc.  The  effect  was  very  striking.  The  front 
of  the  stall  may  be  trimmed  with  ribbon  bows  to  match  the  lining,  or 
what  is  still  prettier,  with  bunches  of  flowers  or  dried  grasses. 

When  the  stalls  are  placed  in  a row  a very  pleasing  effect  is 
produced  when  ivy  is  so  arranged  as  to  bear  twining  up  the 
sides  and  over  the  front  of  the  stall.  This  is  doubtless  a 
troublesome  undertaking,  but  it  well  repays  the  labor  expend- 
ed, and  its  charming  effect  is  well  worth  some  pains.  The 
introduction  of  a few  berries  and  tinted  autumm  leaves  is  an 
artistic  addition.  When  the  bazaar  is  held  in  the  open  air 
the  stalls  look  very  pretty  if  arranged  in  the  Eastern  fashion, 
having  only  the  roof  and  the  back  covered  with  Indian  mat- 
ting, either  entirely  white  or  with  colored  borders.  This,  of 
course,  is  practicable  only  in  very  fine  settled  weather. 

A variety  in  arranging  the  position  of  the  stalls  will  be  wel- 
come. We  have  seen  them  placed  in  the  form  of  a crescent  or 
horseshoe  ; this  looks  better  than  the  hollow  square  or  straight 
row  usually  seen. 

An  important  point  in  the  fitting-up  of  a stall  is  the  provi- 
sion of  some  nook  to  which  the  stall-holder  may  retire  to  par- 
take of  refreshment  or  to  enjoy  a few  moments’  rest  from  the 
heat,  noise,  and  bustle  that  pervade  the  room.  This  can 
easily  be  done  by  having  only  half  of  the  stall  exposed.  A 
second  pair  of  curtains  should  be  fixed  to  the  center  poles, 


HOW  TO  GET  UP  A FAIR. 


and  slightly  looped  in  the  middle.  In  front  of  these  curtains 
the  buying  and  selling  takes  place,  while  behind  them  is  the 
cool  and  shady  nook  so  much  desired. 

Arrangement  of  the  Stalls. — Good  taste  and  ingenuity 
are  essential  to  success  in  this  matter.  Every  article  must  be 
so  placed  that  its  best  effect  is  at  once  perceived.  The  danger 
of  hiding  anything  by  crowding  together  must  be  avoided. 
Much  depends  on  the  grouping  of  the  objects.  The  effect  of 
many  pretty  things  is  often  lowered  and  altogether  destroyed 
by  careless  or  inartistic  arrangement.  Indiscriminate  heap- 
ing together  of  bright  greens,  flaming  reds,  and  crude  blues, 
frightens  away  the  intending  purchaser,  who  sees  at  a glance 
all  the  worst  points  instead  of  the  best.  Bright-hued  Oriental 
silks  and  broches,  Japanese  fans,  parasols,  etc.,  add  a very  ele- 
gant appearance  to  the  stall,  and  the  various  articles  can  be 
arranged  with  them  as  a background.  The  silks  take  no  harm 
from  the  exposure,  and  do  not  require  cutting.  Those  who 
are  fortunate  enough  to  possess  any  old-fashioned  brocades, 
etc.,  can  thus  add  much  to  the  artistic  appearance  of  their 
stalls. 

ARTICLES  SUITABLE  FOR  A BAZAAR. 

Doyleys— Baskets— Tennis-Aprons— Caps— Pictures — Cosies. 

First  and  foremost,  there  is  the  still  fashionable  crewel  em- 
broidery ; and  so  various  are  the  articles  for  which  it  can  be 
used  that  this  book  could  be  filled  with  descriptions  of  them 
alone.  Perhaps,  for  certain  things,  outline  stitch  is  rather 
superseding  the  regular  embroidery,  and  very  pretty  and  inex- 
pensive are  the  chair-covers  made  of  oatmeal  cloth  or  coarse 
holland,  embroidered  at  one  end  with  little  figures,  in  the 
style  of  Kate  Greenaway’s  drawings.  Most  of  these  outline 
sketches  are  executed  all  in  one  color  ; but  the  work  is,  as  may 
be  imagined,  chiefly  suitable  for  figures  or  geometric  designs  : 
flowers  do  not  look  at  all  well  so  worked.  Dessert  doyleys  are 
very  pretty  embroidered  in  this  stitch  and  fringed  at  the  edges, 
while  the  same  designs  look  well  carried  out  in  etching  with 
marking-ink.  Some  of  these  doyleys  are  etched  on  pale  blue 
or  pink  jean,  and  edged  with  a frill  of  white  Valenciennes 
lace,  put  on  just  full  enough  to  enable  it  to  sit  flat.  Tennis 
aprons  are  well  adapted  to  ornamentation  with  this  stitch, 
suitable  designs  being  embroidered  on  the  bottom  of  the  skirt, 
bib,  and  pocket.  The  great  advantage  of  the  stitch  for  fair 
purposes  is  that  it  is  so  very  quickly  done,  a few  hours  being 
quite  sufficient  to  complete  a chair-cover  at  least.  Of  more 
elaborate  embroidery  there  are  some  beautiful  designs  to  be 
had  ; but  how  poor  and  miserable  do  they  look  unless  well 
carried  out ! One  of  the  prettiest  we  have  seen  lately  wa>, 
perhaps,  hackneyed  as  far  as  the  pattern  went,  but  was  lovely 
as  to  work — a group  of  scarlet  poppies,  corncockles,  ears  of 
com,  and  ox-eye  daisies.  Another  piece  of  work,  intended 
for  a mantel  valance,  was  a flowing  trail  of  white  arums  and 
leaves,  very  handsome  indeed  for  a large  room.  A group  of 
water-lilies,  for  a screen,  was  also  handsome. 

Baskets  innumerable,  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  are  fashion- 
able and  always  salable.  Trimmed  up  in  all  sorts  of  differ- 
ent ways,  they  are  used  for  any  imaginable  purpose.  Waste- 
paper  baskets  are  no  longer  the  typical  lattice-work  baskets 
seen  in  pictures  of  a few  years  ago  ; they  are  ornamented  with 


scallops  of  different-colored  cloth,  finished  with  a tassel  at  each 
point,  or  between  each  point.  Some  of  them  are  covered  with 
rows  of  ball-fringe  or  colored  braid,  interlaced  in  a pattern 
amongst  the  wicker-work.  The  flat  baskets  with  two  handles, 
so  useful  for  shopping  purposes,  may  now  be  bought 
for  a few  cents  ; and  when  embroidered  at  the  side  with 
a bunch  of  flowers  worked  with  coarse  wool  and  a large 
needle,  and  nicely  finished  off  with  bows  of  ribbon  to  match 
the  lining,  are  easily  sold  for  as  many  quarters  as  they  were 
purchased  for  cents  originally.  One  of  the  most  effective  ways 
of  ornamenting  these  baskets  is  to  cut  out  of  dark  green  cloth 
some  leaves,  the  veins  being  outlined  with  silk  and  the  edges 
button-holed  over  if  the  cloth  seems  likely  to  ravel  ; fix  them 
to  the  basket  either  by  stitching  or  gumming,  and  work  the 
stalks  in  chain-stitch  ; then  make,  in  the  same  way  as  the  soft 
balls  for  children  are  made,  little  red  cherries  (it  will  look  bet- 
ter to  have  some  of  the  fruit  paler  in  color  than  the  rest,  and 
some  small  ones  quite  green),  and  fasten  them  to  the  basket 
by  a soft  hanging  stalk. 

Lawn-tennis  aprons  of  all  sorts  and  sizes  are  always  in  re- 
quest, and  very  various  are  the  materials  of  which  they  may 
be  made  and  the  different  modes  of  ornamenting  them — out- 
line stitch,  embroidery,  applique,  and  lace  ; last,  but  certainly 
not  least,  must  be  mentioned  those  made  of  pocket-handker- 
chiefs. 

Caps,  lace  ties,  and  jabots,  smart  muslin  pinafores  for  babies, 
and  such  little  daintinesses,  are  sure  to  find  favor  at  a bazaar. 
Caps  may  be  made  of  almost  any  material  at  a minimum  ex- 
penditure of  time  and  money.  The  simplest  are  those  made 
from  embroidered  handkerchiefs.  The  first  thing  to  be  done 
is  to  make  a shape  of  crinoline  or  other  stiff  muslin,  and  run 
ribbon  wire  inside  to  make  it  keep  in  form  and  fit  well  to  the 
head.  The  handkerchief  is  very  easily  made  up  over  the  shape  ; 
one  corner  is  placed  at  the  back  and  the  two  sides  brought 
round  the  side  of  the  cap  as  far  as  they  will  go  toward  the 
front  ; the  rest  of  the  handkerchief  must  lie  in  loose  folds  over 
the  crown,  and  the  other  two  corners  form  a trimming  in  the 
front.  Here  and  there  it  may  be  found  difficult  to  completely 
hide  the  foundation,  but  such  little  inequalities  are  easily  con- 
cealed with  a few  loops  of  ribbon  to  match  the  embroidery  of 
the  handkerchief.  The  look  of  the  cap  is  greatly  improved  by 
a frill  of  lace  or  lisse  frilling  tacked  inside,  so  that  it  rests 
against  the  hair  and  saves  the  cap  itself  from  getting  dirty. 
It  is  easily  renewed,  and  the  cap  wears  much  longer  with  it 
than  without  it. 

Smarter  caps  look  very  nice  made  of  nothing  but  pleatings 
of  Breton  lace  (or  lisse  for  mourning),  overlapping  each  other, 
and  with  no  trimming  but  a knot  of  flowers  in  front.  Many 
ladies  like  the  turban  caps  made  of  nothing  but  a piece  of  In- 
dia silk,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  have  some  on  the  stall 
suitable  for  fair  as  well  as  dark  complexions.  Odds  and  ends 
of  lace  may  be  used  up  in  a dozen  different  ways.  One  yard 
of  India  muslin  at  50  cents  will  make  at  least  six  articles  with 
the  help  of  lace.  Ties  of  different  lengths  and  little  lace  bows 
for  the  front  of  a dress  are  very  quickly  tacked  together.  The 
prettiest  bows  are  made  by  taking  about  three-quarters  of  a 
yard  of  lace,  about  six  inches  wide  or  a little  less,  cutting  it  in 
half  and  joining  both  pieces  in  a circle.  Take  a piece  of  In* 


HOW  TO  GET  UP  A FAIR. 


dia  muslin  the  same  size  as  the  circles  of  lace,  and  about  four 
inches  wide,  and  join  that  also  in  a circle.  Trim  each  end  of 
the  muslin  with  the  lace,  so  that  when  progress  so  far  has  been 
made  you  have  a circular  piece  of  muslin  trimmed  with  lace  at 
each  end,  and  looking  like  a sleeve.  Then,  in  the  exact 
middle  of  the  muslin,  run  a gathering-thread  and  draw  it  up 
tight,  fasten  it  off  securely,  and  finish  off  the  bow  by  a tie  or 
knot  of  lace  in  the  center  to  hide  the  draw  thread.  These 
bows  sell  much  better  if  a spray  of  artificial  flowers  be  fast- 
ened carelessly  on  them,  or  if  a tube  be  fixed  at  the  back  to 
hold  a natural  flower  when  worn. 

A novelty  at  a bazaar  is  to  sell  household  articles,  such  as 
tea-cloths,  and  dusters  done  up  in  packets  of  a dozen,  smart 
cooking-aprons,  jelly-bags,  gay  afternoon  tea-cloths,  and  any 
other  household  necessaries  ingenuity  may  suggest.  If  a ba- 
zaar is  to  take  place  anywhere  near  Christmas,  it  is  a good 
plan  to  have  a stall  devoted  to  Christmas  and  New  Year’s 
cards. 

Occasionally  at  a bazaar  one  stall  is  devoted  to  the  sale  of  ar- 
ticles of  dress,  and  this  has  proved  very  successful.  Hats  of 
plush,  straw,  or  velvet,  of  all  sizes,  shapes  and  styles,  tea- 
gowns,  children’s  costumes,  gloves,  and  even  tiny  boots,  knit- 
ted petticoats  and  hoods  are  among  the  most  salable  articles. 

Pictures  are  an  attractive  feature  in  a bazaar,  and  if  a good 
number  of  choice  pictures  can  be  obtained  and  hung  in  one  of 
the  side  rooms,  it  may  prove  a successful  picture  gallery  ; and 
many  people  will  doubtless  be  willing  to  lend  their  pictures 
for  such  exhibition.  It  is  a very  usual  practice  to  hang  pic- 
tures in  the  room  where  the  bazaar  is  held,  especially  just 
above  the  stalls. 

Tea  and  egg  cosies  in  crewels  or  braiding  ; screens,  banner- 
ets, in  feathers  or  water  colors  ; shaving  tidies  of  white  jean, 
with  a group  of  flowers  painted  or  embroidered  on  them  ; 
paintings  on  white  silk  to  be  finished  for  antimacassars  by  the 
addition  of  a lace  border  ; knitted  or  patch-work  quilts,  af- 
ghans,  and  carriage-rugs  will  all  sell  profitably. 

All  kinds  of  cane,  rush,  and  wicker-work  ; hanging-baskets 
for  ferns,  made  of  cones  or  acorns  ; photographs  and  picture 
frames  of  paper  stars,  cardboard,  or  straw  work  ; papier-mache 
blotting-books,  card  trays,  crumb  trays,  and  brushes  ; fancy 
china,  terra-cotta  ; tiny  statuettes  in  bronze,  Parian  marble, 
or  alabaster ; Indian  and  Japanese  trinkets  and  curiosities 
will  be  eagerly  sought  after. 

NOVELTIES  FOR  BAZAARS. 

Daisy  Mats— Mottoes— Moss-Frames— Wall-Pockets— Letter-Cases. 

Daisy  Mats. — Carry  the  wool  across  the  frame  from  peg  to 
peg  till  one  side  is  full  ; then  turn  the  frame  and  work  across 
in  the  same  manner.  When  all  the  pegs  are  covered  break 
and  fasten  off  the  wool.  Take  a meshful  of  coarse  knitting 
cotton,  and  secure  each  place  where  the  strands  cross  each 
other.  When  this  is  done,  cut  half  the  thickness  of  the  work 
between  each  fastening,  and  with  the  points  of  the  scissors 
shape  it  into  a smooth  ball.  Remove  the  mat  from  the  frame 
by  lifting  the  wool  off  the  pegs. 

A pretty  novelty  for  holding  a thimble  is  a small  top-boot. 
Round  the  sole  are  places  for  pins.  This  is  not  at  all  difficult 


to  make.  The  shape  is  cut  in  cardboard,  and  then  covered 
with  velvet  or  silk. 

Etched  doyleys,  when  well  done,  are  very  effective.  The 
best  material  for  etching  upon  is  satin  jean.  A fine-pointed 
steel  pen  and  good  marking-ink  are  necessary.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  work  the  right  way  of  the  jean,  or  spluttering  will 
disfigure  it.  Hold  the  work  to  the  fire  while  in  progress,  and 
when  finished  iron  on  the  wrong  side.  This  will  prevent  the 
ink  from  turning  brown  when  the  doyley  is  washed. 

Kettle-holders  made  of  a variety  of  materials  are  found  to 
sell  well  ; they  may  be  made  of  spatter-work  on  jean,  on  can- 
vas embroidered  with  crewels,  of  crash,  of  plaited  ribbons, 
etc.  They  should  be  lined  with  flannel  of  a contrasting  color 
and  finished  with  a ruche.  A very  good  idea  is.to  make  tea- 
cosies  and  kettle-holders  to  match,  to  sell  together. 

Work-bags  for  children,  made  of  holland,  are  very  accept- 
able. They  are  made  in  the  shape  of  a round  apron.  A part 
of  the  bottom  is  turned  up  and  cut  into  large  scallops.  The 
points  are  fastened  down.  A band  round  the  waist  completes 
the  bag.  The  edges  look  well  if  bound  with  red  braid  or  cot- 
ton Scotch  plaid. 

Very  pretty  tea-cosies  can  be  made  in  the  following  manner  : 
Buy  some  cotton-backed  satin,  and  quilt  it,  lining  it  with  sar- 
cenet and  edging  with  a silk  cord.  Fasten  a spray  of  artificial 
leaves  on  the  outside,  or  a cluster  of  acorns,  berries,  etc. 
Pale  blue  and  cherry  color  show  the  leaves  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. 

Children’s  scrap-books  made  of  holland  sell  well.  The 
pages  should  be  well  filled  with  gaily-colored  pictures. 

Pretty  tidies  are  easily  made  of  net  or  spotted  muslin,  with 
the  addition  of  a frill  all  round  and  bows  at  the  corners. 

Note-cases  of  brown  holland  bound  with  braid  are  very 
popular  with  children  at  bazaars.  They  should  be  made  of 
the  size  and  shape  of  blotters,  with  a pocket  at  one  end,  into 
which  note-paper  is  slipped.  A piece  of  elastic  down  the 
middle  holds  some  sheets  of  blotting-paper  in  their  place.  Simi- 
lar cases,  made  of  leather,  crash,  or  toile  cire'e , with  a design 
in  crewels,  serve  to  hold  letters,  photographs,  etc. 

An  exceedingly  pretty  little  pincushion  consists  of  a bunch 
of  tiny  hearts  in  cardboard,  each  covered  with  a different 
shade  of  silk  or  velvet.  The  pins  are  put  in  all  round.  A 
bright-colored  ribbon,  to  which  each  heart  is  attached  by  a 
little  string,  is  tied  in  a bow  connecting  all  together. 

Emery  cushions  can  be  made  very  easily,  and  gummed  into 
acorn-cups,  beechnut-cups,  or  walnut-shells.  They  are  very 
neat  and  pretty. 

Dolls’  bedsteads  are  ingeniously  made  out  of  small,  oblong 
boxes  by  placing  the  lid  at  right  angles  to  the  box,  and  then 
covering  all  with  a valance  and  curtains.  The  coverings  and 
pillows  must  just  fit  the  box,  and  can  be  trimmed  round  with 
very  narrow  imitation  Valenciennes  lace. 

Menu-cards  in  packets  of  a dozen  will  be  found  to  sell  well. 
These  can  be  made  in  a variety  of  elegant  designs.  Autumn 
leaves  well  arranged  and  gummed  on  to  the  cards,  pretty 
groups  of  hand-painted  flowers  or  miniature  landscapes,  pen- 
and-ink  sketches,  etc.,  will  all  be  suitable.  The  greater  origi- 
nality displayed  the  better. 

A decided  novelty  in  crosses,  frames  for  small  pictures,  and 


HOW  TO  GET  UP  A FAIR. 


I similar  ornaments,  and  one  that  strongly  resembles  carved  jet, 
can  be  made  by  pounding  thick  black  glass  into  fragments, 
heating  them  very  hot  in  the  fire  to  soften  the  sharp  edges,  and 
then  attaching  them  to  the  surface  of  the  article  you  wish  to 
decorate  by  means  of  strong  glue. 

In  making  picture  frames  or  crosses,  a light  wood  founda- 
tion is  preferable  to  cardboard,  as  it  is  less  likely  to  warp. 

Blue,  green,  crimson,  or  other  colored  glasses  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  black  in  making  ornamental  work,  if  the  surface 
of  the  article  first  be  colored  the  same  shade  as  the  glass.  A 
very  transparent  glue  must  be  used  to  fasten  the  particles. 

Mottoes. — Exquisite  mottoes  can  be  made  as  follows  : — 
Cut  a piece  of  very  stiff  cardboard  the  desired  shape  and  size 
of  your  motto.  Give  the  upper  surface  a thick  coat  of  muci- 
lage, and  over  this  press  the  thickest  and  best  pure  white  cot- 
ton wadding.  When  this  is  firmly  attached  and  the  gum  quite 
dry,  gently  pull  off  the  smooth  upper  surface  of  the  wadding, 
and  very  gently  pull  up,  here  and  there,  that  which  is  attached 
to  the  cardboard  and  sprinkle  with  diamond-dust,  such  as  is 
used  for  wax  flowers,  and  you  have  what  looks  like  snow. 
This  for  the  foundation.  Having  ready  your  letters  or  other 
designs  for  the  motto,  cut  in  thin  cardboard,  cover  them  with 
glass  of  the  desired  color — different  colors  mixed  are  pretty — 
fasten  on  the  cotton  foundation,  and  frame  with  a border  of 
black  glass.  Christmas  and  New  Year’s  mottoes  are  very 
pretty  with  the  border  and  lettering  made  of  evergreens  mixed 
with  white  and  scarlet  berries.  Another  beautiful  motto  is 
made  by  covering  a heavy  cardboard  foundation  with  pale 
blue  frosted  plush  or  velvet,  the  lettering,  etc.,  made  of  white 
cotton  wadding,  frosted  with  diamond-dust,  and  the  frame  of 
the  motto  made  of  white  glass.  Exceedingly  unique  and  rus- 
tic-looking mottoes  and  other  ornaments  can  be  made  by 
fastening  on  to  a cardboard  foundation  the  dry,  greenish-gray 
moss  found  on  wood’s  bark  as  a background,  and  making  the 
lettering,  designs,  etc.,  of  light  green  moss  that  has  been 
pressed  for  the  purpose,  and  tiny  autumn  leaves  and  such 
pressed  flowers  as  retain  their  colors.  Frame  with  cedar  spray 
or  the  slender  branches  of  the  pine  tree,  from  which  the 
needles  have  been  removed. 

Moss  Frames. — Very  pretty  frames  for  small  photographs 
or  engravings  may  be  made  of  the  wood’s  moss  before  referred 
to  that  is  found  on  the  bark  of  most  forest  trees,  and  in  profu- 
sion on  that  of  apple-trees.  To  make  these  frames,  make  stiff 
cardboard  foundation,  attach  the  moss  with  glue,  commencing 
with  the  lightest  shades  of  moss  for  the  inside  edges  of  frames 
and  the  darkest  for  the  outer  edges.  Now  go  over  the  surface 
of  the  moss  with  a brush  that  has  been  dipped  in  very  thin 
mucilage,  and  whilst  yet  damp  sift  over  it  diamond-dust  or  the 
fine  glass  that  may  be  had  at  any  glass  factory. 

Artificial  Moss. — Take  green  single  wool  shaded  in  the 
skein,  or  you  may  mix  the  shades  to  suit  yourself,  and  split  it 
carefully.  With  a medium-sized  steel  crochet-hook  make,  on 
a foundation  chain  of  seven  stitches,  strips  a yard  or  more  in 
length  in  single  crochet.  When  you  have  crocheted  as  much 
as  you  think  you  will  need,  wet  it  thoroughly  in  the  following 
solution  : One  cup  of  warm  soft  water,  one  tablespoonful  of 
alcohol,  one  teaspoonful  of  strong  spirits  of  ammonia,  and  the 
whole  stirred  with  a bit  of  white  soap  until  it  makes  a slight 




lather.  When  thoroughly  wetted  squeeze  out  the  strips,  and 
press  between  thick  cloths  or  papers  with  heavy  warm  irons 
until  every  bit  of  moisture  has  been  absorbed.  Let  it  lie  a 
few  days,  the  longer  the  better,  before  using.  When  you  wish 
to  use  the  crocheted  strip,  overhand  it  very  closely  lengthwise 
of  one  edge  with  green  thread  or  wool,  cut  the  other  edge  of 
the  entire  length,  wasting  as  little  as  possible.  Now  cut  in 
slits,  half  an  inch  apart,  to  within  one-eighth  of  an  inch  of  the 
over-seamed  edge,  and  ravel  out,  and  you  will  find  that  you 
have  a lovely  imitation  of  moss.  Sew  in  alternate  strips  on 
your  foundation  for  frame  or  mat,  and  you  may  frost,  if  you 
choose,  the  same  as  the  real  moss.  This  artificial  moss  is 
especially  pretty  for  lamp-mats,  or  as  a binder  for  rugs  that 
have  been  worked  on  canvas.  For  this  latter  purpose,  it  is 
pretty  knitted  in  shaded  brown.  Instead  of  the  crochet-hook 
this  moss  may  be  made  with  coarse  steel  knitting-needles  in 
plain  knitting. 

Wall  Pockets. — Very  effective  pockets  or  catch-alls  are 
made  of  cheap  straw  wide-brimmed  hats.  Buy  at  the  drug- 
gist’s or  fancy  dealer’s,  a bottle  of  liquid-gilt,  and  put  it  all 
over  the  outside  of  the  hat  with  a camel’s-hair  brush.  Let  it 
dry  thoroughly,  and  then  line  the  brim  with  satin,  and  in  place 
of  a crown  lining  make  the  satin  to  form  a bag  and  draw  with 
a drawing-cord  and  tassels.  Turn  the  hat  up  on  one  side,  and 
put  on  a large  bunch  of  dried  grasses  and  ribbon,  also  a few 
wild-flowers.  For  those  who  have  not  seen  them,  children’s 
little  wooden  pails  with  fancy  pictures  on  or  painted  in  water- 
colors,  and  finished  at  the  top  with  satin  frilled  on  to  form  a 
bag,  are  very  pretty  and  inexpensive. 

Cap  Basket. — A basket  of  this  description  is  very  useful 
for  elderly  ladies  who  dwell  in  the  country  and  carry  their  caps 
when  dining  out,  and  it  is  also  useful  for  carrying  about  fancy 
work,  etc.  A round  is  formed  of  silver  paper,  it  is  lined,  and 
at  each  side  there  is  a crimson  silk  or  satin  bag,  drawn  with  a 
silk  cord.  If  preferred,  cardboard  covered  with  Java  canvas 
and  worked  in  cross-stitch  can  be  substituted  for  the  silver 
paper. 

Chinese  Penwiper. — Take  a diminutive  Chinese  fan  with 
very  long  handle,  cover  the  fan  with  silk  on  both  sides,  then 
cut  several  pieces  of  black  cloth  and  fasten  each  side  of 
fan.  For  the  outside  cut  off  cardboard,  cover  with  silk,  and 
transfer  a Chinese  picture  in  the  center.  To  complete  the 
ornamentation,  fasten  a few  light  feathers  turning  toward  the 
handle,  and  finish  with  a fine  cord  and  small  tassels. 

Curtain-Band — Knitting. — (White  cord  and  coarse  steel 
needles.)  Begin  by  crocheting  a loop  loosely  with  18  chain 
and  I slip  stitch  ; then  place  the  stitch  on  the  knitting-needle 
and  knit  to  and  fro  as  follows  : First  row — Twice  alternately 
cotton  forward,  and  decrease  I (that  is,  slip  i as  if  for  purling, 
knit  I,  and  pass  the  slipped  stitch  over  the  knitted  one). 
Second  row — Twice  alternately  cotton  forward,  decrease  I ; 
repeat  the  second  row  as  often  as  necessary,  cast  off,  and  cro- 
chet a loop  of  18  chain  as  above.  This  is  also  pretty,  used  for 
a border  on  table-covers  or  brackets,  and  hang  tassels  in  the 
loops  to  form  a fringe. 

Fan  or  Hand-Screen. — Cover  two  pieces  of  very  thin  card- 
board on  one  side  with  silk.  Paint  or  embroider  a floral  de- 
sign in  the  center  of  each.  For  the  handle  use  the  end  of  an 


HOW  TO  GET  UP  A FAIR. 


<f~ 


5°4 


old  parasol  handle,  or  purchase  a handsome  carved  tooth-brush 
and  cut  the  bristles  off,  and  glue  it  firmly  between  the  two 
card-boards.  Finish  the  edge  with  chenille  and  gold  braid, 
and  at  the  top,  glue  in  any  kind  of  fancy  feathers,  cord  and 
tassels  to  correspond  with  the  silk  and  painting. 

Herring-Bone  Purse. — Only  two  needles  are  required  for 
this  knitting.  Cast  on  eighty-eight  stitches,  begin  with  the 
silk  forward,  slip  a stitch,  knit  a stitch,  pass  the  first  over  the 
second,  knit  a stitch,  bring  the  silk  forward  and  rib  the  next  ; 
when  this  is  done  the  silk  will  be  forward  ; begin  again.  If 
the  purse  is  required  to  be  longer,  cast  on  as  many  stitches  as 
are  necessary,  only  it  must  be  a number  which  can  be  divided 
by  four. 

Porcupine  Knitting  for  a Purse. — Four  fine  needles, 
nearly  three  skeins  of  silk,  and  one  string  of  gold  beads  are 
required.  Thread  some  of  the  beads  on  the  silk  before  you 
begin.  Cast  36  stitches  on  each  of  three  needles,  knit  a plain 
round  ; knit  4 stitches,  bring  the  silk  forward,  knit  a stitch  — 
this  is  the  center  stitch  of  the  pattern— bring  the  silk  forward, 
knit  4 stitches,  slip  a stitch,  taking  it  under,  knit  2 taken  to- 
gether, pull  the  slipped  stitch  over  it,  then  begin  knitting  the 
4 stitches  again,  etc.  It  is  better,  at  the  end  of  each  needle, 
to  knit  a stitch  off  the  next  one,  as  it  prepares  for  the  next 
round.  Continue  thus  for  six  rounds,  increasing  before  and 
after  every  center  stitch,  and  knitting  till  within  one  of  where 
you  decreased,  which  stitch  slip,  knit  the  next  two  together, 
and  pull  the  slipped  stitch  over  it  ; knit  a plain  round,  knit 
another  round  plain,  excepting  over  the  center  stitches,  where 
you  are  to  knit  a bead,  bringing  it  through  the  stitch  ; knit  a 
plain  round,  keeping  the  beads  on  the  outside  of  the  purse 
(this  purse  is  knitted  wrong  side  outward)  ; knit  to  within  one 
stitch  of  the  bead  stitch,  which  slip  ; knit  two  together.  These 
six  rounds  increase  each  side  of  the  stitch  you  decreased  with 
in  the  last  pattern,  which  makes  that  the  center  stitch  for  the 
bead.  It  is  easy  to  count  the  number  of  rounds  you  have  done 
at  the  place  where  you  decreased. 

A very  pretty  chatelaine  pocket  may  be  made  by  cutting  the 
shape  first  in  cardboard,  one  for  the  front  and  another  for  the 
back,  similar  in  shape  to  the  first,  only  with  a pointed  piece  to 
turn  over  and  button  envelope  fashion.  A third  piece,  an  inch 
and  a half  wide,  must  surround  the  first  piece  of  cardboard  and 
be  joined  to  it  on  one  side,  and  the  second  piece  oil  the  other 
side.  Line  each  of  these  pieces  with  silk  or  cambric,  and 
cover  the  outside  with  velvet  or  corded  silk  before  joining  to- 
gether. Edge  the  seams  with  a small  gold  or  silk  cord,  leav- 
ing a loop  at  the  point  of  the  envelope,  which  must  fasten  to  a 
corresponding  button  on  the  first  piece.  If  the  bag  is  velvet 
the  belt  must  be  the  same,  if  of  silk  then  the  belt  must  be  silk. 
The  bag  must  be  hung  to  the  belt  by  two  cords,  from  either 
side,  of  the  same  kind  as  trims  the  seams,  and  joined  at  the 
waist  by  a button  or  hook. 

A neat  work-case  maybe  made  of  Java  canvas  twelve  inches 
long  and  seven  broad,  a bit  of  silk  the  same  size  for  lining, 
and  six  skeins  of  worsted  or  floss,  any  color  best  liked.  Work 
a border  down  both  sides  of  the  canvas  and  across  one  end, 
leaving  space  to  turn  in  the  edge  of  the  material.  The  border 
may  be  as  simple  as  you  like  ; four  rows  of  cross-stitch  will  do. 
When  the  border  is  done,  baste  on  the  lining,  turn  in  the  edges, 


and  seam  it  very  neatly.  Then  turn  up  the  lower  end  of  this 
strip  to  form  a bag,  and  sew  the  edges  together  firmly.  Th» 
embroidered  end  folds  over  to  form  a flap  like  a pocket-book, 
and  must  have  two  small  buttons  and  loops  to  fasten  it  down. 

Knitting-bags  made  of  Turkish  toweling  are  very  conve- 
nient to  hang  on  the  back  of  a chair  and  hold  knitting-work 
when  not  needed.  They  are  made  of  four  pieces,  each  one  a 
foot  long,  pointed  at  the  top  and  bottom,  and  slightly  curved 
toward  the  middle  on  both  sides.  The  pieces  are  braided  or 
embroidered  in  silk  or  worsted  in  some  simple  pattern,  bound 
with  narrow  ribbon  of  bright  color,  and  sewed  together  with  a 
tassel  to  finish  the  bottom  and  a drawing  ribbon  at  the  top. 

Work-aprons  may  be  made  like  any  aprons,  secured  by  a 
band  around  the  waist,  except  that  they  are  cut  ten  inches 
longer.  This  extra  ten  inches  of  length  is  to  be  turned  up 
from  the  bottom  and  divided  off  by  stitching,  so  as  to  form  four 
or  more  oblong  pockets  open  at  the  top.  These  pockets  are 
handy  for  balls  of  worsted,  patterns,  or  unfinished  work. 

Scent-cases,  for  the  top  of  a trunk  or  drawer,  may  be  made 
of  large  silk  or  muslin  cases,  quilted  with  orris-root  or  sachet- 
powder,  and  are  acceptable  to  almost  all  ladies.  Pocket 
sachets  of  silk,  quilted  and  trimmed  with  gold  twist,  or  braided 
and  scented,  are  pretty  presents  for  gentlemen.  A glove- 
sachet  should  be  the  length  and  width  of  an  ordinary  pair  of 
gloves.  It  must  be  quilted  and  edged  with  narrow  silk  cord, 
with  a small  loop  at  each  comer.  A necktie-sachet  is  made 
narrow  and  just  long  enough  to  hold  an  evening  tie  folded  in 
half.  Articles  which  will  be  found  useful  and  acceptable  to 
clergymen  are  sermon-covers  of  either  silk  or  velvet,  a trifle 
larger  than  ordinary  sermon  paper,  lined  with  silk,  and  hav- 
ing a cross  or  monogram  embroidered  or  braided  on  them.  A 
bit  of  fine  elastic  should  be  placed  inside  from  top  to  bottom 
to  hold  the  leaves  in  their  place. 

For  comforters,  those  knitted  in  brioche  stitch  in  single 
Berlin  wool  are  the  softest,  most  pliable  and  elastic.  It  is  an 
easy  stitch  to  knit,  as  every  row  is  the  same.  It  is  * over,  slip 
1 as  if  about  to  purl,  knit  2 together,  repeat  from*.  The  next 
row  is  the  same,  * over,  slip  1,  knit  2 together,  repeat  from  *, 
but  the  slipped  stitch  is  the  one  made  by  “ knit  2 together  ” 
in  the  last  row,  and  the  over  and  the  slipped  stitch  of  the  last 
row  are  knitted  together.  It  takes  two  rows  to  make  a com- 
plete stitch,  one  each  side  of  the  work.  Seventy-two  stitches 
make  a wide  comforter,  and  any  color  looks  well  with  stripes 
of  black  at  the  end.  A fringe  should  finish  it. 

Hairbrush-cases  are  useful,  and  may  be  made  ornamental 
also.  A pretty  one  is  made  of  a length  of  blue  cambric  or 
sateen,  covered  with  spotted  muslin,  sufficiently  long  and  wide 
to  lie  on  a table  under  brushes,  and  fold  across  above  them. 
An  edging  of  lace  and  ruche  of  blue  satin  ribbon  is  added  all 
round  as  a finish,  but  must  be  on  alternate  sides,  making  a divi- 
sion in  the  center  where  the  folding  is,  as  the  side  that  passes 
over  the  brushes  must  be  trimmed  on  the  outside.  Sometimes 
the  ruche  is  put  on  both  sides.  Another  pattern  is  to  make  the 
case  to  fit  the  brushes  easily,  with  a flap  to  fold  over,  and  to 
work  designs  on  the  case  and  flap.  Add  a band  of  elastic  on 
the  flap  below  the  pattern  for  the  comb.  For  traveling,  the 
flap  turns  over  and  buttons  up.  Such  cases  look  well  in  linen, 
neatly  braided. 


HOW  TO  GET  UP  A FAIR. 


5°5 


Tasteful  flowerpot-covers  may  be  made  of  four  pieces  of 
card-board  the  height  of  ordinary  flowerpots,  and  from  five  to 
eight  inches  in  width,  according  to  the  size  of  the  pot.  Lace 
them  together  at  the  sides  with  fine  gold  or  silver  cord,  and 
tie  the  cords  at  the  top  in  a bow,  with  a little  gold  or  silver 
tassel  attached  to  each  end.  The  four  sides  of  the  cover 
should  be  ornamented  in  the  center  of  each  with  drawings, 
colored  pictures,  groups  of  dried  flowers,  ferns,  seaweed,  or 
autumn  leaves,  as  fancy  may  dictate. 

Letter-cases  to  hang  on  the  walls  are  made  by  cutting  a 
piece  of  white  card-board  twelve  inches  long.  Make  a point 
at  the  top,  like  the  flap  of  an  envelope,  and  bind  it  all  round 
with  narrow,  bright-colored  ribbon  ; turn  up  four  inches  at 
the  bottom  to  make  a sort  of  flap-pocket  ; lace  it  up  each  side 
with  ribbon  or  cord,  and  bore  a round  hole  in  the  point  by 
which  to  hang  it. 

Cases  similar  to  these,  on  a larger  and  stronger  scale,  are 
useful  for  hanging  in  libraries  or  sitting  rooms,  as  a depository 
for  newspapers,  periodicals,  etc.  They  offer  great  oppor- 
tunities for  a display  of  taste  in  decoration.  Pockets,  the 
same  shape,  of  holland  or  crash,  are  handy  to  hang  in  closets 
for  boots  and  shoes,  and  larger  ones,  divided  into  compart- 
ments for  patterns  or  scrap-bundles,  are  invaluable. 

A strong  and  neat  music-case  is  made  as  follows  : — Cut  a 
piece  of  the  leather  some  inches  larger  than  an  open  piece  of 
music,  bind  it  all  round,  double  it,  and  sew  together  at  the 
edges.  The  music  lies  flat  inside.  Another  shape  is  to  cut 
it  the  size  of  the  music  with  a good  margin,  line  it,  sew  elastic 
in  the  center,  under  which  the  music  is  fastened,  and  then  roll 
music  and  case  together. 

In  lamp-shades,  one  has  quite  a play  for  ingenuity.  Cut  a 
shape  in  card-board  and  ornament  with  pictures,  or  prick  a 
design  with  a pen-knife,  which  has  an  admirable  effect.  Dried 
flowers  or  ferns  arranged  on  silk  or  card-board,  and  covered 
with  prepared  muslin  to  keep  them  from  breaking  off,  are 
lovely  and  somewhat  of  a novelty.  For  a silk  or  thin  ground, 
a brass  wire  of  given  circumference  for  the  top,  and  another 
much  wider  for  the  bottom,  are  required.  Very  elegant 
shades  may  be  made  of  pink  crape.  Cut  a circle  of  the  crape  ; 
let  the  diameter  of  this  circle  be  exactly  double  the  depth  you 
wish  the  shade  to  be  ; cut  a round  hole  in  the  center  for  the 
chimney  of  the  lamp  to  pass  through.  Ornament  the  crape 
with  small  bunches  of  flowers  cut  out  of  cretonne,  tacked  on 
and  buttonholed  round.  Edge  the  bottom  of  the  shade  with 
pink  silk  fringe  about  three  inches  wide,  and  finish  by  putting 
a close  ruching  of  pink  silk  round  the  top,  and  you  will  have 
an  uncommon-looking  shade,  and  one  which  will  shed  a 
pleasing  light  through  the  room. 

Children’s  reins  for  play,  made  from  the  following  direc- 
tions, are  strong  and  pretty  : — Cast,  on  a pair  of  bone  knitting- 
needles,  twenty  stitches  in  double  Berlin,  and  knit,  in  plain 
knitting,  as  tripe  ten  inches  in  length,  always  slipping  the  first 
stitch  of  every  row  ; cast  off.  To  each  end  of  this  stripe  is 
attached  a circle  for  the  arms,  which  is  made  thus  : Take  a 
piece  of  cord,  the  kind  used  in  hanging  pictures,  and  make 
circle  the  size  of  a child’s  arm  at  the  shoulder  ; sew  the  ends 
firmly  together,  splicing  one  a little  past  the  other  ; then  cover 
the  cord  with  cotton,  wool,  or  flannel,  to  make  it  soft ; then 


cover  lastly  with  a stripe  of  knitting,  casting  on  eight  stitches 
and  knitting  the  length  required,  plain  every  row  ; sew  it  on 
overcast  on  the  inner  side.  Before  attaching  the  stripe  first 
knitted  to  the  armholes,  there  ought  to  be  sewed  upon  it  some 
name,  such  as  “ Beauty,”  or  “ Fairy,”  and  to  the  under  edge, 
should  be  fastened  three  or  four  little  bells.  When  fastening 
the  stripe  for  the  chest  to  the  armholes,  do  not  let  the  sewing 
be  seen,  but  overcast  on  the  inner  side  to  the  overcasting  on 
the  armholes.  Cast  on  eight  stitches  and  knit,  in  plain  knit- 
ting, a rein  the  length  required,  two  and  a half  yards  being 
enough,  as  it  stretches  in  use.  Attach  the  ends  to  the  armholes 
at  the  back,  sewing  to  the  overcasting  ; then  finish  by  knit- 
ting a stripe  twenty  stitches  in  breadth  and  ten  inches  in  length, 
the  ends  of  which  sew  to  the  armholes  at  the  back,  at  the 
same  place  as  the  rein. 

Dolls  of  all  sizes,  and  dressed  in  every  costume,  from  the 
bald-headed  baby  in  long  clothes  to  the  young  lady  in  Parisian 
attire,  are  not  to  be  forgotten.  One  dressed  in  white  cotton 
wool,  or  Canton  flannel,  as  an  Esquimaux,  is  an  excellent  toy 
for  a baby.  So  also  are  the  knitted  dolls.  These  are  knitted 
in  fine  worsted  on  No.  16  or  18  needles,  and  should  be  knitted 
to  a shape.  It  would  take  too  long  to  give  exact  directions, 
but  you  cannot  go  far  wrong,  if  you  lay  a doll  down  and  draw 
the  outline.  Knit,  by  this  outline,  two  pieces  and  join  them. 
A face  is  knitted  with  an  oval  piece  of  knitting,  and  drawn 
over  an  old  face.  With  judicious  dressing,  you  may  have  a 
fair  result,  even  the  first  time  of  trying.  Rabbits,  cats,  and 
dogs  are  all  made  in  the  same  manner  : they  should  be  knitted 
in  loop-stitch  or  looped  crochet,  then  cut,  combed,  and  stuffed. 
Rabbits,  too,  are  very  pretty  made  of  gray  velveteen  and  white 
plush,  stuffed  with  wool,  and  pink  or  black  beads  used  for 
eyes. 

Dancing-men  may  be  made  of  cork,  dressed  up,  and  with 
black  silk  strings  to  make  them  dance.  Men  and  animals  cut 
out  of  card-board,  painted,  and  joined  together  with  strong 
twine,  afford  great  amusement,  and  are  just  as  good  as  any 
you  purchase. 

Balls  are  made  in  various  ways,  and  use  up  the  various  odds 
and  ends  to  great  advantage.  The  soft,  fluffy  balls  made  over 
cardboard  are  the  best  for  this  purpose.  For  one  of  these 
balls  you  trace  a circle,  the  diameter  of  which  must  be  the  size 
you  wish  the  ball.  Say  the  diameter  is  three  inches  : inside 
this,  and  from  the  same  point  in  the  center,  trace  a smaller 
circle  of  one  and  a quarter  inches  in  diameter.  Cut  this  inner 
circle  out,  draw  another  exactly  like  the  large  one,  keep  the 
two  together,  and  wind  the  wool  you  use  over  and  over  these 
two  pieces  of  card,  until  you  can  draw  no  more  wool  through, 
even  with  a crochet-hook.  You  next  cut  the  wool  just  over 
the  outer  rim  of  the  two  circles,  and  between  the  pieces  of 
cardboard  tie  all  the  wool  together  securely  with  strong  twine 
or  with  thick  silk,  if  you  wish  to  make  the  balls  hang  together. 
This  silk  must  be  left  with  long  ends  and  crocheted  up  into  a 
very  fine  cord  in  chain  stitch.  You  next  remove  the  cardboard 
and  proceed  to  cut  the  wool  and  shape  it  round  with  a scissors  : 
this  is  the  only  difficult  part  of  the  manufacture  of  these  soft 
balls.  Another  method  is  to  knit  them  in  brioche  stitch  in 
one,  two,  or  three  colors,  in  single  Berlin  wool.  Take  a pair 
of  No.  14  needles  and  cast  on  28  stitches  ; knit  back.  The 


5 06 


HOW  TO  GET  UP  A FAIR. 


first  row  : * wool  forward,  slip  the  next  stitch,  knit  the  second  ; 
repeat  from  * to  the  end  of  the  row.  Second  row  : * wool 
forward,  slip  as  if  you  intended  to  purl  the  next  stitch,  knit 
the  2 stitches  together,  lying  over  each  other  ; repeat  from  * 
twelve  times  more,  leaving  3 stitches  unworked.  Third  row  : 
Turn,  wool  forward,  slip  1,  knit  2 together  twelve  times, 
leaving  3 unwoiked  at  the  other  end  of  the  needle.  Fourth 
row  : Turn,  work  as  before  eleven  times.  Fifth  row  : Turn, 
work  as  before  ten  times,  and  so  on,  leaving  3 more  stitches, 
or  another  rib,  until  you  have  only  two  ribs  in  the  center  ; 
knit  these  two  ribs,  turn,  and  knit  all  the  stitches  off ; then 
knit  two  whole  rows  of  the  28  stitches.  Join  now  your  second 
color,  knit  two  whole  rows,  and  then  repeat  from  the  second 
row.  Eight  of  these  little  pieces  will  be  required  ; knit  the 
two  pieces  together  to  join  them,  stuff  it  with  lamb’s-wool 
combed,  or  the  shavings  of  other  soft  balls,  and  draw  up  the 
centers. 

A third  kind  of  ball  is  made  by  cutting  pieces  of  kid  or 
leather  in  the  same  shapes  as  those  described  above.  Draw  a 
circle  the  size  you  require  the  ball,  and  divide  it  into  four  or 
eight  sections  ; cut  these  out,  then  cut  your  pieces  the  same 
size,  sew  them  together,  stuff  with  hair  or  wool,  and  ornament 
with  braid.  Such  balls  may  be  made  from  old  kid  gloves. 

Fancy  Pincushion. — Take  three  small  cane  rods  and  put 
brass  knobs  at  all  the  ends.  Make  the  foundation  of  cushion 
of  a large-size  collar-box,  cover  the  sides  with  velvet,  upon 
which  diamond-shaped  pieces  of  perforated  board  are  placed, 
worked  round  the  edge  with  colored  floss.  Fill  the  box  with 
bran,  and  cover  the  top  with  velvet.  The  canes  are  wound 
round,  and  the  pincushion  is  crossed  by  a narrow  strip  of  per- 
forated card  laid  on  to  a narrow  blue  ribbon.  Bows  of  blue 
ribbon  are  then  tied  on,  and  the  stand  is  finished.  A sharp 
knife  is  needed  to  cut  the  cardboard. 

Box  for  Playing-Cards. — Materials : cardboard,  wire, 
velvet,  silk,  ribbon,  purse-silk  or  gold  cord,  and  coarse  sewing- 
silk.  The  box  is  intended  to  hold  two  packs  of  cards.  There 
is  an  inner  c-ase,  into  which  the  cards  are  placed.  This  case 
lifts  out,  if  desired  ; but  a little  half-circle  is  cut  out  on  each 
side  of  it  to  lift  the  cards  out  more  readily.  Both  the  outer 
and  inner  edges  are  worked  round  with  a small  zigzag  pattern, 
or  a row  of  herring-bone  stitch  will  answer.  The  inner  case 
is  covered  inside  and  out  with  silk.  The  sides  of  the  inner 
case  measure  four  and  a half  inches  in  width,  and  two  and  a 
half  inches  in  depth,  with  the  half-circle  cut  in  the  middle. 
The  ends  are  two  and  a half  inches  deep,  and  two  and  a half 
inches  wide.  The  bottom  is  cut  to  fit.  Cover  all  inside  and 
out  with  silk  the  color  of  the  velvet,  and  work  round  the  top  with 
a little  pointed  pattern.  Ribbon  is  put  on  to  lift  the  case  out 
by,  and  the  cards  may  be  tied  in  to  keep  them  in  place.  For 
the  outer  case  : — The  cardboard  ends  are  five  inches  high  in 
the  middle,  and  are  rounded  off  toward  the  sides.  They  are 
three  inches  wide.  The  front  and  back  are  each  five  inches 
long  and  six  inches  deep.  The  back  is  joined  to  the  ends 
four  inches  in  depth.  Previous  to  covering,  the  cardboard 
must  have  a cut  made  in  it,  so  that  it  will  bend,  and  wire  must 
be  sewn  on  to  the  part  above  the  cut,  so  as  to  give  it  a proper 
curve  to  fit  the  arch  of  the  ends.  The  front  is  joined  to  the 
ends  two  and  a half  inches  in  depth,  and  the  card  must  here 


be  cut.  If  by  accident  it  is  cut  through,  some  hinges  of  ribbon 
must  be  glued  on.  The  wire  is  put  on  from  this  part,  and 
must  be  bent  to  the  exact  curve  of  the  ends.  The  bottom  is 
cut  to  fit.  When  the  separate  parts  are  cut  they  are  all  lined 
with  silk,  covered  with  velvet,  and  bound  with  ribbon.  Rib- 
bon is  laid  on  flat,  and  worked  down  with  the  embroidery 
pattern  at  the  hinges  of  the  lid.  The  box  is  fastened  at  the 
top  with  two  buttons  and  loops  of  cord  placed  under  the 
ribbon  bows. 

Gentleman’s  Dressing-Case. — A straight  piece  of  cloth 
doubled  eleven  inches  broad  and  nineteen  inches  long.  The 
ends  are  turned  up  to  form  pockets,  and  bound  with  ribbon 
or  braid.  A strip  of  leather  with  slits  cut  in  it  is  stitched 
through  the  center  of  case,  through  which  a strap  sixteen 
inches  long  is  slipped.  Slope  it  a trifle  at  one  end  that  it  can 
go  through  readily,  and  make  several  buttonholes  at  the  end, 
so  that,  after  placing  in  the  necessary  articles,  it  may  be  drawn 
tightly  and  buttoned.  On  the  outside  is  a strap  bound  with 
ribbon  or  braid  to  fasten  the  case  when  rolled. 

Child’s  Worsted  Horse-Reins. — Work  with  scarlet  fin- 
gering wool  over  a crocheted  chain  as  follows  : — Make  a long 
chain  for  insertion  ; then,  on  a chain  of  13  stitches,  work, 
passing  over  the  first  stitch  a row  of  double  on  the  front  thread 
of  the  previous  row,  inserting  the  chain  cord  ; at  the  end  of 
the  row,  1 chain,  * turn  the  work,  1 slip  stitch  on  the  back 
thread  of  the  previous  row,  without  inserting  the  chain  cord, 
at  the  end  of  the  row,  1 chain  ; repeat  from  * till  the  reins 
are  the  required  length.  Now  work  over  the  loops  formed  by 
the  chain  cord  along  both  sides  of  the  reins  as  follows  : * 1 
double  over  the  first  loop,  5 treble  over  the  following  loop  ; 
repeat  from*. 

Comb-Case. — Take  two  pieces  of  silver  perforated  paper 
four  inches  long,  and  one  and  a quarter  inches  broad.  Work 
them  with  purple  and  canary-colored  worsted.  Bind  them 
with  narrow  purple  ribbon,  and  ornament  this  binding  at 
regular  distances  with  little  knots  of  canary  twist,  then  over- 
hand the  two  pieces  together. 

Child’s  Ball. — Take  a large  ball  of  yarn  or  a very  thin 
india-rubber  one.  Commence  the  cover  of  worsted  by  making 
a chain  of  four  stitches  joined  to  a circle,  and  work  in  double 
stitches,  increasing  at  regular  intervals  till  the  work  is  large 
enough  to  cover  one-half  the  ball  ; then  work  a few  rows 
without  increase,  draw  the  cover  over  the  ball,  letting  the 
wrong  side  of  the  work  be  outside,  and  work  the  other  half  to 
correspond  with  the  first  half,  decreasing  at  regular  intervals, 
and  putting  the  needle  in  from  the  inside.  A pattern  of  bright 
flowers  worked  with  worsted  round  the  center  adds  greatly  to 
the  ball’s  attractions  for  a child. 

Glove-Case. — Materials  : Silver-colored  leather  canvas  ; 
lilac  cashmere  or  llama  ; ii  yards  lilac  sarcenet  ribbon,  1 inch 
broad  ; black  and  lilac  Berlin  wool  in  two  contrasting  shades ; 
twenty-four  little  enamel  buttons ; white  sewing-silk.  The 
outer  covering  of  the  case  consists  of  a piece  of  silver-colored 
leather  canvas,  21  inches  long  and  63  inches  broad,  sloped  off 
equally  on  each  side,  and  measuring  16  inches  in  length  at  the 
sides.  The  pattern  is  worked  in  cross  and  loose  stitch  in 
Berlin  wool.  The  lining  is  lilac  llama,  fastened  with  wide 
button-hole  stitch  in  white  silk,  ornamented  with  herring-bone 


HOW  TO  GET  UP  A FAIR. 


5°7 


stitch  of  the  same  silk  ; if  inches  from  the  edge  on  each  side 
are  straps  of  white  llama,  f inch  broad,  which  button  over 
each  other  to  form  six  divisions  for  placing  gloves.  At  the 
sloped  ends  are  a ribbon  with  a knot  and  two  uneven  ends 
for  fastening  the  case  when  rolled  up. 

Pretty,  simple  sachets  for  handkerchiefs  are  made  in 
colored  cardboard,  crimson  for  instance.  A square  the  neces- 
sary size  is  bound  with  very  narrow  black  ribbon,  and  to  this 
is  sewed  a ribbon  about  an  inch  and  a half  wide.  Four  semi- 
circular pieces  of  cardboard  are  then  bound  with  the  narrow 
black  ribbon,  and  sewed  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  wide.  Two 
of  these  have  ribbon  to  tie,  and  on  them  may  be  designed  any 
pretty  device  in  gold  leaf  or  otherwise. 

SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  DRESS,  ETC. 

How  to  Dress  for  a Fair — Raffles — Bran-Tubs — Fish-Ponds — Articles 
supplied  from  Stores. 

How  to  Dress  for  a Fair. — The  dress  of  the 
stall-holder  should  always  be  as  neat  and  simple  as 
possible.  Heavy  material,  profuse  trimming,  trains 
and  fringes  encumber  and  harass  the  wearer,  making 
her  hot,  tired  and  dusty  ; the  fringes  catch  in  every- 
thing, the  trains  are  continually  in  the  way,  and  the 
thickness  of  the  dress  makes  the  whole  business  a 
weary  work. 

In  these  days  of  light  and  pretty  fabrics,  there  will 
be  no  difficulty  in  selecting  such  as  will  be  tasteful 
and  appropriate,  giving  satisfaction  to  the  wearer 
and  to  others.  Washing  materials  are  decidedly  the 
best  ; they  do  not  catch  and  hold  the  dust,  and  they 
keep  a cool  and  refreshing  appearance  throughout. 
Cambric,  percale,  batiste,  chintz,  oatmeal  cloth,  hol- 
land,  or  sateen  will  afford  ample  variety  of  choice. 
Foulard,  too,  is  exceedingly  suitable.  The  dress 
should  be  short  and  as  waitress-like  as  possible.  It 
is  customary  to  wear  aprons  or  the  pretty  pinafore 
costume,  giving  a graceful  effect.  These  aprons  can 
be  of  any  suitable  material.  Many  are  made  of  the 
bright-hued  Indian  handkerchiefs,  others  of  shep- 
herd’s plaid,  or  muslin.  We  noticed  a very  pretty 
apron  made  of  white  muslin,  with  a bib  and  bretelles 
passing  over  the  shoulders  to  fasten  at  the  back. 
These  bretelles  are  only  an  inch  wide,  and  are 
edged  on  each  side  with  lace.  A belt  or  sash  can 
be  worn  if  preferred,  but  the  prettier  style  is  as  de- 
scribed. 

In  the  matter  of  head-gear  there  is  no  limit.  Caps 
are  sometimes  seen,  but  hats  are  most  in  favor. 
These  may  be  as  large  and  eccentric  as  the  wearer 
pleases.  Any  bizarre  style,  or  a hat  worn  with  a 
fancy  costume,  will  be  just  the  thing.  They  should 


be  profusely  trimmed  with  feathers,  lace,  flowers, 
ribbon,  etc.  Gloves,  of  course,  are  not  worn,  though 
mittens  may  be. 

Raffles,  Bran-Tubs,  etc.  — These  require 
much  patience  and  good  temper,  since  there  is  great 
trouble  in  getting  them  up  and  much  disappointment 
in  the  drawing  of  lots. 

The  ugliest  and  least  saleable  articles  should  be 
raffled  at  the  commencement  of  the  Fair,  or  they 
remain  unsold  and  in  the  way. 

Towards  the  close  of  a Fair  a number  of  articles 
should  be  put  in  a giant  lottery  in  which  are  no 
blanks,  so  that  none  go  away  empty-handed.  This 
form  of  raffling  is  usually  popular. 

The  manner  of  conducting  these  raffles  is  to  make 
so  many  shares  of  the  value  of  fifty  cents,  or  twenty- 
five  cents,  etc.  When  the  full  value  of  the  article 
has  been  attained  by  means  of  the  shares,  as  many 
slips  of  paper  as  there  are  shareholders  are  put  in  a 
hat,  a basket,  or  bag,  and  each  in  turn  draws  out  a 
ticket.  The  one  who  draws  out  the  slip  with  the 
word  “ prize  ” written  on  it  becomes  the  owner  of 
the  article  and  the  lottery  is  over. 

Bran-Tubs  and  Fish-Ponds  are,  however, 
those  most  chiefly  patronized,  and  especially  by 
juveniles.  The  prices  will  vary,  of  course,  accord- 
ing to  the  value  of  the  articles.  The  usual  charge 
is  ten  cents  a dip,  though  sometimes  it  is  necessary 
to  make  it  twenty-five  cents,  or  lower  it  to  a cent. 
A bran-tub  at  which  the  charge  is  so  low  as  this  last 
is  always  a success.  A large  tub  must  be  procured, 
care  being  taken  that  it  is  first  well  scrubbed  and 
cleaned  ; then  cover  it  with  glazed  calico  of  a color 
corresponding  or  contrasting  with  the  prevailing  tone 
of  the  room,  and  further  ornamented  with  flounces 
of  lace  or  muslin  and  bows  of  ribbon.  The  bottom 
is  then  strewn  with  sawdust,  and  the  articles,  neatly 
wrapped  in  white  paper,  are  packed  in  it.  Now  put 
more  sawdust,  pack  in  more  prizes,  and  so  on  until 
the  tub  is  filled. 

The  drawing  of  prizes  takes  place  on  the  payment 
of  the  fee.  Each  subscriber  plunges  his  hand  into 
the  tub,  withdrawing  it  on  securing  a parcel.  The 
chief  amusement  derived  from  this  lottery  is  the  ab- 
surd incongruity  between  the  prize-winner  and  the 
prize.  An  old  gentlemen  may  be  seen  parading 
with  a toy  drum,  or  a grandmamma  of  sixty  with  a 
rosy-cheeked  doll. 

A Fish-Pond  is  managed  in  much  the  same 


HOW  TO  GET  UP  A FAIR. 


r 


5°8 


manner.  One  corner  of  the  room  is  generally  set 
apart  for  the  pond,  which,  like  the  bran-tub,  is  but 
a pond  in  name.  A light  wooden  partition  covered 
with  calico,  and  made  to  look  as  attractive  as  possi- 
ble, separates  this  corner  from  the  rest  of  the  room. 
Behind  this  screen  a number  of  prizes  are  ranged, 
all  wrapped  in  paper  as  in  the  bran-tub.  A rod  with 
a firm  line  and  strong  hook  is  also  provided,  which  is 
delivered  to  each  one  on  the  payment  of  the  fee.  The 
angler  then  casts  the  line  over  the  partition,  and  re- 
ceives the  prize  on  which  the  hook  rests.  This  the 
keeper  of  the  stall  fixes  in  the  parcel,  which  is  then 
drawn  over  the  partition. 

We  have  seen  a very  pretty  fish-pond  at  one 
fair  which  deserves  mention.  A small  space  at  the  end 
of  the  room  was  arranged  like  a small  grotto  with 
seaweed,  shells,  and  ferns,  leaving  a clear  space  in 
the  middle  in  which  the  prizes  were  placed.  This 
had  really  the  appearance  of  a pond  at  some 
little  distance,  and  was  decidedly  ornamental  and 
novel. 

When  a bazaar  is  held  near  the  close  of  the  year,  a 
Christmas-tree  will  be  found  an  appropriate  feature. 
Procure  a well-grown  shapely  fir-tree,  and  have  it 
watered  with  a watering-pot.  Then  shake  a flour- 
dredger  over  it ; this  gives  a snowy  appearance  in 


keeping  with  the  season.  The  flour  will  not  shake 
off  if  ordinary  care  be  taken.  The  smaller  gifts  can 
be  hung  on  the  branches,  the  weightier  laid  round 
the  foot  of  the  tree.  Candles  and  lanterns  can  be 
introduced  at  will. 

For  any  season  of  the  year  the  following  idea  will 
be  suitable  : A large  basket  made  in  the  shape  of  a 
ship,  with  masts  and  rigging  complete,  and  well  filled 
with  gifts.  The  masts  and  rigging  will  bear  some 
of  the  lighter  articles  ; the  others  should  be  stored 
in  the  hold. 

Articles  supplied  from  Stores. — It  is  a fre- 
quent occurrence  now  to  have  a stall  exclusively 
composed  of  articles  either  bought  at  a cheap  rate 
and  sold  with  profit,  or,  as  it  frequently  happens, 
if  the  object  be  a charitable  one,  storekeepers 
will  supply  the  different  articles  free,  thus  giving 
their  share  towards  the  fund.  This  stall  is  always 
very  attractive,  and  should  consist  of  useful  novel- 
ties— such  articles  as  belts,  baskets,  ornaments  of  all 
kinds,  gloves,  books,  appliances  for  every  kind  of 
work,  novelties  in  jewelry,  pencils,  scent-bottles, 
fans,  etc.,  etc.,  and  everything  pretty,  original,  and 
useful  that  ingenuity  will  suggest  and  generosity 
supply.  Inexpensive  trinkets  and  Circassian  jewel* 
ry,  Siberian  crystals,  etc,,  find  a ready  sale. 


SSy 


-4 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


509 


$cri'ptm°al  fVovefb^. 

FALSE  balance  is  an  .abomination  to  the  Lord  ; but  a 
just  weight  is  his  delight. 

A fool  uttereth  all  his  mind ; but  a wise  man  keepeth 
it  till  afterwards. 

A fool’s  wrath  is  presently  known  ; but  a prudent  man 
covereth  shame. 

A good  name  is  rather  to  be  chosen  than  great  riches, 
and  loving  favor  rather  than  silver  and  gold. 

A man  that  has  friends  must  show  himself  friendly ; and 
there  is  a friend  that  sticketh  closer  than  a brother. 

A man  of  understanding  holdeth  his  peace. 

A man’s  pride  shall  bring  him  low ; but  honor  shall  uphold  the 
humble  in  spirit. 

A merry  heart  doeth  good  like  a medicine  ; but  a broken  spirit  drieth 
the  bones. 

A righteous  man  regardeth  the  life  of  his  beast ; but  the  tender  mer- 
cies of  the  wicked  are  cruel. 

A soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath  ; but  grievous  words  stir  up  anger. 

A virtuous  woman  is  a crown  to  her  husband  ; but  she  that  maketh 
ashamed  is  as  rottenness  in  his  bones. 

A wise  son  maketh  a glad  father ; but  a foolish  son  is  the  heaviness 
of  his  mother. 

A word  fitly  spoken  is  like  apples  of  gold  in  pictures  of  silver. 

As  a bird  that  wandereth  from  her  nest,  so  is  a man  that  wandereth 
from  his  place. 

As  a dog  returneth  to  his  vomit,  so  a fool  returneth  to  his  folly. 

As  a jewel  of  gold  on  a swine’s  snout,  so  is  a fair  woman  who  is  with- 
out discretion. 

As  a madman  who  casteth  firebrands,  arrows,  and  death,  so  is  the  man 
that  deceiveth  his  neighbor,  and  saith.  Am  not  I in  sport? 

As  the  crackling  of  thorns  under  a pot,  so  is  the  laughter  of  a fool. 

As  the  whirlwind  passeth,  so  is  the  wicked  no  more  ; but  the  righteous 
is  an  everlasting  foundation. 

As  vinegar  to  the  teeth,  and  as  smoke  to  the  eyes,  so  is  the  sluggard 
to  them  that  send  him. 

Be  thou  diligent  to  know  the  state  of  thy  flocks,  and  look  well  to  thy 
herds  ; for  riches  are  not  forever. 

Before  honor  is  humility. 

Better  is  a dry  morsel  and  quietness  therewith,  than  a house  full  of 
sacrifices  with  strife. 

Better  is  a dinner  of  herbs  where  love  is,  than  a stalled  ox  and  hatred 
therewith. 

Better  is  a little  with  righteousness,  than  great  revenues  without  right. 

Blessings  are  upon  the  head  of  the  just ; but  violence  covereth  the 
mouth  of  the  wicked. 


Boast  not  thyself  of  to-morrow  ; for  thou  knowest  not  what  a day  may 
bring  forth. 

By  much  slothfulness  the  building  decayeth  ; and  through  idleness  of 
the  hands  the  house  droppeth  through. 

By  pride  cometh  contention. 

Cast  thy  bread  upon  the  waters,  for  thou  shalt  find  it  after  many  days. 

Even  a fool,  when  he  holdeth  his  peace,  is  counted  wise  ; and  he  that 
shutteth  his  lips  is  esteemed  a man  of  understanding. 

Faithful  are  the  wounds  of  a friend  ; but  the  kisses  of  an  enemy  are 
deceitful. 

Favor  is  deceitful,  and  beauty  is  vain  ; but  a woman  that  feareth  the 
Lord,  she  shall  be  praised. 

Fear  God,  and  keep  his  commandments;  for  this  is  the  whole  duty  of 
man. 

For  men  to  search  their  own  glory  * is  not  glory. 

Go  from  the  presence  of  the  foolish  man,  when  thou  perceivest  not  in 
him  the  lips  of  knowledge. 

Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard  ; consider  her  ways  and  be  wise. 

God  hath  made  man  upright,  but  they  have  sought  out  many  inven- 
tions. 

He  becometh  poor  that  dealeth  with  a slack  hand  ; but  the  hand  of  the 
diligent  maketh  rich. 

He  that  observeth  the  wind  shall  not  sow,  and  he  that  regardeth  the 
clouds  shall  not  reap. 

He  that  passeth  by,  and  meddleth  with  strife  belonging  not  to  him,  is 
like  one  that  taketh  a dog  by  the  ears. 

He  that  is  slow  to  anger  is  better  than  the  mighty,  and  he  that  ruleth 
his  spirit  than  he  that  taketh  a city. 

He  that  loveth  pleasure  shall  be  a poor  man  : he  that  loveth  wine  and 
oil  shall  not  be  rich. 

He  that  is  greedy  of  gain  troubleth  his  own  house  ; but  he  that  hateth 
gifts  shall  live. 

He  that  is  of  a merry  heart  hath  a continual  feast. 

He  that  is  first  in  his  own  cause  seemeth  just ; but  his  neighbor  com- 
eth and  scarcheth  him. 

He  that  hath  pity  upon  the  poor  lendeth  to  the  Lord  ; and  that  which 
he  hath  given  will  he  pay  him  again. 

He  that  hideth  hatred  with  lying  lips,  and  he  that  uttereth  a slander,  is 
a fool. 

He  that  spareth  the  rod  hateth  his  son  ; but  he  that  loveth  him  chasten- 
eth  betimes. 

He  that  gathereth  in  summer  is  a wise  son ; but  he  that  sleepeth  in 
harvest  is  a son  that  causes  shame. 

He  that  walketh  uprightly  walketh  surely  ; but  he  that  perverteth  his 
ways  shall  be  known. 

He  that  is  surety  for  a stranger,  shalJ  smart  for  it ; and  he  that  hateth 
suretyship  is  sure. 


* To  talk  of  their  own  doings. 


5io 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


He  that  keepeth  [silent]  his  mouth,  keepeth  his  life  ; but  he  that  openeth 
wide  his  lips  shall  have  destruction. 

He  that  troubleth  his  own  house  shall  inherit  the  wind  ; and  the  fool 
shall  be  servant  of  the  wise  of  heart. 

Heaviness  in  the  heart  of  a man  maketh  it  stoop ; but  a good  word 
-juketh  it  glad. 

Hell  and  destruction  are  never  full ; so  the  eyes  of  man  are  never  satis- 
fied. 

His  own  iniquities  shall  take  the  wicked  himself,  and  ne  shall  be  holden 
with  the  cords  of  his  own  sins. 

Hope  deferred  maketh  the  heart  sick. 

If  sinners  entice  thee,  consent  thou  not. 

If  the  iron  be  blunt,  and  he  do  not  whet  the  edge,  then  must  he  put  to 
more  strength  ; but  wisdom  is  profitable  to  direct.* 

If  thine  enemy  be  hungry,  give  him  bread  to  eat ; and  if  he  be  thirsty, 
give  him  water  to  drink : for  thou  shalt  heap  coals  of  fire  upon  his 
head,  and  the  Lord  shall  reward  thee. 

If  thou  faint  in  the  day  of  adversity,  thy  strength  is  small. 

If  ye  cast  pearls  before  swine,  they  will  turn  again  and  rend  you. 

In  all  labor  there  is  profit ; but  the  talk  of  the  lips  tendeth  only  to 
penury. 

Iron  sharpeneth  iron  ; so  a man  sharpeneth  the  countenance  of  his 
friend. 

It  is  nought,  it  is  nought,  saith  the  buyer ; but  when  he  is  gone  his 
way,  then  he  boastelh. 

It  is  better  to  dwell  in  a corner  of  the  house-top,  than  with  a brawling 
woman  in  a wide  house. 

Let  another  man  praise  thee,  and  not  thine  own  mouth  ; a stranger,  and 
not  thine  own  lips. 

Love  not  sleep,  lest  thou  come  to  poverty  : open  thine  eyes,  and  thou 
shalt  be  satisfied  with  bread. 

Much  food  is  in  the  tillage  of  the  poor;  but  there  is  that  is  destroyed 
for  want  of  judgment. 

Of  making  many  books  there  is  no  end  ; and  much  study  is  a weariness 
of  the  flesh. 

Pride  goeth  before  destruction,  and  a haughty  spirit  before  a fall. 

Remove  not  the  old  land  mark  ; and  enter  not  into  the  fields  of  the 
fatherless. 

Reprove  not  a scorner  lest  he  hate  thee ; rebuke  a wise  man  and  he 
will  love  thee. 

Righteousness  exalteth  a nation  ; but  sin  is  a reproach  to  any  people. 

Say  not  unto  thy  neighbur,  Go,  and  come  again,  and  to-morrow  1 will 
give,  when  thou  hast  it  by  thee. 

Seest  thou  a man  diligent  in  his  business;  he  shall  stand  before  kings  ; 
he  shall  not  stand  before  mean  men.t 

Seest  thou  a man  that  is  hasty  in  his  words:  there  is  more  hope  of  a 
fool  than  of  him. 

Strive  not  with  a man  without  cause,  if  he  have  done  thee  no  harm. 

The  blessing  of  the  Lord,  it  maketh  rich,  and  he  addeth  no  sorrow 
with  it. 

The  curse  causeless  shall  not  come. 

The  drunkard  and  the  glutton  shall  come  to  poverty  : and  drowsiness 
shall  clothe  a man  with  rags. 

The  hand  of  the  diligent  shall  bear  rule ; but  the  slothful  shall  be  under 
tribute. 

The  labor  of  the  righteous  tendeth  to  life,  the  fruit  of  the  wicked  to 
sin. 

The  memory  of  the  just  is  blessed  ; but  the  name  of  the  wicked  shall  rot. 

The  race  is  not  to  the  swift,  nor  the  battle  to  the  strong. 

The  rich  man  is  wise  in  his  own  conceit  ;but  the  poor  that  hath  under- 
standing searcheth  him  out. 

The  rich  man’s  wealth  is  his  strong  city  ; the  destruction  of  the  poor  is 
their  poverty. 

The  rich  ruleth  over  the  poor ; and  the  borrower  is  servant  to  the  lender. 

The  simple  believeth  every  word  ; but  the  prudent  man  looketh  well  to 
his  going. 

The  sleep  of  the  laboring  man  is  sweet,  whether  he  eat  little  or  much  ; 
but  the  abundance  of  the  rich  will  not  suffer  him  to  sleep. 


* Knowledge  is  power. — Bacon. 

t Ancientlv,  in  the  East,  it  was  an  honor  to  be  permitted  to  stand  in 
the  presence  of  kings,  as  it  is  to  sit  before  them  in  our  own  times. 


The  sluggard  will  not  plow  by  reason  of  the  cold  ; therefore  shall  he 
beg  in  harvest,  and  have  nothing. 

The  slothful  man  saith,  There  is  a lion  without ; I shall  be  slain  in  the 
streets. 

The  poor  is  hated  even  of  his  neighbor  ; but  the  rich  hath  many  friends. 

The  profit  of  the  earth  is  for  all ; the  king  himself  is  served  by  the  field. 

The  upright  shall  dwell  in  the  land,  and  the  perfect  shall  remain  in  it; 
but  the  wicked  shall  be  cut  off  from  the  earth,  and  the  transgressoi 
shall  be  rooted  out  of  it. 

The  wicked  flee  when  no  man  pursueth  ; * but  the  righteous  are  bold  as 
a lion. 

The  wise  shall  inherit  glory  ; but  shame  shall  be  the  promotion  of  fools. 

There  is  that  maketh  himself  rich,  yet  hath  nothing  ; there  is  that  mak- 
eth himself  poor,  yet  hath  great  riches. 

There  is  that  scattereth,  and  yet  increaseth ; and  there  is  that  with 
holdeth  more  than  is  meet,  but  it  tendeth  to  poverty. 

To  all  the  living  there  is  hope : a living  dog  is  better  than  a dead  lion. 

Train  up  a child  in  the  way  he  should  go,  and  when  he  is  old  he  will  not 
depart  from  it. 

Treasures  of  wickedness  profit  nothing;  but  righteousness  deli  vereth 
from  death. 

Wealth  makes  many  friends  ; but  the  poor  is  separated  from  his  neigh- 
bor. 

Whatsoever  thy  hand  findeth  to  do,  do  it  with  thy  might,  for  there  is 
no  work,  nor  device,  nor  knowledge,  nor  wisdom  in  the  grave, 
whither  thou  goest. 

When  goods  increase,  they  are  increased  that  eat  them  ; and  what  good 
is  there  to  the  owners  thereof,  saving  the  beholding  of  them  with 
their  eyes. 

Where  no  counsel  is,  the  people  fall ; but  in  the  multitude  of  counsel- 
lors there  is  safety. 

Where  no  wood  is,  then  the  fire  goeth  out ; so  where  there  is  no  tale- 
bearer, the  strife  ceaseth. 

When  pride cometh,  then  cometh  shame  ; but  with  the  lowly  is  wisdom. 

Who  can  find  a virtuous  woman  ? for  her  price  is  far  above  rubies. 

Whoso  findeth  a wife  findeth  a good  thing,  and  obtaineth  favor  of  the 
Lord. 

Wine  is  a mocker,  strong  drink  is  raging  ; and  whosoever  is  deceived 
thereby  is  not  wise. 

Withdraw  thy  foot  from  thy  neighbor’s  house,  lest  he  be  weary  of  thee, 
and  so  hate  thee. 

Withhold  not  good  from  them  to  whom  it  is  due,  when  it  is  in  the  power 
of  thine  hand  to  do. 

Vet  a little  sleep,  a little  slumber,  a little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep : 
so  shall  thy  poverty  come  as  one  that  traveleth,  and  thy  want  as  an 
armed  man. 


'msmu 


m 


IJ^NQUJSH  pR0VEF(B;5.il 


BAD  workman  quarrels  with  his  tools. 

A bird  in  the  hand  is  worth  two  in  a bush. 

A happy  heart  makes  a blooming  visage. 

Absence  cools  moderate  passions,  and  inflames  violent 
ones. 

A burden  which  one  chooses  is  not  felt. 

A cat  may  look  at  a king. 

Aching  teeth  are  ill  tenants. 

A chip  of  the  old  block. 

A clear  conscience  fears  no  accusation. 

A contented  mind  is  a continual  feast. 

A creaking  door  hangs  long  on  the  hinges. 

A day  after  the  feast. 


* Conscience  makes  cowards  of  us  all. — Shakespeare 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


5i' 


A drowning  man  will  catch  at  a straw. 

Adversity  flattereth  no  man. 

A fat  kitchen  makes  a lean  will. 

A fault  confessed  is  half  redressed. 

A fool  and  his  money  are  soon  parted. 

A fool  can  make  money  ; it  requires  a wise  man  to  spend  it. 
A fool  may  give  a wise  man  counsel. 

A fool’s  bolt  is  soon  shot. 

After  death  the  doctor. 

After  dinner  sit  a while,  after  supper  walk  a mile. 

After  meat,  mustard. 

A friend  in  need  is  a friend  indeed. 

A full  purse  never  lacks  friends. 

A gentleman  without  a living  is  like  a pudding  without  suet. 
A good  layer-up  is  a good  layer-out. 

A good  maxim  is  never  out  of  season. 

A good  name  keeps  its  luster  in  the  dark. 

A good  servant  makes  a good  master. 

A good  word  is  as  soon  said  as  an  ill  one. 

A goose  cannot  graze  after  him. 

A great  dowry  is  a bed  full  of  troubles. 

Agues  come  on  horseback,  but  go  away  on  foot. 

A guilty  conscience  needs  no  accuser. 

A hair  of  the  dog  that  bit  him. 

A handful  of  good  life  is  better  than  a bushel  of  learning. 

A hungry  man’s  an  angry  man. 

A king’s  favor  is  no  inheritance. 

A libertine’s  life  is  not  a life  of  liberty. 

A lie  has  no  legs,  but  scandal  has  wings. 

A light-heeled  mother  makes  a heavy-heeled  daughter. 

A light  purse  is  a heavy  curse. 

A little  body  doth  often  harbor  a great  soul. 

A nttle  leak  will  sink  a great  ship. 

A little  pot  is  soon  hot. 

All  are  not  friends  that  speak  us  fair. 

All  are  not  hunters  that  blow  the  horn. 

All  are  not  thieves  that  dogs  bark  at. 

All  feet  tread  not  in  one  shoe. 

All  gone  to  sixes  and  sevens  [confusion  and  ruir.]. 

All  is  fish  that  comes  to  the  net. 

All  is  not  gain  that  is  got  into  the  purse. 

All  is  not  gold  that  glitters. 

All  lay  hold  on  the  willing  horse. 

All  the  honesty  is  in  the  parting. 

All  the  fat’s  in  the  fire. 

AU  things  are  soon  prepared  in  a well-ordered  house. 

All  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a dull  boy. 

Almost  and  very  nigh,  save  many  a lie. 

Always  put  the  saddle  on  the  right  horse. 

A man  forewarned  is  forearmed. 

A man  may  buy  gold  too  dear. 

A man  may  cause  his  own  dog  to  bite  him. 

A man  may  hold  his  tongue  in  an  ill  time. 

A man  may  lose  his  goods  for  want  of  demanding  them. 

A man  must  ask  his  wife  leave  to  thrive. 

A man  never  surfeits  of  too  much  honesty. 

A man  without  reason  is  a beast  in  season. 

A miss  is  as  good  as  a mile. 

An  apple,  an  egg,  and  a nut,  you  may  eat  after  a slut. 

An  empty  purse  fills  the  face  with  wrinkles. 

An  evil  lesson  is  soon  learned. 

Anger  dieth  quickly  with  a good  man. 

An  honest  man’s  word  is  as  good  as  his  bond. 

An  hour  in  the  morning  is  worth  two  in  the  afternoon. 

A nice  wife  and  a backdoor  often  makca  rich  man  poor. 

An  idle  brain  is  the  devil’s  workshop. 

An  oak  is  not  felled  with  one  blow. 

An  obedient  wife  commands  her  husband. 

A nod  from  a lord  is  a breakfast  for  a fool. 

An  old  knave  is  no  babe. 

An  old  sack  asketh  much  patching. 

An  ounce  of  mother  wit  is  worth  a pound  of  clergy. 


Antiquity  is  not  always  a mark  of  verity. 

An  unlawful  oath  is  better  broke  than  kept. 

Anything  for  a quiet  life. 

A penny  saved  is  a penny  earned. 

A pin  a day  is  a groat  a year. 

A pitcher  goes  often  to  the  well, but  is  broken  at  last. 

A quiet  conscience  sleeps  in  thunder. 

A quiet  tongue  shows  a wise  head. 

A rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 

A rotten  apple  injures  its  companions. 

A rotten  sheep  infects  the  whole  flock. 

A single  fact  is  worth  a ship-load  of  argument. 

A small  pack  becomes  a small  peddler. 

A small  spark  makes  a great  fire. 

A smart  reproof  is  better  than  smooth  deceit. 

A spur  in  the  head  is  worth  two  in  the  heel. 

As  the  bell  is,  so  is  the  clapper. 

As  the  crow  is,  the  egg  will  be. 

As  the  fool  thinks  the  bell  clinks. 

As  the  old  cock  crows,  the  young  cock  learns. 

A stitch  in  time  saves  nine. 

As  welcome  as  flowers  in  May. 

As  you  make  your  bed,  so  must  you  lie  on  it. 

As  you  sow,  so  you  shall  reap. 

A tree  is  known  by  its  fruit. 

A wager  is  a fool’s  argument. 

A willful  man  will  have  his  way. 

A willing  mind  makes  a light  foot. 

A word  before  is  worth  two  behind. 

Aye  be  as  merry  as  you  can. 

Bachelors’  wives  and  maids’  children  arc  always  well  taught. 

Beauty  is  a blossom. 

Beauty  is  no  inheritance. 

Before  thou  marry,  be  sure  of  a house  wherein  to  tarry. 

Beggars  have  no  right  to  be  choosers. 

Be  it  for  better,  or  be  it  for  worse,  be  ruled  by  him  that  beareth  the 
purse. 

Be  not  too  hasty  to  outbid  another. 

Be  slow  to  promise,  and  quick  to  perform. 

Better  do  it  than  wish  it  done. 

Better  go  around  than  fall  into  the  ditch. 

Better  known  than  trusted. 

Better  late  than  never. 

Better  ride  on  an  ass  that  carries  me,  than  a horse  that  throws  me. 
Better  to  be  alone  than  in  bad  company. 

Better  to  be  beaten  than  to  be  in  bad  company. 

Better  to  bend  than  to  break. 

Better  to  go  to  bed  supperless  than  to  rise  in  debt. 

Between  two  stools  we  come  to  the  ground. 

Birds  of  a feather  flock  together. 

Birth  is  much,  but  breeding  is  more. 

Borrowed  garments  never  fit  well. 

Brag  is  a good  dog,  but  Holdfast  is  better. 

Bread  at  pleasure,  drink  by  measure. 

Brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit. 

Building  and  marrying  of  children  are  great  wasters. 

Burning  the  candle  at  both  ends. 

Business  is  the  salt  of  life. 

Buy  at  a market,  but  sell  at  home. 

By  others’  faults  wise  men  correct  their  own. 

“ Can  do,"  is  easily  carried. 

Care  killed  a cat. 

Carrying  coals  to  Newcastle. 

Catch  not  at  the  shadow,  and  lose  the  substance. 

Catch  the  bear  before  you  sell  his  skin. 

Change  of  fortune  is  the  lot  of  life. 

Charity  begins  at  home,  but  does  not  end  there. 

Cheating  play  never  thrives. 

Children  and  chickens  must  be  always  picking. 

Children  arc  uncertain  comforts. 

Children  suck  the  mother  when  they  are  young,  and  the  father  when 
they  are  old. 


512 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


Climb  not  too  high,  lest  the  fall  be  the  greater. 

Confession  of  a fault  makes  half  amends  for  it. 

Confine  your  tongue,  lest  it  confine  you. 

Conscience  is  never  dilatory  in  her  warnings. 

Conscience  is  the  chamber  of  justice. 

Constant  occupation  prevents  temptation. 

Content  is  the  true  philosopher’s  stone. 

Contentment  to  the  mind  is  as  light  to  the  eye. 

Conviviality  should  ever  be  free  from  intemperance. 

Courtesy  on  one  side  never  lasts  long. 

Covet  not  that  which  belongs  to  others. 

Craft  bringeth  nothing  home. 

Custom  is  a second  nature. 

Cut  and  come  again. 

Cut  your  coat  according  to  your  cloth. 

Daub  yourself  with  honey,  and  you  will  have  plenty  of  flies. 

Death  is  deaf,  and  hears  no  denial. 

Death  keeps  no  calendar. 

Debt  is  the  worst  kind  of  poverty. 

Deeds  are  fruits,  words  are  but  leaves. 

Deep  rivers  move  with  silent  majesty,  shallow  brooks  are  noisy. 
Defer  not  till  the  evening  what  the  morning  may  accomplish. 

Delays  are  dangerous. 

Deliberate  slowly,  execute  promptly. 

Depend  not  on  fortune,  but  on  conduct. 

Dependence  is  a poor  trade  to  follow. 

Deride  not  any  man’s  infirmities. 

Desires  are  nourished  by  delays. 

Deserve  success,  and  you  shall  command  ft. 

Despise  none,  despair  of  none. 

Diligence  is  the  mistress  of  success. 

Diseases  are  the  interests  paid  for  pleasures. 

Do  as  the  most  do,  and  fewest  will  speak  evil  of  you.* 

Do  as  you  would  be  done  by. 

Dogs  wag  their  tails  not  so  much  in  love  to  you  as  to  your  bread. 
Doing  nothing  is  doing  ill. 

Do  not  burn  daylight  upon  it. 

Do  not  halloo  till  you  are  out  of  the  wood. 

Do  not  make  fish  of  one  and  flesh  of  another. 

Do  not  rip  up  old  sores. 

Do  not  spur  a free  horse. 

Do  not  throw  your  opinions  in  everybody’s  teeth. 

Don’t  be  all  your  days  trotting  in  a cabbage  leaf. 

Don't  buy  a pig  in  a poke. 

Don’t  measure  other  people’s  corn  by  your  bushel. 

Don’t  neglect  to  feather  your  nest. 

Don’t  run  away  with  more  than  you  can  carry. 

Don’t  value  a gem  by  what  it  is  set  in. 

Do  what  thou  oughtest,  and  come  what  can. 

Down  with  the  dust  [pay  with  the  money]. 

Drunkenness  is  a pair  of  spectacles  to  see  the  devil  and  all  his  works. 
Drunkenness  reduces  a man  below  the  standard  of  a brute. 

Eagles  fly  alone,  but  sheep  flock  together. 

Early  to  bed  and  early  to  rise, 

Makes  a man  healthy,  wealthy,  and  wise. 

Eat  what  you  like,  but  pocket  nothing. 

Empty  vessels  make  the  greatest  sound. 

Enough  is  as  good  as  a feast. 

Entertain  honor  with  humility,  and  poverty  with  patience. 

Evening  oats  are  good  morning’s  fodder. 

Ever  drunk  ever  dry. 

Ever  spare  and  ever  have. 

Every  bean  has  its  black. 

Every  dog  hath  his  day. 

Everybody’s  business  is  nobody’s  business. 

Every  couple  is  not  a pair. 

Every  herring  must  hang  by  its  own  head. 

Every  Jack  has  his  Jill. 

Every  man  is  the  architect  of  his  own  fortune. 


* In  most  cases  this  would  be  a bad  advice. 


Every  one  for  himself,  and  God  for  us  all. 

Every  one  puts  his  fault  on  the  times. 

Every  one  to  his  liking,  as  the  old  woman  said  when  she  kissed  hei 
cow. 

Every  path  hath  a puddle. 

Every  shoe  fits  not  every  foot. 

Everything  hath  an  end,  and  a pudding  hath  two. 

Everything  is  good  in  its  season. 

Everything  is  the  worse  for  wearing. 

Example  teaches  more  than  precept. 

Experience  is  the  mother  of  science. 

Experience  teaches  fools. 

Evil  communications  corrupt  good  manners. 

Evil  gotten,  evil  spent. 

Faint  heart  never  won  fair  lady. 

Fair  and  softly  go  far  in  a day. 

Fair  words  make  fools  fain. 

Fall  not  out  with  a friend  for  a trifle. 

False  friends  are  worse  than  open  enemies 
Fancy  may  bolt  bran  and  thfnk  it  flour. 

Far-fetched  and  dear-bought  is  good  for  ladies. 

Fat  paunches  make  lean  pates. 

Fat  sorrow  is  better  than  lean  sorrow. 

Few  take  care  to  live  well,  but  many  to  live  long. 

Fiddler’s  fare — meat,  drink,  and  money. 

Fine  feathers  make  fine  birds. 

Fine  words  butter  no  parsnips. 

Fire  and  water  are  good  servants,  but  bad  masters. 

Fire  is  not  to  be  quenched  with  tow. 

First  deserve  and  then  desire. 

Fly  pleasure  and  it  will  follow  thee. 

Fools  make  feasts,  and  wise  men  eat  them. 

Fools  should  never  see  half-done  work. 

Fools  tie  knots,  and  wise  men  loose  them. 

Fools  will  be  meddling. 

Forebearance  is  no  acquittance. 

Forgive  and  forget. 

Forgive  any  sooner  than  thyself. 

Fortune  favors  the  brave. 

Fortune  has  no  power  over  discretion. 

Fortune  knocks  once  at  least  at  every  man's  gate. 

For  want  of  company,  welcome  trumpery. 

From  fami  to  infamy  is  a beaten  road. 

Gather  thistles  except  prickles. 

Gentry  sent  to  market  will  not  buy  one  bushel  of  corn. 

Get  thy  spindle  and  distaff  ready,  and  God  will  send  flax 
Give  a dog  an  ill  name  and  hang  him. 

Give  a rogue  rope  enough,  and  he  will  hang  himself. 

Give  it  plenty  of  elbow  grease  [hard  rubbing]. 

Give  the  devil  his  due. 

God  help  the  rich,  the  poor  can  beg. 

God  helps  those  who  help  themselves. 

God  send  you  more  wit,  and  me  more  money. 

God  tempers  the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb. 

Go  farther  and  fare  worse. 

Good  counsel  is  above  all  price. 

Good  harvests  make  men  prodigal,  bad  ones  provident. 

Good  to  be  merry  at  meat. 

Good  ware  makes  quick  markets. 

Good  wine  needs  no  bush. 

Good  words  cost  nothing,  but  are  worth  much. 

Goods  are  not  theirs  who  enjoy  them. 

Gossiping  and  lying  go  hand  in  hand. 

Grasp  all,  lose  all. 

Great  barkers  are  no  biters. 

Great  cry  and  little  wool. 

Great  gain  and  little  pain  make  a man  soon  weary. 

Half  a loaf  is  better  than  no  bread. 

Handsome  is  that  handsome  does. 

Happy  is  he  whose  friends  were  born  before  him. 

Happy  is  he  who  knows  his  follies  in  his  youth. 

Happy  is  the  wooing  that  is  not  long  in  doing. 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


Harm  watch,  harm  catch. 

Hasty  resolutions  seldom  speed  well. 

Have  not  thy  cloak  to  make  when  it  begins  to  rain. 

Hear  twice  before  you  speak  once. 

He  dances  well  to  whom  fortune  pipes. 

He  doubles  his  gift  who  gives  in  time. 

He  fights  with  his  own  shadow. 

He  giveth  twice  that  gives  in  a trice. 

He  has  a bee  in  his  bonnet. 

He  has  brought  his  noble  to  ninepence. 

He  has  had  a bit  upon  his  bridle. 

He  is  a wise  man  who  speaks  little. 

He  is  proper  that  hath  proper  conditions. 

He  knows  not  a B from  a bull’s  foot. 

He  knows  not  a hawk  from  a hand-saw. 

He  lacks  most  that  longs  most. 

Hell  is  paved  with  good  intentions. 

Help  the  lame  dog  over  the  stile. 

He  liveth  long  that  liveth  well. 

He’ll  find  some  hole  to  creep  out  at. 

He  loses  nothing  for  the  asking. 

He  loseth  his  thanks  who  promiseth  and  delayeth. 

He  loseth  nothing  that  keeps  God  for  his  friend. 

He  loves  roast  meat  well  that  licks  the  spit. 

He  may  well  be  contented  who  needs  neither  borrow  nor  flatter. 

He  must  needs  run  whom  the  devil  drives. 

He  must  stoop  that  hath  a low  door. 

He  plays  well  that  wins. 

He’s  a Jack  in  office. 

He’s  gone  upon  a sleeveless  errand. 

He  that  always  complains  is  never  pitied. 

He  that  blows  in  the  dust  fills  his  eyes. 

He  that  falls  in  an  evil  cause,  falls  in  the  devil’s  frying-pan. 

He  that  goes  a-borrowing  goes  a-sorrowing. 

He  that  has  no  shame  has  no  conscience. 

He  that  has  no  silver  in  his  purse  should  have  silver  on  his  tongue. 

He  that  hath  a good  harvest  may  be  content  with  some  thistles. 

He  that  is  angry  is  seldom  at  ease. 

He  that  is  warm  thinks  all  are  so. 

He  that  lendeth  looseth  double.  [Loses  both  his  money  and  his  friend.] 
He  that  licks  honey  from  thorns  pays  too  dear  for  it. 

He  that  lies  down  with  dogs,  must  expect  to  rise  with  fleas. 

He  that  lives  not  well  one  year  sorrows  for  it  seven. 

He  that  liveth  wickedly  can  hardly  die  honestly. 

He  that  reckons  without  his  host  must  reckon  again. 

He  that  runs  fast  will  not  run  long. 

He  that  runs  in  the  night  stumbles. 

He  that  plants  not  corn  sows  thistles. 

He  that  stays  in  the  valley  will  never  get  over  the  hill. 

He  that  will  not  be  saved  needs  no  preacher. 

He  that  will  not  be  counseled  cannot  be  helped. 

He  that  will  steal  an  egg  will  steal  an  ox. 

He  that  would  thrive  must  rise  at  five;  he  that  has  thriven  may  lie  till 
seven. 

He  was  born  with  a silver  spoon  in  his  mouth. 

He  who  is  hasty  fishes  in  an  empty  pond. 

He  who  knows  himself  best  esteems  himself  least. 

He  who  lies  long  in  bed  his  estate  feels  it. 

He  who  marries  for  wealth  doth  sell  his  liberty. 

He  who  rises  late  never  does  a good  day’s  work. 

He  who  runs  after  a shadow  has  a wearisome  race. 

He  who  sows  brambles  must  not  go  barefoot. 

He  who  spends  all  he  gets  is  in  the  highroad  to  beggary. 

He  who  swims  in  sin  will  sink  in  sorrow. 

He  who  would  catch  fish  must  not  mind  getting  wet. 

He  who  would  reap  well  must  sow  well. 

Hiders  are  good  finders. 

His  bread  is  buttered  on  both  sides. 

His  eye  is  bigger  than  his  belly. 

His  tongue’s  no  slander. 

Home  is  home  though  it  be  ever  so  homely. 

Hope  is  a good  breakfast  but  a bad  supper. 




Hot  love  is  soon  cold. 

Hot  sup,  hot  swallow. 

Humility  is  the  foundation  of  all  virtue. 

Hunger  is  the  best  sauce. 

Hungry  dogs  eat  dirty  puddings. 

I can  see  as  far  into  a millstone  as  the  picker. 

Idle  folks  have  the  most  labor. 

Idle  folks  have  the  least  leisure. 

Idleness  is  the  greatest  prodigality. 

Idleness  is  the  parent  of  want  and  shame. 

Idleness  is  the  root  of  all  evil. 

Idleness  is  the  sepulchre  of  a living  man. 

If  every  one  would  mend  one,  all  would  be  amended. 

If  the  brain  plants  not  corn,  it  sows  thistles. 

If  the  cap  fit,  wear  it. 

If  the  mountain  will  not  come  to  Mahomet,  Mahomet  must  go  to  the 
mountain. 

If  things  were  to  be  done  twice,  all  would  be  wise. 

If  we  subdue  not  our  passions,  they  will  subdue  us. 

If  wishes  were  horses,  beggars  would  ride. 

If  you  give  an  inch,  he  will  take  an  ell. 

If  you  have  too  many  irons  in  the  fire,  some  of  them  will  bum. 

If  you  would  enjoy  the  fruit,  pluck  not  the  flower. 

Ignorance  is  the  parent  of  many  injuries. 

I have  a crow  to  pluck  with  you. 

1 have  lived  too  near  a wood  to  be  frightened  by  owls. 

I have  other  fish  to  fry. 

I’ll  trust  him  no  farther  than  I can  fling  him. 

Ill  examples  are  like  contagious  diseases. 

Ill  gotten  goods  seldom  prosper. 

Ill  news  travel  apace. 

Ill  wedding  and  ill  wintering  tame  both  man  and  beast. 

Ill  weeds  grow  apace. 

In  a calm  sea  every  man  is  a pilot. 

In  at  one  ear  and  out  at  the  other. 

In  vain  he  craves  advice  that  will  not  follow  it. 

Inconstancy  is  the  attendant  of  a weak  mind. 

It  costs  more  to  revenge  injuries  than  to  bear  them. 

It  cuts  both  ways,  like  a two-edged  sword. 

It  is  a bad  horse  that  refuses  to  carry  his  provender. 

It  is  a long  road  that  has  no  turning. 

It  is  an  ill  wind  that  blows  nobody  good. 

It  is  better  to  do  well  than  to  say  well. 

It  is  good  to  begin  well,  but  better  to  end  well. 

It  is  less  painful  to  learn  in  youth  than  to  be  ignorant  in  age. 

It  is  never  too  late  to  learn. 

It  is  no  small  conquest  to  overcome  yourself. 

It  is  not  the  cowl  that  maketh  the  friar. 

It’s  a bad  cause  that  none  dare  speak  in. 

It’s  a bad  sack  will  abide  no  clouting. 

It’s  a good  horse  that  never  stumbles. 

It’s  poor  sport  that’s  not  worth  the  candle. 

It’s  a sad  heart  that  never  rejoices. 

It’s  a wise  child  that  knows  its  own  father. 

It’s  an  ill  procession  where  the  devil  holds  the  candle. 

It’s  easy  to  bowl  down  hill. 

It's  ill  healing  an  old  sore. 

It’s  ill  shaving  against  the  wool. 

It’s  merry  in  the  hall  when  beards  wag  all. 

It’s  more  painful  to  do  nothing  than  something. 

It’s  not  the  gay  coat  makes  the  gentleman. 

It’s  possible  for  a ram  to  kill  a butcher. 

It’s  wit  to  pick  a lock  and  steal  a horse,  but  wisdom  to  let  them  alone 
Jack  Nokes  and  Tom  Stiles. 

Jack  uf  all  trades  and  master  of  none. 

Jesting  lies  bring  serious  sorrows. 

Judge  not  of  a ship  as  she  lies  on  the  stocks. 

Judge  not  of  men  or  things  at  first  sight. 

Keep  a thing  seven  years  and  you  will  find  a use  for  It. 

Keep  counsel  thyself  first. 

Keep  good  men  company,  and  you  shall  be  of  the  number. 

Keep  no  more  cats  than  will  catch  mice. 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


Keep  the  bowels  open,  the  head  cool,  and  the  feet  warm,  and  a fig  for 
physicians. 

Keep  thy  shop,  and  thy  shop  will  keep  thee. 

Keep  your  tongue  within  your  teeth. 

Kill  two  birds  with  one  stone. 

Kindness  is  lost  upon  an  ungrateful  man. 

Kindness,  like  grain,  increases  by  sowing. 

Kissing  goes  by  favor. 

Knavery  may  serve  a turn,  but  honesty  is  best  in  the  end. 

Land  was  never  lost  for  want  of  an  heir. 

Lazy  folks  take  the  most  pains. 

Least  said  is  soonest  mended. 

Lend  thy  horse  and  thou  mayest  have  back  his  skin 
Let  every  peddler  carry  his  own  burden. 

Let  every  tub  stand  on  its  own  bottom. 

Let  not  your  tongue  cut  your  throat. 

Let  sleeping  dogs  lie. 

Let  the  cobbler  stick  to  his  last. 

Let  them  laugh  that  win. 

Life  is  half  spent  before  we  know  what  it  is. 

Life  without  a friend  is  death  without  a witness. 

Light  come,  light  go. 

Lips  however  rosy  must  be  fed. 

Little  and  often  fills  the  purse. 

Little  boats  must  keep  near  shore. 

Little  pitchers  have  great  ears. 

Little  sticks  kindle  the  fire,  but  great  ones  put  it  out. 

Live  and  let  live. 

Live  not  to  eat,  but  eat  to  live. 

Lowly  set,  richly  worn. 

Lock  the  stable  door  when  the  steed  is  stolen. 

Long  looked-for  comes  at  last. 

Look  before  you  leap. 

Look  to  the  main  chance. 

Look  twice  ere  you  determine  once. 

Lookers-on  see  more  than  players. 

Losers  are  always  in  the  wrong. 

Love  asks  faith,  and  faith  asks  firmness. 

Love  me,  love  my  dog. 

Lovers  live  by  love  as  larks  by  leeks.  [Ironical.J 
Lucky  men  need  little  counsel. 

Make  a virtue  of  necessity. 

Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines. 

Make  not  your  sail  too  large  for  your  ship. 

Make  the  best  of  a bad  bargain. 

Making  a toil  of  a pleasure. 

Man  doth  what  he  can  and  God  what  he  will 
Man  proposes,  God  disposes. 

Manners  often  make  fortunes. 

Many  a slip  betwixt  the  cup  and  the  lip. 

Many  a true  word  is  spoken  in  jest. 

Many  can  pack  the  cards  that  cannot  play. 

Many  go  out  for  wool  and  come  home  shorn. 

Many  hands  make  light  work. 

Many  words  will  not  fill  the  bushel. 

Marry  in  haste  and  repent  at  leisure. 

Marry  you  * sons  when  you  will,  your  daughters  when  you  can. 

Mills  and  wives  are  ever  wanting. 

Mischiefs  come  by  the  pound  and  go  away  by  the  ounce. 

Misfortunes  seldom  come  alone. 

Misreckoning  is  no  payment. 

Modesty  is  the  handmaid  of  virtue. 

Money  makes  the  mare  to  go. 

Money  will  do  more  than  my  lord’s  letter. 

More  afraid  than  hurt. 

Much  is  expected  where  much  is  given. 

Much  water  goes  by  the  mill  the  miller  knows  not  of. 

Much  would  have  more  and  lost  all. 

Muffled  cats  are  bad  mousers. 

Murder  will  out. 

My  son  is  my  son  till  he  gets  him  a wife. 

But  my  daughter’s  my  daughter  all  the  days  of  her  life. 


Necessity  is  the  mother  of  invention. 

Neither  praise  nor  dispraise  thyself  ; thine  actions  serve  the  turn. 

Never  carry  two  faces  under  one  hood. 

Never  fall  out  with  your  bread  and  butter. 

Never  find  anything  before  it  is  lost. 

Never  fish  in  troubled  waters. 

Never  light  your  candle  at  both  ends. 

Never  look  a gift  horse  in  the  mouth. 

Never  make  a mountain  of  a mole-hill. 

Never  quit  certainty  for  hope. 

Never  ride  a free  horse  to  death. 

Never  sound  the  trumpet  of  your  own  praise 
Never  split  against  the  grain. 

Never  tread  on  a sore  toe. 

Never  trust  to  a broken  staff. 

Never  venture  out  of  your  depth  till  you  can  swim. 

Never  wade  in  unknown  waters. 

New  brooms  sweep  ciean. 

New  lights  often  come  through  cracks  in  the  ceiling. 

New  lords,  new  laws. 

Next  to  love,  quietness. 

No  alchemy  is  equal  to  saving. 

No  man  can  serve  two  masters. 

No  man  should  live  like  a toad  under  a harrow. 

No  mill,  no  meal. 

None  are  so  deaf  as  those  that  will  not  hear 
None  knows  the  weight  of  another’s  burden. 

None  so  Dlind  as  those  who  will  not  see. 

No  pot  is  so  ugly  as  not  to  find  a cover. 

No  receiver,  no  thief. 

No  rose  without  a thorn. 

Nothing  comes  out  of  the  sack  but  what  was  in  it. 

Nothing  dries  sooner  than  tears. 

Nothing  down  nothing  up. 

Nothing  is  impossible  to  a willing  mind. 

Nothing  venture  nothing  win. 

Of  all  studies,  study  your  present  condition. 

Of  all  the  crafts  to  be  an  honest  man  is  the  master  craft. 

Of  all  prodigality,  that  of  time  is  the  worst. 

Of  two  evils  choose  the  least. 

Old  bees  yield  no  honey. 

Old  birds  are  not  to  be  caught  with  chaff. 

Old  friends  and  old  wines  are  best. 

Old  friends  to  meet,  old  wine  to  drink,  and  old  wood  to  burn. 

Old  reckonings  breed  new  disputes. 

One  bad  example  spoils  many  good  precepts. 

One  barber  shaves  not  so  close  but  another  finds  work. 

One  eye-witness  is  better  than  ten  hearsays. 

One  flower  makes  no  garland. 

One  good  turn  deserves  another. 

One  half  the  world  knows  not  how  the  other  half  lives. 

One  hour’s  sleep  before  midnight  is  worth  two  after. 

One  is  not  so  soon  healed  as  hurt. 

One  man  may  steal  a horse,  when  another  may  not  look  over  the  hedge 
One  man’s  meat  is  another's  poison. 

One  nail  drives  out  another. 

One  never  loses  by  doing  a good  turn. 

One  ounce  of  discretion  is  worth  a pound  of  wit. 

One  scabbed  sheep  will  mar  a flock. 

One  swallow  makes  not  a spring,  nor  one  woodcock  a winter. 

One  tale  is  good  till  another  is  told. 

Open  rebuke  is  better  than  secret  hatred. 

Opportunity  makes  the  thief. 

Opportunities  neglected  are  irrecoverable. 

Our  own  opinion  is  never  wrong. 

Out  of  debt,  out  of  danger. 

Out  of  sight,  out  of  mind. 

Out  of  the  frying-pan  into  the  fire. 

Passion  is  a fever  that  leaves  us  weaker  than  it  finds  ua. 

Passion  is  ever  the  enemy  of  truth. 

Patience  and  time  run  through  the  longest  day. 

Patience  is  a flower  that  grows  not  in  every  one’s  garden. 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


5i5 


Patience  is  a plaster  for  all  sores. 

Pay  as  you  go. 

Penny  wise  and  pound  foolish. 

People  who  live  in  glass  houses  should  never  throw  stones. 
Perfection  is  the  point  at  which  all  should  aim. 

Petulant  contentions  engender  malice. 

Plain  dealing's  a jewel. 

Positive  men  are  most  often  in  error. 

Possession  is  nine  points  of  the  law. 

Poverty  makes  a man  acquainted  with  strange  bedfellows. 
Poverty  parts  friends. 

Praise  a fair  day  at  night. 

Praise  the  sea  but  keep  on  land. 

Prevention  is  bettter  than  cure. 

Prettiness  dies  quickly. 

Pride  of  hear*  foreruns  destruction. 

Pride  will  have  a fall. 

Procrastination  is  the  thief  of  time. 

Promise  little  and  do  much. 

Promises  are  too  much  like  pie-crust. 

Provide  for  the  worst  ; the  best  will  save  itself. 

Pry  not  into  the  affairs  of  others. 

Pull  hair  and  hair,  and  you’ll  make  the  carle  bald. 

Put  no  faith  in  tale-bearers. 

Quick  at  meat,  quick  at  work. 

Quick  resentments  are  often  fatal. 

Quick  returns  make  rich  merchants. 

Quit  not  certainty  for  hope. 

Raise  no  more  spirits  than  you  can  conjure  down. 

Ratify  p — mises  by  performances. 

Ready  money  will  away. 

Reckless  youth  makes  rueful  age. 

Remove  an  old  tree  and  it  will  wither. 

Rome  was  not  built  in  a day. 

Rule  the  appetite  and  temper  the  tongue. 

Safe  bind,  safe  find. 

Sauce  for  the  goose  is  sauce  for  the  gander. 

Saving  at  the  spigot  and  spending  at  the  bung. 

Say  no  ill  of  the  year  till  it  be  past. 

Saying  and  doing  are  two  things. 

Search  others  for  their  virtues,  thyself  for  thy  faults. 

See  a beggar  and  catch  a louse. 

Seeing  is  believing. 

Seek  till  you  find,  and  you’ll  not  lose  vour  labor. 

Seldom  seen,  soon  forgotten. 

Self-preservation  is  the  first  law  of  nature. 

Set  a thief  to  take  a thief. 

Shameless  craving  must  have  shameless  way. 

Sharp  stomachs  make  short  graces. 

She  shows  many  more  airs  than  graces. 

Show  me  a liar,  and  I will  show  you  a thief. 

Short  reckonings  make  long  friends. 

Silence  does  seldom  any  harm. 

Silks  and  satins  put  out  the  fire  in  the  kitchen. 

Sit  in  your  place  and  none  will  make  you  rise. 

Sleep  without  supper  and  wake  without  owing. 

Sloth  is  the  mother  of  poverty. 

Soldiers  in  peace  are  like  chimneys  In  summer. 

Soon  ripe,  soon  rotten. 

Soon  well,  long  ill. 

Sooner  said  than  done. 

Sorrow  will  pay  no  debt. 

Sour  grapes,  as  the  fox  said  when  he  could  not  reach  them. 
Spare  well  and  spend  well. 

Spare  when  you  are  young,  and  spend  when  you  are  ofa. 
Speak  the  truth  and  shame  the  devil. 

Speech  is  the  gift  of  all,  but  thought  of  few. 

Stars  are  not  seen  by  sunshine. 

Stick  your  opinions  on  no  person’s  sleeve. 

Stretch  your  legs  according  to  your  coverlet. 

Strike  while  the  iron  is  hot. 

Study  to  be  worthy  of  your  parents. 


Such  a welcome,  such  a farewell. 

Such  as  the  tree  is,  such  is  the  fruit. 

Take  care  of  the  pence,  and  the  pounds  will  take  care  of  themseives. 
Take  heed  of  an  ox  before,  an  ass  behind,  and  a knave  on  all  sides. 
Take  heed  will  surely  speed 
Take  the  will  for  the  deed. 

Take  time  by  the  forelock. 

Talk  of  the  devil  and  he’ll  appear. 

Talking  pays  no  toll. 

Tell  me  the  company  you  keep,  and  I'll  tell  you  what  you  are. 
Temperance  is  the  best  physic. 

That  is  well  spoken  that  is  well  taken. 

That  penny  is  well  spent  that  saves  a groat. 

That’s  placing  the  cart  before  the  horse. 

That  was  laid  on  with  a trowel. 

The  absent  party  is  still  faulty. 

The  ass  that  brays  most  eats  least. 

The  best  physicians  are  Dr.  Diet,  Dr.  Quiet,  and  Dr.  Merryman. 

The  better  day,  the  better  deed. 

The  blind  man’s  wife  needs  no  painting. 

The  cobbler’s  wife  is  the  worst  shod. 

The  comforter’s  head  never  aches. 

The  covetous  man  is  his  own  tormentor. 

The  crow  thinks  her  own  bird  the  fairest. 

The  devil  is  not  as  black  as  he  is  painted. 

The  devil  was  sick,  the  devil  a monk  would  be  ; 

The  devil  grew  well,  the  devil  a monk  was  he. 

The  end  of  a feast  is  better  than  the  beginning  of  a fray. 

The  eye  of  the  master  does  more  work  than  both  his  hands. 

The  farthest  way  about  is  often  the  nearest  way  home. 

The  faulty  stands  on  his  guard. 

The  foremost  dog  catches  the  hare. 

The  galled  jade  will  wince. 

The  goodness  of  a pudding  is  known  in  the  eating. 

The  gray  mare  is  the  better  horse. 

The  greatest  burdens  are  not  the  gainfullest. 

The  greatest  strokes  make  not  the  best  music. 

The  greatest  wealth  is  contentment  with  little. 

The  groat  is  ill  saved  that  shames  the  master. 

The  guilty  mind  needs  no  accuser. 

The  handsomest  flower  is  not  the  sweetest. 

The  hasty  hand  catches  frogs  for  fish. 

The  hastiest  man  that  is  must  wait  while  his  drink  is  drawing 
The  highway  is  never  about. 

The  highest  branch  is  not  the  safest  roost. 

The  hotter  war  the  sooner  peace. 

The  last  drop  makes  the  cup  run  over. 

The  last  suitor  wins  the  maid. 

The  lion’s  skin  is  never  cheap. 

The  longest  day  must  have  an  end. 

The  market  is  the  best  garden. 

The  married  man  must  turn  his  staff  into  a stake. 

The  mill  cannot  grind  with  the  water  that  is  past. 

The  mob  has  many  heads  but  no  brains. 

The  more  noble  the  more  humble. 

The  more  the  merrier,  the  fewer  the  better  cheer. 

The  more  you  heap,  the  worse  you  keep. 

The  nearer  the  church  the  farther  from  God. 

The  offender  never  pardons. 

The  path  of  virtue  is  the  path  of  peace. 

The  rat  which  has  but  one  hole  is  soon  caught. 

The  receiver  is  as  bad  as  the  thief. 

The  still  sow  sucks  the  most  wash. 

The  sweetest  wine  makes  the  sharpest  vinegar. 

There  is  a tide  in  the  affairs  of  men,  which  taken  at  the  flood  lcada  at 
to  fortune. 

There  is  luck  in  leisure. 

There  is  reason  in  roasting  eggs. 

There’s  a salve  for  every  sore. 

There’s  no  compassion  like  the  penny. 

There’s  no  fool  like  an  old  fool. 

There  s no  general  rule  without  an  exception. 


516 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


There’s  no  joy  without  alloy. 

The  table  robs  more  than  the  thief. 

The  truest  jests  sound  worst  in  guilty  ears. 

The  truth  may  be  blamed  but  not  shamed. 

The  weakest  must  go  to  the  wall. 

The  wearer  best  knows  where  the  shoe  pinches  him. 

There  would  be  no  ill  language  if  it  were  not  ill  taken. 

There  would  not  be  great  ones  if  there  were  no  little. 

They  love  too  much  that  die  for  love. 

They  must  hunger  in  frost,  that  will  not  work  in  heat. 

They  need  much  whom  nothing  will  content. 

Think  of  ease,  but  work  on. 

Those  who  live  longest  will  see  most. 

Those  who  play  with  edged  tools  must  expect  to  be  cut. 

Threatened  folks  live  long. 

Time  and  tide  stay  for  no  man. 

Time  is  a file  that  wears  and  makes  no  noise. 

Timely  blossom,  timely  fruit. 

’Tis  the  second  blow  that  makes  the  fray. 

To  a child  all  weather  is  cold. 

To  a crazy  ship  all  winds  are  contrary. 

To  be  hail  fellow  well  met  with  one.  [In  good  fellowship.] 

To  be  in  a merry  pin. 

To  dine  with  Duke  Humphry.  [To  go  without  dinner.] 

To  err  is  human,  to  forgive  divine. 

To  find  a mare’s  nest.  [To  discover  something  already  well  known.] 
To  give  and  keep  there  is  need  of  wit. 

To  go  through  thick  and  thin.  [Stick  at  nothing.] 

To  go  to  pot. 

To  have  nothing  but  one’s  labor  for  one’s  pains. 

To  have  the  law  in  one’s  own  hand. 

To  have  two  strings  to  one’s  bow. 

To  kill  two  birds  with  one  stone. 

To  laugh  in  one’s  sleeve. 

To  leave  a morsel  for  the  Duke  of  Rutland.  [That  is — to  leave  it 
for  the  sake  of  manners.  Manners  being  the  family  surname  of  the 
Duke  of  Rutland.] 

Too  many  cooks  spoil  the  broth . 

Too  much  familiarity  breeds  contempt. 

To  play  the  dog  in  the  manger.  [Not  to  eat  yourself  nor  let  anybody 
else.] 

To  put  one’s  nose  out  of  joint. 

To  rob  Peter  to  pay  Paul. 

To  seek  a needle  in  a bottle  of  hay. 

To  send  one  away  with  with  a flea  in  his  ear.  [In  a state  of  trepidation 
and  astonishment.] 

To  set  up  one’s  staff  of  rest.  [To  propose  to  abide  in  a place.] 

To  stand  in  one’s  own  light. 

To  starve  in  a cook-shop. 

To  strain  at  a gnat  and  swallow  a camel. 

To  take  a wrong  sow  by  the  ear. 

To  tell  tales  out  of  school . 

To  throw  the  helve  after  the  hatchet.  [Giving  up  a thing  in  despair.] 
To  twist  a rope  of  sand. 

Trade  is  the  mother  of  money. 

Tread  on  a worm  and  it  will  turn. 

Trim-tram,  like  master,  like  man. 

True  praise  takes  root  and  spreads. 

Truth  has  always  a fast  bottom. 

Two  heads  are  better  than  one. 

Two  of  a trade  seldom  agree. 

Two  swallows  do  not  make  a summer. 

Unknown,  unmissed. 

Unminded,  unmoved. 

Use  the  means  and  God  will  give  the  blessing. 

Valor  is  worth  little  without  discretion. 

Valor  that  parleys  is  near  yielding. 

Venture  a small  fish  to  catch  a great  one. 

Venture  not  all  in  one  bottom. 

War  is  death’s  feast. 

Waste  not,  want  not. 

Wealth  makes  worship. 


Welcome  is  the  best  cheer. 

We  must  eat  a peck  of  salt  with  a man  before  we  know  him. 

We  never  know  the  worth  of  water  till  the  well  is  dry. 

What  cannot  be  cured  must  be  endured. 

What  is  bred  in  the  bone  will  not  come  out  of  the  flesh. 

What  is  got  over  the  devil’s  back  is  spent  under  his  belly. 

What  the  eye  sees  not  the  heart  rues  not. 

What  the  good  wife  spares  the  cat  eats. 

When  a dog  is  drowning  every  one  offers  him  water. 

When  all  is  consumed,  repentance  comes  too  late. 

When  fortune  smiles  on  thee,  take  the  advantage. 

When  many  strike  on  an  anvil,  they  strike  by  measure. 

When  poverty  comes  in  at  the  door,  love  flies  out  at  the  window. 

When  rogues  fall  out,  honest  men  get  their  own. 

When  sorrow  is  asleep,  wake  it  not. 

When  the  cat’s  away  the  mice  play. 

When  the  goodman’s  from  home  the  goodwife’s  table  is  soon  spread. 
When  wine's  in  wit’s  out. 

When  two  Sundays  meet.  [Never.] 

When  you  are  at  Rome,  do  as  they  do  at  Rome. 

When  we  have  gold  we  are  in  fear,  when  we  have  none  we  are  In 
danger. 

When  drink  enters,  wisdom  departs. 

Where  much  smoke  is  there  must  be  some  fire. 

Where  the  carcass  is,  there  the  ravens  will  collect  together. 

Where  the  king  is,  there  is  the  court. 

Where  the  will  is  ready  the  feet  are  light. 

Where  there  is  a will  there  is  always  a way. 

Write  injuries  in  dust,  but  kindnesses  in  marble. 

While  the  grass  grows  the  cow  starves. 

While  there’s  life  there’s  hope. 

Who  dainties  love  shall  beggars  provte. 

Who  loseth  his  due  getteth  no  thanks. 

Who  perisheth  in  needless  danger  is  the  devil’s  martyr. 

Who  spends  more  than  he  should,  shall  not  have  to  spend  when  its 
would. 

Who  spits  against  the  wind  spits  in  his  own  face. 

Wide  will  wear,  but  narrow  will  tear. 

Wilful  waste  makes  woful  want. 

Wise  men  care  not  for  what  they  cannot  have. 

Wisely  and  slow  : they  stumble  who  run  fast. 

Wool  sellers  know  wool  buyers. 

Words  may  pass,  but  blows  fall  heavy. 

Wranglers  never  want  words. 

York — every  man  pay  his  share. 

You  are  busy  as  a hen  with  one  chick. 

You  come  like  a godfather  after  the  christening. 

You  can  look  at  teeth  and  not  be  bitten. 

You  can’t  see  green  cheese  but  your  teeth  must  water. 

You  cannot  catch  old  birds  with  chaff. 

You  cannot  eat  your  cake  and  have  it  also. 

You  cannot  have  blood  out  of  a stone. 

You  cannot  hide  an  eel  in  a sack. 

You  cannot  kill  a dog  with  a bone. 

You  cannot  make  a silk  purse  out  of  a sow’s  ear. 

You  cannot  wash  the  blackamore  white. 

You  need  not  grease  a fat  sow. 

You  taste  the  broth  as  soon  as  the  meat  is  put  in. 


SCOTS  PROVERBS. 


5i 


BEGUN  turn  is  half  ended. 

A bit  is  often  better  gi’en  than  eaten. 

A blate  cat  makes  a proud  mouse. 

A black  hen  lays  a white  egg. 

A borrowed  len’  should  gae  laughing  hame. 

A fidging  mare  should  be  weel  girded. 

Affront  your  friend  in  daffin’,  and  tine  him  in  earnest. 

A fou  man  and  a hungry  horse  aye  mak  haste  hame. 

A friend’s  dinner’s  soon  dished. 

Aft  ettle,  whiles  hit. 

After  a storm  comes  a calm . 

A gi’en  horse  shouldna  be  looked  i’  the  mouth. 

A gi’en  piece  is  soon  eaten. 

A greedy  e’e  ne’er  gat  a gude  pennyworth. 

A green  Yule  maks  a fat  kirk-yard. 

A gude  cause  maks  a strong  arm. 

A handfu’  o’  trade  is  worth  a gowpen  o’  gowd. 

A hantle  cry  murder,  yet  are  aye  uppermost. 

A hasty  man  never  wanted  wae. 

A hunger  and  a burst. 

A kiss  and  a drink  o’  water  mak  but  a poor  breakfast. 

A man’s  weel  or  wae  as  he  thinks  himself  sae. 

Ane  cannot  wive  and  thrive  baith  in  ae  year. 

Ane  may  lo'e  a haggis,  that  wadna  hae  the  bag  thrown  In  his  teeth. 
Ane  ne’er  tines  by  doing  guide. 

An  ilka-day  braw  makes  a sabbath-day  daw. 

An  ill  shearer  never  got  a gude  huek. 

An  ill  wife  and  a new-kindled  candle  should  hae  their  heads  hadden 
down. 

An  inch  o’  gude  fortune  is  worth  a fathom  o’  forecast. 

An  inch  o’  a miss  is  as  gude  as  a span. 

A nod  o’  honest  men  is  enough. 

A pound  o’  care  winna  pay  an  ounce  o’  debt. 

A rough  bane  makes  a fou  wame. 

As  dark  as  a Yule  midnight.  , 

As  gude  fish  in  the  sea  as  e’er  came  out  o’t. 

As  gude  may  haud  the  stirrup  as  he  that  loups  on. 

A Scotch  mist  will  wet  an  Englishman  to  the  skin. 

A sillerless  man  gangs  fast  through  the  marke* 

A sorrowfu’  heart  is  aye  dry. 

A’  Stewarts  are  no  sib  to  the  king. 

A tale  never  tines  in  the  telling. 

A tarrowing  hen  was  never  fat. 

A tocherless  dame  sits  lang  at  hame. 

At  open  doors  dogs  gae  ben . 

A wee  mouse  can  creep  under  a great  corn  stack. 

A wee  thing  puts  your  beard  in  a bleeze. 

A wight  man  ne’er  wanted  a weapon. 

A wilfu’  man  should  be  unco  wise. 

Auld  men  are  twice  bairns. 

Auld  sparrows  are  ill  to  tame. 

Auld  springs  gie  nae  price. 

Bairns  speak  in  the  field  what  they  hear  in  the  ha’. 

Bargain  is  bargain. 

Be  a friend  to  yoursel,  and  others  will. 

Bear  and  forbear  is  gude  philosophy. 

Bear  wealth  weel,  poortith  will  bear  itsel. 

Be  aye  the  same  thing  you  would  be  ca’d. 

Be  lang  sick  that  ye  may  be  soon  hale. 

Best  to  be  off  with  the  old  love  before  we  be  on  with  the  new. 

Be  thou  weel,  be  thou  wae,  thou  wilt  not  be  aye  sac. 

Better  a bit  in  the  morning  than  fast  a’  day. 


Better  a finger  off  than  aye  wagging. 

Better  a tocher  in  her  than  on  her. 

Better  a toom  house  than  an  ill  tenant. 

Better  a wee  bush  than  nae  bield. 

Better  a wee  fire  to  warm  you  than  a big  fire  to  burn  you 
Better  be  blithe  wi’  little  than  sad  wi’  naething. 

Better  buy  than  borrow. 

Better  lang  something  than  soon  naething. 

Better  skaith  saved  than  mends  made. 

Better  sma’  fish  than  nane. 

Better  to  haud  than  draw. 

Better  wear  shoon  than  wear  sheets. 

Blind  men  shouldna  judge  o’  colors. 

Bode  for  a silk  gown  and  ye’ll  get  a sleeve  o’t. 

Broken  bread  makes  hale  bairns. 

Burning  a halfpenny  candle  seeking  a farthing. 

Burnt  bairns  dread  the  fire. 

By  chance  a cripple  may  catch  a hare. 

Cadgers  have  aye  mind  of  lade  saddles. 

Canny  stretch,  soon  reach. 

Carrying  saut  to  Dysart. 

Cast  a bane  in  a diel’s  teeth. 

Cast  not  a clout  till  May  be  out. 

Castna  out  the  dowed  water  till  ye  get  the  fresh. 

Cauld  cools  the  love  that  kindles  ower  het. 

Change  your  friend  ere  you  hae  need. 

Cheatery  kythes. 

Cleanliness  is  nae  pride,  dirt’s  nae  honesty. 

Come  unca  d sits  t'nserved. 

Come  wi’  the  wind  and  gang  wi’  the  water. 

Confess  and  be  hanged. 

Confess  debt  and  crave  days. 

Corn  him  weel,  he’ll  work  t better. 

Count  again  is  not  forbidden 
Count  siller  after  a’  your  kin. 

Courtesy  is  cumbersome  to  him  who  kens  it. 
Covetousness  brings  naething  hame. 

Craft  maun  hae  claes,  but  truth  gaes  naked. 

Credit  is  better  than  ill  luck. 

Credit  is  better  than  ill-won  gear. 

Credit  keeps  the  crown  o’  the  causey. 

Credit  lost  is  like  a broken  glass. 

Daffin  and  want  o’  wit  maks  auld  wives  donart. 

Dame,  deem  warily,  yet  watna  wha  wytes  yourse’. 
Darning  and  laving  is  good  sure  fishing. 

Daughters  and  dead  fish  are  nae  keeping  ware. 

Dawted  bairns  dow  bear  little. 

Daylight  will  peep  through  a sma’  hole. 

Deal  sma’  an’  serve  a’. 

Death  and  marriage  break  term-day. 

Death  at  ae  door  and  hardship  at  the  othei 
Deil  be  in  the  house  that  ye’re  beguiled  in. 

Deil  stick  pride,  for  my  dog  died  o’t. 

Ding  down  the  nest,  and  the  rooks  will  flee  away. 

Dinna  cast  awa’  the  cog  when  the  cow  flings. 

Dirt  bodes  luck. 

Dinna  gut  your  fish  till  ye  get  them. 

Do  as  the  lasses  do,  say  Na,  an’  tak  it. 

Dogs  bark  as  they  are  bred. 

Dogs  an’  bairns  are  aye  fond  o’  fools. 

Do  not  meddle  wi’  the  diel  an’  the  laird’s  bairns. 

Do  not  touch  him  on  the  sair  heel. 

Dool  an’  ill  life  soon  make  an  auld  wife. 

Double  drinks  are  aye  good  for  drowth. 

Do  weel  an’  doubt  nae  man,  do  ill  an’  doubt  a’  men. 

Do  weel  an’  hae  weel. 

Dows  an’  dominies  leave  aye  a foul  house. 

Do  your  turn  weel,  an’  nane  will  speer  what  time  ye  took. 
Draff  he  sought,  but  drink  was  his  errand. 

Dree  out  the  inch  when  ye  have  tholed  the  span. 

Drink  and  drowth  come  nae  aye  thegither. 

Drink  little  that  ye  may  drink  lang. 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS, 


— % 


518 


Drive  a cow  to  the  ha’,  she’ll  run  to  the  byre. 

Early  birds  catch  the  worms. 

Early  master,  soon  knave. 

East  or  west,  hame  is  best. 

Easy  learned,  soon  forgotten. 

Easy  learning  the  cat  the  road  to  the  kirn. 

Easy  to  that  thine  ain  heart  wills. 

Easily  working  when  will’s  at  hame. 

Eat  in  measure,  an’  defy  the  doctor. 

Eat  peas  wi’  a prince,  an’  cherries  wi’  a chapman. 

Eat-weel's  Drink-weel’s  brither. 

Eating  an’  cleaning  only  require  a beginning. 

Eating  and  drinking  puts  awa  the  stamach. 

Ell  and  tell  is  good  merchandise. 

Envy  is  the  rack  of  the  soul  and  torture  of  the  body. 

Envy  ne’er  does  a good  turn  but  when  it  means  an  ill  ane. 

Even  as  you  won  it  sae  may  you  wear  it. 

Ever  busy  ever  bear. 

Every  ane  loups  the  dyke  where  it's  laighest. 

Every  one  to  his  trade,  quoth  the  browster  to  the  bishop. 

Every  bird  thinks  its  ain  nest  best. 

Every  cock  craws  crousest  on  his  ain  midden  head. 

Every  day’s  no  Yule-day — cast  the  cat  a castock. 

Every  fault  has  its  fore. 

Every  flow  has  its  ebb. 

Every  inch  of  joy  has  an  ell  of  annoy. 

Every  man  bows  to  the  bush  he  gets  bield  frae. 

Every  man  buckles  his  belt  his  ain  gate. 

Every  man  can  guide  an  ill  wife  weel  but  him  that  has  her. 

Every  man  can  lout  best  on  his  ain  horn. 

Every  man  has  his  am  draff  pock. 

Every  man's  tale's  gude  till  anither's  be  tauld. 

Every  May-be  hath  a May-not  be. 

Every  miller  wad  weise  the  water  to  his  ain  mill. 

Every  play  maun  be  played,  an’  some  maun  be  the  players. 

Fair  words  brake  na  banes,  foul  words  mony. 

Fancy  flees  before  the  wind. 

Far-awa  fowls  hae  fair  feathers. 

Farther  east  the  shorter  west. 

Fause  folk  should  hae  mony  witnesses. 

Fausehood  makes  ne’er  a fair  hinder-end. 

Favor  unused  is  favor  abused. 

Fill  fu’  an’  haud  fu’,  that  makes  a man  stark. 

Flaes  an’  a girning  wife  are  waukrife  bed-fellows. 

Flee  ne’er  so  fast,  your  fortune  will  be  at  your  tail. 

Fleeing  a bird  is  not  the  way  to  grip  it. 

Fling-at-the-goad  was  ne’er  a gude  ox. 

Flitting  o’  farms  mak  mailens  dear. 

Fools  are  aye  fond  o'  flutin'. 

Fools  are  aye  seeing  ferlies. 

Fool’s  haste  is  nae  speed. 

Fools  laugh  at  their  ain  sport. 

Fools  set  far  trysts. 

Fools  shouldna  hae  chappin’-sticks. 

For  fashion’s  sake,  as  dogs  gang  to  the  marke 
For  want  of  a sleek  a shoe  may  be  tint. 

Forbid  a fool  a thing,  an’  that  he  will  do. 

Frae  saving  comes  having. 

Fresh  fish  and  poor  friends  grow  soon  ill-faured. 

Friends  are  like  fiddle  strings,  they  maunna  be  screwed  ower  tight. 
Friends  gree  best  at  a distance. 

Friendship  canna  stand  aye  on  ae  side. 

Fry  stanes  wi’  butter,  and  the  broe  will  be  gude. 

Gathering  gear  is  a pleasant  pain. 

Gaily  wad  be  better. 

Gear  is  easier  gotten  than  guided. 

Gentle  partans  hae  lang  taes. 

Gentle  servants  are  poor  men’s  tinsel. 

Get  weel,  keep  weel. 

Gie  a bairn  its  will  an’  a whelp  its  fill,  and  neither  will  do  weel. 

Gie  your  tongue  mair  holidays  than  your  head. 

Giff-gaff  maks  gude  friends. 


Glasses  and  lasses  are  brittle  ware. 

Glowering’s  no  gainsaying. 

God  ne’er  sent  the  mouth  but  he  sent  the  meat  wi’t. 

God  send  water  to  that  well  that  folk  think  will  ne’er  rin  dry 
God  shapes  the  back  for  the  burden. 

Good  wine  makes  a bad  head  and  a lang  story. 

Gratitude  is  a heavy  burden. 

Great  comfort  is  like  leady  gold  in  need. 

Greedy  folks  hae  lang  arms. 

Griening  wives  are  aye  greedy. 

Guessed  work’s  best  if  weel  done. 

Gude  advice  is  ne’er  out  o’  season. 

Gude  ale  needs  nae  wisp. 

Gude  bairns  are  eith  to  lear. 

Gude  breeding  and  siller  mak  our  sons  gentlemen. 

Gude  claes  open  a’  doors. 

Gude  company  on  a journey  is  worth  a coach. 

Gude  gear's  not  to  be  gapped. 

Gude  fishing  in  drumly  water. 

Gude  folk  are  scarce,  take  care  o’  ane. 

Gude  forecast  fathers  the  wark. 

Gude  health  is  better  than  wealth. 

Gude  kail  is  half  meat. 

Gude  watch  prevents  harm. 

Gude  will  ne’er  wants  time  to  show  itsel. 

Gude  will  should  be  ta’en  in  part  payment. 

Gudely  cow,  gawsy  calf. 

Hae,  gars  a deaf  man  hear. 

Hand-in-use  is  father  o’  lear. 

Hang  a thief  when  he’s  young,  an’  he’ll  no  steal  when  he’s  auld. 
Hang  hunger  an’  drown  drouth. 

Hankering  an’  hinging-on  is  a poor  trade. 

Happy  the  wife  that’s  married  to  a motherless  son. 

He  can  hide  his  meat  and  seek  mair. 

He  can  say  Jo,  and  think  it  no. 

He  can  see  an  inch  before  his  nose. 

He  cares  na  wha’s  bairns  greet  if  his  laugh. 

He  comes  oftener  wi'  the  rake  than  the  shool. 

He  complains  early  that  complains  of  his  kain. 

He  doesna  ken  what  end  o’  him’s  uppermost. 

He  doesna  aye  ride  when  he  saddles. 

He  doesna  like  his  wark  that  says  now  when  it’s  done. 

He  eats  the  calf  i’  the  cow’s  wame. 

He  gangs  awa  in  an  ill  time  that  ne'er  comes  again. 

He  gangs  lang  barefoot  that  wears  dead  men’s  shoon. 

Hegirns  like  a sheep-head  in  a pair  o’  tangs 
He  has  a coup  for  a’  corn. 

He  has  a gude  judgment  that  doesna  lippen  to  his  ain. 

He  has  a hearty  hand  for  gieing  a hungry  mealtith. 

He  has  a slid  grip  that  has  an  eel  by  the  tail. 

He  has  been  rowed  in  his  mither’s  sark  tail. 

He  has  brought  his  pocket  to  a braw  market. 

He  has  come  to  gude  by  misguiding. 

He  has  coosten  his  cloak  on  his  ither  shoulder. 

He  has  coupit  the  meikle  pot  into  the  little. 

He  has  faut  o’  a wife  that  marries  mam’s  pet. 

He  has  feathered  his  nest,  he  may  flee  when  he  likes. 

He  has  gotten  the  whip  hand  of  him. 

He  has  lain  on  his  wrang  side. 

He  has  licked  the  butter  off  my  bread. 

He  has  mair  wit  in  his  little  finger  than  ye  hae  in  a’  your  boulc 
He  has  muckle  prayer  but  little  devotion. 

He  has  some  wit,  but  a fool  hath  the  grinding  o’t. 

He  has  the  best  end  of  the  string. 

He  has  wit  at  will  that  wi’  an  angry  heart  can  sit  still 
He  has’t  o’  kind,  he  coft  it  not. 

He  hears  wi’  his  heel,  as  geese  do  in  harvest. 

He  kens  his  ain  goats  among  ither  folk’s  kail. 

He  kens  whilk  side  his  cake  is  buttered  on. 

He'll  gie  you  the  whistle  o’  your  groat. 

He’ll  have  eneugh  some  day,  when  his  mouth’s  fu’  o’  mools. 

1 He’ll  mak  an  ill  runner  that  canna  gang. 


SCOTS  PROVERBS. 


5r9 


He’ll  mend  when  he  grows  better,  like  sour  ale  in  summer. 

He’u  neither  dance  nor  haud  the  candle. 

He’ll  no  gie  an  inch  o’  his  will  for  a span  o’  his  thrift. 

He’ll  no  let  grass  grow  at  his  heels. 

He’ll  no  sell  his  hen  on  a rainy  day. 

He’ll  soon  be  a beggar  that  canna  say  No. 

He’ll  tell  it  to  nae  mair  than  he  meets. 

He  lo’ed  mutton  weel  that  licked  where  the  ewe  lay. 

He  lo’es  me  for  little  that  hates  me  for  nought. 

He  looks  like  the  far  end  of  a French  fiddle. 

He  maun  be  soon  up  that  cheats  the  tod. 

He  maun  hae  leave  to  speak  that  canna  haud  his  tongue. 

He  may  find  fault  that  canna  mend. 

He  needs  a long  spoon  that  sups  wi’  the  deil. 

He  ne’er  did  a gude  darg  that  gaed  grumbling  about  it. 

He  reads  his  sin  in  his  punishment. 

He  rides  sicker  that  never  fa’s. 

He’s  a fool  that  forgets  himsel. 

He’s  a fool  that  marries  at  Yule ; for  when  the  bairn’s  to  bear,  the  corn’s 
to  shear. 

He’s  a hawk  of  a right  nest. 

He’s  a man  of  a wise  mind  that  of  a foe  can  mak  a friend. 

He's  a proud  cook  that  maunna  lick  his  ain  fingers. 

He’s  a proud  fox  that  winna  scrape  his  ain  hole. 

He’s  a silly  chiel  that  can  neither  do  nor  say. 

He’s  a worthless  guidman  that’s  no  miss’d. 

He’s  as  welcome  as  water  in  a riven  ship. 

He’s  horn  deaf  on  that  side  o’  the  head. 

He  should  sit  close  that  has  riven  breeks. 

He  sleeps  as  dogs  do  when  wives  sift  meal. 

He’s  like  a flae  in  a blanket. 

He’s  like  the  singet  cat,  better  than  he’s  likely. 

He’s  no  the  best  wright  that  casts  maist  spails. 

He’s  no  sae  daft  as  he  lets  on. 

He’s  ower  soon  up  that’s  hanged  e’er  noon. 

He’s  poor  eneugh  that’s  ill  lo’ed. 

He’s  sairest  dung  that's  paid  wi’  his  ain  wand. 

He  starts  at  straes,  and  lets  windlins  gae. 

He’s  the  gear  that  winna  traik. 

He’s  unco  fu’  in  his  ain  house  that  canna  pick  a bane  in  his  neighbor’s. 
He’s  weel  worthy  o’  sorrow  that  buys  it. 

He’s  weel  boden  there  ben,  that  will  neither  borrow  nor  len\ 

He’s  wise  that’s  timely  wary. 

He’s  worth  nae  weel  that  can  bide  nae  wae. 

He  that  blaws  best  let  him  beat  the  horn. 

He  that  buys  nuts  buys  shells,  but  he  that  buys  gude  ale  buys  naething 
else. 

He  that  canna  mak  sport  should  mar  nane. 

He  that  cheats  me  ance,  shame  fa’  him  ; if  he  cheat  me  twice,  shame 
fa’  me. 

He  that  counts  a’  costs  will  ne’er  put  plough  i’  the  ground. 

He  that  deals  in  dirt  has  aye  foul  fingers. 

He  that  does  you  an  ill  turn  will  ne’er  forgie  you. 

He  that  forcasts  a’  perils  will  win  nae  worship. 

He  that  fa’s  a gutter,  the  langer  he  lies  the  dirtier  he  is. 

He  that  fishes  before  the  net,  fishes  lang  or  he  fish  get. 

He  that  gets,  forgets,  but  he  that  wants  thinks  on. 

He  that  gets  gear  before  he  gets  wit,  will  die  e’er  he  thrive. 

He  that  has  a mickle  nose  thinks  ilk  ane  speaks  o’t. 

He  that  has  but  ae  e’e  maun  tent  that  weel. 

He  that  has  mickle  wad  aye  hae  mair. 

He  that  has  nae  gear  to  tine  may  hae  shins  to  pine. 

He  that  has  tvva  hoards  will  get  a third. 

He  that  keeks  through  a hole  may  see  what  will  vex  him. 

He  that  lends  his  pot  may  seethe  his  kail  in  his  loof. 

He  that  looks  to  freets,  freets  will  follow  him. 

He  that  rides  or  he  be  ready,  wants  aye  some  o’  his  graith. 

He  that’s  aught  the  cow  gangs  nearest  the  tail. 

He  that’s  ill  to  himsel  will  be  gude  to  naebody. 

He  that  seeks  motes  gets  motes. 

He  that  shows  his  purse  bribes  the  thief. 

He  that  speers  all  opinions  comes  ill  speed. 


He  that  steals  can  hide  too. 

He  that  tholes  overcomes. 

He  that  will  cheat  in  play  winna  be  honest  in  earnest. 

He  that  will  not  tole  maun  flit  mony  a hole. 

He  that  will  to  Cupar  maun  to  Cupar. 

He  that  winna  when  he  may,  shanna  when  he  wad. 

He  that  would  eat  the  kirnal  maun  crack  the  nut. 

He  wad  gang  a mile  to  flit  a sow. 

He  wad  gar  you  trow  that  the  moon’s  made  o’  green  cheese. 

He  wad  tine  his  lugs  if  they  were  not  tacked  to  him. 

He  was  mair  fleyed  than  hurt. 

He  was  scant  o’  news  that  tauld  his  father  was  hanged. 

He  was  the  bee  that  made  the  honey. 

He  winna  send  you  awa’  wi’  a sair  heart. 

Highlanders — shoulder  to  shoulder. 

I canna  sell  the  cow  an’  sup  die  milk. 

I hae  mair  to  do  than  a dish  to  wash. 

I ken  by  my  cog  my  cow’s  milked. 

If  ae  sheep  loup  the  dyke,  aye  the  rest  will  follow. 

If  the  deil  be  laird,  ye’ll  be  tenant. 

If  the  deil  find  you  idle,  he’ll  set  you  to  wark. 

If  the  lift  fa’  the  laverocks  will  be  smoored. 

If  you  win  at  that,  you’ll  lose  at  naething. 

If  ye  sell  your  purse  to  your  wife,  gie  her  your  breeks  to  the  bargain 
111  bairns  are  aye  best  heard  at  hame. 

Ill  bairns  aye  get  broken  brows. 

Ill  beef  ne’er  made  gude  broe. 

Ill  comes  upon  waur’s  back. 

Ill  counsel  will  gar  a man  stick  his  ain  mare. 

Ill  doers  are  aye  idle  dreaders. 

Ill  getting  het  water  frae  ’neath  cauld  ice. 

Ill  hearing  maks  wrang  rehearsing. 

Ill  herds  mak  fat  foxes. 

Ill  laying  up  maks  mony  thieves. 

Ill  payers  are  aye  gude  cravers. 

Ill  will  ne’er  spak  weel. 

Ill-won  gear  winna  enrich  the  third  heir. 

Ill  workers  are  aye  gude  onlookers. 

I’ll  ne'er  brew  drink  to  treat  drunkards. 

I’ll  ne’er  keep  a cow  when  I can  get  milk  sae  cheap. 

I’ll  ne’er  keep  a dog  and  bark  mysel. 

I’ll  ne’er  lout  sae  laigh  and  lift  sae  little. 

I’ll  ne’er  put  the  rogue  aboon  the  gentleman. 

I’ll  rather  strive  wi’  the  lang  rigg  than  the  ill  neighbor. 

I’ll  serve  ye  when  ye  hae  least  to  do. 

I’ll  tak  the  best  first,  as  the  priest  did  o’  the  plums. 

I might  bring  a better  speaker  frae  hame  than  you. 

I’m  no  every  man’s  dog  that  whistles  on  me. 

I’m  no  obliged  to  summer  an’  winter  it  wi’  you. 

I’m  no  sae  blind  as  I’m  blear-eyed. 

I’m  no  sae  scant  o’  clean  pipes  as.to  blaw  wi’  a burnt  cutty. 

I’m  o’er  auld  a cat  to  draw  a strae  before. 

I’m  speaking  o'  hay  and  you  o’  horse  corn. 

I ne’er  sat  on  your  coat-tail. 

I think  mair  o’  your  kindness  than  it’s  a’  worth. 

It  maun  be  true  what  a’  folks  says. 

It’s  a far  cry  to  Lochaw. 

It’s  a hard  task  to  be  poor  and  leal. 

It’s  a mean  mouse  that  has  but  ae  hole. 

It’s  a nasty  bird  that  files  it’s  ain  nest. 

It’s  a silly  hen  that  canna  scrape  for  ae  bird. 

It’s  an  ill  pack  that’s  no  worth  the  custom. 

It’s  better  to  sup  wi’  a cutty  than  want  a spoon. 

It’s  by  the  head  that  the  cow  gies  milk. 

It’s  far  to  seek  and  ill  to  find. 

It’s  gude  baking  beside  the  meal. 

It's  gude  sleeping  in  a hale  skin. 

It’s  gude  to  be  sib  to  siller. 

It’s  gude  gear  that  pleases  the  merchant. 

It’s  gude  to  be  in  your  time,  ye  kenna  how  lang  it  may  last. 

It’s  gude  to  dread  the  warst,  the  best  will  be  the  welcomer. 

It’s  hard  both  to  have  and  want. 


520 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


It’s  hard  for  a greed  ye’e  to  have  a leal  heart. 

It’s  hard  to  sit  in  Rome  and  strive  wi’  the  pope. 

It’s  ill  bringing  butt  what’s  no  ben. 

It’s  ill  speaking  between  a fu’  man  and  a fasting. 

It’s  ill  wared  that  wasters  want. 

It’s  kittle  for  the  cheeks  when  the  hurlbarrow  gaes  o’er  the  brig  o’  the 
nose. 

It’s  kittle  shooting  at  corbies  and  clergy. 

It’s  kittle  to  waken  sleeping  dogs. 

It’s  lang  before  the  deil  be  found  dead  at  the  dyke-side. 

It’s  lang  ere  the  deil  dee. 

It’s  nae  laughing  to  gim  in  a widdy. 

It’s  nae  play  when  ane  laughs  and  anither  greets. 

It’s  needless  to  pour  water  on  a drowned  mouse. 

It’s  no  lost  what  a friend  gets. 

It’s  not  what  is  she  but  what  has  she. 

It’s  ower  far  between  the  kitchen  an’  the  ha’. 

It’s  ower  late  to  spare  when  the  back’s  bare. 

It’s  past  jouking  when  the  head’s  aff. 

It’s  stinking  praise  that  comes  out  o’  ane’s  ain  mouth. 

It’s  the  best  spoke  in  your  wheel. 

It’s  well  that  our  faults  are  not  written  in  our  faces. 

It  was  never  for  naething  that  the  gleg  whistled. 

It  will  be  feathered  out  o’  your  wing. 

It  will  be  lang  ere  ye  wear  to  the  knee  lids. 

I wad  be  scant  o’  claith  to  sole  my  hose  wi’  dock 
I would  rather  see’t  than  hear  tell  o’t. 

I wadna  be  deaved  wi’  ye’re  keckling  for  a’  your  eggs. 

I wadna  ca’  the  king  my  cousin. 

I wish  you  readier  meat  than  a rinnin  hare. 

Joke  at  leisure,  you  kenna  wha  may  jibe  yoursel. 

Jouk  and  let  the  jaw  gang  by. 

Keep  out  o’  his  company  that  cracks  o’  his  cheatery. 

Keep  something  for  a sore  foot. 

Keep  the  feast  till  the  feast  day. 

Keep  the  staff  in  your  ain  hand. 

Keep  your  ain  fish  guts  to  your  ain  sea-maws. 

Keep  your  breath  to  cool  your  own  porridge. 

Keep  your  mouth  shut  and  your  e’en  open. 

Ken  when  to  spend  and  when  to  spare,  and  ye  needna  be  busy,  and  ye’ll 
ne’er  be  bare. 

Ken  yoursel,  and  your  neighbor  winna  misken  you. 

Kend  folk’s  nae  company.  , 

Kings  and  bears  aft  worry  their  keepers. 

Kings’  chaff’s  worth  other  folk’s  corn. 

Kings’  cheese  gaes  half  way  in  parings. 

Kings  hae  lang  hands. 

Kindle  a candle  at  baith  ends,  it  will  soon  be  done. 

Kindness  comes  o’  will,  it  canna  be  coft. 

Kindness  will  creep  where  it  canna  gang. 

Kiss  a carle  and  clap  a carle,  that’s  the  way  to  tine  a carle. 

Kythe  in  your  ain  colors,  that  folk  may  ken  you. 

Laith  to  bed  and  laith  to  rise. 

Lang  fasting  gathers  wind. 

Lang  fasting  hains  nae  meat. 

Lang  standing  and  little  offering  maks  a poor  priest. 

Lang  straes  are  nae  motes. 

Laugh  at  leisure,  ye  may  greet  ere  night. 

Law’s  costly,  tak  a pint  and  gree. 

Law  makers  shouldna  be  law  breakers. 

Lay  the  head  o’  the  sow  to  the  tail  of  the  grice. 

Lay  your  wame  to  your  winning. 

Leal  heart  never  lied. 

Learn  the  cat  the  road  to  the  kirn,  and  she’ll  aye  be  lickin. 

Learn  you  to  an  ill  habit,  and  ye’ll  ca’t  custom. 

Learn  young,  learn  fair. 

Let  a’  trades  live,  quoth  the  wife,  when  she  brunt  her  bosom. 

Let  alane,  maks  mony  a loon. 

Let  byganes  be  byganes. 

Let  him  cool  in  the  skin  he  het  in. 

Let  him  tak  a spring  on  his  ain  fiddle. 

Let  his  ain  wand  ding  him. 

Sfcr 


Let  ilka  ane  soop  before  their  ain  door. 

Let  ilka  sheep  hang  by  its  ain  shank. 

Let  na  the  plough  stand  to  kill  a mouse. 

Let  the  horns  gang  wi’  the  hide. 

Let  the  mickle  horse  get  the  mickle  windlin. 

Let  the  tow  gang  wi'  the  bucket. 

Let  them  care  that  come  behind. 

Let  your  meat  dit  your  mouth. 

Light  burdens  break  nae  banes. 

Like  a cow  on  an  unco  loan. 

Like  a sow  playing  on  a trump. 

Like  butter  in  the  black  dog’s  hause. 

Like  hens,  ye  rin  aye  to  the  heap. 

Like  the  bairns  o’  Falkirk,  ye  mind  naething  but  mischief. 

Like  the  cat,  fain  fish  wad  ye  eat,  but  ye  are  laith  to  weet  your  feet 
Like  the  wife  that  aye  took  what  she  had,  and  never  wanted. 

Like  the  wife  that  ne’er  cries  for  the  ladle  till  the  pot  rins  o’er. 

Like  the  wife  wi’  the  mony  daughters,  the  best  comes  hindmost. 
Like’s  an  ill  mark. 

Lippen  to  me,  but  look  to  yoursel. 

List  to  meat’s  gude  kitchen.* 

Little  dogs  hae  lang  tails. 

Little  folk  are  soon  angry. 

Little  Jock  gets  the  little  dish,  and  that  hauds  him  lang  little. 

Little  kennel  the  less  cared  for. 

Little  meddling  maks  fair  parting. 

Little  wats  the  ill-willy  wife  what  a dinner  may  haud  in. 

Little  wit  in  the  head  maks  mickle  travel  to  the  feet. 

Little  mense  to  the  cheeks  to  bite  aff  the  nose. 

Living  at  heck  and  manger. 

Lock  your  door  that  you  may  keep  your  neighbors  honest. 

Lo’e  me  little,  an’  lo’e  me  lang. 

Love  and  lairdships  like  nae  marrows  [equals]. 

Love  is  as  warm  among  cottars  as  among  courtiers. 

Love  o’erlooks  mony  faults. 

Maidens  should  be  mild  and  meek,  quick  to  hear  and  slow  to  speak 
Mair  by  luck  than  good  guideing. 

Mair  haste  the  waur  speed,  quoth  the  tailor  to  the  lang  thread 
Mair  than  eneugh  is  oyver  mickle. 

Mak  a kirk  an’  a mill  o’t. 

Mak  nae  toom  ruse. 

Malice  is  aye  mindfu’. 

Marriage  and  hanging  go  by  destiny. 

Marry  a beggar,  and  get  a louse  for  your  tocher. 

Marry  aboon  your  match,  and  get  a master. 

Marry  for  love,  and  work  for  siller. 

Master’s  will  is  gude  wark. 

Mastery  maws  the  meadows  down. 

Maun-do  is  a fell  fallow. 

May-be’s  are  no  aye  honey-bees. 

Measure  twice,  but  cut  ance. 

Meat  feeds,  claith  deads,  but  manners  mak  the  man. 

Mickle  musing  mars  the  memory. 

Mickle  power  maks  mony  faes. 

Mickle  about  ane,  quoth  the  deil  to  the  collier. 

Mickle  gifts  mak  beggars  bauld. 

Mickle  head,  little  wit. 

Mickle  maun  a gude  heart  thole. 

Mickle  meat,  mony  maladies. 

Mess  and  meat  ne’er  hinder’d  wark. 

Mettle’s  dangerous  in  a blind  mare. 

Money  is  like  the  muck  midden,  it  does  nae  good  till  it  be  spread. 
Money  is  welcome  any  way. 

Money  maks  a man  free  ilka  where. 

Mony  an  honest  man  needs  help  that  hasna  the  face  to  seek  it. 
Mony  ane  kisses  the  bairn  for  love  o’  the  nurse. 

Mony  ane  lacks  what  they  would  fain  hae  in  their  pack. 

Mony  ane  serves  a thankless  master. 

Mony  ane  speers  the  gate  they  ken  fu’  weel. 

Mony  ane’s  gear  is  mony  ane’s  death. 


i 


SCOTS  PROVERBS. 


521 


Mony  gude-nights  is  laith  away. 

Mony  kinsfolk,  but  few  friends. 

Mony  littles  mak  a mickle. 

Mony  purses  haud  friends  lang  thegither. 

Mony  ways  to  kill  a dog,  though  you  dinna  hang  him. 

Mony  wyte  their  wife  for  their  ain  thriftless  life. 

Nae  fleeing  without  wings. 

Nae  man  can  live  langer  in  peace  than  his  neighbors  like. 

Nae  man  can  mak  his  ain  han. 

Nae  man  has  a tak  o’  his  life. 

Nae  wonder  to  see  wasters  want. 

Naething  but  fill  and  fetch  mair. 

Naething  is  a man’s  truly  but  what  he  comes  by  duly. 

Naething  is  got  without  pains  but  dirt  and  lang  nails. 

Naething  is  sae  difficult  but  we  may  overcome  by  perseverance 
Naething  sae  bauld  as  a blind  mare. 

Naething  to  be  done  in  haste  but  gripping  flaes. 

Naething  to  do  but  draw  in  your  stool  and  sit  down. 

Nane  are  sae  weel  but  they  hope  to  be  better. 

Nane  can  play  the  fool  sae  weel  as  a wise  man. 

Need  maks  greed. 

Need  will  gar  an  auld  wife  trot,  and  a naked  man  rin. 

Ne’er  draw  your  dirk  when  a dunt  will  do. 

Ne’er  fash  your  thoom. 

Ne’er  let  on,  but  laugh  in  your  ain  sleeve. 

Ne’er  lippen  ower  mickle  to  a new  friend  or  an  auld  enemy. 

Ne’er  marry  a widow  unless  her  first  man  was  hanged. 

Ne’er  owre  auld  to  learn. 

Ne’er  put  a sword  in  a madman’s  hand. 

Ne’er  put  the  plough  before  the  owsen. 

Ne’er  put  your  hand  farther  out  than  your  sleeve  will  reach. 

Ne’er  rax  aboon  your  reach . 

Ne’er  sca’d  your  lips  in  other  folk’s  kale. 

Ne’er  seek  a wife  till  ye  ken  what  to  do  wi’  her. 

Ne’er  shaw  me  the  meat  but  the  man. 

Ne’er  shaw  your  teeth  unless  ye  can  bite. 

Ne’er  speak  ill  o’  t'nem  whase  bread  ye  eat. 

Ne’er  strive  against  the  stream. 

Ne’er  tak  a forehammer  to  break  an  egg. 

Ne’er  tell  your  fae  when  your  foot  sleeps. 

Neither  to  haud  nor  to  bind. 

Neither  sae  sinfu’  as  to  sink  nor  sae  haly  as  to  swim. 

Next  to  nae  wife,  a gude  wife  is  the  best. 

Nobility  without  ability  is  like  a pudding  without  suet. 

O’  a’  sorrow,  afu’  sorrow’s  the  best. 

Owre  braw  a purse  to  put  a plack  in. 

Owre  reckless  may  repent. 

Owre  sicker,  owre  loose. 

Owre  strong  meat  for  your  weak  stamach. 

Of  a’  flatterers,  self  love  is  the  greatest. 

Of  ae  ill  comes  mony. 

Of  ill  debtors  men  get  aiths. 

Ony  thing  for  you  about  an  honest  man’s  house  but  a day’s  work. 
Open  confession  is  gude  for  the  soul . 

Our  sins  and  debts  are  often  mair  than  we  think. 

Out  o’  the  peat  pot  into  the  gutter. 

Owre  mony  grieves  only  hinder  the  wark. 

Pay  him  in  his  ain  coin. 

Placks  and  bawbees  grow  pounds. 

Play’s  good  while  it’s  play. 

Please  your  kimmer,  and  you’ll  easily  guide  your  gossip. 

Plenty  maks  dainty. 

Poor  folk’s  friends  soon  misken  them. 

Poverty  is  the  mother  o’  a’  arts. 

Pride  and  grace  ne’er  dwell  in  ae  place. 

Pride  finds  nae  cauld. 

Pride  ne’er  leaves  its  master  till  he  gets  a fa’. 

Pride  that  dines  wi’  vanity  sups  wi’  contempt. 

Provision  in  season  makes  a bien  house. 

Put  a coward  to  his  metal  and  he’ll  fight  the  deil. 

Put  on  your  spurs  and  be  at  your  speed. 

Put  twa  pennies  in  a purse  and  they'll  keep  thegither. 


Put  your  finger  in  the  fire,  and  say  it  was  your  fortune. 

Put  your  hand  twice  to  your  bonnet  for  ance  to  your  pouch. 

Quality  without  quantity  is  little  thought  of. 

Quey  calves  are  dear  veal. 

Quick,  for  you’ll  ne’er  be  cleanly. 

Quietness  is  best. 

Rather  spoil  your  joke  than  tine  your  friend. 

Raw  dads  mak  fat  lads. 

Raw  leather  raxes  weel. 

Reckon  up  your  winning  at  yourbed-stock. 

Red  wood  maks  good  spindles. 

Reputation  is  often  got  without  merit  and  lost  without  crime. 

Rich  folk  hae  routh  o’  friends. 

Rich  mixture  maks  gude  mortar. 

Riches  are  got  wi’  pain,  kept  wi’  care,  and  tint  wi’  grief 
Ride  fair  and  jap  nane. 

Right  wrangs  nae  man. 

Rob  Gib’s  contract— stark  love  and  kindness. 

Roose  the  fair  day  at  e’en. 

Rue  and  thyme  grow  baith  in  ae  garden. 

Rule  youth  weel,  foreild  will  rule  itsel. 

Saut,  quoth  the  souter,  when  he  had  eaten  a cow  a’  but  the  tail 
Saw  thin,  shear  thin. 

Say  still  No,  and  ye’ll  ne’er  be  married. 

Scanty  cheeks  mak  a lang  nose. 

Scart-the-cog  wad  sup  mair. 

Send  your  gentle  bluid  to  the  market,  and  see  what  it  will  buy. 

Serve  yoursel  till  your  bairns  come  of  age. 

Set  a stout  heart  to  a stey  brae. 

Shame  fa’  them  that  think  shame  to  do  themselves  a gude  turn 
She  brak  her  elbow  at  the  kirk  door. 

She  hauds  up  her  head  like  a hen  drinking  water. 

She  looks  as  if  butter  wadna  melt  in  her  mouth. 

She  looks  like  a lady  in  a landward  kirk. 

She  that  gangs  to  the  well  wi’  an  ill  will,  either  the  pig  breaks  or  tlw 
water  will  spill. 

She’ll  keep  her  ain  side  o’  the  house,  and  gang  up  and  down  yours. 
She’ll  wear  like  a horseshoe,  aye  the  langer  the  clearer. 

She’s  better  than  she’s  bonny. 

Show  me  the  man,  and  I’ll  show  you  the  law. 

Sic  as  ye  gie,  sic  will  ye  get. 

Silence  grips  the  mouse. 

Slander  leaves  a sair  behind. 

Smooth  waters  run  deep.  . 

Soon  enough  if  weel  eneugh. 

Soon  eneugh  to  cry  Chuck,  when  it’s  out  o’  the  shell. 

Sorrow  and  ill  weather  come  unsent  for. 

Sorrow  is  soon  eneugh  when  it  comes. 

Speak  good  of  pipers,  your  father  was  a fiddler. 

Spilt  ale  is  waur  than  water. 

Stay  nae  langer  in  a friend’s  house  than  you’re  welcome. 

Stuffing  hauds  out  storming. 

Tak  a man  by  his  word  and  a cow  by  her  horn. 

Tak  the  bit  and  the  buffet  wi’t. 

Tak  time  ere  time  be  tint. 

Tak  wit  wi’  your  anger. 

Tak  your  ain  will,  and  j'e’ll  no  die  o’  the  pet. 

Tak  your  thanks  to  feed  your  cat. 

Tak  your  venture,  as  mony  a gude  ship  has  done. 

That’s  Halkerston’s  cow.* 

The  black  ox  ne’er  trod  on  his  foot.t 
The  book  o’  maybes  is  very  braid. 

The  cost  owergangs  the  profit. 

The  deil  aye  drives  his  hogs  to  an  ill  market. 

The  deil  doesna  aye  show  his  cloven  cloots. 

The  deil  gaes  awa  when  he  finds  the  door  steekit  against  him. 

The  deil’s  bairns  have  aye  their  daddy’s  luck. 

The  deil’s  aye  gude  to  his  kin. 


* A story  told  the  reverse  of  the  real  occurrences, 
t Death  never  gave  him  sorrow. 


522 


PROVERBS  AND  OLD  SAYINGS. 


The  deil’s  gane  ower  Jock  Wabster.  * 

The  deil  will  take  little  ere  he  want  a’. 

The  deil’s  aye  busy  wi’  his  ain. 

The  first  fuf  o’  a {at  haggis  is  the  bauldest. 

The  foot  at  the  cradle  and  the  hand  at  the  reel,  is  a sign  that  a woman 
means  to  do  weel. 

The  grace  o’  a gray  bannock’s  in  the  baking  o’t. 

The  head  for  the  washing. 

The  higher  the  hill  the  laigher  the  grass. 

The  hurt  man  writes  wi’  steel  on  marble  stane. 

The  king  may  come  in  the  cadger’s  gate. 

The  kirk’s  mickle,  but  you  may  say  mass  in  the  end  o’t. 

The  laird  may  be  laird,  and  yet  need  his  hind’s  help. 

The  master’s  foot’s  the  best  measure. 

The  o’ercome  only  fashes  folk  to  keep. 

There  is  an  act  in  the  Laird  o’  Grant’s  court,  that  no  aboon  eleven  speak 
at  ance. 

There  was  a wife  that  kept  her  supper  for  her  breakfast,  and  she  was 
dead  ere  day. 

There  was  ne’er  a gude  town  but  there  was  a dub  at  the  end  o’t. 

There  was  never  asilly  Jocky  but  there  was  as  sillya  Jenny. 

There  was  ne’er  a thrifty  wife  wi’  a sheet  about  her  head. 

There’s  a dub  before  every  door. 

There’s  a tough  sinew  in  an  auld  wife’s  heel. 

There’s  a whaup  i’  the  raip.t 

There’s  aye  some  water  where  the  stirkie  drowns. 

There’s  beild  aneath  an  auld  man’s  beard. 

There’s  steel  in  the  needle  point,  though  little  o’t. 

There’s  the  end  o’  an  auld  sang. 

The  simple  man’s  the  beggar’s  brither. 

The  smith’s  mare  and  the  souter’s  wife  are  aye  the  warst  shod. 

The  tod  ne’er  sped  better  than  when  he  gaed  his  ain  errand. 

The  thing  that  lies  na  in  your  gate  breaks  na  your  shins. 

The  thrift  o’  you  and  the  woo  o’  a dog  wad  mak  a braw  web. 

The  worm  o’  a thing  is  best  kenned  by  the  want  o’t. 

The  wife’s  aye  welcome  that  comes  wi’  a crooked  oxter.  $ 

They’ll  gree  better  when  they  gang  in  by  different  kirk  doors. 

They  that  board  wi’  cats  maun  count  upon  scarts. 

They  that  burn  you  for  a witch  lose  a’  their  coals. 

They  that  gie  you  hinder  you  to  buy. 

They  that  lie  down  for  love  should  rise  up  for  hunger. 

They  that  love  maist  speak  least. 

They  were  scant  o’  bairns  that  brought  you  up. 

They  are  sad  rents  that  cqme  in  wi’  tears. 

They  hae  need  o’  a canny  cook  that  hae  but  ae  egg  to  their  dinner. 
They  may  ken  by  your  beard  what  has  been  on  your  board. 

They  ne’er  saw  great  dainties  that  think  a haggis  a feast. 

They  should  kiss  the  guidwife  that  wad  win  the  guidman. 

They  speak  o’  my  drinking,  but  ne’er  think  o’  my  drouth. 

They  that  get  a word  o’  soon  rising  may  lie  a’  day. 

They  that  see  you  a’  day  winna  break  the  house  for  you  at  night. 

Three  can  keep  a secret  when  twa  are  away. 

Thrift  is  a guide  revenue. 

Time  tint  is  ne’er  to  be  found. 

Time  and  thinking  tame  the  strongest  grief. 

Time  tries  a’. 

Tine  heart  and  a’s  gane. 

Tine  thimble,  tine  thrift. 

Tit  for  tat’s  fair  play. 

I'o  him  that  wills,  ways  are  seldom  wanting. 

Toom  stalls  mak  biting  horses. 

Truth  will  aye  stand  without  a prop. 

Try  your  friend  ere  you  need  him. 

Twa  words  maun  gang  to  that  bargain. 

Virtue  never  grows  auld. 

Waes  the  wife  that  wants  the  tongue,  but  weel’s  the  man  that  gets  her. 
Want  o’  wit  is  waur  then  want  o’  wealth. 


War  maks  thieves,  and  peace  hangs  them. 

We  are  aye  to  learn  as  lang  as  we  live. 

We  are  bound  to  be  honest  and  no  to  be  rich. 

Wealth  has  made  mair  men  covetous  than  covetousness  has  made  men 
wealthy. 

Wealth  makes  wit  waver. 

Weans  maun  creep  ere  they  gang. 

We  canna  baith  sup  and  blaw. 

Wedding  and  ill  wintering  tame  baith  man  and  beast. 

Weel  kens  the  mouse  when  the  cat’s  out  o’  the  house. 

Weel  is  that  weel  does. 

We’ll  never  ken  the  worth  o’  water  till  the  well  gae  dry. 

We  maun  live  by  the  living  and  no  by  the  dead. 

Wha  can  haud  what  will  be  away. 

Wha  can  help  misluck. 

Wha  can  helpsickness,  quoth  the  wife  when  she  lay  in  the  gutter. 

Wha  comes  oftener  and  brings  you  less. 

Wha  daur  bell  the  cat. 

Wha  invited  you  to  the  feast. 

Wha  wad  misca’  a Gordon  on  the  raws  of  Strathbogan. 

What  better’s  the  house  when  the  daw  rises  soon. 

What  may  be  done  at  ony  time  will  be  done  at  nae  time. 

What  put  that  i’  your  head,  that  didna  put  the  sturdy  will. 

What’s  my  case  the  day  may  be  yours  the  mom. 

What’s  waur  than  ill-luck. 

What  we  first  learn  we  best  ken. 

What  winna  do  by  might  do  by  flight. 

What  ye  do  when  you’re  drunk  ye  may  pay  for  when  you’re  dry 
What  ye  want  up  and  down  ye  hae  hither  and  yont. 

When  a’  man  speaks,  nae  man  hears. 

When  ae  door  steeks,  anither  ane  opens. 

When  friends  meet,  hearts  warm. 

When  he  dies  of  age  ye  may  quake  for  fear. 

When  ilka  ane  gets  his  ane,  the  thief  will  get  the  widdy. 

When  my  head’s  down  my  house  is  theiked. 

When  petticoats  woo,  breeks  come  speed. 

When  the  barn’s  fu’  ye  may  thresh  before  the  door. 

When  the  cap’s  fu’,  carry’t  even. 

When  the  cow’s  in  the  clout  she  soon  runs  out. 

When  the  guidman  drinks  to  the  guidwife,  a’  wad  be  weel. 

When  the  guidwife  drinks  to  the  guidman  a’s  weel. 

When  the  heart’s  fu’  o’  lust,  the  mouth’s  fu’  o’  leasing. 

When  the  tod  preaches,  tak  tent  o’  the  lambs. 

When  the  tod  wins  to  the  wood,  he  caresna  how  mony  keek  at  his  tail 
When  the  wame’s  fu’,  the  banes  wad  be  at  rest. 

When  the  well’s  fu’  it  will  rin  owre. 

When  wine  sinks,  words  swim. 

When  ye’re  gaun  an’  cornin’  the  gate’s  no  toom. 

When  ye  are  weel,  haud  yoursel  sae. 

When  ye  win  at  that,  ye  may  lick  aff  a het  girdle. 

When  you’re  served,  a’  the  geese  are  watered. 

When  drums  beat,  laws  are  dumb. 

Where  the  buck’s  bound  there  he  maun  bleet. 

Wrang  has  nae  warrant. 

Ye’re  like  auld  maidens,  ye  look  sae  high. 

Ye’re  like  gude  maut,  ye’re  lang  o’  coming. 

Ye’re  like  Macfarlane’s  geese,  ye  hae  mair  mind  o’  your  play  than  yout 
meat. 

Ye’re  like  the  chapman,  ye’re  aye  to  handsel. 

Ye’re  like  the  miller’s  dog,  ye  lick  your  lips  ere  the  pock  be  opened. 
Ye’r  like  the  cow’s  tail,  ye  grow  backward. 

Ye’re  like  the  tod,  ye  grow  gray  before  ye  grow  gude. 

Ye  fand  it  where  the  Highlandman  fand  the  tangs. 

Ye  hae  fasted  lang  and  worried  on  a midge. 

Ye  hae  gotten  the  chapman’s  drowth.* 

Ye  hae  gotten  a ravelled  hesp  o’t. 

Ye  hae  ower  foul  feet  to  come  sae  far  ben. 

Ye  hae  put  a toom  spoon  in  my  mouth. 

Ye  hae  stayed  lang  and  brought  little  wi’  ye. 


* All  things  are  gone  wrong. 

+ Something  amiss. 
t Bringing  something  under  her  arm. 


Hunger. 


LATIN  PROVERBS  AND  PHRASES. 


Ve  hae  taen  the  measure  o’  his  foot. 

Ye  hae  tint  the  tongue  o’  the  trump. 

Ye’ll  get  nae  mair  o’  the  cat  but  the  skin. 

Ye’U  hae  baith  your  meat  and  yourmense.* 

Ye’ll  sit  till  ye  sweat,  and  work  till  ye  freeze. 

Ye’ll  worry  i’  the  hand,  like  M’Ewan’s  calf. 

Ye  look  as  sharp  as  a Lochaber  axe  new  come  frae  the  grindstane. 

Ye  look  like  Let-me-be. 

Yelping  curs  will  raise  mastiffs. 

Ye  maun  have  it  simmered  and  wintered. 

Ye’re  a gude  seeker,  but  an  ill  finder. 

Ye’re  best  when  ye’re  sleeping. 

Ye're  bonny  enough  to  them  that  lo’e  ye,  and  ower  bonny  to  them  that 
lo’e  ye  and  canna  get  ye. 

Ye’re  busy  seeking  the  thing  that’s  no  tint. 

Ye’re  come  o’  bluid,  and  sae’s  a pudding. 

Yer  een’s  yer  merchant. 

Ye’re  feared  for  the  day  ye  never  saw. 

Ye’re  gear  will  ne’er  owergang  ye. 

Ye’re  never  pleased,  fu’  nor  fasting. 

Ye’re  of  sae  mony  minds,  ye’ll  never  be  married. 

Ye’re  sair  fashed  hauding  naething  thegither. 

Ye’re  teeth’s  langer  than  yer  beard. 

Ye  shape  shoon  by  your  ain  shachled  feet. 

Ye  wad  be  a gude  piper’s  dog,  for  smelling  out  bridals. 

Ye  wad  be  gude  to  fetch  the  deil  a drink. 

Ye  wanta  where  a blessing  may  light. 

Ye  are  a sweet  nut,  if  ye  were  weel  cracked. 

Young  folk  may  die,  and  auld  folk  maun  die. 

Your  head  will  never  fill  your  father’s  bonnet. 

Your  purse  was  steekit  when  that  was  paid  for. 

Your  tongue  rins  aye  before  your  wit. 


vwirmcmimtm 


B initio.  From  the  beginning. 

Ab  uno  disce  omnes.  From  a single  instance  you  may 
infer  the  whole. 

Ad  captandum  vulgus.  To  catch  the  rabble. 

Ad  finem  esto  fidelis.  Be  faithful  to  the  end. 

Ad  Graecas  kalendas.  Never. 

Ad  infinitum.  To  infinity. 

A fortiori.  With  stronger  reason. 

Alias.  Otherwise  ; as  Allen  alias  Thompson. 

Alibi.  Elsewhere. 

Alma  mater.  A benign  mother  ; applied  to  a college  or  university. 

A mensa  et  thoro.  Divorced  from  bed  and  board. 

Amor  patriae.  The  love  of  our  country. 

Animus  conscius  se  remordet.  A guilty  mind  punishes  itself. 

Anno  Domini  (a.d.).  In  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

Anno  Mundi  (a.m.).  In  the  year  of  the  world. 

A posteriori.  From  the  effect  to  the  cause. 

A priori.  From  the  cause  to  the  effect. 

Arbiter  elegantiarum.  Master  of  the  ceremonies. 

Argumentum  ad  hominem.  An  argument  to  the  man. 

Ars  est  celare  artcm.  True  art  is  to  conceal  art. 

Audi  alteram  partem.  Hear  the  other  part. 

Audito  multa,  sed  loquere  pauca.  Hear  much  but  say  little. 

Auri  sacra  fames.  The  accursed  appetite  for  gold. 

Aut  Ctesar  aut  nullus.  Either  Caesar  or  nobody. 

Basis  virtutis  constantia.  Constancy  is  the  foundation  of  virtue. 


* Offer  a person  a thing,  and,  as  he  will  not  take  it,  yo"  will  at  least 
have  the  credi‘  of  having  made  the  offer. 

3fcr 


Beati  illi  qu;  procul  negotiis.  Blessed  are  they  who  retire  from  toil. 

Bona  fide.  In  good  faith  ; in  reality. 

Brutum  fulmen.  A harmless  thunderbolt. 

Cacoethes.  An  evil  custom.  Thus,  cacoethes  loquendi — scribendi.  A 
rage  for  talking — scribbling. 

Casus  belli.  The  cause  or  reason  for  war. 

Caput  mortuum.  The  worthless  remains. 

Cede  Deo.  Submit  to  God. 

Cede  magnis.  Give  way  to  the  powerful. 

Cedant  arma  togae.  Let  arms  yield  to  eloquence. 

Certum  pete  finem.  Aim  at  a sure  end. 

Communia  proprie  dicere.  To  express  common  things  with  proprietj 
Compos  mentis.  In  a state  of  sane  mind. 

Concordia  res  parvae  crescunt.  Small  things  increase  by  union. 

Confide  recte  agens.  Fear  not  while  acting  justly. 

Contra  bonos  mores.  Against  good  morals. 

Corpus  delicti.  The  body  of  the  crime. 

Credat  Judaeus  apella.  Let  the  circumcised  Jew  believe  that. 

Cui  bono  ? To  what  good. 

Currente  calamo.  With  a running  pen. 

Data.  Things  given  or  granted. 

De  facto— de  jure.  From  the  fact — from  the  law. 

Delectando  pariterque  monendo.  By  imparting  at  once  pleasure  and 
instruction. 

Delenda  est  Carthago.  Carthage  must  be  destroyed.  (The  words  of 
Cato.) 

De  mortuis  nil  nisi  bonum.  Of  the  dead  say  nothing  except  what  Is 
good. 

Deo  favente — juvante — volente.  With  God’s  favor — help — will. 

Desideratum.  The  thing  desired. 

Desipere  in  loco.  To  play  the  fool  at  the  right  time. 

Desunt  csetera.  The  remainder  is  wanting. 

Deum  cole,  regem  serva.  Worship  God,  serve  the  king. 

Deus  protector  noster.  God  is  our  protector. 

Dilige  amicos.  Love  your  friends. 

Divide  et  impera.  Divide  and  govern. 

Dulce  et  decorum  est  pro  patria  mori.  It  is  sweet  and  glorious  to  die 
for  one’s  country. 

Dum  vivimus  vivamus.  Let  us  live  while  we  live. 

Est  modus  in  rebus.  There  is  a medium  in  all  things. 

Esto  perpetua.  Be  thou  perpetual. 

Esto  quod  videris  Be  what  you  seem  to  be. 

Ex  cathedra.  Ftom  the  chair  ; authoritatively. 

Exempli  gratia  (E.  g.  and  Ex.  gr.).  By  way  of  example. 

Ex  nihilo  nihil  fit.  Nothing  produces  nothing. 

Ex  officio.  By  virtue  of  his  office. 

Ex  parte.  On  one  part. 

Ex  pede  Herculem.  Judge  of  the  size  of  the  statue  of  Hercule'-  by  the 
foot. 

Experto  crede.  Believe  an  experienced  man. 

Extempore.  Without  premeditation. 

Fac  simile.  Do  the  like  : an  engraved  resemblance  of  handwriting. 

Fama  semper  viret.  A good  name  will  shine  for  ever. 

Familias  firmat  pietas.  Devotion  strengthens  families. 

Fas  est  et  ab  hoste  doceri.  It  is  allowable  to  derive  instruction  even 
from  an  enemy. 

Felo  de  se.  A suicide. 

Fiat  justitia,  ruat  coelum.  Let  justice  be  done,  though  the  heavens 
should  fall. 

Fortuna  favet  fortibus.  Fortune  favors  the  bold. 

Fruges  consumere  nati.  Men  born  only  to  consume  food. 

Haud  passibus  aiquis.  With  unequal  steps. 

Hinc  ilia;  lachrymae.  Hence  proceed  these  tears. 

Id  est  (i.  c.).  That  is. 

Id  genes  omne.  All  persons  of  that  description. 

Imprimatur.  Let  it  be  printed. 

Impromptu.  Without  study. 

In  forma  pauperis.  In  the  form  of  a poor  man. 

In  propria  persona.  In  person. 

In  re.  In  the  matter  of. 

In  terTorem.  In  terror. 

In  transitu.  In  passing. 

i 


52^ 


LATIN  PROVERBS  AND  PHRASES. 


i 


Ipse  dixit.  He  himself  said  it : dogmatism. 

Judex  damnatur  cum  nocens  absolvitur.  Guilt  attaches  to  a judge 
when  the  guilty  are  suffered  to  escape. 

Jure  divino— humano.  By  divine — by  human  law. 

Labor  omnia  vincit.  Labor  conquers  every  thing. 

Lapsus  linguae.  A slip  of  the  tongue. 

Lex  talionis.  The  law  of  retaliation. 

Locum  tenens.  A deputy  or  substitute. 

Magna  est  veritas,  et  praevalebit.  The  truth  is  powerful,  and  will  ulti- 
mately prevail. 

Materiam  superabat  opus.  The  workmanship  surpassed  the  materials. 
Medio  tuttssimus  ibis.  A medium  course  will  be  the  safest. 

Memento  mori.  Remember  death. 

Mens  sibi  conscia  recti.  A mind  conscious  of  rectitude. 

Mirabile  dictu.  Wonderful  to  tell. 

Multum  in  parvo.  Much  in  little. 

Mutatis  mutandis.  Afte-  ~ oking  the  necessary  changes. 

Necessitas  non  habet  leges.  Necessity  has  no  law. 

Nem.  con.  An  abbreviation  of  nevtine  contradicente.  Without  dissent 
or  opposition. 

Ne  plus  ultra.  Nothing  beyond — the  utmost  point. 

Nequid  nimis.  Too  much  of  one  thing  is  good  for  nothing. 

Ne  sutor  ultra  crepidam.  Let  not  the  shoemaker  go  beyond  his  last. 
Nisi  Dominus  frustra.  Unless  the  Lord  assist  you,  all  your  efforts  are 
in  vain. 

Noscitur  ex  sociis.  He  is  known  by  his  companions. 

Nota  Bene  (N.  B.).  Mark  well. 

Obiter  dictum.  A thing  said  by  the  way  or  in  passing. 

Onus  probandi.  The  weight  of  proof  ; the  burden  of  proving. 

O si  sic  omnia ! Oh  that  he  had  always  done,  or  spoken  thus  1 
O tempora,  O mores ! Oh  the  times,  oh  the  manners  ! 

Otium  cum  dignitate.  Ease  with  dignity. 

Palmam  qui  meruit  ferat.  Let  him  who  has  won  bear  the  palm. 

Pari  passu.  By  a similar  gradation. 

Par  nobile  fratrum.  A pair  of  noble  brothers. 

Particeps  criminis.  An  accomplice. 

Passim.  Everywhere. 

Per  fas  et  nefas.  Through  right  and  wrong. 

Per  se.  By  itself. 

Poeta  nascitur  non  fit.  Nature,  not  study,  must  form  a poet. 

Prima  facie.  On  the  first  view,  or  appearance. 

Primae  vise.  The  first  passages  : the  upper  part  of  the  intestinal  canal. 
Primum  mobile.  The  main  spring ; the  first  impulse. 

Principils  obsta.  Oppose  the  first  appearance  of  evil. 

Pro  aris  et  focis  For  our  a bars  and  firesides, 


Pro  bono  publico.  For  the  public  good. 

Pro  et  con.  For  and  against. 

Pro  re  nata.  For  a special  business. 

Pro  tempore.  For  the  time. 

Quid  nunc  ? What  now  ? — applied  to  a news-hunter. 

Quid  pro  quo.  What  for  what ; tit  for  tat. 

Quoad  hoc.  To  this  extent. 

Quod  erat  demonstrandum.  Which  was  meant  to  be  shown. 

Rara  avis  in  terris,  nigroque  simitlima  cygno.  A rare  bird  in  the  earth 
very  tike  a black  swan. 

Reductio  ad  absurdum.  A reducing  to  an  absurdity. 

Re  infecta.  Without  attaining  his  end. 

Requiescat  in  pace.  May  he  rest  in  peace. 

Res  angusta  domi.  Narrow  circumstances  at  home. 

Respice  finem.  Look  to  the  end. 

Seriatim.  In  order. 

Sic  itur  ad  astra.  Such  is  the  way  to  immortality. 

Sic  passim.  So  everywhere. 

Sic  transit  gloria  mundi.  Thus  the  glory  of  the  world  passes  away. 
Sine  die.  To  an  indefinite  time. 

Sine  qua  non.  An  indispensable  condition. 

Status  quo  antfe  bellum.  The  state  in  which  both  parties  were  before 
the  war. 

Suaviter  in  modo,  fortiter  in  re.  Gentle  in  the  manner,  but  vigorous  in 
the  deed. 

Sub  silentio.  In  silence. 

Summum  bonum.  The  chief  good. 

Suum  cuique.  Let  every  man  have  his  own. 

Tabula  rasa.  A smoothed  tablet. 

Tempora  mutantur,  et  nos  mutamur  in  illis.  The  times  change,  and  we 
change  with  them. 

Toties  quoties.  As  often  as. 

Ubi  supri.  Where  above  mentioned. 

Vade  mecum.  Go  with  me  : a constant  companion.  (Usually  applied 
to  a pocket-book.) 

Veluti  in  speculum.  As  if  in  a mirror. 

Veni,  vidi,  vici.  I came,  I saw,  I conquered. 

Vis  inertiae.  Force  or  property  of  inanimate  matter. 

Versus  (v.).  Against. 

Vice  versa.  The  terms  or  cases  being  changed. 

Vi  et  armis.  By  main  force. 

Viva  voce.  By  or  with  the  living  or  loud  voice. 

Viz.  (videlicet).  Namely. 

Vox  et  praeterea  nihil.  A voice  and  nothing  more. 

Vox  populi,  vox  Dei.  The  voice  of  the  people  is  the  voice  of  God 


4 


jGRICULTURE  is  the 
art  of  cultivating  the 
ground,  and  of  obtain- 
ing from  it  the  product  nec- 
essary to  sustain  animal  life. 

The  change  from  a state 
of  nature,  in  which  the  hu- 
man race  must  have  first 
lived,  to  the  pastoral,  or  to 
any  high  mode  of  living, 
must  have  been  gradual,  the 
work,  perhaps,  of  ages.  The 
race  was  doomed  to  toil,  and 
necessity  soon  sharpened  the 
power  of  invention.  The 
agriculture  of  a people  must  be  influenced  by  the  cli- 
mate and  natural  features  of  the  country.  Formerly 
its  progress  largely  depended  on  the  density  of  the 
population,  but  now,  the  iron  horse  and  the  giant 
steamer  bear  away  the  product  of  the  farm,  and  the 
results  of  the  labor  of  a few  are  reaped  by  the  many, 
hundreds  and  thousands  of  miles  away.  This  vast 
continent  has  been  justly  called  the  granary  of  the 
world.  We  shall  now  see  how  an  infinitesimally 
small  portion  of  it  should  be  worked  so  as  o enable 
the  toiler  to  become  the  bread-winner,  how  the  farm 
may  be  managed  so  as  to  produce  the  all-mighty 
dollar. 

In  selecting  a farm,  or  entering  upon  the  cultiva- 
tion of  one  already  in  possession,  the  farmer  should, 
first  of  all,  turn  his  attention  to  an  investigation  of 
the  various  soils  of  which  its  surface  is  composed. 
All  soils  adapted  to  agricultural  purposes  are  com- 


posed of  two  classes  of  substances — organic  and  in- 
organic. The  inorganic  parts  are  derived  from  the 
decay  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter.  The  organic 
part  of  the  soil  is  generally  called  vegetable  mold, 
but  scientific  writers  designate  it  as  humus.  To  be 
fertile,  a soil  must  contain  a considerable  portion  of 
this  organic  matter.  More  than  fifty  per  cent,  of 
humus , however,  in  a moist  soil  has  an  injurious 
effect,  rendering  it  what  is  called  sour. 

Of  the  various  soils  several  distinct  classifications 
may  be  made.  It  will  be  well,  at  the  outset,  to  con- 
sider them  all  as  embraced  in  two  grand  classes — 
heavy  or  light.  The  distinction  indicated  by  these 
terms  is  familiar  to  every  farmer.  He  knows,  too, 
that  it  is  a predominance  of  clay  which  constitutes 
a soil  heavy,  and  that  an  excess  of  sand  or  gravel 
makes  a soil  what  is  called  light. 

Heavy  soils,  also  often  denominated  cold  and  wet,  are  dis- 
tinguished for  their  affinity  for  water,  their  tenacity,  their  soft- 
ness when  wet,  and  their  hardness  when  dry.  They  are  ad- 
mirably adapted  to  wheat,  oats,  Indian  corn,  and  the  various 
grasses  ; hence  they  are  sometimes  styled  grass  lands,  and  are 
generally  susceptible  of  being  made  highly  productive. 

Light  soils  are  easily  cultivated,  friable,  dry,  and  warm  ; 
but  their  porousness  renders  them  liable  to  drouth  and  exhaus- 
tion. They  are  particularly  adapted  to  rye,  barley,  buckwheat, 
and  the  tap-rooted  plants. 

Soils  are  chiefly  made  up  of  what  are  sometimes  called  the 
three  primitive  earths — silex  (including  sand  and  gravel),  clay, 
and  lime.  As  either  of  these  predominates,  it  gives  its  pecu- 
liar character  to  the  soil,  whence  we  have  the  arrangement 
into  three  grand  classes — sandy,  clayey,  and  limy  soils. 

I.  Sandy  Soils. — A soil  containing  not  less  than  seventy 
per  cent,  of  sand  may  be  considered  sandy,  in  the  sense  in 
which  the  term  is  here  used. 

— 


AGRICULTURE. 


» — 

526 


2.  Clayey  Soils. — Clay  with  a mixture  of  not  more  than 
twenty  per  cent,  of  sand  forms  a clayey  soil. 

3.  Limy  Soils. — Limy  or  calcareous  soils  are  those  in  which 
lime,  exceeding  twenty  per  cent.,  becomes  the  distinguishing 
characteristic.  Calcareous  soils  may  be  either  calcareous 
clays,  calcareous  sands,  or  calcareous  loams,  according  to  the 
proportions  of  clay  or  sand  that  may  be  present  in  them. 

4.  Loamy  Soils. — Loamy  soils  are  intermediate  between 
those  denominated  sandy  and  those  with  predominant  clayey 
characteristics.  There  are  sandy  loams,  clayey  loams,  calcare- 
ous loams,  and  vegetable  loams. 

5.  Marly  Soils.  — Soils  containing  lime,  but  in  which  the 
proportion  does  not  exceed  twenty  per  cent.,  are  sometimes 
called  marly. 

6.  Alluvial  Soils. — Soils  made  up  of  the  washings  of  streams 
are  called  alluvial.  They  contain  portions  of  every  kind  of 
soil  existing  in  the  surrounding  country,  and  are  generally 
loamy  and  very  fertile. 

7.  Vegetable  Molds.- — When  decayed  vegetable  and  animal 
matter  or  humus  exists  in  so  great  a proportion  as  to  give  the 
predominant  character  to  a soil,  it  sometimes  receives  the  name 
of  vegetable  mold. 

8.  Subsoils. — The  stratum  or  bed  on  which  a soil  immedi- 
ately rests  is  called  the  subsoil.  Subsoils,  like  soils,  may  be 
either  silicious,  argillaceous,  or  calcareous. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SOILS. 

Chemical  analysis  shows  that  the  organic  parts  of  a soil  are 
composed  or  carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  hydrogen.  The  in- 
organic parts  of  a fertile  soil,  in  addition  to  the  silex,  clay, 
and  lime,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  contain  smaller 
quantities  of  magnesia,  potash,  soda,  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
chlorine,  oxyd  of  iron,  and  oxyd  of  manganese.  All  these  are 
essential  to  independent  fertility. 

To  ascertain  the  percentage  of  sand  which  a soil  may  con- 
tain, dry  a quantity  thoroughly  ; weigh  it  ; boil  it  in  water  ; 
stir  it  in  a convenient  vessel,  and  when  the  sand  has  settled 
pour  o;T  the  liquid,  which  will  hold  the  fine  clay,  etc.,  in  sus- 
pension ; after  doing  this  a few  times,  nothing  will  remain  in 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel  but  nearly  pure  sand,  which  may  be 
dried  and  weighed,  and  the  quantity  will  show  whether  the 
soil  be  sandy,  loamy,  or  clayey. 

Any  considerable  quantity  of  lime  in  a soil  is  readily  detected 
by  pouring  upon  it  a little  muriatic  acid,  which  may  be  ob- 
tained at  any  apothecary  shop.  So  soon  as  this  acid  comes  in 
contact  with  lime,  if  there  be  any,  a brisk  effervescence  will 
take  place,  owing  to  the  bubbling  up  and  escape  of  carbonic 
acid  gas. 

1.  Texture  of  Soils. — Considered  in  reference  to  texture,  a 
soil  may  be  described  as  essentially  a mixture  of  an  impalpa- 
ble powder  with  a greater  or  smaller  quantity  of  visible  par- 
ticles of  all  sizes  and  shapes.  Now,  although  the  visible 
particles  are  absolutely  essential,  their  effects  are,  as  it  were, 
indirect ; the  impalpable  powder  alone  exerting  a direct  in- 
fluence upon  vegetation,  by  entering  into  solution  with  the 
water  and  acids  with  which  it  comes  in  contact  ; for  plants  are 
incapable  of  taking  in  solid  matter,  however  minutely  divided  ; 
and  it  is  in  a liquid  or  gaseous  form  only  that  their  food  can 


be  received.  From  this  it  will  be  readily  understood  how  a 
soil  may  possess  all  the  elements  of  fertility  and  yet  be  barren- 
on  account  of  some  of  these  elements  being  locked  up  in  it,  as 
it  were,  in  an  insoluble  condition.  The  stones  and  smallet 
visible  portions  of  the  soil  are  gradually  but  constantly  crumb- 
ling down  under  the  action  of  air,  moisture,  and  other  chemi- 
cal agents,  thus  adding,  from  year  to  year,  new  impalpable 
matter  to  the  soil.  The  greater  the  proportion  of  this  impal- 
pable matter,  all  other  things  being  equal,  the  greater  will  be 
the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Soils  must  also  be  examined  in  reference  to  their  consistency 
or  tenacity,  which  is  nothing  more  than  the  strength  with 
which  their  molecules  or  particles  are  bound  to  each  other  by 
what  is  called,  in  the  language  of  natural  philosophy,  the  at- 
traction of  cohesion.  Clayey  soils  have  the  greatest  degree  of 
consistency,  and  sandy  soils  the  least.  Both  extremes  are 
unfavorable,  a medium  in  this  respect  agreeing  best  with 
vegetation. 

2.  Depth  of  Soil. — A deep  soil  has  not  only  the  advantage 
of  giving  the  roots  of  plants  a wider  range  and  a greater  mass 
of  food,  but  it  retains  moisture  better  in  seasons  of  drouth, 
and  is  not  so  readily  saturated  in  rainy  weather.  For  the  tap- 
rooted  plants,  such  as  beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  etc.,  depth  of 
soil  is  particularly  important. 

3.  Colors  of  Soils. — The  brown  and  red  soils  are  generally 
the  best.  They  are  termed  warm,  and  are  mostly  loamy  and 
fertile.  Yellow  and  gray  indicate  clayey  soils,  which  are  cold 
in  their  nature.  Black  generally  indicates  peat  or  deep  vegeta- 
ble mold.  Dark-colored  earths  absorb  heat  more  rapidly  than 
others,  but  they  also  allow  it  to  escape  with  equal  readiness. 

4.  Humidity  of  Soils. — Too  great  moisture  is  not  less  in- 
jurious to  a soil  than  extreme  dryness.  The  proper  medium 
should  be  sought,  and  where  land  is  too  wet,  thorough  under- 
draining should  be  practiced. 

5.  Inf  ue nee  of  Subsoils. — A subsoil  of  clay  beneath  a clayey 
soil  is  unfavorable  ; but  beneath  a sandy  soil  it  is  beneficial, 
especially  if  deep  plowing  and  subsoiling  be  resorted  to  for 
the  purpose  of  improving  the  latter.  On  the  same  principle  a 
sandy  or  gravelly  subsoil  is  desirable  under  clayey  soils.  A 
calcareous  or  limy  subsoil  is  beneficial  to  both  clayey  and 
sandy  soils. 

6.  Position  and  Form  of  Surface. — Sandy  soils  are  most 
fertile  when  flat  and  situated  lower  than  the  surrounding 
country.  On  the  declivities  of  hills,  such  soil  is  of  less  value, 
as  it  is  liable  to  become  parched  by  drouths  and  washed  away 
by  rains.  Clayey  soils,  on  the  contrary,  especially  where  the 
subsoil  is  impermeable,  are  favorably  situated  when  on  a hill- 
side. Southern  and  eastern  exposures  are  favorable  to  early 
vegetation,  and  in  a cold  climate  or  with  a clayey  soil  are  very 
desirable  for  many  crops. 

1.  Improving  Clayey  Soils. — One  of  the  principal  defects  of 
clayey  soils,  especially  where  they  rest  upon  a subsoil  of  the 
same  nature,  is  the  excess  of  water  which  is  held  in  them. 
The  only  effectual  way,  in  a majority  of  cases,  to  get  rid  of 
this  is  by  thorough  underdraining.  Open  drains  or  ditches, 
though  less  effectual,  are  useful.  In  some  cases  “ water  fur- 
rows.” terminating  in  some  ravine  or  ditch,  serve  a very  good 
purpose. 


AGRICULTURE. 


527 


Lime  is  exceedingly  useful  as  an  ameliorator  of  clayey  soils. 
Gypsum  .or  plaster  of  Paris,  ashes,  coarse  vegetable  manures, 
straw,  leaves,  chips,  etc.,  are  also  very  useful,  adding  new 
materials  to  the  soil,  and  tending  to  separate  its  particles  and 
destroy  their  strong  cohesion.  In  cold  climates,  plowing 
clayey  lands  in  the  fall,  and  thus  exposing  them  to  the  action 
of  the  frosts  and  snows,  has  a beneficial  effect.  At  the  South, 
where  there  is  little  frost,  and  frequent  and  heavy  rains  occur 
during  the  winter,  the  effect  of  fall  plowing  is  very  injurious. 
Clayey  lands  must  never  be  plowed  when  wet. 

Where  a clayey  soil  rests  upon  a sandy  subsoil,  its  improve- 
ment is  easier,  as  deep  plowing,  by  which  a portion  of  the 
subsoil  is  turned  up  and  mixed  with  the  soil,  soon  modifies  it 
very  sensibly. 

2.  Improving  Sandy  Soils. — Sandy  soils  require  a treatment 
in  most  respects  the  reverse  of  that  applied  to  clayey  soils. 

Lime  and  gypsum,  which  render  clayey  soils  more  friable, 
increase  the  adhesiveness  of  sandy  soils,  and  when  cheaply 
obtained  furnish  a profitable  dressing.  Ashes  may  also  be  ap- 
plied with  great  benefit,  as  may  vegetable  manures  and  vege- 
table mold.  Sandy  soils  are  plowed  to  the  greatest  advantage 
when  wet,  and  are  improved  by  the  frequent  use  of  a heavy 
roller.  Pasturing  sheep  upon  them  is  very  beneficial. 

Gravelly  soils  (except  calcareous  gravels)  are  more  difficult 
of  improvement  than  sandy  soils,  and  are  most  profitably  ap- 
propriated to  pasturage.  Sheep  will  keep  them  in  the  most 
useful  condition  of  which  they  are  capable. 

3.  Improvement  of  Vegetable  Soils. — Soils  composed  mainly 
of  humus  or  vegetable  mold,  should  be  drained  from  all  ex- 
cess of  water.  Then  the  hommocks,  if  any,  must  be  cut  off, 
dried,  and  burned,  and  the  ashes  spread  over  the  surface  ; 
after  which  sand,  fine  gravel,  ashes,  air-slaked  lime,  and 
barn-yard  manure  should  be  liberally  added. 

4.  Management  of  Subsoils. — In  subsoil  plowing  a common 
plow  goes  first  and  is  followed  in  the  same  furrow  by  the  sub- 
soil plow,  which  thoroughly  breaks  up  the  subsoil  to  the  depth 
of  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches,  without  displacing  it.  At 
subsequent  plowings  portions  of  this  subsoil  are  turned  up  by 
allowing  the  common  plow  to  run  more  deeply  than  before  ; 
but  care  should  be  taken  not  to  bring  it  up  too  rapidly  or  in 
too  large  quantities. 

Subsoil  plowing  should  be  repeated  once  in  five  or  six  years; 
going  each  time  a little  deeper  than  before,  till  the  greatest 
practical  depth  is  attained. 

Subsoil  plowing  is  not  applicable,  however,  to  all  lands. 
Where  the  subsoil  is  loose  and  leachy,  consisting  of  an  excess 
of  sand  or  gravel,  it  is  not  only  unnecessary  but  positively  in- 
jurious. 

The  gradual  mixing  of  the  subsoil  with  the  soil  which  re- 
sults from  subsoil  plowing  is  especially  beneficial  to  lands 
which  have  been  for  a long  time  under  cultivation,  and  have 
become  partially  exhausted. 

Where  underdraining  is  required,  it  should  precede  the 
subsoiling,  and  the  surface  of  the  drains  should  be  sufficiently 
below  the  surface  not  to  be  disturbed  by  the  subsoil  plow. 

With  the  exception  we  have  noted,  where  the  subsoil  is  loose 
and  leachy,  subsoil  plowing,  though  expensive,  will  most  cer- 
tainly “ pay,”  as  experience  has  amply  proved. 


iS  -^MANURES.-?-  Si 

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HE  productive  power  of  soils  subjected 
to  cultivation  is  gradually  exhausted  by 
the  process.  Some  of  the  alluvial  lands 
of  Virginia  produced  large  annual  crops 
of  corn  and  tobacco  for  more  than  a cen- 
tury, without  any  return  being  made  to  them 
for  the  elements  of  fertility  abstracted  ; but 
these  lands  are  now  nearly  valueless. 

The  average  yield,  per  acre,  of  the  cultivated  lands 
of  the  State  of  New  York  has  decreased  considerably 
since  1844,  when  the  records  on  which  these  tables 
are  founded  were  commenced.  In  corn  the  decrease 
is  nearly  four  bushels  per  acre  ; in  wheat  nearly  two 
bushels  ; and  in  potatoes,  partly  owing  to  the  rot, 
no  doubt,  twenty-two  and  a half  bushels. 

These  are  instructive  facts,  and  should  cause  the 
farmer  to  pause  and  reflect. 

Both  the  organic  and  inorganic  parts  of  plants  are 
made  up  from  their  food,  which  must  of  course  con- 
sist of  both  organic  and  inorganic  materials.  The 
former  are  obtained  partly  from  the  soil  and  partly 
from  the  air  ; the  latter  come  exclusively  from  the 
soil.  A fertile  soil  must  therefore  contain,  in  suf- 
ficient quantity  and  in  an  available  form,  all  the  con- 
stituents of  plants  ; and  to  maintain  its  fertility  under 
cultivation,  these  constituents  must  be  supplied  in 
the  form  of  manures  so  fast  as  they  are  taken  up  by 
the  crops  produced. 


I.  VEGETABLE  MANURES. 

Vegetable  manures  are  not  so  energetic  in  their  action  as 
those  of  animal  or  mineral  origin,  but  their  effects  are  more 
durable  ; and  the  wise  agriculturist  will  avail  himself  largely 
of  the  cheap  means  of  ameliorating  his  soil  which  they  afford. 

1.  Green  Crops. — Plowing  in  green  crops,  such  as  clover, 
spurry,  sainfoin,  buckwheat,  cow-peas,  turnips  (sown  thickly), 
Indian  corn,  etc.,  is  one  of  the  best  modes  of  renovating  and 
sustaining  a soil.  Worn-out  lands,  unsalable  at  ten  dollars  an 
acre,  have  by  this  means,  while  steadily  remunerating  their 
proprietors  by  their  returning  crops  for  all  the  outlay  of  labor 
and  money,  been  brought  up  in  value  to  fifty  dollars  an  acre. 

For  the  Northern  States  red  cloverhas  been  found  best  fitted 
for  a green  manure  ; but  in  particular  cases  some  other  crop 
may  be  used  with  greater  advantage.  At  the  South,  the  cow- 


528 


AGRICULTURE. 


pea  (which  is  no  pea,  but  a bean)  is  considered  the  best 
fertilizer. 

Clover  and  most  broad-leaved  plants  draw  largely  for  their 
sustenance  from  the  air,  especially  when  aided  by  the  applica- 
tion of  gypsum.  By  its  long  tap-roots,  clover  also  draws  much 
from  the  subsoil. 

The  proper  time  to  turn  in  most  plants  used  as  green  manure 
is  at  the  season  of  blossoming. 

The  same  effects  follow  the  plowing  of  grass  lands,  and 
turning  under  the  turf  ; and  the  thicker  and  heavier  the  sward 
the  better. 

2.  Straw,  Leaves,  etc. — Straw,  leaves,  hay,  are  usually  ap- 
plied to  the  lands  after  they  have  either  been  worked  over  by 
animals  and  mixed  with  their  manures,  or  composted  with 
other  substances  and  decomposod  ; but  clayey  soils  are  bene- 
fited by  their  application  in  an  undecayed  state. 

Potato-tops  or  haulm  ; bean  haulm  ; weeds,  pulled  before 
they  have  seeded,  and  all  kinds  of  vegetable  refuse,  are  readily 
decomposed  by  the  addition  of  a small  quantity  of  animal  sub- 
stances or  lime,  and  should  be  carefully  composted. 

3.  Sea-weed. — Sea-weed  and  pond-weed  form  valuable  ma- 
nures. The  former  is  particularly  rich  in  the  substances  most 
needed  by  our  crops. 

4.  Cotton  Seed. — At  the  South,  cotton  seed  is  much  used  as 
a manure,  and  is  very  valuable  for  that  purpose.  It  is  applied 
at  the  rate  of  from  eighty  to  a hundred  bushels  per  acre.  It 
may  be  sown  broadcast  and  plowed  in  during  the  winter,  when 
it  will  rot  before  spring,  or  it  may  be  left  in  heaps  to  heat  till 
its  vitality  is  destroyed,  when  it  may  be  thrown  upon  the  corn 
hills  and  covered  with  the  hoe  or  plow. 

5.  Turf,  Muck,  Mud,  etc. — Rich  turf,  full  of  the  roots  of 
the  grasses  and  decayed  vegetable  matter,  is  valuable  as  an 
absorbent  of  animal  or  other  manures  in  compost  heaps.  Mix- 
ing it  with  lime,  and  leaving  it  several  weeks  to  decompose,  is 
a good  preparatory  process. 

Swamp  muck,  pond  mud,  and  the  scourings  of  old  ditches, 
are  exceedingly  rich  in  vegetable  matter,  and  are  all  exceed- 
ingly useful  as  manures. 

II.  ANIMAL  MANURES. 

These  comprise  the  flesh,  blood,  hair,  bones,  horns,  excre- 
ments, etc.,  of  animals.  They  contain  more  nitrogen  than 
vegetable  manures,  and  are  far  more  powerful. 

1.  Stable  Manures. — The  standard  manure  of  this  country 
is  that  from  the  stable  and  barn-yard.  The  principal  varieties 
are  those  of  the  ox,  the  cow,  the  horse,  and  the  sheep.  Of 
these,  that  of  the  horse  is  the  most  valuable  in  its  fresh  state, 
but  is  very  liable,  as  ordinarily  treated,  to  loose  much  of  its 
value  by  fermentation  ; that  of  the  sheep  comes  next  ; while 
that  of  the  cow  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  list,  because  the 
enriching  substance  of  her  food  goes  principally  to  the  forma- 
tion of  milk.  That  of  the  ox  is  better. 

All  the  urine,  as  well  as  the  solid  excrements  of  animals, 
should  be  carefully  preserved.  The  urine  of  three  cows  for 
one  year  is  worth  more  than  a ton  of  guano,  which  would  cost 
from  fifty  to  sixty  dollars.  Various  methods  of  preserving  and 
applying  it  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  intelligent  farmer. 

Stable  tnanures  should  be  sheltered  from  the  sun  and  rain,  and 


fermenting  heaps  so  covered  with  turf  or  loam  as  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  fertilizing  gases.  Plaster,  as  in  the  case  of  urine, 
will  aid  in  retaining  the  ammonia. 

2.  Hog  Manure. — The  manure  of  swine  is  strong  and  valu- 
able. Swamp  muck,  weeds,  straw,  leaves,  etc.,  should  be 
thrown  into  the  sty  in  liberal  quantities,  to  be  rooted  over  and 
mixed  with  the  dung.  In  this  way  from  five  to  ten  loads  of 
manure  per  annum  may  be  obtained  from  a single  hog. 

3.  The  Manure  of  Fowls,  etc. — The  manure  of  hens,  turkeys, 
geese,  ducks,  and  pigeons  should  be  carefully  collected  and 
preserved.  Professor  Norton  says  that  three  or  four  hundred 
pounds  of  such  manure,  that  has  not  been  exposed  to  the  rain  or 
sun,  is  equal  in  value  to  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  loads  of 
stable  manure. 

4.  Guano. — Of  its  value  as  a manure  there  can  be  no  doubt  ; 
but  circumstances  must  determine  whether  in  any  given  case 
it  can  profitably  be  purchased  and  applied  at  the  prices  at 
which  it  is  held. 

In  applying  guano,  care  should  be  taken  that  it  do  not 
come  in  contact  with  any  seed,  as  it  might  destroy  its  vitality. 

5.  Fish  Manures. — These  are  available  near  the  sea-coast 
only,  where  they  furnish  an  important  source  of  fertility,  which 
should  not  be  neglected.  The  flesh  of  fish  acts  with  great 
energy  in  hastening  the  growth  of  plants.  It  decomposes 
rapidly,  and  should  be  at  once  plowed  under,  or  made  into  a 
well-covered  compost  heat. 

6.  Flesh,  Blood,  Ilair,  etc. — Dead  animals,  the  blood  and 
offal  from  slaughter-houses,  are  among  the  most  powerful  of 
fertilizers — equal  to  guano  and  the  other  costly  manures. 
Every  animal  that  dies  should  be  made  into  compost  at  once. 

Hair,  woolen  rags,  leather  shavings  from  the  shoe-shops, 
and  all  other  refuse  animal  matters,  should  be  carefully  pre- 
served and  composted,  as  they  make  very  rich  manure. 

7.  Bones.  — The  value  of  bones  as  a manure  is  just  beginning 
to  be  appreciated  in  this  country.  They  unite  some  of  the 
most  efficacious  and  desirable  organic  and  inorganic  manures. 

Bones  make  a cheap  as  well  as  a rich  manure,  and  no 
thoughtful  farmer  will  suffer  one  to  be  wasted  about  his  house. 

III.  MINERAL  MANURES. 

1.  Lime. — Lime  is  applied  to  land  in  three  different  states — 
as  quick-lime,  slaked  lime,  and  mild  or  air-slaked  lime. 
To  cold,  stiff,  newly  drained  land,  especially  if  there  exist  in 
it  much  of  acid  organic  compounds,  it  is  best  to  apply  quick- 
lime or  caustic  hydrate  (slaked  lime),  as  it  will  have  a more 
energetic  effect  in  ameliorating  it.  On  light  soils  mild  or  air- 
slaked  lime  is  considered  most  beneficial.  It  is  best  to  apply 
lime  frequently  and  in  small  quantities,  so  as  to  keep  it  near 
the  surface  and  always  active. 

2.  Marls. — In  true  marl  the  principal  element  of  fertility  is 
the  lime  which  it  contains  ; but  its  value  is  increased  by  the 
greater  or  less  proportion  of  magnesia  and  phosphoric  acid 
which  are  usually  combined  with  it. 

A valuable  mineral  fertilizer  generally  called  marl,  but 
which  contains  comparatively  little  lime,  abounds  in  parts  of 
New  Jersey  and  Delaware.  Its  effects  upon  the  light  sandy 
soils  of  New  Jersey  is  very  striking  indeed. 

3.  Gypsum. — Gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  is  a sulphate  of 


AGRICULTURE. 


529 


lime,  and  has  been  found  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most 
powerful  fertilizers  derived  from  the  mineral  kingdom.  On 
grass  lands  it  is  best  to  sow  it  in  damp  weather  or  while  the 
dew  is  on.  Sow  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  a bushel  to  the  acre. 
Seed  potatoes  may  be  wet  and  rolled  in  plaster  before  planting 
with  decided  advantage  ; and  we  know  of  no  better  way  of 
applying  it  to  com  than  to  give  the  seed  a coat  before  putting 
it  in  the  ground. 

4.  Common  Salt,  etc. — Common  salt,  as  an  ingredient  in 
compost,  is  of  great  service.  As  a top  dressing  for  grass 
lands — especially  those  of  a loamy  texture— it  is  invaluable. 
Mixed  with  wood  ashes  and  lime,  in  the  proportion  of  one 
bushel  of  salt  to  three  of  ashes  and  five  of  lime,  it  constitutes 
a very  energetic  manure  for  Indian  corn. 

A very  useful  and  energetic  mixture  is  made  by  the  following 
simple  process  : 

“ Take  three  bushels  of  unslaked  lime,  dissolve  a bushel  of 
salt  in  as  little  water  as  will  dissolve  it,  and  slake  the  lime 
with  it.  If  the  lime  will  not  take  up  all  the  brine  at  once — 
which  it  will  if  good  and  fresh  burned — turn  it  over  and  let  it 
lie  a day  and  add  a little  more  of  the  brine  ; and  so  continue 
to  do  till  it  is  all  taken  up.-’ 

Brine  which  has  been  used  for  salting  meat  or  fish  is  still 
more  valuable  than  that  newly  made,  as  it  contains  a portion 
of  blood  and  other  animal  matter. 

Whenever  refuse  nitrate  of  potash — that  is,  common  salt- 
peter— or  refuse  liquid  in  which  it  has  been  dissolved  for 
pickling  meat,  can  be  procured,  it  should  be  carefully  pre- 
served and  mixed  into  a compost  heap. 

5.  Ashes. — Ashes  compose  the  entire  inorganic  parts  of 
plants.  Returned  to  the  soil,  they  may  again  be  taken  up  by 
the  growing  vegetation.  Their  great  usefulness  as  a manure 
is  evident  and  undisputed. 

Leached  ashes  have  lost  some  of  their  value,  being  deprived 
of  the  greater  portion  of  their  potash  and  soda,  but  are  still 
very  useful  as  manures. 

Coal  ashes  are  less  valuable  than  wood  ashes,  but  are  by  no 
means  to  be  neglected  by  the  farmer. 

Soot  is  exceedingly  valuable  as  a manure,  and  the  small 
quantity  produced  should  be  carefully  saved. 


small  that  no  putrefactive  fermentation  will  take  place.  In 
many  cases,  manures  may  be  hauled  in  the  winter  with  great 
economy,  as  the  labor  of  the  teams  and  hands  is  in  less  demand 
elsewhere. 

4.  A Caution. — Never  mix  quick-lime  with  any  animal 
manure,  as  it  will  greatly  deteriorate  the  manure. 

5.  Burying  Manure. — Here  again  doctors  disagree.  Some 
advocate  burying  manure  very  deeply,  others  slightly,  and 
still  others  would  leave  it  upon  the  surface.  The  best  gen- 
eral rule,  we  believe,  is  to  mix  it  so  thoroughly  as  possible 
with  every  part  of  the  soil.  The  roots  will  then  be  sure  to 
find  it.  A few  crops — onions  and  some  of  the  grasses,  for 
instance — must  find  their  nutriment  near  the  surface,  as  the 
roots  do  not  extend  deeply  ; for  these  a top  dressing  may  be 
best. 

6.  Importance  of  Texture. — Far  more  important  than  the 
mere  presence  of  fertilizing  ingredients,  or  even  the  chemical 
condition  of  those  ingredients,  in  many  cases,  is  their  mechan- 
ical texture  and  degree  of  pulverization.  Hence  it  may  be 
reasonably  believed  that  the  general  introduction  and  free  use 
of  pulverizers,  as  the  most  effective  harrows,  clod-crushers, 
and  subsoilers,  assisted  by  tile-draining,  may  be  of  greater 
benefit  to  the  whole  country  than  the  importation  of  a million 
tons  of  guano. 


V.— COMPOSTS. 

Let  nothing  that  is  capable,  when  decomposed,  of  furnishing 
nutriment  to  your  growing  crops  be  permitted  to  go  to  waste 
about  your  premises.  A compost  heap  should  be  at  hand  to 
receive  all  decomposed  refuse.  The  best  basis  for  this  heap 
is  well-dried  swamp  muck  ; but  where  this  is  not  readily 
obtained,  procure  rich  turf  scraping  from  the  roadside,  leaves 
and  surface  soil  from  the  wood  lands  and  the  sides  of  fences, 
straw,  chips,  corncobs,  weeds,  etc.,  aiding  the  decay  of  the 
coarser  materials  by  the  addition  of  urine  or  the  lime  and  salt 
mixture  mentioned  in  the  previous  section.  Let  this  be  com- 
posted with  any  animal  matter  found  about  the  premises,  or 
in  the  vicinity. 

VI.— IRRIGATION. 


IV.— MANAGEMENT  OF  MANURES. 


1.  Fermentation. — That  great  loss  takes  place  when  manure 
ferments  uncovered  by  some  absorbent  of  the  fertilizing  gases  is 
clear  to  every  observer  and  thinker.  See  to  it,  then,  that  all 
fermenting  manure  is  covered  with  turf,  muck,  charcoal  dust, 
sawdust,  or  plaster,  to  take  up  and  retain  the  ammoniacal 
gases  as  they  arise. 

2.  Digging  over  Manures. — The  frequent  digging  over  of 
barn-yard  manure,  practiced  by  some  farmers,  while  it  pro- 
motes decomposition,  also  leads  to  great  waste. 

3.  Hauling  Alanure  in  Winter. — The  opinion  is  now  gain- 
ing ground  that,  when  it  can  be  conveniently  done,  the  best 
way  to  secure  to  the  land  the  greatest  possible  benefit  from 
stable  and  barn-yard  manure  is  to  draw  them  at  once,  so  fast 
as  they  are  produced,  to  the  fields  where  they  are  to  be  used; 
and  either  spread  them  at  once  or  deposit  them  in  heaps  so 


Irrigation  is  manuring  by  means  of  water.  “The  manner 
of  irrigation  must  depend  on  the  situation  of  the  surface  and 
the  supply  of  water.  When  it  is  desirable  to  bring  more 
water  on  to  meadows  than  is  required  for  saturating  the 
ground,  and  its  escape  to  the  fields  below  is  to  be  avoided, 
other  ditches  should  be  made  on  the  lower  sides,  to  arrest  and 


convey  away  the  surplus  water.” 

Irrigation  contributes  to  the  growth  of  plants  in  several 
ways. 

“ The  advantages  of  irrigation  are  so  manifest  that  they 
should  never  be  neglected,  when  the  means  for  securing  them 
are  within  economical  reach. 

“ The  increase  from  the  application  of  water  is  sometimes 
fourfold,  when  the  soil,  the  season,  and  the  water  are  all 
favorable,  and  it  is  seldom  less  than  doubled. 

“ Light,  porous  soils,  and  particularly  gravels  and  sands, 
are  the  most  benefited  by  irrigation.” 


UPPOSE  the  farmer  to  have  a soil  which 
requires,  as  almost  all  soils  do,  the  appli- 
cation of  manure  to  render  it  fertile. 
He  adds  a good  coating  of  manure,  and 
then  takes  off  a crop  of  corn  or  wheat. 
This  crop  will  carry  away  the  largest  part  of 
the  phosphates  that  were  added  in  the  manure. 
In  most  cases,  therefore,  a second  crop  of  the  same 
kind  would  not  be  so  good  as  the  first ; and  the 
third  would  be  still  less.  There  yet  remain,  how- 
ever, from  the  manure,  considerable  quantities  of 
other  substances,  which  the  grain  crops  did  not  so 
particularly  require,  such  as  potash  and  soda.  With 
this  a good  crop  of  potatoes,  turnips,  or  beets  may 
be  obtained  ; and  after  this  there  is  probably  still 
enough  lime,  etc.,  left  to  produce  an  excellent  crop 
of  hay,  if  the  ground  be  seeded  down  with  another 
crop  of  grain  of  a lighter  character  than  Indian  corn 
or  wheat. 

We  perceive,  then,  that  any  good  rotation  must 
be  founded  upon  the  principle  that  different  classes 
of  crop*  require  different  proportions  of  the  various 
substance-  which  are  present  in  soils,  and  in  the  nu- 
merous fertilizers  which  are  applied  for  the  purpose 
of  enriching  them.  Thus  the  crops  may  be  made 
to  succeed  each  other  with  the  least  possible  injury 
to  the  soil,  and  with  the  greatest  economy  in  the  use 
of  manures. 

It  would  be  useless  to  recommend  here  any  par- 
ticular system  of  rotation  as  best  j for  that  must  be 
determined  by  experience  in  each  section  of  country, 
under  the  various  circumstances  of  climate,  location, 
and  value  of  crops.  Attention  may,  however,  be 
again  called  o the  fact  that  there  are  several  dis- 
tinct classes  of  crops,  considered  with  reference  to 
the  substances  which  they  take  from  the  soil,  and 
that  these  classes  of  crops  should  bear  a part  in 
every  system  of  rotation.  The  principal  of  these 
are  grain  crops,  root  crops,  and  grass  crops. 


lOROUGH  drainage  implies  covered, 
drains,  and  it  is  to  the  advantage  of 
these  mainly  that  we  now  desire  to 
call  the  reader’s  attention ; although 
open  ditches  and  water-furrows  are 
very  useful  in  certain  situations. 

Vfo  The  principal  benefits  of  a system  of 
covered  drains  are  succinctly  and  clearly 
stated  in  the  following — 


“TEN  REASONS  FOR  UNDERDRAIN- 
ING. 

“ i.  It  prevents  water  which  falls  from  resting  on 
or  near  the  surf  ace,  and  renders  the  soil  dry  enough 
to  be  worked  or  plowed  at  all  times. 

“ 2.  By  rendering  the  soil  porous  or  spongy,  it 
takes  in  water  without  flooding  in  time  of  rain,  and 
gives  it  off  again  gradually  in  time  of  drouth. 

“ 3.  By  preventing  adhesion  and  assisting  pulver- 
ization, it  allows  the  roots  to  pass  freely  through  all 
parts  of  the  soil. 

“ 4.  By  facilitating  the  mixture  of  manure  through 
the  pulverized  portions,  it  greatly  increases  its  value 
and  effect. 

“ 5.  It  allows  water  falling  on  the  surface  to  pass 
downward,  carrying  with  it  any  fertilizing  substances 
(as  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia),  until  they  are 
arrested  by  the  absorption  of  the  soil. 

“ 6.  It  abstracts  in  a similar  manner  the  heat  con- 
tained in  falling  rains,  thus  warming  the  soil,  the 
water  discharged  by  drain-mouths  being  many  de- 
grees colder  than  ordinary  rains. 

“ 7.  The  increased  porosity  of  the  soil  renders  it 
a more  perfect  non-conductor  of  heat,  and  the  roots 
of  plants  are  less  injured  by  freezing  in  winter. 

“8.  The  same  cause  admits  the  entrance  of  air, 
facilitating  the  decomposition  of  enriching  portions 
of  the  soil. 

“9.  By  admitting  early  plowing  crops  may  be 
sown  early,  and  an  increased  amount  reaped  in  con- 
sequence. 


k 


4 


AGRICULTURE. 


53i 


“10.  It  economizes  labor,  by  allowing  the  work 
to  go  on  at  all  times  without  interruption  from  sur- 
plus water  in  spring,  or  from  a hard-baked  soil  in 
summer.” 

CONDITIONS  REQUIRING  DRAIN- 
AGE. 

The  conditions  from  which  arise  the  principal 
causes  of  mischief  to  undrained  land  are  thus 
stated  by  Munn  in  “ The  practical  Land-Drainer  : ” 

“ 1.  Where  water  has  accumulated  beneath  the 
surface  and  originated  springs. 

“ 2.  Where,  from  the  close  nature  of  the  sub- 
strata, it  cannot  pass  freely  downward,  but  accumu- 
lates and  forms  its  level  or  water  line  at  a short  dis- 
tance below  the  surface  ; and 

“ 3.  Where,  from  the  clayey  or  close  texture  of 
the  soil,  it  lies  on  the  surface  and  becomes  stag- 
nant.” 

Farmers  are  apt  to  consider  land  in  which  the 
second  condition  mentioned  exists,  to  be  too  dry  to 
need  draining,  yet  it  is  cold  and  sour,  late  in  spring, 
apt  to  bake  hard  in  summer,  and  very  liable  to  suf- 
fer from  early  frosts  in  autumn.  There  is  no  remedy 
but  underdraining. 

PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS. 

1.  Preliminary. — The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  examine 
the  field  to  be  drained  and  determine  the  plan  of  drainage 
best  adapted  to  effect  the  object  in  view,  and  the  materials 
which  may  most  economically  be  used  in  constructing  the 
drains. 

2.  Draining  springy  Soils. — Where  the  wetness  to  be  reme. 
died  results  from  springs  having  their  source  in  higher  grounds 
above  the  field  to  be  drained,  the  desired  result  is  generally 
attained  by  making  one  or  more  drains  across  the  declivity 
about  where  the  low  grounds  of  the  valley  begin  to  form,  thus 
intercepting  or  cutting  off  the  springs.  These  transverse 
drains  must  be  connected  with  others  made  for  the  purpose  of 
conveying  the  water  collected  in  them  into  some  brook, 
ravine,  or  other  outlet  which  may  be  near. 

3.  Direction  of  Drains. — In  cases  characterized  by  either  of 
the  other  conditions  specified  in  the  previous  section,  parallel 
drains  should  be  cut  directly  up  and  down  the  inclination  of  the 
field , and  emptying  into  a main  cross  drain  at  the  lower  side. 

4.  Depth  and  Distance  Apart. — The  experience  of  some  of 
the  most  extensive  drainers,  both  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe,  seems  to  indicate,  however,  that  for  very  heavy, 
clayey  soils,  from  two  and  a half  to  three  feet  in  depth  and 
from  twelve  to  thirty  feet  apart  generally  produce  the  most 
satisfactory  results.  More  porous  and  friable  soils  may  be 
successfully  drained  at  greater  depth  and  distance. 


5.  Materials  and  Construction. — The  ditch  excavated  must 
be  furnished  with  a permanent  duct  through  which  water  may 
at  all  times  pass  freely  off.  This  maybe  constructed  of  various 
substances — brushwood,  straw,  turf,  clinkers  from  furnaces, 
wood,  brick,  stone,  and  tiles  of  burned  clay.  Of  these,  stone 
and  tiles  in  their  various  forms,  when  they  can  be  procured, 
are  the  only  materials  which  we  can  unconditionally  recom- 
mend. 

Brushwood  Drains. — Where  no  better  materials  are  avail- 
able, these  will  be  found,  while  they  last,  quite  effective,  and 
they  are  far  more  permanent  than  might  be  supposed. 

Stone  Drains. — In  reference  to  their  mode  of  construction, 
stone  drains  are  of  various  kinds.  The  simplest  form  is  that 
in  which  the  ditch  or  cutting  is  filled  to  the  depth  of  nine  or 
ten  inches  with  small  stones,  covered  with  inverted  turf,  shav- 
ings, or  something  of  the  kind.  The  stones  should  be  about 
the  size  of  a hen’s  egg.  Where  larger  ones  are  used,  the  earth 
is  apt  to  fall  into  the  cavities,  or  mice  or  rats  make  their  bur- 
rows there,  and  the  drain  becomes  choked.  The  water  should 
fnd  its  way  into  the  drain  from  the  sides,  and  not  from 
the  top.  In  making  stone  drains  in  swampy  or  very  soft 
ground  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  lay  a plank  or  slab  on 
the  bottom  before  putting  in  the  stones,  to  prevent  them 
from  sinking  before  the  soil  shall  become  dry  enough  to  be 
firm. 

Tile  Drains. — The  first  form  of  tile  drain  used  was  arched 
and  made  to  rest  on  a sole  or  flat  tile  laid  under  it  ; but  the 
more  modern  tile  pipes  are  to  be  preferred,  as  they  are 
smaller,  cheaper,  and  more  easily  laid.  Those  with  an  oval 
bore  are  considered  better  than  those  with  a round  one.  The 
tiles  are,  of  course,  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  which 
must  be  smooth  and  straight.  They  are  simply  placed  end  to 
end  and  wedged  a little  with  small  stones,  if  necessary,  and 
the  earth  packed  hard  over  them.  The  water  very  readily 
finds  its  way  through  the  pores  of  the  mateiial  and  at  the  joints. 
Collars  or  short  outer  tiles  are  sometimes  used  to  go  over  the 
joints,  to  secure  them  against  getting  displaced.  An  inch 
pipe  is  sufficient  for  most  situations. 

The  drains  should  be  connected  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
field  by  a small  drain  running  at  right  angles  with  them.  It 
should  be  of  the  same  depth  as  the  other  drains. 

WILL  UNDERDRAINING  PAY? 

This  depends  on  circumstances.  If  naturally  good  under- 
drained land  can  be  obtained  in  your  neighborhood  for  from 
$15  to  $20  per  acre,  it  would  not  pay  in  all  probability  to  ex- 
pend $30  per  acre  in  underdraining  low,  wet,  or  springy  land  ; 
but  in  all  districts  where  land  is  worth  $50  per  acre,  nothing 
can  pay  better  than  to  expend  from  $20  to  $30  per  acre  in 
judicious  underdraining.  The  labor  of  cultivation  is  much 
reduced,  while  the  produce  is  generally  increased  one-half,  and 
is  not  unfrequently  doubled,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  increase  is  net  profit. 

In  reference  to  tile-pipe  drains,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  ditch  may  be  much  narrower  than  when  stones  are 
used,  thus  making  a considerable  saving  in  the  expense  of 
digging. 


5 32 


agriculture. 


VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  FENCES. 

r.  Stone  Fence. — Wherever  there  is  plenty  of  stone,  and 
especially  where  loose  stones  abound  and  must  be  removed 
before  the  land  can  be  properly  cultivated,  stone  fences  are 
the  best  and  most  economical  that  can  be  constructed. 

Where  stone  is  not  very  abundant,  a combination  of  stone 
and  rail  fence  is  often  economically  constructed.  A substan- 
tial foundation  of  stones  is  laid,  reaching  two  or  two  and  a 
half  feet  above  ground,  in  which  posts  are  placed  at  proper 
distances,  with  two  or  three  bar  holes  above  the  wall,  for  the 
insertion  of  an  equal  number  of  rails,  which  for  convenience 
should  be  put  in  when  the  posts  are  set. 

2.  The  Zig-zag  or  Worm  Fence. — In  large  portions  of  our 
country,  where  there  is  a superabundance  of  timber  and 
economy  of  space  is  of  little  importance,  the  common  zig-zag 
or  worm  fence  of  the  West  and  Sbuth  is  probably  the  most 
economical  that  can  be  erected. 

3.  Post-andrail  Fences. — As  timber  becomes  somewhat 
more  valuable,  it  ceases  to  be  economical  to  use  it  so  lavishly 
as  the  worm  fence  requires,  and  the  post-and-rail  fence  takes 
its  place.  This  is,  in  many  respects,  the  best  of  all  the 
wooden  farm  fences. 

The  best  timber  for  posts  in  the  order  of  its  durability  is 
red  cedar,  yellow  locust,  white  oak  and  chestnut,  for  the 
Northern  and  Middle  States. 

In  some  cases  boards  may  be  economically  substituted  for 
rails,  and  firmly  nailed  to  suitably  prepared  posts. 

! 4.  The  Sunken  Fence. — The  sunken  fence  or  wall  consists 
of  a vertical  excavation  on  one  side,  about  five  feet  in  depth, 
against  which  a wall  is  built  to  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  opposite  side  is  inclined  at  such  an  angle  as  will  preserve 
the  sod  against  sliding,  from  the  effects  of  frost  or  rain,  and 
is  then  turfed  over. 

5.  Iron  Fences. — Wire  and  other  forms  of  iron  fence  are 
now  in  extensive  use.  Where  there  is  a deficiency  of  both 
timber  and  stone,  the  wire  fence  is  probably  the  best  and 
most  economical  that  can  be  made. 

No  ordinary  domestic  animal  will  break  through  fences  of 
considerably  less  than  one-quarter  inch  wrought  wire,  while 
still  larger  sizes  may  be  used  with  the  same  facility  if  required. 
The  bright  or  hard  wire  is  now  generally  used. 

Another  style  of  iron  farm  fence  is  called  the  “ Corrugated 
Flat  Rail  Fence.”  It  is  in  some  respects  preferable  to  the 
round  rail  or  wire,  being  visible  at  a greater  distance  and  less 
liable  to  sagging. 

6.  Hurdle  Fence. — The  hurdle,  or  light,  movable  fence,  is 
formed  in  short  panels,  and  firmly  set  in  the  ground  by  sharp- 
ened stakes  at  the  end  of  each  panel,  and  these  are  fastened 
together.  This  is  a convenient  addition  to  farms  where 


heavy  green  crops  of  clover,  lucern,  peas,  or  turnips  are  re- 
quired to  be  fed  off  in  successive  lots  by  sheep,  swine,  or 
cattle.  It  is  variously  constructed  of  wood  or  iron,  and  is 
much  less  expensive  than  might  be  supposed. 

7.  Hedges. — The  live  fence,  almost  universal  in  England, 
is  still  an  experiment  here.  There  have  been  a few  successes 
and  many  failures  in  the  cultivation  of  hedges.  The  causes 
of  failure  have  been  various — a wrong  choice  of  trees,  the 
dryness  of  our  climate,  lack  of  experience  in  planting,  neglect 
of  proper  after  cultivation  and  pruning,  etc.  But  the  few  ex- 
amples of  complete  success  which  may  be  pointed  out  prove 
conclusively  that,  under  proper  and  easily  attainable  condi- 
tions, live  fences  are  perfectly  practicable  in  this  country,  and 
in  some  parts  of  it  they  are  doubtless  economical.  When  well 
kept  they  are  certainly  very  beautiful. 

The  soil  for  a hedge  row  must  be  deeply  plowed  or  spaded, 
and.  if  poor,  manured  a little. 

Evergreens  make  the  handsomest  hedges  ; and  although  less 
stout,  yet  by  shutting  out  of  sight  are  usually  quite  safe.  The 
Norway  fir  is  the  fastest  grower — the  hemlock  most  beautiful, 
and  the  best  of  any  for  the  shade  of  trees  ; the  growth  is, 
however,  rather  slow.  It  shears  finely,  and  its  interior  is  dense. 
The  Norway  fir  also  does  well  on  these  points. 

At  the  South  we  should  choose  the  single  white  Macartney 
rose  for  general  cultivation  ; although  the  Cherokee  rose,  when 
properly  treated,  the  evergreen  thorn,  the  honey  locust,  the 
jujube,  and  the  Spanish  bayonet  ( Yucca  g/oriosa)  all  form  effi- 
cient and  beautiful  hedges. 

A really  good  and  perfect  hedge  should  form  a rounded 
pyramid,  branching  out  broadly  and  close  to  the  ground,  and 
tapering  up  either  sharply  or  obtuse,  as  the  taste  of  the  culti- 
vator may  determine.  This  is  a fundamental  principle  in  all 
hedging,  and  unless  it  is  secured  at  the  outset  by  proper  trim- 
ming, it  can  never  be  done  afterward. 


ipplppll 


Farir\  In\plemei\ts,  If 


History  does  not  inform  us  when  plows  were  first  used  ; but 
there  are  traces  of  them  in  the  earliest  of  all  written  authori- 
ties— the  Bible. 

One  of  the  best  of  the  improved  harrows  is  the  hinge  har- 
row. This  harrow  may  be  folded  double,  or  separated  into 
two  parts,  for  the  convenience  of  transportation  or  other  pur- 
pose. Either  half  may  be  lifted  for  any  purpose  while  the  im- 
plement is  in  motion  ; and  the  easy  and  independent  play  of 
the  parts  up  and  down  upon  the  hinges  enables  the  instrument 
to  adapt  itself  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  all  places,  so  that 
whether  going  through  hollows,  or  over  knolls  or  ridges,  it  is 
always  at  work,  and  every  tooth  has  an  operation  upon  the 
soil. 

The  Geddes  harrow  and  the  Hanford  harrow,  triangular  in 


AGRICULTURE. 


533 


shape,  are  also  excellent  implements  ; and  for  light  grounds, 
free  from  stones  and  other  obstructions,  the  Scotch  or  square 
harrow  serves  it  purpose  admirably. 

THE  CULTIVATOR. 

This  is  a useful  implement  for  stirring  the  soil  and  killing 
weeds.  It  saves  a great  deal  of  hard  labor  ; but  must  not  be 
allowed  to  usurp  the  place  of  the  plow  where  deep  cultivation 
is  required. 

THE  HORSE  HOE. 

Allied  to  the  cultivator  is  the  horse  hoe  in  its  various  forms. 
“ Knox’s  patent  has  four  teeth.  The  forward  one  is  simply  a 
coulter,  to  keep  the  implement  steady  and  in  a straightforward 
direction  ; the  two  sides  or  middle  teeth  are  miniature  plows, 
which  may  be  changed  from  one  side  to  the  other,  so  as  to  turn 
the  earth  from  the  rows  at  first  weeding,  when  the  plants  are 
small  and  tender,  or  toward  them  in  later  cultivation,  at  the 
option  of  the  operator  ; the  broad  rear  tooth  effectually  dis- 
poses of  grasses  and  weeds,  cutting  off  or  rooting  up  all  that 
come  in  its  way.  It  is  a thorough  pulverizer  of  the  surface, 
sifting  the  earth  and  weeds  through  its  iron  prongs  or  fingers 
in  the  rear,  leaving  the  weeds  on  the  surface  to  wilt  and  die, 
and  the  ground  level  and  mellow.  For  hoeing  carrots,  tur- 
nips, etc.,  where  the  rows  are  narrow,  the  side  teeth  are  taken 
out,  and  the  rear  tooth,  with  the  forward  one  as  a director  to 
guide  the  instrument,  hoes  and  mellows  the  ground  between 
the  rows  very  perfectly.” 

THE  FIELD  ROLLER. 

No  good  farmer  will  omit  this  useful  implement  from  his 
list.  In  spring  there  is  frequently  great  advantage  in  rolling 
lands  recently  sowed  to  grain  and  grass,  as  the  earth  that  has 
been  raised  by  the  frost,  exposing  the  roots  of  plants,  is  re- 
placed by  the  operation,  with  benefit  to  the  growing  crop. 
The  roller  is  particularly  beneficial  on  light  lands,  of  soil  tco 
loose  and  porous  to  retain  moisture  and  protect  the  manure 
from  the  effects  of  drying  wind-s  and  a scorching  sun,  and  too 
light  to  allow  the  roots  of  plants  a firm  hold  in  the  earth. 

SEED  SOWERS. 

Every  farmer  or  gardener  needs  a seed-sower  of  some  sort  ; 
but  one  of  the  smallest  and  simplest  of  the  many  kinds  manu- 
factured will  serve  the  purpose  of  the  majority  of  agricul- 
turists. 

THE  HORSE  RAKE. 

The  utility  of  this  simple  implement  is  not  fully  realized,  we 
are  sure,  or  it  would  be  more  generally  employed.  A horse- 
rake  is  not  an  expensive  implement,  and  every  farmer  should 
have  one.  The  old  revolver  is  perhaps  the  best  for  general 
use. 

MOWERS,  REAPERS,  ETC. 

Of  the  expensive  labor-saving  agricultural  implements,  like 
the  mower,  the  reaper  and  the  thresher,  it  does  not  fall  within 
our  purpose  to  speak,  further  than  to  recommend  our  readers 
to  avail  themselves  of  the  grand  economies  which  they  afford, 
whenever  they  can,  by  combinations  with  their  neighbors  for 
joint  ownership  of  such  machines,  or  by  employing  those  kept 
for  the  purpose  of  being  hired  out. 


A little  farm  well  tilled  ; 
A little  barn  well  filled  ; 
A little  wife  well  willed. 


The  first  requisite  in  all  undertakings  of  magnitude  is  to 
“ count  the  cost.” 

The  importance  of  possessing  the  means  of  doing  everything 
at  exactly  the  right  season  cannot  be  too  highly  appreciated. 

Admitting  that  the  farm  is  already  purchased  and  paid  for,  it 
becomes  an  object  to  know  what  else  is  needed  and  at  what 
cost,  before  cultivation  is  commenced.  If  the  buildings  and 
fences  are  what  they  should  be,  which  is  not  often  the  case, 
little  immediate  outlay  will  be  needed  for  them.  But  if  not, 
then  an  estimate  must  be  made  of  the  intended  improvements, 
and  the  necessary  sum  allotted  for  them. 

Size  of  Farms. — The  cultivator  will  perceive  in  part  the 
advantages  of  moderately-sized  farms  for  men  in  moderate  cit- 
cumstances.  The  great  disadvantage  of  a superficial,  skim- 
ming culture  is  obvious  with  a moment’s  attention.  Take  the 
corn  crop  as  an  illustration.  There  are  a great  many  farmers 
whose  yearly  product  per  acre  does  not  exceed  an  average  of 
twenty-five  bushels.  There  are  other  farmers  who  obtain  gen- 
erally not  less  than  sixty  bushels  per  acre,  and  often  eighty  to 
ninety-five.  Now  observe  the  difference  in  the  profits  of  each. 
The  first  gets  250  bushels  from  ten  acres.  In  doing  this  he 
has  to  plow  ten  acres,  harrow  ten  acres,  mark  out  ten  acres, 
find  seed  for  ten  acres,  plant,  cultivate,  hoe,  and  cut  up  ten 
acres,  besides  paying  the  interest  on  ten  acres,  worth  from 
three  to  five  hundred  dollars.  The  other  farmer  gets  250 
bushels  from  four  acres  at  the  farthest  ; and  he  only  plows, 
plants,  cultivates,  and  hoes,  to  obtain  the  same  amount,  four 
acres , which  from  their  fine  tilth,  and  freedom  from  grass  and 
weeds,  is  much  easier  done,  even  for  an  equal  surface.  The 
same  reasoning  applies  throughout  the  farm.  Be  sure,  then, 
to  cultivate  no  more  than  can  be  done  in  the  best  manner, 
whether  it  be  ten,  fifty,  or  five  hundred  acres. 

But  let  me  not  be  misunderstood.  Large  farms  are  by  no 
means  to  be  objected  to,  provided  the  owner  has  capital 
enough  to  perform  all  the  work  as  well  as  it  is  now  done  on 
the  best  farms  of  small  size. 

Laying  out  Farms. — This  department  is  very  much  neg- 
lected. 

Many  suppose  that  this  business  is  very  quickly  disposed  of  ; 
that  a very  few  minutes,  or  hours  at  most,  will  enable  a man 
to  plan  the  arrangement  of  his  fields  about  right.  But  this  is 
a great  error.  Even  when  a farm  is  of  the  simplest  form,  on 
a flat,  uniform  piece  of  ground,  many  things  are  to  be  borne 
in  mind  in  laying  it  out. 

In  the  first  place  we  all  know  that  the  fencing  of  a moder- 
ately sized  farm  costs  many  hundred  dollars.  It  is  very  de- 
sirable to  do  it  well,  and  use  at  the  same  time  as  little  mate- 


534 


AGRICULTURE. 


rial  as  possible.  To  do  this  much  will  depend  on  the  shape  of 
the  fields.  A certain  length  of  fence  will  inclose  more  land 
in  the  form  of  a square  than  in  any  other  practical  shape. 
Hence  fields  should  approach  this  form  as  nearly  as  possible. 
Again,  the  disposition  of  lanes  is  a matter  of  consequence, 
so  as  to, avoid  unnecessary  length  and  fencing  and  occupy  the 
least  quantity  of  ground. 

In  laying  out  a farm  with  a very  uneven  surface  or  irregular 
shape,  it  would  be  best  to  draw,  first,  a plan  adapted  to  smooth 
ground,  and  then  vary  in  size  and  shape  of  the  fields,  the  dis- 
tance of  the  lane  from  the  center,  its  straightness,  etc.,  accord- 
ing to  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 

Fences. — The  kind  of  fence  used,  and  the  materials  used  for 
its  construction,  must  depend  on  circumstances  and  localities. 
\ good  fence  is  always  to  be  preferred  to  an  imperfect  one  ; 
though  it  will  cost  more,  it  will  more  than  save  that  cost,  and 
three  times  the  amount  in  vexation  besides,  by  keeping  cattle, 
colts  and  pigs  out  of  fields  of  grain. 

Gates. — Every  field  on  the  farm  should  be  entered  by  a good 
self-shutting  and  self-fastening  gate.  Let  the  farmer  who  has 
bars  instead  of  gates,  make  a trial  of  their  comparative  con- 
venience, by  taking  them  out  and  replacing  them  without  stop- 
ping as  often  as  he  does  in  one  year  on  his  farm,  say  about  six 
hundred  times,  and  he  cannot  fail  to  be  satisfied  which  is  the 
cheapest  for  use. 

Buildings. — These  should  be  as  near  the  center  of  the  farm 
as  other  considerations  will  admit.  The  buildings  should  not, 
however,  be  too  remote  from  the  public  road,  and  a good,  dry, 
healthy  spot  should  be  chosen. 

The  barn  and  outbuildings  should  be  of  ample  extent.  The 
barn  should  have  space  for  hay,  grain,  and  straw.  It  is  a mat- 
ter of  great  convenience  to  have  the  straw  for  littering  stables 
housed  and  close  at  hand,  and  not  out  of  doors,  under  a foot  of 
snow.  There  should  be  plenty  of  stables  and  sheds  for  all 
domestic  animals. 

A small,  cheap,  movable  horse-power  should  belong  to  every 
farm,  to  be  used  in  churning,  sawing  wood,  driving  washing 
machine,  turning  grindstone,  cutting  straw,  and  slicing  roots. 

There  should  be  a large  root-cellar  under  the  barn,  into 
which  the  cart  may  be  dumped  from  the  outside.  One  great 
objection  to  the  culture  of  roots  in  this  country — the  difficulty 
of  winter  keeping — would  then  vanish. 

Both  barns  and  house  cellars  should  be  well  coated,  on  the 
bottom  and  sides,  with  water-lime  mortar,  which  is  a very 
cheap  and  effectual  way  to  exclude  both  water  and  rats. 

Choice  of  Implements. — Of  those  which  are  much  used,  the 
very  best  only  should  be  procured.  A laborer  who,  by  the 
use  of  a good  hoe  for  one  month,  can  do  one  quarter  more 
each  day,  saves,  in  the  whole  time,  an  entire  week’s  labor. 

Choice  of  Animals. — The  best  of  all  kinds  should  be  selected, 
even  if  costing  something  more  than  others.  Not  ‘ fancy  ” 
animals,  but  those  good  for  use  and  profit.  Cows  should  be 
productive  of  milk,  and  of  a form  adapted  for  beef  ; oxen 
hardy,  and  fast  working  ; sheep,  kept  fine  by  never  selling  the 
best ; swine,  not  the  largest  merely,  but  those  fattening  best 
on  least  food.  A Berkshire  at  200  pounds,  fattened  on  io 
bushels  of  corn,  is  better  than  a “ land  pike  ” of  300,  fattened 
on  50  bushels. 


Soils,  and  their  Management. — Soils  are  of  various  kinds 
as  heavy  and  light,  wet  and  dry,  fertile  and  sterile 
They  all  require  different  management  in  a greater  or  less 
degree. 

Heavy  soils  are  often  stronger  and  more  productive  than 
light ; but  they  require  more  labor  for  pulverization  and  till- 
age. They  cannot  be  plowed  when  very  wet,  nor  so  well 
when  very  dry. 

Sandy  and  gravelly  loams  also  contain  clays,  but  in  smaller 
quantity  ; so  that  they  do  not  present  the  cloddiness  and  ad- 
hesiveness of  heavy  soils.  Though  possessing,  generally,  less 
strength  than  clay  soils,  they  are  far  more  easily  tilled,  and 
may  be  worked  without  difficulty  in  wet  weather.  They  do 
not  crack  or  break  in  drouth.  Indian  corn,  ruta-bagas,  and 
some  other  crops,  succeed  best  upon  them.  Sandy  soils  are 
very  easily  tilled,  but  are  generally  not  strong  enough.  When 
made  rich,  they  are  fine  for  some  succulent  crops.  Peaty  soils 
are  generally  light  and  free,  containing  large  quantities  of  de- 
cayed vegetable  matter.  They  are  made  by  draining  low  and 
swampy  grounds.  They  are  fine  for  Indian  corn,  broom  corn, 
barley,  potatoes,  and  turnips.  They  are  great  absorbers,  and 
great  radiators  of  heat  ; hence  they  become  warm  in  sunshine 
and  cold  in  clear  nights.  For  this  reason  they  are  peculiarly 
liable  to  frosts.  Crops  planted  upon  them  must, consequently, 
be  put  in  late,  after  spring  frosts  are  over.  Corn  should  be  of 
early  varieties,  that  it  may  not  only  be  planted  late,  but  ripen 
early. 

Each  of  these  kinds  of  soil  may  be  variously  improved. 
Heavy  soils  are  much  improved  by  draining  ; open  drains  to 
carry  off  the  surface-water,  and  covered  drains,  that  which 
settles  beneath.  Heavy  soils  are  also  made  lighter  and  freer 
by  manuring  ; by  plowing  under  coatings  of  straw,  rotten 
chips,  and  swamp  muck  ; and,  in  some  rare  cases,  by  carting 
on  sand,  though  this  is  usually  too  expensive  for  practice. 
Subsoil  plowing  is  very  beneficial  both  in  wet  seasons  and  in 
drouth  ; the  deep,  loose  bed  of  earth  it  makes,  receiving  the 
water  in  heavy  rains,  and  throwing  it  off  to  the  soil  above, 
when  needed  ; but  a frequent  repetition  of  the  operation  is 
needed,  as  the  subsoil  gradually  settles  again. 

Sandy  soils  are  improved  by  manuring,  by  the  application 
of  lime,  and  by  frequently  plowing  in  green  crops. 

The  great  art  of  saving  and  manufacturing  manure  consists 
in  retaining  and  applying  to  the  best  advantage  those  soluble 
and  gaseous  portions  Probably  more  than  one-half  of  all  the 
materials  which  exist  in  the  country  are  lost,  totally  lost, 
by  not  attending  to  the  drainage  of  stables  and  farm-yards. 
This  could  be  retained  by  a copious  application  of  straw  ; by 
littering  with  sawdust,  when  saw-mills  are  near  ; and  more 
especially  by  the  frequent  coating  of  yards  and  stables  with 


AGRICULTURE. 


535 


dried  peat  and  swamp  muck,  of  which  many  parts  of  our 
States  furnish  inexhaustible  supplies. 

Our  limits  do  not  admit  of  many  remarks  on  the  principles 
of  rotation.  The  following  courses,  however,  have  been 
found  among  some  of  the  best  adapted  to  our  State  : 

I 1st  year — Corn  and  roots,  well  manured. 

2d  year — Wheat,  sown  with  cloverseed  ; islbs.  an 
acre. 

3d  year — Clover,  one  or  more  years,  according  to  fer- 
tility and  amount  of  manure  at  hand. 

II.  1st  year — Corn  and  roots,  with  all  the  manure. 

2d  year — Barley  and  peas. 

3d  year — Wheat,  sown  with  clover. 

4th  year — Clover,  one  or  more  years. 

III.  1st  year — Corn  and  roots,  with  all  the  manure. 

2d  year — Barley. 

3d  year — Wheat,  sown  with  clover. 

4th  year — Pasture. 

5th  year — Meadow. 

6th  year — Fallow. 

7th  year — Wheat. 

8th  year — Oats,  sown  with  clover. 

9th  year — Pasture  or  meadow. 

The  number  of  the  fields  must  correspond  with  the  number 
of  the  changes  in  each  course,  the  first  needing  three  fields  to 
carry  it  out,  the  second  four,  and  the  third  nine.  As  each 
field  contains  a crop  each,  in  the  several  successive  stages  of 
the  course,  the  whole  number  of  fields  collectively  comprise 
the  entire  series  of  crops  every  year.  Thus,  in  the  list  above 
given,  there  are  two  fields  of  wheat  growing  at  once,  three  of 
meadow  and  pasture,  one  of  corn  and  roots,  one  of  barley, 
one  of  oats,  and  one  in  summer  fallow. 

Operations  in  the  Order  of  Time. — The  vital  consequence  of 
doing  everything  in  the  right  season  is  known  to  every  good 
farmer. 

In  reviewing  the  various  items  which  are  most  immediately 
essential  to  good  farm  management,  some  of  the  most  obvi- 
ous will  be — capital  enough  to  buy  the  farm  and  to  stock  it 
well ; to  select  a size  compatible  with  these  requisites  ; to  lay 
it  out  in  the  best  manner  ; to  provide  it  well  with  fences, 
gates,  and  buildings  ; to  select  the  best  animals  and  the  best 
implements  to  be  had  reasonably  ; to  bring  the  soil  into  good 
condition,  by  draining,  manuring,  and  good  culture  ; to  have 
every  part  under  a good  rotation  of  crops,  and  every  operation 
arranged  so  as  all  to  be  conducted  systematically,  without 
clashing  or  confusion.  An  attention  to  all  these  points  would 
place  agriculture  on  a very  different  footing  from  its  present 
condition  in  many  places  and  with  most  farmers.  The  busi- 
ness then,  instead  of  being  repulsive,  as  it  so  frequently  is  to 
our  young  men,  would  be  attended  with  real  enjoyment  and 
pleasure.  — 

But  in  all  improvements,  in  all  enterprises,  the  great  truth 
must  not  be  forgotten,  that  success  is  not  to  be  expected  with- 
out diligence  and  industry.  We  must  sow  in  spring  and  cul- 
tivate well  in  summer  if  we  would  reap  an  abundant  harvest 
in  autumn. 


INDIAN  CORN — Zea  Mays. 

The  principal  varieties  of  Indian  corn  in  extensive  use  for 
field  culture  in  the  United  States  are  the  Big  White,  Big  Yel- 
low, Little  White,  Little  Yellow,  and  Virginia  Gourd  Seed  (yel- 
low and  white).  Of  each  of  these  there  are  many  sub-varieties. 
The  King  Philip,  or  Brown  Corn,  a very  early  and  small  grow- 
ing but  productive  variety,  is  much  approved  in  the  more  North- 
ern States;  and  Peabody’s  Prolific  or  Tillering  Corn,  said  to 
be  a wonderfully  productive  sort,  is  adapted  to  the  Southern 
and  Middle  States  ; but  it  has  not  yet  been  extensively  tested. 
In  the  selection  of  varieties,  choose  for  general  planting  those 
that  have  been  pioved  in  your  own  vicinity,  as  the  best  sort  of 
one  locality  may  prove  inferior  in  another.  For  trial,  get  new 
sorts  from  a more  northern  latitude,  especially  where  earliness 
is  particularly  desirable. 

The  best  soil  for  corn  is  a rich  loam,  but  good  crops  are 
produced,  with  proper  manuring,  on  light,  sandy  land.  A 
strong  clay,  or  a poor,  wet  soil  will  not  produce  a good  crop. 
Corn  is  a gross  feeder,  and,  except  on  very  light,  sandy  soils, 
fresh,  unfermented  manure  is  best  for  it.  Ashes  may  be 
added  or  applied  as  a top  dressing,  with  great  advantage,  also 
the  salt  and  lime  mixture. 

The  after  culture  of  Indian  corn  may  mostly  be  performed 
with  a light  plow  and  a good  cultivator.  It  should  be  com- 
menced soon  after  the  plants  show  themselves  above  ground, 
but  deep  culture  of  every  kind  should  be  discontinued  after 
the  roots  have  spread  through  the  soil,  as  they  cannot  be  dis- 
turbed without  great  injury.  Hilling  or  heaping  the  earth 
about  the  plants  is  an  absurd  and  injurious  process,  which, 
instead  of  helping  to  support  them,  as  many  suppose,  greatly 
weakens  the  stalks,  by  destroying  or  covering  up  the  prop- 
roots  with  which  nature  has  supplied  them. 

Corn  should  be  perfectly  dried  in  the  field,  husked,  and 
stored  in  an  airy  loft,  or  in  a properly  constructed  granary  or 
crib. 

The  proper  selection  and  saving  of  seed  is  of  great  import- 
ance. It  should  be  selected  in  the  field  from  the  earliest  and 
largest  ears  of  the  most  prolific  stalks.  In  this  way  astonish- 
ing improvements  in  a variety  may  be  gradually  made. 

WHEAT — Triticum  of  species. 

Botanists  describe  about  thirty  species  of  wheat  and  some 
hundreds  of  varieties.  The  species  mainly  cultivated  in  the 
United  States  are  the  Winter  Wheat  and  the  Spring  Wheat, 
in  their  numerous  varieties. 

In  your  choice  of  varieties  it  is  best  to  be  governed,  as  in 
the  case  of  Indian  com,  by  the  experience  either  of  yourself 
or  others.  Depend  upon  known  and  tried  sorts  till,  by  expeii 


53° 


AGRICULTURE. 


ments  on  a small  scale,  you  are  satisfied  that  you  have  ob- 
tained something  better. 

“ Wheat  thrives  best  on  a strong,  clayey  loam,  but  many  light 
and  all  calcareous  soils,  if  in  a proper  condition,  will  give  a 
good  yield.  The  soil  should  be  deep,  and  well  pulverized 
with  the  plow  and  the  harrow.  Underdraining  and  subsoil 
plowing  add  greatly  to  the  amount  of  the  crop. 

“ Select  seed  that  is  free  from  the  seeds  of  weeds  and  from 
smut,  if  this  be  possible  ; but  in  any  event  it  is  well,  previous 
to  sowing,  to  wash  it  in  a strong  brine  made  of  salt  and 
water,  taking  care  to  skim  off  all  light  and  foreign  seeds.  If 
the  grain  be  smutty,  repeat  the  washing  in  another  clean 
brine,  when  it  may  be  taken  out  and  intimately  mixed  with 
about  one  twelfth  of  its  bulk  of  pulverized  quicklime. 

“ Wheat  is  subject  to  the  attack  of  the  Hessian  fly  if  sown  too 
early  in  the  fall,  and  again  the  ensuing  spring,  there  being 
two  annual  swarms  of  the  fly,  early  in  May  and  September. 
When  thus  invaded,  harrowing  or  rolling,  by  which  the  mag- 
gots or  flies  are  displaced  or  driven  off,  is  the  only  remedy  of 
much  avail.  Occasionally  other  flies  and  sometimes  wheat 
worms,  commit  great  depredation.  There  is  no  effectual 
remedy  known  against  any  of  these  marauders,  beyond  roll- 
ing. brushing,  and  harrowing.” 

The  grain  should  be  cut  immediately  after  the  lowest  part 
of  the  stalk  becomes  yellow,  while  the  grain  is  yet  in  the 
dough  state,  and  easily  compressible  between  the  thumb  and 
finger.  Repeated  experiments  have  demonstrated  that  wheat 
cut  at  this  time  will  yield  more  in  measure,  of  heavier  weight, 
and  a larger  quantity  of  sweet,  white  flour.  If  early  cut,  a 
longer  time  is  required  for  curing  before  storing  or  threshing. 

Spring  wheat  should  be  sown  as  early  as  the  ground  will 
admit.  The  best  crops  are  raised  on  land  that  has  been 
plowed  the  previous  fall,  and  sown  without  additional  plow- 
ing, but  harrowed-in  thoroughly. 

RYE — Secale  Cereale. 

This  plant  will  flourish  on  soils  too  poor  or  too  destitute  of 
lime  for  wheat.  It  has  taken  the  place  of  wheat  in  many  por- 
tions of  the  country,  where  repeated  crops  of  the  latter  have  ex- 
hausted the  soil  of  some  of  the  requisite  elements  for  its  growth. 
The  best  soil  for  it  is  a rich,  sandy  loam,  but  it  grows  freely  on 
the  lightest  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  that  are  capable  of  sustain- 
ing any  kind  of  vegetation.  The  directions  for  the  preparation 
of  soil  and  seed,  and  for  cultivation,  harvesting,  etc.,  are  the 
same  as  for  wheat,  but  it  is  sometimes  sown  among  standing 
corn  and  hoed  in,  the  ground  being  left  as  level  as  possible. 
So  soon  as  the  corn  is  matured  it  is  cut  up  by  the  roots  and 
removed  to  the  sides  of  the  field,  when  the  ground  is  thor- 
oughly rolled. 

THE  OAT — A vena  Sativa. 

This  grain  will  grow  on  any  soil,  and  in  almost  any  climate. 
It  is  affected  less  by  disease,  and  has  fewer  insect  enemies 
than  most  of  the  cereals.  The  wire  worm,  however,  occa- 
sionally proves  destructive  to  it,  when  sown  on  fresh  sod. 
The  remedy  in  this  case  is  to  turn  over  the  sod  late  in  the 
fall,  just  before  the  severe  winter  frosts. 

There  are  many  varieties  and  sub-varieties  of  the  oat. 


The  heaviest  oat  cultivated  in  the  United  States  is  the  Im- 
perial ; and  it  is  preferred  by  many  to  all  others.  It  is  bright 
and  plump,  and  yields  a large  proportion  of  nutritive  matter. 
It  has  proved  very  productive  in  the  Northern  and  Middle 
States.  But  the  variety  most  cultivated  is  the  common  White 
Oat,  which  is  hardy  and  a good  bearer. 

The  only  oat  that  will  mature  with  certainty  in  the  Southern 
States  is  the  Egyptian.  It  is  sound,  hardy,  and  moderately 
productive.  It  is  sown  in  autumn.  On  most  soils  rolling  is 
beneficial. 

BARLEY — Hordeum  of  species. 

In  Europe  this  grain  ranks  next  to  wheat  in  importance  ; 
but  it  is  much  less  extensively  cultivated  in  the  United  States. 

A loam  of  medium  consistency,  between  light  and  heavy, 
is  best  for  it.  Barn-yard  manures  must  never  be  applied  di- 
rectly to  this  grain.  Steeping  the  seed  twenty-four  hours  in  a 
weak  solution  of  saltpeter  is  beneficial.  The  roller  is  some- 
times applied  to  the  field,  when  the  plants  are  two  or  three 
inches  higlv,  with  great  benefit. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  harvest  barley  at  the  proper 
time. 

RICE — Oryza  Sativa . 

Rice  probably  affords  food  for  more  human  beings  than  any 
other  plant. 

The  varieties  of  rice  most  grown  in  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia,  which  have  hitherto  been  the  greatest  rice-producing 
States  of  the  Union,  are  the  Gold-seed  rice,  the  Guinea,  the 
Common  White,  and  the  White-bearded.  There  are  several 
other  varieties,  but  generally  inferior  to  the  foregoing.  The 
best  are  produced  by  careful  cultivation  on  soils  suited  to  this 
grain,  and  by  a careful  selection  of  seed. 

The  method  of  cultivation  pursued  on  the  rice  lands  of  the 
lower  Mississippi,  as  detailed  by  Dr.  Cartwright,  a practical 
planter,  is  as  follows  : 

“ The  seed  is  sown  broadcast  about  as  thick  as  wheat,  and 
harrowed-in  with  a light  harrow,  having  many  teeth  ; the 
ground  being  first  well  plowed  and  prepared  by  ditches  and 
embankments  for  inundation.  It  is  generally  sown  in  March, 
and  immediately  after  sowing,  the  water  is  let  on,  so  as  barely 
to  overflow  the  ground.  The  water  is  withdrawn  on  the 
second,  third,  or  fourth  day,  or  as  soon  as  the  grain  begins  to 
swell.  The  rice  very  soon  after  comes  up  and  grows  finely. 
When  it  has  attained  about  three  inches  in  height,  the  water 
is  again  let  on,  the  top  leaves  being  left  a little  above  the 
water.  Complete  immersion  would  kill  the  plant.  A fort- 
night previous  to  harvest  the  water  is  drawn  off  to  give  the 
stalks  strength,  and  to  dry  the  ground  for  the  convenience  of 
the  reapers.” 

BUCKWHEAT — Polygonum  Fagopyrum. 

Buckwheat  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  United  States, 
as  it  affords  a flour  which  is  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of 
food.  It  will  grow  with  considerable  luxuriance  on  the  poor- 
est land.  When  intended  for  seed  it  should  be  sown  suffi- 
ciently early  to  allow  the  kernel  to  become  perfectly  ripe — 
say  from  the  middle  of  June  to  the  first  of  July. 

Buckwheat  is  often  used  for  plowing  under  as  a green  ma- 
nure. This  can  be  done  where  the  land  is  too  poor  to  pro- 


AGRICULTURE. 


537 


duce  clover  for  that  purpose.  When  in  flower,  it  should  be 
first  rolled,  and  then  plowed  in. 

MILLET — Panicum  of  species. 

The  species  generally  cultivated  for  the  seed  is  the  P.  mil- 
liaceum.  As  a forage  crop,  the  German  millet  ( P . German- 
ic um)  is  preferable,  and  is  coming  into  extensive  use,  espe- 
cially at  the  West. 

II.  HOW  TO  SHOCK  GRAIN. 

Many  a valuable  harvest  may  be  preserved  from  ruin  by 
taking  heed  to  the  following  hints  : 

1.  Grain  should  be  firmly  bound  in  smaller  sheaves  than  it 
is  almost  universally  found.  Loosely  bound  sheaves  cannot 
be  well  shocked.  They  also  admit  more  rain  than  tightly 
bound  ones. 

2.  Two  men  can  shock  better  and  more  advantageously 
than  one. 

3.  Let  the  shocker  always  take  two  sheaves  at  a time,  holding 
them  with  his  elbow  against  his  side,  bringing  the  heads  to- 
gether with  hands  well  spread  upon  them.  Lift  them  as  high 
as  possible,  bringing  them  with  force,  in  as  nearly  a perpen- 
dicular position  as  can  be,  to  the  ground.  Never  make  the 
second  thrust , if  the  sheaves  stand  erect,  for  every  one  after 
the  first,  by  breaking  the  butts,  makes  the  matter  worse. 

4.  Then  let  two  persons  bring  down  two  sheaves  each  at  the 
same  time,  as  before  described,  being  extremely  careful  to  keep 
them  perpendicular.  The  form  of  shock  at  this 
period  may  be  represented  thus  : 

5.  As  lastly  stated,  two  more  each,  thus  : 

The  reader  will  perceive  we  now  have  ten  sheaves, 
forming  a circle  as  nearly  as  can  be.  * * 

6.  While  one  man  presses  the  head  of  the  * * 

shock  firmly  together,  let  the  other  break,  not  bend,  the  two 
cap  sheaves,  and  place  them  on,  well  spreading  heads  and 
butts. 

The  main  points  are,  to  have  grain  well  bound,  sheaves 
made  to  stand  in  an  erect  position,  and  then  to  put  cap  sheaves 
on  firmly , and  every  gust  of  wind  will  not  demolish  your 
work. 

Grain  is  usually  shocked  in  this  manner  : One  sheaf  is  made 
to  stand  alone,  another  is  leaned  against  it,  and  another,  some- 
times at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  “ to  make  them  stand 
up,”  until  a sufficient  number  is  thought  to  be  leaned  up. 

Now  the  probability  is,  that  there  is  but  one  sheaf  in  the 
whole  shock  that  has  its  center  of  gravity  within  its  base  ; as 
a matter  of  course,  each  depends  on  some  other  to  hold  it  up. 
Consequently  they  twist  ; and  if  the  shock  does  not  fall  down 
before  the  hands  get  the  next  one  up,  it  most  certainly  will 
during  the  first  rain,  just  when  the  perpendicular  position  is 
most  necessary. 

III.  THE  LEGUMES. 

THE  KIDNEY  BEAN — Phaseolus  Vulgaris. 

The  bush  or  dwarf  kidney  bean  is  frequently  cultivated  as  a 
field  crop.  There  are  many  sorts  that  may  be  profitably  used 
for  this  purpose,  but  the  Small  White  is  generally  preferred, 


* * -x 

* * * 

* * 

* 


as  it  is  very  prolific,  quite  hardy,  will  grow  in  light,  poor  soil, 
and  is  more  delicately  flavored  than  the  colored  varieties. 
The  Long  White  garden  bean  is  also  good. 

The  bean  succeeds  best  on  a light,  warm,  and  moderately 
fertile  soil.  A strong  soil,  or  too  much  manure,  induces  a 
tendency  to  run  to  vine,  without  a corresponding  quantity  of 
fruit. 

Plant  either  in  hills  or  in  drills.  If  you  have  a sower,  ot 
drill  for  putting  them  in,  the  latter  is  the  best  mode.  The 
drills  may  be  from  two  to  three  feet  apart,  the  hills  from 
eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  each  way.  From  five  to  eight 
plants  are  enough  for  a hill.  They  must  be  kept  clear  from 
weeds  by  the  use  of  the  hoe  or  cultivator  ; but  should  be 
earthed  up  very  slightly,  if  at  all.  The  first  of  June  is  suffi- 
ciently early  to  plant  them.  They  are  sometimes  planted  with 
corn,  putting  three  or  four  beans  in  each  hill.  This  may  be 
done  either  at  the  time  of  planting  the  corn,  or  at  the  first 
hoeing. 

THE  PEA — Pisum  Sativum. 

The  Marrowfat  and  Small  Yellow  peas  are  the  sorts  gener- 
ally used  for  field  culture.  The  Marrowfat  is  the  richer  and 
better  pea,  and  is  to  be  preferred  for  good  soils.  The  Small 
Yellow  thrives  on  poorer  soils,  and  is  therefore,  in  some  cases, 
more  profitably  cultivated.  In  some  parts  of  the  South  a 
very  prolific  bush  pea  is  cultivated  and  much  esteemed  for  the 
table,  both  green  and  dry. 

Prepare  the  ground  as  for  any  other  spring  crop,  by  plow- 
ing and  harrowing,  and  sow  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  two  or 
two  and  a half  bushels  to  the  acre.  Cover  them  with  the  har- 
row or  the  cultivator,  the  latter  implement  being  preferable, 
and  smooth  the  ground  by  the  use  of  the  roller. 

The  great  enemy  of  the  pea  is  the  pea-weevil  or  pea-bug, 
which  is  too  well  known  to  require  description.  Asa  remedy, 
some  recommend  keeping  the  seed  in  tight  vessels  over  one 
year.  This  plan,  if  universally  adopted,  would  probably  lead 
to  the  total  extermination  of  this  destructive  insect  ; but  as 
this  is  not  likely  to  be  the  case,  the  only  practicable  way  to 
avoid  its  ravages  is  by  late  sowing. 

THE  PE.P.-mjl-Arackis  HyPogcra. 

This  is  a legume  bearing  its  pods  under  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  It  was  originally  brought  from  Africa. 

A North  Carolina  planter  thus  describes  the  mode  of  cultiva- 
tion : “So  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  the  land  is 
broken  up,  and  about  the  middle  of  April  laid  off  with  the 
plow  thirty-three  inches  each  way  ; two  or  three  peas  are  then 
dropped  in  the  crosses  thus  made.  The  plants  are  kept  clean 
with  hoes  and  plows  until  the  vines  cover  the  ground  ; but  no 
dirt  is  put  on  the  vines.  In  October  they  are  dug  with  a rake 
or  plow.  Ilogs  are  then  turned  into  the  field,  and  they  soon 
fatten  upon  the  peas  left  upon  the  ground.  When  the  vines 
are  left  upon  the  land  for  the  hogs  to  feed  upon,  there  is  no 
crop  that  improves  the  land  so  much.”  ■ 

IV.  ESCULENT  ROOTS. 

THE  POTATO — Solatium  Tuberosum. 

In  reference  to  the  choice  of  varieties  for  planting,  the  best 
advice  we  can  give  will  be  simply  a repetition  of  our  recom- 


538 


AGRICULTURE. 


mendations  in  respect  to  several  other  plants  : Choose  such  as 
have  been  well  tested  by  yourself  or  others,  and  found  adapted 
to  the  soil  and  purposes  for  which  they  are  to  be  cultivated. 
Try  your  experiments  with  new  sorts,  on  a small  scale,  and 
with  close  observation  of  the  results.  Experiment,  also,  if 
leisure  serve,  in  the  production  of  new  varieties  from  the  seeds 
found  in  the  balls. 

A fair  crop  of  potatoes  may  be  produced  on  almost  any  soil, 
properly  manured  and  prepared  and  well  cultivated,  but  a rich 
loam,  of  medium  humidity,  is  best.  If  fresh  or  unfermented 
manures  be  used,  they  should  be  spread  on  the  land,  and 
plowed  under,  and  not  scattered  in  the  drills  or  hills,  as  they 
are  apt  to  injure  the  flavor  of  the  potatoes.  Lime,  crushed 
bones,  gypsum,  salt,  and  ashes  are  excellent  special  manures 
for  the  potato.  The  soil  should  be  made  loose  and  mellow 
before  planting. 

THE  SWEET  POTATO — Convolvulus  Batatas. 

This  is  the  potato  of  the  South,  and  is  much  cultivated  in 
the  Middle  and  Western  States.  In  its  perfection,  as  it  grows 
in  South  Carolina  and  the  other  extreme  Southern  States,  it  is 
the  best  of  all  the  esculent  roots. 

The  varieties  most  cultivated  are  the  Small  Spanish,  long, 
purplish  color,  grows  in  clusters,  very  productive,  and  of  good 
quality  ; Brimstone,  sulphur-colored,  long,  large  and  excellent  ; 
Red  Bermuda,  the  best  early  potato  ; Common  Yam,  root  ob- 
long and  large,  the  best  keeper,  and  very  productive. 

A dry,  loamy  soil,  inclining  to  sand,  is  best  for  the  sweet 
potato.  The  manure  should  be  plowed  in,  and  the  ground 
well  pulverized.  A top-dressing  of  wood  ashes  is  very  bene- 
ficial. 

So  soon  as  the  tops  are  dead  or  touched  by  the  frost,  the 
crop  should  be  gathered. 

Sweet  potatoes  are  difficult  to  keep. 

THE  TURNIP— Brass  tea  ReJ>a. 

The  varieties  of  the  turnip  are  numerous.  The  flat  Eng- 
lish turnip  has  been  longest  in  cultivation,  and  still  holds  its 
place  among  most  farmers  as  a field  crop.  It  thrives  best  on 
new  land  and  freshly  turned  sod,  but  will  grow  wherever  In- 
dian corn  can  be  raised. 

English  turnips  are  often  sowed  among  Indian  corn  at  the 
last  hoeing,  producing,  in  many  cases,  a fair  crop. 

The  Ruta  Baga  or  Swedes  turnip  is  a far  more  valuable  root 
than  the  English,  but  requires  a little  more  attention  in  culti- 
vation. It  will  grow  on  a heavier  soil,  yield  as  good  a crop, 
furnish  a more  nutritive  root,  and  keep  longer. 

The  turnip  is  exposed  to  numerous  depredators,  of  which 
the  turnip  flea-beetle  is  the  most  inveterate.  It  attacks  the 
plant  as  soon  as  the  first  leaves  expand,  and  often  destroys  two 
or  three  successive  sowings.  When  the  fly  or  bug  is  discov- 
ered, the  application  of  lime,  ashes,  or  soot,  or  all  combined, 
should  be  made  upon  the  leaves,  while  the  dew  or  a slight 
moisture  is  on  them. 

Harvesting  should  be  deferred  till  the  approach  of  severe 
frosts,  and  at  the  South  the  crop  may  remain  in  the  ground 
till  wanted  in  the  winter. 

The  Purple-Topped  Swede,  Skirving’s  Swede,  and  Ash- 
croft’s Swede,  are  approved  varieties. 


THE  CARROT — Daucus  Carota. 

The  varieties  mostly  used  for  field  culture  are  the  Altring- 
ham,  the  Orange,  and  the  White  Belgian.  The  last-named  is 
very  productive,  and,  growing  high  out  of  ground,  is  more 
easily  harvested  than  the  other  sorts  ; but,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  considered  below  the  others  in  nutritive  value. 

It  is  very  important  to  have  both  the  soil  and  the  manure 
for  carrots  free  from  the  seeds  of  weeds  and  grasses  ; the 
plants  in  the  early  stages  of  their  growth  are  small  and  feeble, 
which  makes  it  a slow  and  expensive  process  to  eradicate  the 
weeds,  if  abundant.  Well  manured  sandy,  or  light,  loamy 
soils  are  best  adapted  to  the  carrot  crop.  The  ground  should 
be  deeply  worked,  and  brought  to  a fine  tilth  before  sowing 
the  seed. 

THE  PARSNIP — Pastinaca  Sativa. 

The  parsnip  is  one  of  the  best  of  all  our  table  vegetables, 
and  is  also  excellent  for  cattle,  sheep  and  swine.  The  leaves 
of  both  parsnips  and  carrots  are  good  for  cattle,  either  green 
or  dried. 

THE  BEET — Beta  Vulgaris. 

The  varieties  most  in  use  for  field  culture  are  the  Sugar  beet 
and  the  Mangold-Wurzel,  of  both  of  which  there  are  several 
sub-varieties. 

Beets  do  well  in  any  soil  of  sufficient  depth  and  fertility,  but 
they  are  perhaps  most  partial  to  a strong  loam.  If  well  tilled, 
they  will  produce  large  crops  on  a tenacious  clay.  We  have 
raised  at  the  rate  of  800  bushels  per  acre,  on  a stiff  clay,  which 
had  been  well  supplied  with  unfermented  manure.  The  soil 
cannot  be  made  too  rich  ; and  for  such  as  are  adhesive,  fresh 
or  unfermented  manures  are  much  the  best. 

The  culture  is  similar  to  that  of  carrots  and  parsnips. 

V.  THE  GRASSES. 

The  grasses  cultivated  for  the  food  of  animals  are  too  nu- 
merous to  admit  of  a description  in  such  a work  as  this. 

We  will  speak  briefly  of  a few  of  the  leading  species  culti- 
vated among  us,  noting  some  of  their  peculiar  excellences  and 
adaptations. 

TIMOTHY — Phleum  Pratense. 

Allen  says  : “For  cultivation  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
United  States,  I am  inclined  to  place  the  Timothy  first  in  the 
list  of  the  grasses.  It  is  indigenous  to  this  country,  and  flour- 
ishes in  all  soils  except  such  as  are  wet,  too  light,  dry,  or 
sandy  ; and  it  is  found  in  perfection  on  the  rich  clays  and  clay 
loams  which  lie  between  38°  and  440  north  latitude.  It  is  a 
perennial,  easy  of  cultivation,  hardy  and  of  luxuriant  growth, 
and  on  its  favorite  soil  yields  from  one  and  a half  to  two  tons 
of  hay  per  acre  at  one  cutting.” 

It  may  be  sown  either  in  August  or  September  with  the 
winter  grains,  or  in  the  spring.  “ Twelve  quarts  of  seed  per 
acre  on  a fine  mellow  tilth  are  sufficient  ; and  twice  this  quan- 
tity on  a stiff  clay.”  This  is  the  Herds  grass  of  New  England. 

THE  SMOOTH-STALKED  MEADOW  GRASS— Pea  PratensU. 

This  is  one  of  the  best  of  grasses,  both  for  hay  and  for  pas- 
ture. It  is  a native  species,  and  is  found  almost  everywhere, 
but  does  not  grow  in  its  greatest  perfection  north  of  the  valley 


AGRICULTURE. 


539 


of  the  Ohio.  It  is  seen  in  all  its  glory  on  the  fertile  soils  of 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Every  animal  that  eats  grass  is 
fond  of  it. 

The  Roughish  Meadow  grass  (P.  tnvialis)  has  the  appear- 
ance of  the  smooth  variety,  but  is  rough  to  the  touch,  and  pre- 
fers moist  situations  and  clayey  soils.  This,  also,  is  an  excel- 
lent grass. 

RED  TOP — Agrostis  Vulgaris. 

A hardy  and  luxuriant  species,  much  relished  by  cattle,  but 
possessing  only  a moderate  nutritive  value.  It  is  much  culti- 
vated in  some  portions  of  New  England  and  elsewhere  ; but 
where  better  grasses  will  grow,  this  should  be  rejected.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Foul  Meadow  and  Bent  Grass. 

TALL  OAT  GRASS — Avena  Elatior , 

An  early  and  luxuriant  grass,  flourishing  in  a loamy  or 
clayey  soil,  and  making  good  hay.  It  grows  to  the  height  of 
four  or  five  feet  on  good  soils.  It  is  well  suited  to  pasture. 

THE  FESCUE  GRASSES — Festuca  of  species. 

The  Tall  Fescue  grass  ( F . elatior ),  according  to  some  exper- 
iments made  in  England,  yields  more  nutritive  matter  per 
acre,  when  cut  in  flower,  than  any  other  grass  cut  either  in 
flower  or  seed.  It  is  an  American  grass,  but  has  found  less 
favor  at  home  than  abroad. 

The  Meadow  Fescne  ( F . pratensis)  ; the  Spiked  Fescue  ( F '. 
loleacea)  ; the  Purple  Fescue  ( F . rubra)  ; and  the  P'loating 
Fescue  ( F . fluitans ),  are  all  indigenous  grasses  of  fine  qual- 
ities and  great  value. 

ORCHARD  GRASS — Dactylis  Glomerata . 

The  Orchard  or  Cock’s  Foot  grass  is  excellent  for  shaded 
situations.  It  should  be  cut  before  it  is  ripe,  and  will  furnish 
three  or  four  crops  a year. 

THE  EGYPTIAN  GRASS — Sorghum  Halpense. 

A cane  like  grass  which  grows  in  profusion  in  some  of  the 
Southern  States.  It  is  a superior  stock-sustaining  plant  ; but 
as  it  is  difficult  to  remove  when  once  imbedded  in  the  soil,  its 
introduction  into  cultivated  fields  is  considered  a great  evil. 

GERMAN  MILLET — Panicum  Germanicum. 

This  plant,  known  at  the  West  as  Hungarian  grass,  seems 
to  have  been  introduced  into  Iowa  by  a Hungarian  immigrant, 
and  to  have  spread  thence  to  other  parts  of  the  country.  It 
had,  however,  been  previously  cultivated  in  small  quantities 
under  its  proper  name  of  German  Millet.  As  a forage  crop, 
for  the  West  at  least,  its  value  seems  to  be  well  proved.  It 
has  been  less  extensively  tested  at  the  East. 

THE  CLOVERS — Trifolium  of  species. 

The  Common  Red  clover  ( T . pratense ) is  a hardy  and  easily 
cultivated  species,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties.  It 
grows  luxuriantly  on  every  well-drained  soil  of  sufficient 
strength  to  afford  it  nutriment. 

Clover  should  be  cut  after  having  fully  blossomed  and  as- 
sumed a brownish  hue. 

Southern  Clover  ( T.  medium)  is  a smaller  species  than  the 


common  Red,  and  matures  earlier.  It  succeeds  better  on  a 
light  soil  than  the  latter,  and  should  be  sown  more  thickly. 

The  White  or  Creeping  clover  (T.  repens ),  of  which  there 
are  several  varieties,  is  a self-propagating  plant,  and  adds 
greatly  to  the  richness  of  many  of  our  pastures,  especially 
on  clayey  soils.  It  is  very  nutritious,  and  cattle,  sheep,  and 
horses  are  all  fond  of  it. 

Dr.  Darlington,  of  Pennsylvania,  gives  the  following  as  the 
species  of  grasses  most  valuable  in  our  meadows  and  pastures, 
naming  them  in  the  order  of  their  excellence  : 

I.  Meadow  or  green  grass  (Pea  pratensis).  2.  Timothy 
(Phleum  pratense).  3.  Orchard  grass  ( Dactylis  glomerata). 
4.  Meadow  Fescue  ( Festuca  pratensis).  5.  Blue  grass  (Pea 
compressa).  6.  Ray  gass  ( Lolium  perenne).  7.  Red  top 
(Agrostis  vulgaris).  8.  Sweet-scented  vernal  grass  (Anthox- 
anthum  odoratum 

BROOM  CORN — Sorghum  Sacckaratum. 

Broom  corn  requires  similar  soil  to  Indian  corn.  A green 
sward  turned  over  late  in  the  fall  is  best.  Well-rotted  horse 
or  sheep  manure  and  wood  ashes  may  be  liberally  scattered  in 
the  drills  or  hills.  A situation  not  subject  to  early  or  late 
frosts  should  be  chosen.  Clayey  lands  are  not  suitable. 

FLAX — Litium  Usitatissimum . 

A deep,  rich  loam  or  alluvial  soil  is  best  for  flax.  The 
proper  fertility  should  be  secured  by  a surplus  of  manure  ap- 
plied to  a previous  crop,  as  fresh  manures  are  injurious  to  it. 

HEMP — Cannabis  Sativa. 

This  is  a plant  of  the  nettle  tribe,  and  came  originally  from 
India.  The  Russians  are  at  present  its  chief  cultivators  ; but 
in  our  Western  States,  and  especially  in  Kentucky,  it  is  begin- 
ning to  be  widely  raised. 

A rich  loam  or  vegetable  mold  suits  the  hemp  plant.  The 
ground  should  be  carefully  prepared  by  plowing  and  harrow- 
ing till  it  is  perfectly  pulverized,  smooth,  and  even.  The 
seeds  are  sown  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  a bushel  and  a half  to 
the  acre,  and  plowed  or  harrowed  in.  Plowing  is  best  on 
ground  liable  to  bake.  In  Kentucky  they  sow  any  time  from 
the  first  of  April  to  the  tenth  of  May.  It  is  desirable  to  sow 
just  before  a rain. 

THE  HOP — Humulus  L upulus. 

The  hop  is  found  growing  spontaneously  on  the  banks  at 
rivers  and  brooks  in  various  parts  of  this  country. 

The  best  soil  for  the  cultivation  of  hops  is  a sandy  loam, 
rather  low  and  moist,  but  they  will  grow  on  soils  very  differ- 
ent from  this.  New  lands  are  to  be  preferred. 

If  the  land  has  been  long  in  use,  it  should  be  dressed  with 
a compost  of  alkaline  manures,  or,  what  is  nearly  equivalent, 
with  fresh  barn-yard  manures,  on  a previously  well-hoed  crop, 
and  made  perfectly  free  from  all  weeds,  and  deeply  plowed 
and  harrowed. 

After  gathering  in  the  fall,  the  hops  should  be  hilled  or 
covered  with  compost,  and  all  the  vines  removed,  'rfie  fol- 
lowing spring,  when  the  ground  is  dry,  the  surface  is  scraped 
from  the  hill  and  additional  compost  is  added,  when  a plow  is 


54° 


AGRICULTURE. 


run  on  four  sides,  as  near  as  possible  without  injury  to  the 
plants.  All  the  running  roots  are  laid  bare  and  cut  with  a 
sharp  knife  within  two  or  three  inches  of  the  main  root,  and 
the  latter  are  trimmed  if  spreading  too  far.  It  is  well  to 
break  or  twist  down  the  first  shoots,  and  allow  those  which 
succeed  to  run,  as  they  are  likely  to  be  stronger  and  more  pro- 
ductive. Cutting  should  be  avoided,  unless  in  a sunny  day, 
as  the  profuse  bleeding  injures  them.  The  poles  will  keep 
much  longer  if  laid  away  under  cover  till  again  wanted  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  Drying  may  be  done  by  spreading  the  hops 
thinly  in  the  shade,  and  stirring  them  often  enough  to  pre- 
vent heating  ; but  when  there  is  a large  quantity  they  can 
be  safely  cured  only  in  a kiln. 


LAYING  OUT  ORCHARDS. 

We  have  often  observed  a good  deal  of  inconvenience  and 
perplexity  in  measuring  off  and  laying  out  orchards,  from  a 
want  of  accuracy  at  the  commencement.  If  the  rows  are 
begun  crooked,  stake  after  stake  may  be  altered,  without 
being  able  to  form  straight  lines,  and  with  only  an  increase  of 
the  confusion.  If  the  first  tree  in  a row  of  fifty  be  placed 
only  six  inches  out  of  the  way,  and  be  followed  as  a guide  for 
the  rest,  the  last  one  will  deviate  fifty  times  six  inches,  or 
twenty-five  feet  from  a right  line,  even  if  the  first  error  is  not 
repeated. 

The  most  simple  and  convenient  arrangement  for  orchards 
in  all  ordinary  cases  is  in  squares. 

The  second  mode  of  arranging  trees  is  in  the  old  quincunx 
form,  which  is  nothing  more  than  a series  of  squares  laid  off 
diagonally,  and  has  no  special  advantage  to  recommend  it  ex- 
cept novelty. 

The  hexagonal  or  modern  quincunx  possesses  two  important 
advantages.  One  is  its  more  picturesque  appearance,  and  its 
consequent  fitness  for  proximity  to  ornamental  plantations, 
and  the  other  is  its  greater  economy  of  space,  as  the  trees  are 
more  evenly  distributed  over  the  ground. 

One  principal  reason  why  the  hexagonal  mode  is  so  little 
adopted  is  the  supposed  difficulty  in  laying  out  the  ground. 
But,  like  many  other  apparent  difficulties,  it  becomes  very 
simple  and  easy  when  once  understood. 


SOIL  AND  SITUATION. 

Downing  says  that  strong  loams,  by  which  is  meant  loams 
with  only  just  sufficient  sand  to  render  them  friable  and  easily 
worked,  are,  on  the  whole,  by  far  the  best  for  fruit  in  this 
country.  The  trees  do  not  come  into  bearing  so  soon  as  on  a 
light,  sandy  soil,  but  they  bear  larger  crops,  are  less  liable  to 
disease,  and  are  much  longer  lived.  Clayey  loams,  when  well 
drained,  are  good,  and  trees  growing  on  them  are  generally 
free  from  insects. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  any  precise  rules  in  reference  to  aspect. 
Good  orchards  may  be  found  in  all  aspects,  but  a gentle  slope 
to  the  southwest  is  generally  to  be  preferred  to  any  other. 
Where  fruit  is  very  liable  to  be  killed  by  late  spring  frosts, 
and  the  season  is  long  and  warm  enough  to  ripen  it  in  any  ex- 
posure, planting  on  the  north  sides  of  hills  is  practiced  with 
advantage.  Deep  valleys  with  small  streams  of  water  should 
be  avoided,  as  the  cold  air  settles  down  in  such  places,  and 
frosts  are  apt  to  prove  fatal  ; but  the  borders  of  large  rivers 
and  lakes  are  favorable  for  orchards,  as  the  climate  is  rendered 
milder  by  the  presence  of  large  bodies  of  water 

PLANTING  AND  CULTIVATING  AN 
ORCHARD. 

The  first  thing  is  to  prepare  the  ground  by  underdraining 
(if  it  require  it,  as  most  land  does),  subsoiling,  or  trench  plow- 
ing, harrowing,  manuring,  etc. 

Choose  sound,  healthy  trees  for  planting,  and  set  them  out 
carefully.  Apple  trees  should  be  thirty  feet  apart  in  orchard 
culture.  Set  the  same  kind  in  rows  together.  This  will  facil- 
itate the  gathering  of  the  fruit,  and  improve  the  appearance  of 
the  orchard. 

It  is  an  indispensable  requisite  in  all  young  orchards  to 
keep  the  ground  mellow  and  loose  by  cultivation,  at  least  for 
the  first  few  years,  until  the  trees  are  well  established. 

Fallow  crops  are  best  for  orchards — potatoes,  beets,  carrots, 
bush  beans,  and  the  like  ; but,  whatever  crops  may  be  grown, 
it  should  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  that  the  roots  of  the  tree 
require  the  sole  occupancy  of  the  ground  so  far  as  they  extend, 
and  therefore  that  an  area  of  more  than  the  diameter  of  the 
head  of  the  tree  should  be  kept  clean  of  crops,  weeds,  and 
grass. 

To  keep  the  trees  in  a healthy  bearing  state,  regular  manur- 
ing is  requisite.  They  exhaust  the  soil,  like  any  other  crop. 
Top-dressings  of  marl  or  mild  lime  may  alternate  with  barn- 
yard manure,  muck  composts,  etc. 

To  prevent  the  attacks  of  the  apple-borer,  place  about  the 
trunks  early  in  the  spring  a small  mound  of  ashes  or  lime. 
Nursery  trees  may  be  protected  by  washing  the  stems  in  May, 
quite  down  to  the  ground,  with  a solution  of  two  pounds  of 
potash  in  eight  quarts  of  water. 


CATTLE. 


541 


"'vi'/n? 


E-13  Ea3Ea3I|a3 

ESI 

VARIETIES  OF  CATTLE. 

HE  Ox  belongs  to  the 
fourth  class  of  vertebrate 
animals,  and  is  of  the  or- 
der Ruminantia.  It  is  a 
ruminant,  with  hollow 
horns,  which  are  directed 
sideways,  and  then  twine  upwards 
in  form  of  a crescent.  It  is  a 
large  animal,  with  a broad 
muzzle,  low  stature,  and  stout 
legs.  It  is  also  distinguished  by 
a fold  of  skin  which  hangs  be- 
neath the  neck,  and  is  called  the 
dewlap. 

The  male  and  female  of  this  species  are  respect- 
ively the  Bull  and  the  Cow.  The  young  males  are 
called  Steers,  and  the  females  Heifers. 

Beef  is  the  most  useful  product  which  the  ox 
affords. 

The  problem  of  utilizing  the  ox  to  the  greatest 
extent  simply  consists  in  producing,  as  quickly  and 
economically  as  possible,  an  animal  excelling  to  the 
highest  degree  both  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
its  meat.  Care,  therefore,  must  be  taken  particu- 
larly to  develop  those  parts  which  furnish  the  joints 
which  are  most  esteemed. 

The  type  of  the  ox  best  fitted  for  the  butcher  is 
that  in  which  flesh  surpasses  bone  in  proportion,  and 


in  which  the  hinder  parts  are  more  fully  developed 
even  at  the  expense  of  the  neck  and  shoulders  ; for 
the  latter  joints  furnish  an  inferior  article  of  food,  so 
that  their  reduction,  if  compensated  for  by  an  in- 
crease of  the  more  valuable  portions,  must  be  a great 
desideratum. 

What,  therefore,  are  the  points  by  which  we  can 
discern  when  an  ox  approaches  the  butcher’s  ideal  ? 
The  answer  is,  great  width  combined  with  depth  and 
length. 

“ The  deeper  the  animal  is  in  the  thorax,  in  pro- 
portion to  its  size — the  closer  it  is  to  the  ground,  in 
vulgar  terms  ; added  to  this,  the  longer  it  is  in  body 
and  rump  ; and  the  thicker  it  is,  or,  as  is  com- 
monly said,  ‘the  better  it  is  made  up,’  the  greater 
amount  of  clear  meat  it  gives  in  comparison  with  its 
absolute  or  living  weight,  and  the  better  it  approaches 
to  the  desired  type.” 

There  are  certain  accessory  characteristics  which 
must  have  their  due  importance,  as  likewise  forming 
a prominent  feature  in  the  type  of  the  ox  which  is 
intended  for  the  butcher.  It  must  have  slenderly 
made  bones,  a fine  head,  skin  supple  and  not  too 
thick,  moderate  dewlap,  thin  and  downy  hair,  calm 
visage,  quiet  and  mild  look.  It  may  be  regarded  as 
a certainty  that  the  ox  which  combines  these  and  the 
former  attributes  possesses  a special  fitness  for  be- 
coming good  beef. 

Next  to  meat,  milk  is  the  most  valuable  product 
with  which  this  race  furnishes  us — a source  of  wealth 


I 542 


CATTLE. 


to  the  producers,  for  it  is  an  article  of  universal  con- 
sumption. Thus  it  may  be  easily  understood  how 
important  it  is  for  the  buyer  to  be  able  to  distinguish, 
a priori , in  the  market,  from  certain  outward  signs, 
what  are  the  milking  qualities  of  a cow,  and  to  be 
able  to  arrive  at  a correct  conclusion,  even  in  a 
heifer,  whether  she  will  be  a good  or  bad  milker. 

There  are  both  good  and  bad  milkers  in  every 
race  ; the  proportion,  however,  of  each  presents  a 
certain  constant  character,  by  which  some  breeds 
may  be  recognized  as  possessing  a decided  milking 
superiority.  Climate  and  nature  of  pasturage  have 
also  great  influence  on  the  lacteous  qualities  of  dif- 
ferent races. 

The  principal  breeds  of  oxen  and  cows  are  the 
Shorthorn,  Hereford  and  Devon  ; and  besides  these 
we  have  the  Sussex,  the  Longhorned,  the  Galloway, 
the  Angus  and  the  Kyloe. 

The  Shorthorn  is  now  undoubtedly  the  dominant  breed. 
Originating  in  Teeswater,  and  carefully  bred  years  before  the 
existence  of  any  herd-book  recording  descent,  it  soon  reached 
the  highest  reputation  for  its  early  precocity  and  meat-pro- 
ducing qualities. 

The  Herefords,  another  leading  breed  of  cattle,  character- 
ized by  red  body  and  white  or  mottled  face,  come  almost  as 
early  to  maturity  as  the  shorthorn,  and,  attaining  great  weight, 
are  certainly  one  of  the  best  breeds.  They  have  as  great 
an  antiquity  as  the  shorthorn.  As  much  as  $5,000  have 
been  given  for  a Hereford  bull  and  cow  ; and  high  prices 
are  fetched  still,  though  not  so  high  as  those  of  the  shorthorn 
stock,  for  well-bred  bulls  and  cows. 

The  breed  has  now  a herd-book  of  its  own,  and  it  is  in  the 
hands  of  as  much  enthusiasm  and  ability  as  has  characterized 
the  history  of  the  shorthorns.  For  early  maturity,  and  large 
size,  accordingly,  it  now  almost  equals  the  shorthorn  ; and  for 
quality  of  meat  it  probably  excels  it. 

The  Devon. — The  North  Devon  ox  is  a small  animal,  of  a 
light  red  color,  without  any  white,  with  long  yellowish  horns, 
and  a well-made  symmetrical  frame.  Hardy,  light  and  active, 
it  is  an  excellent  worker,  and  is  worked  in  harness  until  five  or 
six  years  old,  and  then  fattened. 

The  Sussex  is  a larger,  coarser  animal  than  the  Devon,  but 
otherwise  resembles  it. 

The  Longhorned,  a dairy  breed,  rather  than  one  adapted 
for  the  feeding-house,  is  gradually  disappearing  from  the  mid- 
land and  western  counties,  where  it  prevailed. 

The  Kyloe,  or  West  Highlander,  adapted  to  the  rough 
pastures  of  the  districts  where  it  is  bred,  is  driven  south  to  be 
fattened  on  English  grazing-grounds,  where  it  yields  the  very 
best  of  beef  at  four  and  five  years  old.  It  is  characterized  by 
long,  upturned  horns,  a shaggy  coat  of  a yellow,  dun,  or  black 
color,  and  well-made,  compact  little  body. 

The  Galloway,  resembling  a Kyloe  without  horns,  with  a 
less  shaggy  coat,  is,  when  well  bred,  one  of  the  best-made  and 
most  symmetrical  of  our  breeds  of  cattle.  It,  too,  is  driven 


south  in  large  numbers  to  be  fattened,  and  yields  excellent 
beef. 

The  Angus,  also  a polled  breed,  of  a red  or  black  color,  is  a 
much  larger  animal,  and  when  crossed  with  the  pure-bred 
shorthorn  breed,  furnishes  one  of  the  best  crosses  for  the  feed- 
ing-stall that  we  have. 

Besides  these,  there  are  other  sorts  especially  adapted  to 
the  dairy. 

Different  Kinds  of  Cows. — The  large  kinds  of  cows  are 
generally  chosen  where  there  are  rich  fertile  pastures  ; and  no 
doubt  the  dominant  breed  throughout  the  country,  both  for  in- 
door and  outdoor  feeding,  is,  as  has  been  said,  the  shorthorn. 
This  breed  is  divided  into  several  varieties — the  Holderness, 
Northumberland,  Durham,  Yorkshire,  etc.  The  Yorkshire  is 
thought  to  be  the  best  for  the  dairy.  These  fine  animals  ap- 
pear to  have  descended  from  the  Teeswater  breed.  There  are 
a great  many  varieties  of  the  large  cows  in  this  country  that 
have  been  bred  by  shorthorn  bulls.  An  excellent  cross  is 
common  in  the  eastern  counties  between  the  best  Suffolk 
cows  and  shorthorn  animals  of  the  best  blood.  They  are  good 
milkers,  harmless,  and  very  quiet,  and  consequently  much 
approved  of  for  pasture-feeding.  Cows  of  this  breed  will  pro- 
duce from  ten  to  twelve  pounds  of  butter  per  week  each,  when 
well  managed  ; and  for  butter  dairying  the  quantity  and  quali- 
ty of  cream  produced  is  of  greater  importance  than  the  quan- 
tity of  milk. 

Cheshire  Cows. — The  Cheshire  dairy  farms  are  mostly 
stocked  with  a mixed  breed  of  cows,  between  the  Cheshire, 
Lancashire,  and  other  crosses. 

Lancashire. — The  Lancashire  are  distinguished  by  their  long 
horns,  deep  fore-quarters,  and  long  hair.  They,  as  well  as 
other  long-horned  cows,  are  said  to  give  richer  milk  than 
polled  cows,  but  not  so  much  of  it.  Besides  the  milking  prop- 
erties of  a breed  of  cows,  their  hardy  qualities  must  be  thought 
of,  where  they  are  exposed  to  bleak  situations  ; and  no  doubt 
the  long-horned  Lancashire  and  other  coarse  skinned  animals 
are  the  most  hardy. 

Devons. — The  middle-horned  breed  of  cows  may  include 
the  Devons,  the  Herefords,  and  the  Sussex.  The  two  latter  are 
the  largest,  but  neither  of  them  excel  the  best  shorthorn  in 
their  produce  of  milk.  The  Devons  are  of  a light  red  color, 
with  yellowish  colored  horns,  well  made,  and  their  milk  is  rich 
— or  we  should  not  have  such  rich  Devonshire  cream. 

Hereford. — The  Hereford,  next  in  size  to  the  shorthorn 
breed,  is  a fine  animal  and  a pretty  good  one  for  dairy  stock, 
but  better,  perhaps,  for  fattening  purposes.  The  Sussex  do 
not  differ  much  from  the  Herefords  ; they  are  both  of  a darker 
color  than  the  Devons,  with  horns  of  a moderate  length,  turn- 
ing up  at  the  points,  having  wide  hips  and  smallish  bones. 
They  are  middling  cows  for  the  dairy. 

Galloway. — The  polled  Galloways  are  very  nice  animals  for 
grazing  purposes  ; they  are  mostly  black,  well  proportioned  in 
form,  and  yield  an  average  quantity  of  milk,  when  carefully 
used,  for  dairy  purposes. 

Highland. — The  Highland  are  not  thought  to  be  better  milk- 
producers  than  the  Galloways,  but  more  hardy. 

Ayrshire. — The  Ayrshire  cow  is  a favorite  in  some  places, 
but  not  preferred  by  cow-keepers  in  general.  It  is,  however, 


CATTLE. 


543 


a good  animal  for  the  dairy,  and  almost  equal  to  the  Alderney 
in  the  richness  of  its  milk.  It  has  fine  wrinkled  horns,  is  larger 
than  the  Alderney,  and  somewhat  like  it  in  appearance.  Its 
color  is  usually  red  and  white. 

Shetland. — The  Shetland  cattle  are  very  small,  and  inferior 
in  shape  to  those  of  the  Western  Highlands.  They  are  hardy, 
small  consumers  of  food,  and  yield  about  two  quarts  of  milk  a 
day. 

Welsh. — The  Pembrokeshire  cow  is  small  and  hardy.  It  is 
fine-boned,  with  clean  light  head  and  neck,  small  yellow  horn, 
good  chine,  long  round  barrel,  thin  thigh,  and  short  fine  legs, 
always  in  good  condition  if  tolerably  kept,  and  has  a rich  wave 
in  her  hair  which  ever  denotes  thriftiness  of  kind.  Its  pro- 
duce is  from  five  to  seven  pounds  of  butter  a week  during  the 
dairy  season. 

Irish. — The  Kerry  cattle,  in  size  and  shape,  resemble  some 
of  those  from  the  Western  Islands,  of  a high-bred  deer-like 
shape,  not  so  broad  or  so  low  in  the  leg  as  the  native  High- 
land Stots.  These  cattle  are  very  hardy,  being  reared  in  a 
country  of  rocks  and  hills.  Their  properties  are  said  to  be 
that  of  giving  the  largest  quantity  of  milk,  which  is  also 
of  the  richest  quality  for  the  amount  of  sustenance  they 
require. 

Alderney. — The  little  Alderney  cow  is  a slender-made  animal, 
not  very  well  shaped,  though  admired  for  its  deer-like  mild 
face  and  fine  bone  ; it  is  mostly  of  a red  and  white  color,  with 
a mottled  face.  The  Alderney  gives  the  richest  milk  of  any 
kind,  and  some  of  them  have  been  known  to  produce  ten  and 
eleven  pounds  of  butter  a week  of  the  finest  quality.  They 
are  rather  tender,  and  require  to  be  well  housed  in  the 
winter. 

Suffolk. — The  Suffolk  cow  is  believed  to  be  the  best  of  the 
polled  breeds  for  the  dairy  where  the  pastures  are  not  very 
rich.  They  are  quiet,  hardy,  and  suitable  for  upland  fields. 

It  is  thought  that  the  Dun-colored  originally  descended  from 
the  Galloway  ; they  do  not,  however,  generally  appear  to  be  so 
uniformly  well-shaped  as  the  Galloway,  although  they  have 
been  vastly  improved  of  late  years  by  careful  breeders.  Various 
crosses  between  them  and  the  Ayrshire,  and  other  varieties, 
have  increased  the  produce  of  the  dairy  in  many  places  ; but  it 
is  believed  that  for  large  dairies,  no  cross  is  superior  to  that  of 
the  Suffolk  cow  and  the  shorthorn  bull. 

Whichever  breed  is  made  choice  of  to  improve  the  stock, 
both  male  and  female  should  be  of  the  best  animals.  By  a first- 
class  bull  a hardy,  well-informed,  and  abundant  milk-producing 
cow  is  almost  sure  to  produce  valuable  calves  to  bring  up  for 
the  future  supply  of  the  dairy. 

THE  COW  AND  CALF. 

Rearing  Cow  Stock. — Where  there  is  accommodation  for 
rearing  young  cow  stock,  the  best  males  and  females  should  be 
selected  for  propagating  a good  breed.  It  would  not  do,  how- 
ever, for  thsoe  who  expect  to  make  a profit  by  dairy-farming, 
to  purchase  animals  at  the  fabulous  prices  of  hundreds  and 
thousands  of  dollars,  such  as  w'e  read  of  at  the  sales  of  first- 
class  breeders.  Very  excellent  animals  can  be  found  now  of 
various  breeds,  and  calves  chosen  from  the  best  of  them,  though 
not  very  high  in  price,  will  be  as  good  for  dairy  purposes  as 


the  most  celebrated  stock.  A selection  should  be  carefully 
made  from  mothers  which  are  the  best  milkers,  with  full-size 
udders,  w'ide  rounded  hips,  straight  backs,  and  broad  chests, 
with  small  tapering  legs  ; and  bulls  with  broad  breast,  project- 
ing a little  before  their  legs,  with  neck  rising  from  their 
shoulders,  moderate-sized  heads,  flat,  broad,  straight  backs, 
well  filled  up  behind  their  shoulders  and  between  their  ribs 
and  hips,  with  small  straight  legs  and  rounded  bodies.  Large 
sunken  bodies  are  generally  brought  on  by  poor  keep. 
Animals  kept  on  straw  and  sedgy  meadows  only,  while  young, 
are  usually  disfigured  by  their  bodies  becoming  unnaturally 
protruded. 

Watchfulness  required. — When  cows  are  expected  to  calve 
(at  the  end  of  forty  weeks)  they  should  be  carefully  watched 
night  and  day,  and  where  the  weaning  of  the  calf  is  intended, 
it  would  be  best  for  them  to  calve  at  the  beginning  of  March, 
as  they  would  then  have  the  whole  of  the  grass  season  before 
them.  When  the  cow  has  had  a protracted  and  difficult  calv- 
ing-time, she  will  require  careful  treatment.  In  common 
natural  cases  she  will  soon  be  all  right  ; but  in  difficult  cases 
brushing  of  the  belly  and  loins  with  a wisp  is  serviceable — 
gentle  walking  exercise  for  a short  time  in  fine  weather  is  use- 
ful. Gruels  and  cordial  drinks  should  also  occasionally  be  given. 
The  latter  might  consist  of  a quart  of  ale  mixed  with  sugar  or 
treacle,  and  diluted  with  water,  to  be  given  warm.  She  must 
have  her  warm  water  mixed  with  a little  meal.  Should  fever 
intervene,  it  is  best  to  send  for  the  veterinary  surgeon,  and 
commit  the  case  to  his  care. 

Cows  after  calving  should  be  carefully  fed  with  nutritious 
food,  in  small  quantities  often  repeated  ; and  it  is  certainly 
best  to  give  cooked  or  boiled  food,  as  it  prevents  more  gene- 
rally indigestion  and  flatulent  colic.  At  all  events,  sweet  and 
easily  digested  food  should  be  given,  or  material  injury  may 
arise.  Should  the  udder  swell  from  excess  of  milk,  or  the  in- 
capacity of  the  calf  to  draw  it  all  away,  frequent  milking  is 
requisite,  and  it  should  be  hand -rubbed  well,  with  frequent 
washings  of  warm  water  and  soft  soap,  or  with  warm  bran- 
water.  The  teats  occasionally  become  sore  ; the  same  applica- 
tions should  be  resorted  to,  and,  in  addition,  a little  lard, 
olive-oil,  or  even  cream,  should  be  gently  rubbed  on,  particu- 
larly in  cases  of  pustules  arising,  or  scab. 

Calves  will  soon  learn  to  drink  from  a pail  ; but  it  is  generally 
thought  best  to  allow  them  to  suck  from  their  mothers  for  a 
few  days,  while  the  herdsman  milks  on  the  opposite  side.  The 
cow  will  give  down  her  milk  the  better  for  it,  and  become 
reconciled  to  his  milking  her  without  the  calf  afterwards,  if 
treated  with  gentle  kindness. 

The  calf  should  have  new  milk  for  a fortnight  twice  a day  ; 
then  skimmed  milk  mixed  with  oatmeal  or  linseed  meal,  boiled 
for  half  an  hour,  during  another  fortnight  or  three  weeks.  It 
will  require  about  two  gallons  a day  till  it  begins  to  eat  well, 
which  it  will  do  when  it  is  five  or  six  weeks  old,  if  some  sweet 
hay  be  given  it  daily,  or  some  hay  chaff  with  pulped  mangold 
or  swedes  mixed  with  it.  Skimmed  milk,  or  whey  mixed  with 
a little  linseed  meal,  will  then  do  for  its  drink,*  which  may  be 
continued  till  it  is  twelve  weeks  old,  when  it  would  live  very 

* The  milk  may  be  taken  from  the  quantity  set  up  for  butter  and  once 
skimmed  after  standing  twelve  hours. 


544 


CATTLE. 


well  on  a pasture  or  on  natural  food.  Some  people  wean  calves 
almost  entirely  on  linseed  tea. 

Summer  Treatment. — When  the  weather  is  warm  and  the 
flies  become  troublesome,  they  ought  not  to  be  left  in  their 
pasture  without  shade  or  shelter.  If  well  shaded  during  the 
heat  of  the  day,  and  supplied  with  pure  water  and  some  green 
food  in  their  cribs,  they  will  most  likely  continue  to  thrive  ; 
but  if  left  to  be  tormented  with  flies,  huddled  together  in  a 
corner  of  their  pasture,  or  in  a wet  ditch,  they  will  probably 
become  unhealthy.  It  may  here  be  remarked  that,  on  first 
leaving  the  cow-house,  the  calf  should  be  confined  in  a safe  place 
in  the  yard  or  elsewhere  for  a day  or  two,  until  it  becomes  accus- 
tomed to  the  bright  light  of  day,  as  on  its  first  introduction  it 
appears  almost  blind,  and  would  be  likely  to  run  into  danger. 

A change  of  pasture  now  and  then  is  desirable,  but  calves 
should  not  be  put  into  low  wet  meadows,  as  it  is  generally  in 
such  situations  that  they  get  diseased  with  a husky  cough.  As 
the  fall  approaches  the  grass  will  be  less  nutritious,  it  will  then 
be  necessary  to  give  them  some  food  in  their  yard  or  shed,  such 
as  pulped  roots  mixed  with  cut  straw  chaff,  every  night.  A 
little  salt  mixed  with  their  chaff  is  a good  thing,  and  is  believed 
by  some  people  to  prevent  “ hove.” 

When  frost  begins  they  should  not  be  turned  into  their  pas- 
ture till  nine  or  ten  o’clock,  or  till  it  disappears.  Their  racks, 
cribs,  and  mangers,  or  whatever  they  feed  or  drink  from,  should 
constantly  be  kept  clean,  and  the  herdsman  should  be  urged 
to  feed  and  water  them  regularly,  and  to  keep  them  well  sup- 
plied with  dry  bedding. 

As  winter  approaches  they  would  be  best  confined  to  the 
yard  and  shed,  where,  if  well  sheltered  and  fed  regularly  with 
a proper  quantity  of  pulped  roots,  turnips  or  mangold,  mixed 
with  straw  chaff  spiinkled  with  a little  salt,  they  will  thrive  fast 
enough  till  the  spring,  when  they  can  return  to  their  pastures, 
or  be  provided  with  green  food  ; they  should  be  carefully 
treated  as  before  recommended.  The  upland  pastures  are  best 
for  young  stock. 

Some  people  allow  heifers  to  have  calves  when  only  two 
years  old,  but  they  seldom  (if  ever)  make  such  good  cows  as 
those  that  are  left  free  till  they  are  three  years  of  age. 

Young  stock  brought  up  as  here  recommended  will  generally 
thrive  fast,  and  be  free  from  disease. 

Cost  of  Keep. — Cows  are  large  consumers  of  food,  and  should 
not  be  stinted  when  in  milk.  Heifers  will  require  nothing  but 
green  food  in  the  dry  summer  months  ; but  as  the  winter  ap- 
proaches they  should  be  sheltered  in  a yard  at  night,  and  a little 
fresh  barley  or  oat  straw  given  them  in  their  cribs  ; whenever 
the  pastures  become  injured  by  frost,  both  young  and  old  cows 
require  improved  food  in  their  sheds.  A few  Swedish  turnips 
or  mangold  roots  should  then  be  given  them,  which,  if  pulped 
and  mixed  with  sweet  chaff  (one-fourth  hay),  would  be  sufficient 
to  keep  them  in  healthy  condition  ; but  this  applies  only  to 
those  that  are  not  in  milk.  When  within  two  months  of  calving, 
all  cows  should  be  dried,  for,  if  not  then  dried,  they  will  not 
produce  so  much  milk  the  next  year.  They  should  afterwards 
have  their  food  improved  by  an  additional  weight  of  roots  with 
their  chaff,  which  should  be  mixed  in  a heap  over-night.  By 
the  morning  it  will  be  found  to  have  heated  a little,  which  im- 
parts a flavor  that  is  much  relished  by  the  cows. 

& 


Consutnption  of  Food.  — As  was  before  remarked,  “ cows  are 
large  consumers  of  food,”  and  no  wonder  that  they  should  re. 
quire  an  abundance,  to  enable  them  to  supply  so  rich  a sus- 
tenance for  mankind,  as  well  as  to  support  themselves.  Where 
there  are  no  good  dry  pastures  to  provide  them  with  plenty  for 
their  summer  keep,  they  would  do  very  well  in  a proper  feeding- 
house  (enclosed  on  the  north  and  south  sides)  with  a door  at 
each  end,  if  they  were  liberally  supplied  with  green  food,  cut 
for  them  and  put  in  racks  : such  as  rye  grass,  clover,  tares.  It 
has  been  found  that  milk  as  abundant  and  butter  quite  as 
good  have  been  produced  by  cows  so  fed,  as  by  those  which 
had  the  run  of  rich  pastures.  But  where  there  are  pastures  it 
would  be  well  to  have  the  cows  housed  in  hot  weather,  when 
insects  are  troublesome  ; or  else  they  will  be  worried  and  heated 
and  unable  to  feed,  and  will  fall  off  in  their  produce  of 
milk. 

A large  cow  will  consume  a cwt.  of  green  food  per  day. 

When  green  food  is  scarce,  as  is  generally  the  case  at  the 
end  of  a dry  summer,  a little  linseed-cake  or  bean-meal,  mixed 
with  cut  chaff  (one  third  hay),  should  be  given  them  to  keep  up 
the  produce  of  milk,  lest  part  of  the  best  season  for  dairying 
should  be  lost  by  its  failure. 

It  is  not  good  economy  to  feed  cows  on  much  uncut  hay,  for 
they  would  consume  and  spoil  a cwt.  a day,  if  fed  entirely  on 
it.  Much  less  expensive  and  more  natural  condiments  can 
be  made  by  a mixture  of  bean,  barley,  maize,  or  linseed- 
meal,  and  other  produce  of  the  soil  by  cow-keepers  them- 
selves. 

Milk  Dairies. — When  cows  are  kept  only  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  a large  quantity  of  milk,  brewers’  grains  are  given 
them,  with  a small  portion  of  hay,  for  ruminating  purposes.  On 
this  they  do  tolerably  well,  but  it  will  be  found  to  their  advan- 
tage if  about  three  or  four  pounds  of  bean-meal  be  mixed  with 
the  grains  for  each  cow  per  day. 

Winter  Food. — In  winter  and  spring,  Swedish  turnips,  man- 
gold, and  other  root  crops  would  be  found  m®re  economical 
food  than  the  grains,  meal,  and  hay  last  mentioned.  A bushel 
of  pulped  roots  mixed  with  about  fourteen  pounds  of  cut  chaff, 
one-third  hay,  and  given  them  twice  a day,  would  be  found 
sufficient  to  satisfy  a moderate-sized  cow,  but  they  should  not 
be  stinted  or  confined  to  any  quantity  if  they  are  found  to 
require  more.  Cabbages,  carrots,  and  parsnips  are  very  good 
food  for  milch  cows  if  given  in  moderate  quantities  with  other 
food.  It  is  important  that  all  roots  should  be  freed  from 
earth  before  pulping,  or  given  to  the  cows,  otherwise  it  would 
impart  an  unpleasant  flavor  to  the  crjeam.  When  cows  are  fed 
on  pulped  roots,  with  cut  chaff,  a peck  or  two  of  malt-dust 
(“  combs”)  would  be  a nice  addition,  as  it  would  give  a zest 
to  the  mixture.  A sufficient  quantity  for  the  whole  herd  should 
be  put  into  a heap  about  twelve  hours  before  it  would  be 
wanted,  when  it  would  be  found  to  have  acquired  a little 
warmth  and  a fragrant  smell,  which  would  give  the  cows  a 
greater  relish  for  it. 

A change  of  green  or  succulent  food  appears  to  promote  the 
secretions  of  the  system,  and  to  give  stimulus  to  their  action 
Such  as  would  injure  the  flavor  of  rmlk  should  be  avoided. 
White  turnips  and  cabbages  will  do  this,  if  given  without  a 
good  supply  of  other  food  with  them. 


library 

Of  THE 

UNIVERSITY  Of  ILLINOIS 


EARLY  HISTORY  AND  HABITS  OF 
THE  HORSE. 


HE  Early  History  and 
Origin  of  the  Horse 
is  wrapped  in  obscurity 
and  fable,  and  we  really 
know  little  or  nothing  of 
it,  except  that  we  have 
reason  to  believe  that  he  first 
came  from  Asia,  like  man,  and, 
according  to  the  Mosaic  account, 
all  other  animals  now  existing ; 
and  that  he  was  used  in  Egypt 
more  than  1600  years  before 
Christ.  But  with  the  history  of 
the  horse  we  shall  not  encumber 
this  book,  which  might  be  enlarged  to  an  enormous 
extent  if  this  department  were  entered  into  at  length. 
Suffice  it,  then,  to  discuss  the  present  condition  of 
the  horse,  and  its  more  recent  origin,  in  addition  to 
his  general  habits. 

The  Habits  of  the  Horse,  in  all  countries,  and 
of  all  varieties,  are  pretty  much  alike.  Wherever  he 
is  at  large,  he  is  bold,  but  wary,  and  easily  taking 
note  of  the  approach  of  man,  to  give  him  as  wide  a 
berth  as  he  possibly  can,  or  rather  show  him  a clean 
pair  of  heels.  Wild  horses  exist  to  the  present  day 
35 


in  the  interior  of  Asia  and  in  South  America.  But 
both  the  horses  of  the  Tartars  and  those  of  La  Plata 
are  descended  from  the  domesticated  animals,  and 
can  scarcely  be  called  wild  in  the  ordinary  accepta- 
tion of  the  term.  From  their  constant  state  of  liberty, 
and  their  roving  habits,  in  order  to  obtain  food  and 
water,  they  are  inured  to  fatigue,  and  can  bear  an 
enormous  amount  of  long-continued  fast  work,  with- 
out failing  under  it,  and  without  that  training  which 
the  domesticated  animal  must  have.  The  walk  and 
the  gallop  are  the  horse’s  natural  paces,  and  all  others 
are  acquired  ; but  nothing  can  exceed  the  fiery  ani- 
mation and  elegance  of  movement  of  the  free  horse  ; 
and  in  these  two  paces  art  has  done  nothing  to  im- 
prove his  form,  except,  perhaps,  in  slightly  increasing 
the  speed  of  the  latter.  In  all  countries,  and  in 
every  age,  the  horse  feeds  upon  grain  or  grass,  though 
it  is  said  that  in  Arabia  he  is  occasionally  supported 
upon  camel’s  milk,  when  food  such  as  he  usually  lives 
upon  is  not  to  be  had. 

It  may  be  useful  to  specify  the  terms  employed  to 
describe  the  principal  parts  of  the  horse.  These 
details  will  not  prove  altogether  superfluous,  as  some 
of  the  words  we  are  about  to  explain  not  unfrequently 
occur  in  conversation. 

The  two  parts  of  the  head  of  the  horse  which  cor- 
respond to  the  temples  in  a man  are  above  the  eyes. 
The  eyes  themselves  have  a loose  crescentiform  fold 
of  the  conjunctiva  at  the  inner  angle,  often  errone- 


THE  HORSE. 


54* 


i 


ously  called  membrana  nictitans,  but  it  neither  per- 
forms its  office  or  possesses  its  muscular  apparatus. 
The  orbit,  which  is  formed  of  seven  bones,  four 
cranial  and  three  facial,  contains  the  globe  of  the 
eye,  on  the  inner  angle  of  which  is  situated  the  haw. 
The  eye-pits  are  deep  indentations  which  lie  between 
the  eye  and  the  ear,  above  the  eyebrows  on  each 
side. 

The  face  is  the  front  of  the  head  from  the  eyes  to 
the  nostrils  ; this  part  corresponds  to  the  upper  part 
of  a man’s  nose.  This  name  is,  however,  generally 
applied  to  that  portion  that  surrounds  the  curl  or 
centre  on  the  forehead  from  whence  the  hair  radiates. 

The  neck  of  the  horse  is  designated  by  the  word 
crest ; it  is  comprised  from  one  end  to  the  other  be- 
tween the  mane  on  the  upper  side  and  the  gullet  on 
the  lower.  The  fore-lock  is  the  portion  of  the  mane 
which  is  on  the  top  of  the  head  and  falls  over  on  the 
forehead  between  the  eyes. 

The  withers  is  the  spot  where  the  shoulders  meet 
up  above,  between  the  back  and  the  neck,  at  the 
point  where  the  neck  and  the  mane  come  to  an  end. 

The  chest  is  that  part  which  is  in  front  between 
the  shoulders  and  below  the  throat. 

The  back  commences  at  the  withers  and  extend 
all  along  the  spine  as  far  as  the  crupper.  When  the 
horse  is  fat,  the  whole  length  of  the  spine  forms  a 
kind  of  hollow  which  is  said  to  be  channeled. 

The  space  which  is  included  within  the  ribs  is 
called  the  barrel ; the  name  of  stomach  is  also  given 
to  the  lower  part  of  the  body  which  joins  the  os  ster- 
num and  the  bottom  of  the  ribs. 

The  flanks  lie  at  the  extremity  of  the  stomach  and 
extend  as  far  as  the  hip-bones.  The  tail  is  divided 
into  two  parts  : the  stump  or  dock , and  the  hair. 

The  upper  part  of  the  front  leg  of  the  horse  is 
called  the  shoulder  although  it  corresponds  with  the 
fore-arm  in  a man  ; the  fore-arm  follows  it  lower 
down. 

The  joint  which  is  below  the  fore-arm  is  called  the 
knee  ; it  corresponds  to  the  place  of  the  wrist  in  man, 
forms  an  angle  turning  inwards  when  the  leg  is  bent. 

The  shank  forms  the  second  portion  of  the  fore- 
leg ; it  commences  at  the  knee-joint,  and  corresponds 
to  the  metacarpus  in  man. 

Behind  the  shank  is  a tendon,  which  extends  from 
one  end  to  the  other,  and  is  called  the  back-sineiv. 

The  fetlock-joint  is  the  articulation  immediately 
below  the  shank. 


The  fetlock  itself  is  a tuft  of  hair  covering  a sort 
of  soft  horny  excrescence,  which  is  called  the  ergot. 

The  pastern  is  the  portion  of  the  leg  between  the 
fetlock-joint  and  the  foot. 

The  coronet  is  an  elevation  lying  below  the  pastern, 
and  is  furnished  with  long  hair  falling  over  the  hoof, 
all  round  the  foot. 

The  hoofs  form,  so  to  speak,  the  nails  of  the  horse, 
and  consist  of  a horny  substance. 

In  order  to  describe  the  parts  which  make  up  the 
hind  legs  of  the  horse,  we  must  go  back  to  the  haun- 
ches. Each  of  these  contains  the  femur , and  corre- 
sponds to  the  thigh  of  a man.  It  is,  therefore,  the 
thigh  of  the  horse,  which  is  joined  on  to  the  body, 
and  bears  the  name  of  buttocks.  It  is  terminated 
below  and  in  front  by  the  stifle  which  is  the  joint  of 
the  knee  containing  the  knee-pan.  It  is  situated  be- 
low the  haunch,  on  a level  with  the  flank,  and  shifts 
its  place  when  the  horse  walks. 

The  highest  part  of  the  hind  leg,  which  is  detached 
from  the  body,  is  called  the  thigh,  or  gaskins,  and 
corresponds  to  the  leg  of  a man.  It  extends  from 
the  stifle  and  lower  part  of  the  buttocks  down  to  the 
hock. 

The  hock  is  the  joint  which  is  below  the  thigh, 
and  bends  forward.  This  joint  represents  the  instep 
in  a man  : the  hinder  part  of  the  hock,  which  is  called 
the  point  of  the  hock,  is  the  heel. 

Below  the  hock  are  the  shank,  the  fetlock-joint, 
the  pastern,  and  the  foot,  just  the  same  as  in  the 
fore-legs. 

We  will  now  say  a few  words  as  to  the  diversity 
of  color  in  the  coat  of  the  horse,  in  order  to  fix  the 
meaning  of  the  terms  which  are  generally  employed 
to  designate  the  various  hues  which  the  coat  pre- 
sents. 

Bay  is  a reddish  nut-brown  color,  with  various 
shades.  Dark  bay  horses  are  of  a very  dark  brown, 
almost  black,  except  on  the  flanks  and  tip  of  the 
nose,  where  they  are  of  a reddish  color.  The  golden, 
or  light  bay,  is  a yellow  sun-light  hue.  Dappled  bay 
horses  have  on  their  rumps  spots  of  a darker  bay 
than  on  the  rest  of  their  bodies.  In  bay  horses  the 
extremities,  the  mane,  and  the  tail  are  always  black. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  black  horses  : the  rusty 
black,  which  is  of  a brownish  tinge,  more  or  less  con- 
spicuous in  various  lights  ; the  black,  and  the  coal- 
black,  which  is  the  darkest  of  all. 

Z>/r«-colored  horses,  of  which  there  are  several 


4 


THE  HORSE. 


547 


shades,  are  of  a yellowish-sandy  hue  ; the  mane  and 
tail  of  these  are  either  white  or  black.  Some  of  the 
latter  have  a black  line  along  the  vertebrae,  which  is 
called  a mule s,  or  eel-stripe. 

Chestnut  is  a kind  of  reddish  or  cinnamon-colored 
bay.  There  are  several  shades  of  it,  among  which 
are  the  bright  chestnut , which  is  the  color  of  a red 
cow’s  coat  ; the  common  chestnut , which  is  neither 
dark  nor  bright  ; the  bay  chestnut,  which  verges  upon 
the  red  ; the  burnt  chestnut,  which  is  dark,  and  nearly 
approaches  black.  Some  chestnut  horses  have  white 
manes  and  tails,  others  black.  The  roan  is  a mixture 
of  red  and  white. 

Gray  horses  have  white  hair  mixed  with  black  or 
bay.  There  are  several  modifications  of  this  color  ; 
the  dappled-gray , the  silver-gray,  the  iron-gray,  etc. 
Dapple-gray  horses  have  on  the  back  and  other  parts 
of  the  body  a number  of  round  spots,  in  some  cases 
black  in  others  of  a lighter  hue  ; these  spots  are 
somewhat  irregularly  distributed.  Gray  horses  as 
they  increase  in  age  become  lighter  in  color,  ulti- 
mately becoming  white. 

Piebald  and  skewbald  horses  are  white,  with  large 
irregular  spots  and  stripes  of  some  other  color  irreg- 
ularly arranged.  The  different  kinds  are  distinguished 
by  the  color  that  is  combined  with  the  white,  as  the 
piebald  proper,  which  are  white  and  black  ; the 
skewbald,  which  are  white  and  bay  ; the  chestnut 
piebald,  which  are  white  and  chestnut. 

The  horses  which  have  small  black  spots  on  a white 
or  gray  coat  are  called  flea-bitten,  particularly  preva- 
lent in  India  among  Arabs. 

We  have  hitherto  considered  the  wild  and  domestic 
horse  in  common,  both  as  regards  their  structure  and 
their  color,  in  short,  their  outward  appearance  gen- 
erally, without  noticing  the  different  breeds,  which 
must  soon  occupy  our  attention.  But  before  we  en- 
ter upon  the  study  of  the  various  equine  races,  it  is 
necessary  to  give  a short  explanation  as  to  the  way  in 
which  the  bit  regulates  the  paces  of  the  horse.  By 
this  we  are  led  to  speak  of  the  construction  of  the 
mouth,  a knowledge  of  which  is  most  useful. 

The  horse  either  walks,  trots,  gallops,  or  ambles. 

The  paces  of  the  horse  are  essentially  modified  by 
means  both  of  the  bit  and  spur.  The  spur  excites 
a quickness  of  movement ; the  bit  communicates  to 
this  movement  a due  amount  of  precision.  The  mouth 
of  the  horse  is  so  sensitive  that  the  least  movement 
or  the  slightest  impression  which  it  receives  warns 


and  regulates  the  motion  of  the  animal.  But  to  pre' 
serve  the  full  delicacy  of  this  organ,  it  is  highly  ne- 
cessary to  treat  tenderly  its  extreme  sensibility. 

The  position  of  the  teeth  in  the  jaw  of  the  horse 
affords  to  man  the  facility  which  exists  in  placing  a 
bit  in  its  mouth,  by  which  instrument  this  high- 
spirited  and  vigorous  animal  is  broken  in  and  guided. 
Let  us,  therefore,  in  the  first  place,  study  the  arrange 
ment  of  its  mouth. 

There  are  in  each  jaw  six  incisors,  or  fore-teeth, 
followed  on  either  side  by  a tush,  which  is  generally 
deficient  in  mares,  especially  in  the  lower  jaw.  Next 
comes  a series  of  six  grinders  on  each  side  in  both 
jaws  ; these  teeth  have  a square  crown,  marked  with 
four  crescents,  formed  by  the  lamince  of  enamel  which 
are  embedded  on  them.  Between  the  tushes  and 
the  grinders  there  is  a considerable  space  called  the 
bar,  which  corresponds  to  the  angle  of  the  lips  ; and 
it  is  in  this  interval  that  the  bit  is  placed. 

It  is  also  by  means  of  the  teeth  that  we  are  enabled 
to  know  a horse’s  age — a knowledge  which  is  of  the 
highest  utility  ; for  a horse  increases  in  value  in  pro- 
portion as  he  approaches  maturity,  again  decreasing 
in  worth  as  he  becomes  older.  Up  to  nine  years  the 
age  can  be  determined  pretty  accurately  by  means 
of  the  changes  which  take  place  in  the  teeth. 

The  foal,  at  his  birth,  is  usually  devoid  of  teeth 
in  the  front  of  the  mouth,  and  has  only  two  grinders 
on  each  side  in  each  jaw.  At  the  end  of  a few  days, 
the  two  middle  fore-teeth,  or  pincers , make  their  ap- 
pearance. In  the  course  of  the  first  month  a third 
grinder  shows  itself,  and  in  four  months  more  the 
two  next  fore-teeth  also  emerge  ; within  six  and  a 
half  or  eight  months  the  side  incisives,  or  corner  teeth, 
show,  and  also  a fourth  grinder.  At  this  period  the 
first  dentition  is  complete.  The  changes  which  take 
place  up  to  the  age  of  three  years  depend  only  on 
the  fore-teeth  being  worn  away  more  or  less,  and  the 
black  hollows  being  obliterated  gradually  by  contact 
with  food.  In  thirteen  to  sixteen  months  the  cavities 
on  the  surface  of  the  pmcers  are  effaced ; they  are 
then  said  to  be  razed.  In  sixteen  to  twenty  months 
the  intermediate  fore-teeth  are  likewise  razed,  and 
in  twenty  to  twenty-four  months  the  same  thing  takes 
place  with  the  corner  teeth. 

The  second  dentition  commences  at  the  age  of 
two  and  a half  or  three  years.  The  milk-teeth  may 
be  recognized  by  their  shortness,  their  whiteness,  and 
the  construction  round  their  base,  called  the  neck  ol 


548 


THE  HORSE. 


the  tooth.  The  teeth  which  replace  them  have  no 
necks,  and  are  much  larger.  The  pincers  are  the  first 
to  fall  out  and  be  replaced  by  new  ones.  At  the  age 
of  from  three  years  and  a half  to  four  years  the  in- 
termediate fore-teeth  experience  the  same  change, 
and  the  lower  tushes  begin  to  make  their  appearance. 
The  corner  teeth  are  also  renewed  when  between  four 
and  a half  to  five  years  ; the  upper  tushes  likewise 
pierce  the  gums,  and  about  the  same  date  the  sixth 
grinder  shows  itself. 

A depression,  or  small  hollow,  may  be  noticed  on 
the  surface  of  the  crown  of  the  second  growth  of 
fore-teeth,  just  as  in  the  milk-teeth,  and  these  hol- 
\ows  are  gradually  worn  away  in  the  same  fashion. 

The  pincers  of  the  lower  jaw  lose  their  cavities 
when  the  horse  is  five  or  six  years  old  ; the  inter- 
mediate fore-teeth  are  the  next  to  raze.  The  marks 
in  the  corner-teeth  are  obliterated  at  the  age  of  seven 
or  eight  years.  The  process  of  destruction  of  the 
marks  in  the  upper  fore-teeth  goes  on  in  the  same 
order,  but  more  tardily. 

When  all  these  various  changes  have  taken  place, 
the  horse  is  looked  upon  as  aged , because  the  teeth 
no  longer  furnish  any  certain  indications  as  to  the 
age  of  the  animal.  Only  approximate  inferences 
can  now  be  drawn  from  the  length  and  color  of  the 
tusks,  which  become  more  and  more  bare  and  pro- 
jecting from  the  gum,  etc. 

The  domestication  of  the  horse  appears  to  date 
back  to  the  very  earliest  period  of  his  appearance  on 
earth  ; and  as  this  animal  adapts  itself  to  every  ne- 
cessity, every  want,  and  every  climate,  its  subjection 
has  resulted  in  a considerable  number  of  races,  dis- 
tinguished by  more  or  less  prominent  characteristics 
of  shape,  strength,  temper,  and  endurance.  Although 
generally  intelligent,  affectionate,  and  endowed  with 
considerable  powers  of  memory,  these  qualities  in 
the  horse  are  essentially  modified  by  education  and 
climate.  And  for  the  full  development  of  his  intelli- 
gence and  his  high  qualities,  it  is  requisite  that  man 
should  be  his  companion  and  his  friend,  as  well  as 
his  master,  but  never  his  tyrant.  Under  the  whip  of 
an  unfeeling  driver,  the  horse  becomes  brutalized, 
and  rapidly  degenerates,  morally  even  more  than 
physically. 

The  attachment  of  the  horse  for  those  who  treat 
it  kindly  is  a well-known  fact. 

The  influence  of  memory  on  the  horse  is  shown 
by  the  sense  it  retains  of  injuries  and  ill-treatment  it 


has  suffered.  Many  a horse  is  restive  with  persons 
who  have  misused  it,  while  perfectly  docile  with 
others,  proving  a consciousness  of  good  and  evil,  and  a 
natural  insubordination  against  tyranny  and  injustice. 

PRESENT  VARIETIES  OF  THE  HORSE. 

The  Arabian  is  still  one  of  the  most  distinct  varieties  of 
this  noble  animal,  and  also  one  of  the  most  prized,  being  eagerly 
sought  for  by  Turks  and  Christians  in  Asia,  Southern  Russia, 
India,  and  even  in  Australia.  In  his  native  deserts  he  is  still 
sometimes  to  be  seen  in  a half- wild  state,  though  most  probably 
owned  by  some  of  the  “ dwellers  in  tents  ” peculiar  to  that  re- 
gion. But  it  is  the  more  domestic  breed  with  which  we  have 
chiefly  to  do,  and  which  is  carefully  preserved  in  a pure  state 
by  the  chiefs  of  the  various  tribes,  though  it  is  supposed  not  so 
free  from  stain  now  as  was  formerly  the  case.  The  head  of  the 
Arab  is  the  most  beautiful  model  in  nature,  giving  the  idea  of 
courage,  tempered  with  docility  and  submission  to  man,  better 
than  any  other  animal,  and  even  more  so  than  the  dog.  It  is 
seldom,  perhaps,  that  so  beautiful  a frame  exists  ; but  examples 
are  not  wanting  of  such  a union  of  elegance  with  perfectly  good 
and  useful  points.  The  length  and  muscularity  of  the  fore-arm 
are  also  remarkable,  and  the  setting  on  of  the  tail  is  peculiarly 
high — points  which  have  generally  been  transmitted  to  our 
thorough-bred  horses  descended  from  Arabian  blood.  Many 
imported  horses  of  this  breed  are  exceedingly  wicked  and  full 
of  tricks,  but  in  India,  as  a rule,  he  is  quite  the  reverse.  To 
the  modern  sportsman  also  he  is  valuable,  because  he  faces  the 
elephant  and  the  tiger  better  than  any  other  breed.  In  height 
he  is  generally  a little  under  fifteen  hands  ; and  in  color  either 
bay,  black,  or  gray.  It  is  said  that  there  are  three  distinct 
breeds  of  Arabians  even  now — the  Attechi,  a very  superior 
breed  ; the  Kadischi,  mixed  with  these,  and  of  little  value  ; 
and  the  Kochlani , highly  prized,  and  very  difficult  to  procure. 
If  this  is  true,  it  may  account  for  the  very  different  results 
produced  by  breeding  from  modern  Arabs  and  those  introduced 
in  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  Barb  is  an  African  horse,  of  smaller  size  but  coarser 
make  than  the  Arabian,  and  evidently  fed  upon  more  nutritious 
food.  As  his  name  implies,  his  native  land  is  Barbary  ; but 
there  ’is  always  great  doubt  about  the  particular  breed  to 
which  imported  horses  belong,  because  they  are  carried  con- 
siderable distances  from  their  native  plains,  and  are  also  even 
then  much  mixed  in  blood.  It  has  frequently  been  said  that 
the  Barb  is  the  progenitor  of  one  root  of  the  best  English  stock, 
and  that  the  Godolphin  Arabian,  as  he  was  called,  belonged 
to  this  blood  ; but  the  disputed  point  cannot  possibly  be  settled, 
and  there  seems  only  one  argument  in  favor  of  the  supposition, 
founded  upon  his  enormously  high  crest ; while  his  superior 
size,  being  15  hands  high,  argues  just  as  strongly  in  favor  of 
Arab  descent.  But  the  Spanish  horse  is  no  doubt  descended 
from  the  Barb,  this  breed  having  been  carried  into  Spain  by 
the  Moors  when  they  overran  the  country  ; and,  as  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Spanish  horse  is  totally  opposed  to  that  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Godolphin,  it  is  a still  stronger  proof  of  his  Arabian 
ancestry,  or,  at  all  events,  an  argument  against  his  claim  to 
Barbary  as  a native  clime. 


THE  HORSE. 


549 


The  Dongola  horse  is  another  African  variety,  of  a much 
larger  size  than  either  the  Arab  or  the  Barb,  but  more 
leggy.  I am  not  aware  that  any  of  this  breed  have  reached 
this  country. 

The  Persian  is  a small-sized  horse,  and  quite  as  elegant  as 
the  Arabian,  but  not  nearly  so  enduring. 

The  Turkooman,  again,  is  a larger  breed,  but  without  the 
elegance  of  form  of  the  Arab  and  Persian.  They  are  light  in 
the  barrel,  and  leggy,  with  coarse  heads  and  ewe-necks  ; yet 
they  are  endowed  with  very  stout  and  lasting  qualities,  and 
they  are  said  to  travel  very  long  distances  without  distress. 
This  is  only  another  instance  of  the  oft-quoted  adage,  “that 
the  horse  can  go  in  all  forms.” 

The  Cossack  horses  are  reared  at  liberty,  and  in  large 
herds,  and  they  were  long  said  to  be,  in  consequence  of  this 
fact,  of  unrivaled  speed  and  stoutness. 

The  Turkish  horse  is  supposed  to  be  nearly  pure  Arab,  with 
a cross  of  the  Persian  and  Turkooman.  He  is  a very  fine, 
high-spirited,  and  elegant  horse. 

The  East-Indian  and  Australian  horses  are  of  various 
mixed  breeds,  some  being  Arabs,  some  Persians,  and  others 
Turks  and  Barbs  ; while  others  again  are  of  English  blood,  but 
these  degenerate  rapidly,  and  though  serviceable  in  crossing 
with  the  Arabian  or  the  Barb,  yet  they  cannot  long  be  main- 
tained in  their  original  purity  without  injury. 

The  Belgian  and  Dutch  horses  for  slow  work  are  very 
serviceable.  They  are,  however,  most  of  them  too  heavy  and 
lumbering  for  anything  but  machiners,  and  even  in  that  de- 
partment they  require  care  not  to  over-drive  them. 

The  Norman  horse,  again,  is  a much  more  hardy  and  com- 
pact animal.  He  is,  however,  gifted  with  an  excellent  con- 
stitution, and  with  legs  and  feet  which  will  stand  rattling  to 
any  extent.  These  horses  are  generally  low  and  short-legged, 
as  compared  with  the  Belgians. 

The  Spanish  horse  is  much  crossed  with  the  Barb,  and  has 
the  good  head  and  neck  of  that  breed,  but  coupled  with  a weak 
and  drooping  hind-quarter  and  a very  light  middle-piece.  The 
shoulders  and  legs  are,  however,  good. 

The  American  and  Canadian  breeds  vary  a great  deal, 
and  are  made  up  of  the  original  Spanish  stock  crossed  with 
English,  Arabian,  and  Barb  importations.  Climate,  however, 
has  done  much  for  them ; and  they  have  all  the  wiriness  of 
frame  and  elasticity  of  muscle  which  their  masters  possess.  As 
trotters  they  are  unrivaled,  and  in  endurance  stand  very  high  ; 
but  they  are  not  remarkable  for  beauty,  though  not  showing 
any  peculiarly  unsightly  points.  Some  of  the  best  breeds  of 
horses  have  been  imported  by  us,  especially  in  Virginia,  where 
Tranby,  Priam,  and  many  others  have  done  good  service.  Our 
importers  have  always  been  careful  to  select  sound  as  well  as 
stout  blood,  and  have  not  hesitated  to  invest  large  sums  in  order 
to  procure  it. 

The  English  Thorough-bred. — England  is  indebted  to 
the  Stuarts  for  the  first  great  improvement  made  in  the  breed 
of  her  horses,  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  having  introduced  the 
Arabian  blood,  and  Charles  II.  laying  the  foundation  of  her 
present  breeds  by  importing  several  mares  (called  Royal  Mares, 
from  their  master),  to  which  may  be  traced  the  celebrated 
horses  of  the  latter  end  of  the  last  century,  and  some  of  her 


best  modern  breeds.  Numerous  Eastern  horses  were  also 
imported  at  various  times. 

The  Thorough-bred  horse  is  intended  for  racing  only. 
The  height  of  the  race  horse  varies  from  15  hands  to  16) 
hands,  or  even  17  hands;  but  the  general  height  of  our  best 
horses  is  about  15  hands  3 inches. 

The  head  and  neck  should  be  characterized  by  lightness, 
which  is  essential  to  this  department.  Whatever  is  unneces- 
sary is  so  much  dead  weight,  and  we  know  the  effect  of  7 lbs. 
in  impeding  the  horse  over  a distance  of  ground.  Now  7 lbs. 
are  easily  bestowed  upon  a neck  which  may  differ  in  at  least 
20  or  30  lbs.  between  the  two  extremes  of  lightness  and  exces- 
sive weight.  Thus,  it  may  be  considered  as  indubitable  that 
whatever  is  met  with  in  the  head  and  neck,  which  is  not 
necessary  for  the  peculiar  purposes  of  the  race  horse,  is  so 
much  weight  thrown  away,  and  yet  it  must  be  earried  by  the 
horse.  Such  is  the  general  character  of  this  part  ; but,  in 
detail,  the  head  should  be  lean  about  the  jaw,  yet  with  a full 
development  of  forehead,  which  should  be  convex  and  wide,  so 
as  to  contain  within  the  skull  a good  volume  of  brain.  Sup- 
posing this  fullness  to  exist,  all  the  rest  of  the  head  may  be  as 
fine  as  possible  ; the  jaws  being  reduced  to  a fine  muzzle,  with 
a slight  hollowing  out  in  front,  but  with  a width  between  the 
two  sides  of  the  lower  jaw  where  it  joins  the  neck,  so  as  to 
allow  plenty  of  room  for  the  top  of  the  windpipe  when  the 
neck  is  bent.  The  ears  should  be  pricked  and  fine,  but  not 
too  short  ; eyes  ft 7 1 and  spirited  ; nostrils  large,  and  capable 
of  being  well  dilated  when  at  full  speed,  which  is  easily  tested 
by  the  gallop,  after  which  they  ought  to  stand  out  firmly,  and 
so  as  to  show  the  internal  lining  fully.  The  neck  should  be 
muscular  and  yet  light ; the  windpipe  loose  and  separate  from 
the  neck — that  is,  not  too  tightly  bound  down  by  the  fascia,  or 
membrane  of  the  neck.  The  crest  should  be  thin  and  wiry, 
not  thick  and  loaded,  as  is  often  seen  in  coarse  stallions,  or 
even  in  some  mares.  Between  the  two  extremes  of  the  ewe- 
neck  and  its  opposite  there  are  many  degrees,  but  for  racing 
purposes  we  should  prefer,  of  the  two,  the  former  to  the  latter; 
for  few  horses  can  go  well  with  their  necks  bent  so  as  to  draw 
the  chin  to  the  bosom  ; but  here,  as  in  most  other  cases,  the 
happy  medium  is  to  be  desired. 

The  body,  or  middle-piece,  should  be  moderately  long,  and 
not  too  much  confined  between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip  bone. 
So  long  as  the  last  or  back-ribs  are  deep,  it  is  not  of  so  much 
importance  that  they  should  be  closely  connected  to  the  hip- 
bone, for  such  a shape  shortens  the  stride  ; and  though  it  en- 
ables the  horse  to  carry  great  weight,  yet  it  prevents  him  from 
attaining  a high  rate  of  speed.  The  back  itself  should  be 
muscular,  and  the  hips  so  wide  as  to  allow  of  a good  develop 
ment  of  the  muscular  department.  The  withers  may  rise 
gently,  but  not  too  high,  with  that  thin  razor-like  elevation 
which  many  people  call  a good  shoulder,  but  which  really  has 
nothing  to  do  with  that  part,  and  is  only  an  annoyance  to  the 
saddler,  who  has  to  prevent  its  being  pinched  by  the  saddle. 
The  chest  itself  should  be  well  developed,  but  not  too  wide  and 
deep  : no  horse  can  go  a distance  without  a fair  “ bellows- 
room;”but,  supposing  the  heart  to  be  sound  and  of  good 
quality,  the  amount  of  lung  will  suffice  which  may  be  contained 
in  a medium-sized  chest  : and  all  above  that  is  wasted,  and  is 


7 


55° 


THE  HORSE. 


extra  weight.  If  the  chest  be  too  wide,  it  materially  affects  the 
action  of  the  fore-legs,  and,  therefore,  in  every  point  of  view, 
theoretically  and  practically,  there  is  a happy  medium  between 
the  too  great  contraction  in  this  department,  and  the  heavy, 
wide,  lumbering  chests  sometimes  seen  even  in  the  thorough- 
bred race  horse,  especially  when  reared  upon  rich,  succulent 
herbage,  more  fitted  for  the  bullock  than  the  Eastern  horse. 
In  the  formation  of  the  hips,  the  essential  point  is  length  and 
breadth  of  bone  for  muscular  attachment,  and  it  matters  little 
whether  the  croup  droops  a little,  or  is  pretty  straight  and  level, 
so  that  there  is  a good  length  from  the  hip  to  the  haunch-bone  ; 
the  line  between  which  two  points  may  either  be  nearly 
horizontal,  or  form  a considerable  angle  with  the  ground  ; 
but  still  in  both  cases  it  should  be  a long  line,  and  the  longer 
it  is  the  more  muscular  substance  is  attached  to  it,  and  the 
greater  leverage  will  the  muscles  have. 

The  fore-quarter,  consisting  of  the  shoulder,  upper  and  lower 
arm,  and  leg  and  foot,  should  be  well  set  on  to  the  chest ; and 
the  shoulder-blade  should  lie  obliquely  on  the  side  of  that 
part,  with  a full  development  of  muscle  to  move  it,  and  thrust 
it  well  forward  in  the  gallop.  Obliquity  is  of  the  greatest 
importance,  acting  as  a spring  in  taking  off  the  shock  of  the 
gallop  or  leap,  and  also  giving  a longer,  attachment  to  the 
muscles,  and  in  addition  enabling  them  to  act  with  more 
leverage  upon  the  arm  and  leg.  The  shoulder  should  be  very 
muscular,  without  being  overdone  or  loaded,  and  so  formed  as 
to  play  freely  in  the  action  of  the  horse.  The  point  of  the 
shoulder,  which  is  the  joint  corresponding  to  the  human 
shoulder,  should  be  free  from  raggedness,  but  not  too  flat  ; a 
certain  degree  of  development  of  the  bony  parts  is  desirable, 
but  more  than  this  leads  to  a defect,  and  impedes  the  action 
of  this  important  part.  The  upper  arm,  between  this  joint 
and  the  elbow,  should  be  long,  and  well  clothed  with  muscles  ; 
the  elbow  set  on  quite  straight,  and  not  tied  to  the  chest  ; the 
lower  arm  muscular  and  long;  knees  broad  and  strong,  with 
the  bony  projection  behind  well  developed  ; legs  flat,  and 
showing  the  suspensory  ligament  large  and  free  ; pasterns  long 
enough  without  being  weak  ; and  the  feet  sound,  and  neither 
too  large  nor  too  small,  and  unattended  with  any  degree 
of  contraction,  which  is  the  bane  of  the  thorough-bred 
horse. 

The  hind-quarter  is  the  chief  agent  in  propulsion,  and  is 
therefore  of  the  utmost  consequence  in  attaining  high  speed. 
It  is  often  asserted  that  the  oblique  shoulder  is  the  grand  re- 
quisite in  this  object,  and  that  it  is  the  part  upon  which  speed 
mainly  depends,  and  in  which  it  may  be  said  to  reside.  This 
is  to  some  extent  true,  because  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  with 
a loaded  shoulder  high  speed  is  impracticable  ; for,  however 
powerfully  the  body  may  be  propelled,  yet  when  the  fore- 
quarter touches  the  ground,  it  does  not  bound  off  again  as 
smartly  as  it  ought  to  do,  and  the  pace  is  consequently  slow. 
For  the  full  action  of  the  hind-quarter  two  things  are  neces- 
sary, viz.  : — first,  length  and  volume  of  muscle  ; and  secondly, 
length  of  leverage  upon  which  that  muscle  may  act.  Hence, 
all  the  bones  comprising  the  hind-quarter  should  be  long,  but 
the  comparative  length  must  vary  a good  deal,  in  order  that 
the  parts  upon  which  the  muscles  lie  may  be  long,  rather  than 
those  connected  with  the  tendons,  which  are  mere  ropes,  and 


have  no  propelling  power  residing  in  them,  but  only  transmit 
that  which  they  derive  from  the  muscles  themselves.  Thus,  the 
hips  should  be  long  and  wide,  and  the  two  upper  divisions  of 
the  ljmb — viz.,  the  stifle  and  lower  thigh — should  be  long, 
strong,  and  fully  developed.  By  this  formation  the  stifle-joint 
is  brought  well  forward,  and  there  is  a considerable  angle 
between  these  two  divisions.  The  hock  should  be  bony  and 
strong,  free  from  gum  or  spavin,  and  the  point  long,  and  so 
set  on  as  to  be  free  from  weakness  at  the  situation  of  curb.  In 
examining  the  hind-quarter  to  judge  of  its  muscular  develop- 
ment, the  horse  should  not  be  looked  at  sideways,  but  his  tail 
should  be  raised,  and  it  should  be  ascertained  that  the  muscles 
of  the  two  limbs  meet  together  below  the  anus,  which  should 
be  in  fact  well  supported  by  them,  and  not  left  loose,  and,  as 
it  were,  in  a deep  and  flaccid  hollow.  The  outline  of  the  outer 
part  of  the  thigh  should  be  full,  and  in  ordinary  horses  the 
muscle  should  swell  out  beyond  the  level  of  the  point  of  the 
hip.  This  fullness,  however,  is  not  often  seen  to  this  extent  in 
the  thorough-bred  horse  until  he  has  arrived  at  mature  age, 
and  is  taken  out  of  training.  The  bones  below  the  hock  should 
be  flat  and  free  from  adhesions  ; the  ligaments  and  tendons 
fully  developed,  and  standing  out  free  from  the  bone  ; and  the 
joints  well  formed  and  wide,  yet  without  any  diseased  enlarge- 
ment ; the  pasterns  should  be  moderately  long  and  oblique  ; the 
bones  of  good  size  ; and  lastly,  the  feet  should  correspond  with 
those  already  alluded  to  in  the  anterior  extremity. 

The  totality  of  these  points  should  be  in  proportion  to  one 
another — that  is  to  say,  the  formation  of  the  horse  should  be 
“true.”  He  should  not  have  long,  well-developed  hind-quar- 
ters, with  an  upright,  weak,  or  confined  fore-quarter.  Nor 
W'ill  the  converse  serve  ; for,  however  well  formed  the  shoulder 
may  be,  the  horse  will  not  go  well  unless  he  has  a similar 
formation  in  the  propellers.  It  is  of  great  importance,  there- 
fore, that  the  race  horse  should  have  all  his  various  points  in 
true  relative  development,  and  that  there  shall  not  be  the  hind- 
quarter  of  a long  racing-like  horse  with  the  thick,  confined 
shoulder  which  would  suit  a stride  less  reaching  in  its  nature. 

THE  COLOR,  SKIN,  HAIR,  ETC. 

The  color  of  the  thorough-bred  horse  is  now  generally  bay, 
brown,  or  chestnut,  one  or  other  of  which  will  occur  in  ninety- 
nine  cases  out  of  a hundred.  Gray  is  not  common,  but  some- 
times appears.  Black  also  occasionally  makes  its  appearance,  but 
not  more  frequently  than  gray.  Roans,  duns,  sorrels,  etc.,  are 
now  quite  exploded,  and  the  above  five  colors  may  be  said  to 
complete  the  list  of  colors  seen  on  the  race-course.  Sometimes 
these  colors  are  mixed  with  a good  deal  of  white,  in  the  shape 
of  blazes  on  the  face,  or  white  legs  and  feet  ; or  even  both  may 
occur,  and  the  horse  may  have  little  more  than  his  body  of  a 
brown,  bay,  or  chestnut.  Most  people,  however,  prefer  the 
self  color,  with  as  little  white  as  possible  ; and  nothing  but  the 
great  success  of  a horse’s  stock  would  induce  breeders  to  resort 
to  him  if  they  were  largely  endowed  with  white.  Gray  hairs 
mixed  in  the  coat,  as  in  the  Venisons,  are  rather  approved  of 
than  otherwise  ; but  they  do  not  amount  to  a roan,  in  which  the 
gray  hairs  equal,  or  even  more  than  that,  the  other  color  mixed 
with  them. 

The  texture  of  the  coat  and  skin  is  a great  proof  of  high 


THE  HORSE 


551 


breeding,  and  in  the  absence  of  the  pedigree  would  be  highly 
regarded  ; but  when  that  is  satisfactory  it  is  of  no  use  descend- 
ing to  the  examination  of  an  inferior  proof;  and  therefore, 
except  as  a sign  of  health,  the  skin  is  seldom  considered.  In 
all  thorough-bred  horses,  however,  it  is  thinner,  and  the  hair 
more  silky  than  in  common  breeds  ; and  the  veins  are  more 
apparent  under  the  skin,  partly  from  its  thinness,  but  also  from 
their  extra  size  and  number  of  branches.  This  network  of 
veins  is  of  importance  in  allowing  the  circulation  to  be  carried 
on  during  high  exertions,  when,  if  the  blood  could  not  accu- 
mulate in  them,  it  would  often  choke  the  deep  vessels  of  the 
heart  and  lungs  ; but,  by  collecting  on  the  surface,  great  relief 
is  afforded,  and  the  horse  is  able  to  maintain  such  a high  and 
long-continued  speed  as  would  be  impracticable  without  their 
help.  Hence,  these  points  are  not  useful  as  a mere  mark  of 
breed,  but  as  essential  to  the  very  purpose  for  which  that  breed 
was  established. 

The  inane  and  tail  should  be  silky  and  not  curly,  though  a 
slight  wave  is  often  seen.  A decided  curl  is  almost  universally 
a mark  of  degradation,  and  shows  a stain  in  the  pedigree  as 
clearly  as  any  sign  can  do.  Here,  however,  as  in  other  cases, 
the  clear  tracing  of  that  all-powerful  proof  of  breeding  will  up- 
set all  reasoning  founded  upon  inferior  data.  The  setting  on 
of  the  tail  is  often  regarded  as  of  great  importance,  but  it  is 
chiefly  with  >eference  to  appearances  ; for  the  horse  is  not  de- 
pendent for  action  or  power  upon  this  appendage. 

The  various  breeds  of  Wagon  horses  are  exceeding  numer- 
ous. Most  of  the  larger  and  heavier  breeds  of  these  animals 
are  crossed  with  the  Flemish  horses,  and  are  thereby  rendered 
heavier  and  more  capable  of  moving  heavy  weights,  which  their 
bulk  and  readiness  to  try  a “dead  pull”  render  them  well 
adapted  for. 

Carriage  horses  are  either  ponies,  gig  horses,  Brougham 
horses,  or  coach  horses  ; being  gradually  larger  and  heavier 
from  one  end  to  the  other  of  the  line,  which  begins  at  the  size 
of  a small  pony  and  extends  up  to  the  carriage  horse  of  1 7 hands. 
Ponies  are  of  various  breeds,  some  of  which  are  of  wonderful 
powers  of  endurance,  with  good  symmetry  and  action,  and 
with  never-failing  legs  and  feet.  In  general  soundness  they 
far  excel  the  larger  varieties  of  the  horse,  for  which  there  is  no 
accounting,  as  they  are  much  more  neglected  and  frequently 
very  ill-used.  A broken-winded  pony,  or  a roarer,  is  a very 
uncommon  sight,  and  even  a lame  one  is  by  no  means  an 
every-day  occurrence.  Some  are  good  trotters  and  yet  bad 
gallopers,  and  they  are  consequently  as  well  fitted  for  harness 
work  as  they  are  unfitted  for  hunting. 

The  Shetland  Pony  is  the  least  of  the  species,  and  often 
undent  hands.  These  ponies  are  very  quick  and  active,  and 
will  walk,  canter,  and  gallop,  with  good  action,  but  seldom 
trot  well. 

THE  STABLE-YARD  AND  ITS  OCCUPANTS. 

Stable. — Every  one  will  prefer  to  have  the  stables  near  his 
house,  if  not  on  his  own  premises ; in  either  case,  if  they  are 
already  built,  he  must  do  the  best  he  can  with  them.  Old 
buildings  are  for  the  most  part  very  defective,  badly  drained, 
and  badly  ventilated.  This  must  at  once  be  remedied,  and 
may  generally  be  done  at  a moderate  expense,  which  will  be 


amply  repaid  by  the  improved  health  and  comfort  of  the 
horses.  New  stables  are  better,  but  they  also  frequently  require 
alteration. 

Aspect. — When  about  to  build  a stable,  the  first  considera- 
tion will  naturally  be  the  selection  of  a site.  We  need  not 
insist  on  the  advantages  of  a southerly  aspect : they  are  almost 
self-evident.  The  stables  will  be  much  more  cheerful,  and 
much  warmer,  and  enable  the  groom  to  avail  himself  of  every 
gleam  of  sunshine  to  open  the  windows  and  thoroughly  venti- 
late the  interior. 

Unfortunately  it  is  not  always  possible,  from  the  disposition 
of  the  ground  and  premises,  to  manage  this.  However,  let  it 
be  borne  in  mind  that  such  is  the  best,  the  west  the  next  best, 
and  the  north-east  the  very  worst. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten,  also,  that  a thorough  drainage  is 
one  of  the  most  important  points,  and  every  natural  slope  of 
the  land  should  be  taken  advantage  of  in  this  respect. 

Drainage. — Having  settled  the  site  and  the  plans  of  the 
stables,  to  which  we  will  refer  further  on,  the  first  works  to  be 
provided  for  will  be  the  drainage,  for  these  will  have  to  be 
carried  out  simultaneously  with  the  foundations.  The  drains 
will  be  of  two  sorts,  which  should  be  kept  as  far  away  from  one 
another  as  it  is  possible  to  manage  : first,  those  connected  with 
the  drainage  of  the  interior  of  the  stables ; second,  those  in- 
tended to  carry  away  the  surface-water  and  collect  the  rain- 
water from  the  roofs,  etc. 

Sewers. — There  are  four  conditions  which  are  to  be  re- 
garded as  indispensable  in  the  construction  of  all  drains  from 
all  buildings  whatsoever.  These  conditions  are  : Firstly,  that 
the  entire  length  of  drain  is  to  be  constructed  and  maintained 
with  sufficient  declivity  toward  the  discharge  into  the  cesspool, 
to  enable  the  average  proportion  and  quantity  of  liquid  and 
solid  matters  committed  to  it  to  maintain  a constant  and  un- 
intenupled  motion,  so  that  stagnation  shall  never  occur. 
Secondly,  that  the  entire  length  of  the  drain  is  to  be  constructed 
and  maintained  in  a condition  of  complete  impermeability,  so 
that  no  portion  of  the  matters  put  into  it  shall  accidentally 
escape  from  it.  Thirdly,  that  the  head  of  the  drain  shall  be 
so  efficiently  trapped  that  no  gaseous  or  volatile  properties  or 
products  can  possibly  arise  from  its  contents.  And,  fourthly, 
that  the  low  extremity  of  the  drain  or  point  of  communication 
with  the  cesspool  shall  be  so  completely  and  durably  formed, 
that  no  interruption  to  the  flow  of  the  drainage  or  escape  shall 
there  take  place,  and  that  no  facility  shall  be  offered  for  the 
upward  progress  of  the  sewage  in  case  of  the  cesspool  becoming 
surcharged. 

For  most  purposes  a fall  of  inches  in  ten  feet  will  be 
sufficient,  and  the  drain  should  be  of  3-inch  glazed  stoneware 
pipes  (4  inches  for  w.c.),  with  carefully-made  socket-joints  laid 
in  the  direction  of  the  current,  and  cemented.  For  the  head 
of  the  drain  we  would  recommend  the  bell-trapped  horse  pots, 
which  are  to  be  had  at  all  stable-furnishing  ironmongers, 
taking  care  that  they  are  sufficiently  large  and  of  good  strong 
quality. 

The  cesspool  for  sewage  should  be  well  away  from  the  tank 
provided  for  the  reception  of  the  rain-water,  and  well  puddled 
with  clay  on  the  outside  and  cemented  inside.  Precaution 
should  also  be  further  taken  that  all  sewage  drains  should  be 


352 


THE  HORSE. 


r 


laid  below  the  rain-water  drains,  so  that,  in  case  of  any  acci- 
dental defects,  no  matter  will,  by  any  possibility,  taint  the 
water  supply. 

Rain-water  Drains. — These  will  subdivide  themselves  into 
two  : those  laid  to  collect  the  drainage  of  yard,  etc.,  and  which 
may  be  common  pipes  laid  dry,  and  leading  to  an  ordinary 
cesspool  made  of  bricks  laid  without  mortar,  where  the  water 
will  collect  and  gradually  lose  itself ; the  others  connected  with 
the  down  pipes  from  roofs,  and  leading  to  a rain-water  tank. 
These  should  be  laid  with  the  same  care  as  the  sewer  drains : 
the  tank  constructed  in  the  same  way,  with  an  overflow  pipe  to 
lead  to  cesspool  just  mentioned. 

Plans. — The  plan  of  the  building  will  vary  very  much 
according  to  the  aspect,  disposition  of  land  and  other  premises, 
and  other  local  circumstances.  These  should  be  very  carefully 
studied,  and  the  plans  well  matured,  as  the  success  of  the 
building  will  greatly  depend  on  the  disposition  of  its  various 
parts.  We  will  lay  down  as  one  of  the  first  principles,  that  no 
stall  should  be  less  than  6 feet  wide  by  io  feet  long,  no  loose 
box  less  than  xo  feet  square,  and  no  stable  less  than  io  feet 
high  from  floor  to  ceiling.  Passage  in  rear  of  stalls  5 feet 
wide. 

The  doors  should  be  wide  and  high,  and  hung  in  two  heights, 
with  fanlight  over  (4  feet  by  7 feet  at  least),  that  the  horses 
may  go  in  and  out  freely  without  a chance  of  knocking  them- 
selves about. 

The  light  should  be  full,  as  tending  greatly  to  the  cheerful- 
ness of  the  interior.  The  sashes,  also,  should  be  hung  on 
centers  in  their  height,  as  the  most  advantageous  method  for 
ventilation. 

Ventilation.— To  complete  the  ventilation,  the  only  further 
requirements  will  be  an  opening  in  the  ceiling — not  im- 
mediately over  the  horses,  but  in  the  rear  over  the  passage — 
fitted  with  an  ornamental  ventilating  grating,  to  be  shut  and 
opened  at  will,  leading  to  an  air-flue  laid  between  the  joists, 
and  conducting  the  foul  air  from  the  stables  to  the  outside 
through  an  ornamental  perforated  air  brick  or  iron  grating. 
A similar  ventilating  grating,  to  regulate  the  admission  of  fresh 
air,  will  only  be  necessary  where  the  doors  and  windows  are 
small,  and  fit  very  accurately. 

Paving. — The  materials  for  paving  should  be  of  the  hardest 
quality,  on  good  sound  ballast  or  concrete  foundation.  Any 
absorbent  materials  must  be  rejected.  The  paving  of  boxes 
and  stalls  should  be  laid  with  a regular  gentle  slope  to  the 
drain,  which  should  always  be  in  the  center.  Irrespective  of 
other  advantages,  the  horses  stand  on  the  level,  and  take  their 
rest  more  comfortably. 

Partitions. — The  partition  for  stalls  will  be  match-lined 
both  sides,  and  about  4 feet  2 inches  in  rear,  with  a ramp,  and 
rising  to  6 feet  2 inches  toward  the  mangers  ; with  iron  pillar  at 
the  end  next  passage,  with  rings  for  pillar  reins.  Sometimes, 
also,  the  match-lining  will  be  carried  through  in  a level  line, 
and  by  a cast  iron  the  ramp  form  ornamental  panel. 

For  loose  boxes  the  boarding  will  be  from  5 feet  to  about  5 
feet  4 inches  high  at  most,  with  a 2-feet  ornamental  iron  panel- 
ing over. 

Mangers. — The  best  mangers  are  those  containing  hay- 
rack, corn-manger,  and  water-trough  in  one,  and  we  more 


specially  recommend  that  preference  should  be  given  to  gal- 
vanized iron. 

The  wall  over  the  manger  should  be  match-boarded  to  the 
height  of  partitions,  and  lined  with  iron  hoop  bands,  sheet  zinc 
over  the  joints  of  match-lining,  or  enameled  tiles,  to  prevent 
horses  biting  at  it  when  being  cleaned. 

The  manger  will  have  two  rings  for  halter  reins,  and  a ring 
and  galvanized  chain  fitted  in  wall  over  same. 

Harness-Room. — This  should  be  at  least  10  feet  square, 
and  have  in  it  a fireplace  fitted  with  range  with  boiler  attached. 
A handy  supply  of  hot  water  will  be  found  most  advantageous 
in  the  management  of  the  stables,  and  we  need  not  point  out 
the  necessity  of  a fire  for  drying  the  rugs,  horse-cloths,  saddles, 
harness,  etc.,  in  winter-time. 

This  room  should  be  fitted  with  convenient  hooks  and 
brackets  for  the  hanging  and  cleaning  of  harness.  These  are 
of  all  sorts  of  designs,  in  which  individual  taste  will  be  the 
best  guide. 

Hay-Loft  and  Corn-Chamber. — In  most  stables,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  coachman’s  rooms,  there  are  a corn  chamber  and  hay- 
loft over  the  table.  The  former  is  generally  boarded  off,  lined 
all  round  with  sheets  of  zinc  or  tin  to  keep  out  the  vermin, 
and  the  door  is  provided  with  a lock,  of  which  the  coachman 
keeps  the  key,  and  gives  out  at  stated  times  the  corn  for  so 
many  horses  for  so  many  days.  By  this  means  he  keeps  a 
check  upon  the  consumption,  and  prevents  waste  and  pilfering  ; 
both  of  which  are  more  likely  to  occur  when  the  supply  is  un- 
limited and  easy  of  access.  When  there  is  not  a regular  corn- 
chamber,  one  must  either  be  made  or  a large  bin  provided,  and 
the  oats  bought  from  the  corn-chandler  as  required,  in  quanti- 
ties of  two  or  three  quarters  at  a time,  as  many  as  the  bin  will 
contain,  which  will  be  found  a more  expensive  proceeding. 
Hay,  from  being  bulky,  is  almost  invariably  stowed  away  in 
the  loft,  which  should  hold  at  least  half  a load  ; it  must  be 
stored  away  carefully,  and  nothing  allowed  to  run  about  or 
play  on  it.  Flay  will  keep  good  and  sweet  for  some  time,  if 
in  a dry  place  and  not  meddled  with.  If  the  loft  be  large 
enough,  it  will  be  found  better  and  cheaper  to  buy  a load  at 
a time  ; if  not,  or  the  loft  be  damp,  a smaller  quantity  must 
suffice. 

Stable  Utensils. — Under  this  head  is  included  all  that  is 
used  in  dressing  the  horse,  and  in  cleansing  the  yard  and  stable. 

The  pitchfork  is  used  to  shake  up  the  straw  of  which  the 
horse’s  bed  is  made  ; to  remove  all  that  becomes  soiled  and 
dirty  ; and,  in  general,  to  set  it  fair  and  straight.  The  handle 
should  be  kept  clean,  and  the  prongs  bright. 

The  shovel  removes  the  smaller  particles,  and  the  scrapings 
of  the  stable-yard. 

The  besom,  or  broom,  is  used  to  sweep  out  the  stable  after 
the  damp  soiled  litter  has  been  removed,  and  to  keep  the  yard 
neat  and  clean.  Those  made  of  birch  are  the  best. 

A manure  basket  to  take  up  the  droppings.  This  should  be 
done  before  trodden  about,  to  keep  the  straw  clean,  and  the 
stable  sweet. 

The  stable  pail  should  be  made  of  strong  oak,  bound  with 
iron,  and  neatly  painted. 

A sieve,  to  cleanse  the  oats  and  chaff  of  all  dust  and  small 
stones. 


THE  HORSE. 


553 


A quartern  and  a half-quartern  measure,  to  measure  out  the 
oats,  beans,  chaff,  etc.,  for  each  horse's  feed. 

The  currycomb. — Horses  of  the  present  day  are  so  much 
better  bred  than  formerly,  consequently  their  coats  and  skin 
are  so  much  finer,  there  is  now  much  less  use  for  the  currycomb, 
except  to  remove  the  dust  from  the  body-brush.  On  very 
rough-coated  horses  it  may  occasionally  be  used,  but  no  other 
should  ever  be  touched  with  it.  In  summer  it  is  absolutely 
unnecessary,  and  in  these  days  of  clipping  and  singeing,  in  the 
winter  it  is  almost  equally  so.  It  must  always  be  used  lightly, 
or  it  will  severely  punish  the  horse,  and  on  no  account  should 
the  teeth  be  sharp,  or  more  than  i inch  in  length. 

The  body-brush , or  horse-brush  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is, 
in  the  hands  of  a good  groom,  the  most  useful  implement  used 
in  dressing  the  horse,  as  it  thoroughly  removes  all  dust  and 
dirt,  stimulates  the  skin,  and  imparts  a gloss  to  the  coat. 

The  water-brush  is  to  wash  all  dirt  and  mud  from  the  feet 
and  legs  of  the  horse,  and  stains  from  his  quarters,  etc. 

The  mane-comb,  as  the  name  implies,  is  to  comb  the  mane 
and  tail.  It  should  be  made  of  horn,  have  large  teeth,  and  be 
used  carefully  and  only  occasionally,  as  in  a general  way  a 
good  brushing  will  answer  the  purpose  without  pulling  out  the 
hair. 

The  picker  is  a blunt  iron  hook  for  removing  the  grit  and 
stones  from  the  horse’s  feet.  Some  are  made  to  fold  up  for  the 
pocket.  A good  careful  groom  will  always  carry  one  of  these. 

A sponge,  too,  is  always  necessary  to  dry  the  legs,  etc.,  after 
washing,  and  'for  other  purposes  of  cleanliness. 

Leathers  and  rubbers  are  also  indispensable  for  drying  the 
horse  after  work,  and  wiping  him  over  after  dressing. 

An  oil-brush,  and  tin  to  hold  the  oil,  to  rub  round  the  hoofs 
before  leaving  the  stable  to  go  to  work. 

A wooden  box  for  holding  the  stopping. 

A singeing -lamp  and  a pair  of  trimming-scissors  are  also 

necessary. 

To  avoid  loss  and  confusion,  there  should  be  a place  for 
everything,  and  everything  in  its  place,  and  all  the  utensils 
should  be  kept  bright  and  clean. 

Clothing,  etc. — Every  horse  standing  in  a stable  must  have 
a head-collar,  with  two  reins  long  enough  to  go  through  the 
two  rings  fastened  to  the  manger,  and  to  reach  the  ground 
after  being  each  atta.hed  to  a weight  or  block  made  of  hard 
wood  or  iron,  heavy  enough  to  keep  the  reins  from  twisting  or 
curling  up,  but  not  so  heavy  as  to  be  a weight  or  strain  upon 
the  horse’s  head  as  he  moves  it.  When  in  a box,  too,  a head- 
collar  is  always  handy  on  the  quietest  horse  ; on  a tricky  or 
unruly  animal  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  as  he  can  then  be 
at  any  time  easily  secured  without  risk  or  trouble. 

Halters. — Two  good  web-headed  hempen  halters  are  also 
requisite  in  every  stable,  to  lead  the  horse  about  without 
having  to  use  the  head-collar. 

Clothing. — There  is  a great  variety  of  clothing,  from  the 
comparatively  inexpensive  to  the  most  expensive  in  make  and 
finish.  These  consist  of  blankets  or  rugs  of  different  degrees 
of  warmth  and  thickness  according  to  the  time  of  year,  a roller, 
a suit  of  body-clothing,  and  a set  of  flannel  bandages.  The 
best  material  will  be  the  cheapest  in  the  end,  as  wearing  so 
much  longer  than  the  cheaper  kinds. 


The  blanket  or  rug  should  be  cut  back  at  the  top  of  the 
shoulder,  with  a projecting  piece  on  each  side  coming  round 
and  meeting  in  the  center  of  the  chest,  where  they  fasten  with 
a buckle  and  strap.  Each  rug,  too,  should  be  bound  with 
some  strong  material  to  prevent  the  edges  tearing  out.  Two 
rugs  will  be  found  necessary  for  each  horse. 

A suit  of  body -clothing  may  be  made  of  various  materials,  but 
strong  warm  serge  is  best  for  winter,  and  a lighter  kind  for 
summer  wear.  It  consists  of  a quarter-piece,  hood  and  breast- 
piece,  with  roller  to  match.  The  roller  must  be  well  padded, 
to  prevent  bruising  or  injury  to  the  back  from  pressure. 

In  winter,  in  a warm  stable,  a heavy  rug  and  the  body- 
clothing will  be  found  sufficient  during  the  day,  but  at  night 
the  latter  should  be  removed  to  keep  it  clean,  and  another  rug 
substituted. 

The  flannel  bandages  are  put  on  after  the  horse  has  had  his 
legs  washed,  to  keep  them  dry  and  warm.  They  are  also  of 
great  service  in  illness,  to  keep  up  the  circulation  and  warmth 
in  the  extremities.  In  hunting-stables,  where  the  horses  must 
be  occasionally  sweated,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  two  or 
three  spare  rugs  and  hoods  in  use  for  that  purpose,  and  which 
should  be  carefully  washed  and  dried.  The  price  of  clothing 
varies  so  much  according  to  the  quality  and  finish,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  name  any,  but  a respectable  saddler  will  at  any  time 
give  an  estimate  for  the  kind  required. 

HOW  TO  PURCHASE  A HORSE. 

In  his  choice  of  a horse  the  purchaser  will  of  course  be  guided 
by  whether  he  wants  one  for  riding  or  driving  purposes  : if  for 
the  former,  he  will  be  particular  that  the  shoulder  lies  well 
back,  and  if  strong,  not  loaded  at  the  top  or  points — that  he 
has  a good  back,  deep  body,  clean,  flat,  wiry-looking  legs,  and 
free  from  large  splints,  curbs,  spavins,  etc.  ; that  his  feet  are 
firm  and  of  moderate  size — neither  large  and  flat,  and  therefore 
necessarily  weak,  nor  strong  and  narrow  like  those  of  a mule. 
When  a horse  has  natural  feet  of  the  latter  description  they 
are  generally  remarkably  sound,  and  will  stand  a great  deal  of 
work  ; but,  as  a rule,  that  shape  is  produced  by  internal  disease, 
rendering  the  horse  unsound  when  put  to  work. 

If  for  driving  purposes,  he  need  not  be  so  particular  about 
the  shoulders  ; for  harness,  they  may  be  stronger,  heavier,  and 
more  upright,  as  many  make  capital  harness  horses  that  are, 
from  their  formation,  very  uncomfortable  to  ride. 

Having  met  with  one  suitable  for  his  purpose,  the  purchaser 
must  not  let  a few  dollars  prevent  him  buying  him,  if  rather 
more  than  the  price  to  which  he  had  proposed  to  go. 

THE  HACK,  OR  RIDING  HORSE. 

In  selecting  a riding  horse  much  must  depend  upon  the  size 
and  weight  of  the  rider.  The  best  and  most  useful  size  is  from 
15  hands  to  15  hands  2 inches.  The  most  fashionable  colors 
are  bay,  brown,  and  dark  chestnut.  A really  good  riding 
horse,  with  good  action  and  fine  manners,  is  very  difficult  to 
find,  as  he  must  be  good-looking,  well  made,  sound,  and  tem- 
perate, with  breeding  substance,  action  and  courage.  His 
head  should  be  lean,  the  eye  bold  and  prominent,  the  muzzle 
small,  with  large  nostrils.  The  neck  should  be  good,  and 


554 


THE  HORSE. 


slightly  arched  to  bend  to  the  bridle,  shoulders  lie  well  back 
and  strong,  but  not  heavy  and  loaded  at  the  points,  the  body 
deep  and  round,  strong  back  and  loin,  with  good  deep  quarters 
and  good  firm  legs  and  feet.  He  must  ride  lightly  in  hand, 
walk  pleasantly  and  safely,  trot  freely,  with  good  action,  and 
canter  easily,  yielding  to  the  bit  without  pulling.  He  must 
carry  the  saddle  well  back  behind  the  shoulders  ; nothing  is  so 
uncomfortable  or  looks  so  badly  in  any  description  of  riding 
horse  as  sitting  on  the  top  of  the  shoulders  instead  of  behind 
them.  The  piice  will  vary  according  to  his  action,  manners, 
and  appearance,  as  well  as  the  weight  he  can  carry.  Many 
horses  of  this  class  are  very  fast  and  can  trot  up  to  twelve  and 
fourteen  miles  an  hour ; but  if  they  do  seven  or  eight  miles 
pleasantly  and  well,  they  will  be  fast  enough,  as  few  men  care 
to  ride  faster. 

The  great  defects  to  be  avoided  in  purchasing  a riding  horse 
are  : a loose  weak  neck — horses  so  formed  invariably  getting 
their  heads  up,  and  being  very  uncomfortable  to  ride  ; low 
upright  shoulders  ; and  twisted  fore-legs — rendering  the  horse 
liable  to  hit  either  the  inside  of  the  knee  or  fetlock  joint, 
which  is  very  dangerous  and  likely  to  cause  him  to  fall.  A shy, 
nervous  horse,  too,  should  be  avoided,  as  well  as  a hot,  irritable 
one.  Horses  of  a light  chestnut  color  are  very  often  so,  and 
in  company  will  not  settle  into  any  pace.  Ten  miles  is  a fair 
average  day’s  work. 

THE  LADIES’  HORSE. 

A perfect  ladies’  horse  is  of  all  descriptions  the  most  difficult 
to  find.  So  many  good  qualities,  which,  though  desirable  in 
all  riding  horses,  may  be  overlooked  in  those  for  men,  are  here 
absolutely  essential.  Fine  temper  and  courage,  a light  level 
mouth,  and  fine  manners,  are  indispensable.  He  should  be 
from  15  hands  to  15  hands  3 inches  high,  with  a good  head  and 
neck,  fine  oblique  shoulders,  rather  long  in  the  body,  with  a 
good  back  and  loin,  deep  strong  quarters,  firm  sound  legs  and 
feet.  If  the  hind  legs  are  rather  bent,  so  much  the  better  ; he 
will  get  them  more  under  him,  and  consequently  his  paces  will 
be  easier — horses  with  straight  hind  legs  invariably  pitching 
most  unpleasantly  in  the  canter,  which  must  be  easy  and  ele- 
gant. As  few  ladies  ride  more  than  from  10  to  11  stone,  includ- 
ing a 19  or  20  lb.  saddle,  and  ease  and  lightness  in  action  are 
indispensable,  the  ladies’  horse  should  be  very  nearly  thorough- 
bred, if  not  quite  so.  He  must  walk  well  and  freely,  step 
lightly  but  sharply  in  the  trot,  with  a rather  long  easy  canter. 
He  must  be  high-couraged  and  free,  but  at  the  same  time  docile 
and  temperate.  A slow,  lazy  horse  is  as  objectionable  and 
disagreeable  to  ride  as  a hot,  irritable  one.  The  latter  will 
sometimes  go  quietly  and  temperately  in  the  hands  of  a lady, 
though  irritable  and  fidgety  when  ridden  by  men,  owing  to  the 
easier,  lighter  pull  on  their  mouths.  From  the  position  of  the 
ladies’  seat  and  from  the  great  length  and  incumbrance  of  the 
habit,  it  follows  they  cannot  have  the  same  power  and  control 
over  the  horse  that  men  have,  and  accidents  to  them  are  more 
likely  to  be  attended  with  dangerous  results  ; hence,  greater 
care  is  necessary  in  selecting  a horse  for  their  use  free  from  all 
tricks,  nervousness,  and  vice. 

Many  are  called  good  ladies’  horses  that  have  no  other  rec- 


ommendation than  their  being  very  quiet,  which  with  very 
many  will  cover  a multitude  of  faults. 

A few  years  since  ladies  rode  no  pace  but  the  walk  and  can- 
ter, but  lately  the  trot  has  become  a favorite  and  fashionable 
pace  ; consequently  a safe,  sharp,  easy  trot  is  now  essential  in 
all  horses  to  carry  a lady. 

The  ladies’  hunter  differs  in  some  respects  from  the  riding 
horse  for  the  road  or  park  ; he  may  be  less  showy  and  stronger. 
He  must  be  eight  or  nine  years  old,  have  been  well  and  regularly 
ridden  to  hounds  for  at  least  two  or  three  seasons,  and  thoroughly 
understand  his  business  ; not  less  than  1 5 hands  2 inches  or  more 
than  16  hands  high,  well  above  the  weight  he  has  to  carry, 
well  bred,  and  fast,  but  thoroughly  quiet  and  temperate  among 
other  horses  and  at  his  fences,  which  he  should  take  freely  and 
cleverly,  go  well  in  the  bridle  without  pulling,  and  turn  readily 
with  a motion  of  the  hand. 

Allot,  irritable,  fretful  brute,  or  one  with  a weak,  loose  neck, 
is  uncomfortable  enough  for  a man  to  ride,  but  it  is  absolutely 
dangerous  to  allow  any  lady  to  ride  such  a one  on  the  road — 
to  say  nothing  of  riding  him  to  hounds — however  good  he  may 
be  represented  to  be. 

The  best  colors  for  ladies’ horses  are  bay,  brown,  dark  chest- 
nut, or  black.  There  is  an  old  saying,  that  “ a good  horse 
cannot  be  a bad  color  ; ” and  though  no  purchaser  should  de- 
cline to  buy  one  that  is  likely  to  suit  him  on  account  of  color, 
those  I have  named  are  to  be  preferred. 

The  price  of  horses  differs  so  greatly,  and  depends  so  much 
on  their  make,  style,  and  qualifications,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
name  an  average  one. 

THE  HUNTER. 

In  selecting  a hunter  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the 
country  in  which  he  is  to  be  ridden. 

The  points  essential  to  a hunter  are  a lean  head  and  neck, 
well  set  on  to  good  oblique  shoulders,  a strong  back  and  loin, 
wide  hips,  a deep  body  and  back  ribs,  good  muscular  quarters, 
and  gaskins  well  let  down  to  the  hocks,  and  clean,  firm  legs 
and  feet.  He  must  be  temperate,  with  plenty  of  courage,  and 
have  a good  mouth  and  manners.  His  size  will  vary  from  15 
hands  1 inch  to  16  hands  2 inches,  according  to  the  weight  he  has 
to  carry  and  the  description  of  country  he  has  to  cross.  From 
15  hands  3 inches  to  16  hands  2 inches  is  perhaps  the  best  size  for 
the  flying  grass  countries,  while  from  15  hands  1 inch  to  15  hands 
3 inches  will  be  found  better  and  handier  for  the  close  deep 
country. 

THE  CARRIAGE  HORSE. 

These  horses  are  bought  by  the  principal  dealers  and  job- 
masters  at  three  and  four  years  old,  and  are  broken,  driven, 
and  matched  by  them  for  some  time  before  they  are  fit  for  the 
carriage.  They  must  be  fully  16  hands  high,  with  rather 
long  rainbow  neck,  strong  but  oblique  shoulders,  deep  round 
body,  with  long  muscular  quarters,  carrying  a good  tail,  clean 
flat  legs,  and  good  firm  feet.  Being  kept  more  for  show  than 
work,  grand  stylish  appearance  and  action  are  indispensable  ; 
and  from  being  generally  loaded  with  flesh,  unless  the  feet  and 
legs  are  good,  they  will  soon  wear  out. 

The  great  defects  to  which  carriage  horses  are  liable,  from 
their  size  and  general  formation,  are — defect  of  the  wind,  either 


THE  HORSE. 


555 


roaring  or  whistling  ; horses  with  long  rainbow  necks  very  fre- 
quently becoming  so  after  a bad  cold  or  an  attack  of  influenza. 
All  large  horses,  too,  are  more  or  less  liable  to  their  wind  be- 
coming affected  after  illness.  Inflammation  of  the  feet  is 
another  common  complaint  with  horses  of  this  class.  Loaded 
with  flesh  to  improve  their  style  and  appearance,  and  with  high 
action  in  addition  to  their  weight — two  great  causes  of  inflam- 
matory attacks — they  are  very  liable  to  this  complaint,  unless 
great  care  is  taken  to  guard  against  it.  Many  carriage  horses, 
too,  have  flat  feet,  rendering  them  doubly  liable  to  an  attack 
of  this  description  ; in  them  the  sole  of  the  foot  will  sink,  be- 
coming convex  instead  of  concave.  When  such  is  the  case, 
great  care  is  requisite  in  shoeing,  or  the  horse  will  not  be  work- 
ably  sound. 

HORSES  FOR  LIGHT  HARNESS. 

In  this  class  may  be  included  horses  suitable  for  buggies, 
T-carts,  light  broughams,  dog-carts,  etc.  They  should  be  well- 
bred,  neck  rather  long  and  arched,  with  good  back  and  quarters, 
strong  oblique  shoulders,  carry  a good  head  and  tail,  and  be  of 
a generally  showy  and  stylish  appearance,  with  high  grand 
action.  Horses  of  this  description  are  more  fitted  for  the  park 
and  for  show  than  for  real  work. 

COBS. 

The  cob  is  a strong  little  horse,  about  14  hands  high,  and  of 
various  descriptions.  When  well  bred  and  good-looking,  with 
action,  they  are  not  only  very  useful,  but  very  valuable  for 
carrying  heavy  and  elderly  men,  as,  being  low,  they  are  easy 
to  get  on  and  off.  A good  cob  must  have  a good  head,  a 
strong  but  not  heavy  neck,  good  oblique  and  very  strong 
shoulders,  not  loaded  at  the  top  or  points,  a deep  round  body, 
good  loin  and  strong  muscular  quarters  and  thighs — short, 
flat,  firm  legs,  and  good  round  feet ; he  should  walk  freely 
and  well ; step  sharp  and  high  in  the  trot,  and  canter  safely 
and  freely ; if,  in  addition  to  these  qualifications,  he  is  quiet 
and  does  not  shy  or  stumble,  he  is  invaluable. 

The  faults  to  be  avoided  in  purchasing  a cob  are  upright 
shoulders,  want  of  courage,  and  want  of  action.  Particular 
attention  must  be  paid  to  the  shoulders — that  they  are  well 
formed  and  oblique,  many  horses  of  this  class  having  low,  up- 
right shoulders,  which  renders  them  valueless  as  riding  cobs, 
and  useful  only  for  harness  purposes — nothing  being  so  un- 
comfortable and  looking  so  ugly  as  riding  on  the  top  of  the 
shoulders  instead  of  well  behind  them,  which  must  necessarily 
be  the  case  with  straight,  low  shoulders. 

DEFECTS,  DISEASES,  AND  FAULTS  TO  BE 
AVOIDED  IN  ALL  HORSES. 

A loose , weak  neck. — Horses  so  formed  are  extremely  un- 
pleasant to  ride  ; they  get  their  heads  up,  cannot  see  where 
they  are  going,  and  it  is  impossible  to  feel  their  mouths. 

Twisted  fore-legs. — Horses  with  this  defect,  when  put  to 
work,  hit  the  inside  of  the  fetlock  joint,  and  very  often  under 
the  knee  as  well.  Both  are  highly  dangerous,  as  the  parts 
soon  become  swelled  and  sore  from  repeated  blows,  rendering 
the  horse  liable  to  fall. 

Capped  hocks  are  very  unsightly,  but  seldom  cause  lameness. 


Diseased  eyes,  from  any  cause,  are  sure  to  terminate  in 
blindness. 

Stringhalt. — Catching  up  one  or  both  the  hind  legs.  When 
considerable,  it  renders  the  horse  very  unpleasant  either  to 
ride  or  drive. 

All  bony  enlargements  of  the  joints,  viz.,  spavin,  ringbone, 
sidebones,  etc.,  as  causing  lameness,  very  difficult  and  doubtful 
of  cure. 

Laminitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  laminae,  generally  result- 
ing in  pumiced  or  convex  soles  of  the  feet. 

Corns , unless  small,  as,  if  not  properly  treated,  they  are  very 
troublesome,  often  causing  temporary  lameness,  and  rendering 
the  horse  cramped  in  his  action,  and  liable  to  fall. 

Chronic  cough. — Frequently  terminates  in  broken  wind. 

Megrims. — An  attack  of  giddiness,  more  or  less  violent, 
that  frequently  attacks  some  horses,  rendering  them  for  the 
time  highly  dangerous.  Since  condition  has  been  better  un- 
derstood, and  horses  are  fed  more  on  manger  food  and  do  not 
have  so  much  hay,  megrims  are  not  so  common  as  formerly. 
Fast,  free  horses  are  more  liable  to  it  than  others.  The  cause 
is  supposed  to  be  determination  of  blood  to  the  head. 

Navicular  disease. — Lameness  in  the  navicular  joint,  and 
incurable. 

An  unnerved  horse , as  showing  the  horse’s  feet  are  diseased. 
Many  unnerved  horses  will  with  care  do  a great  deal  of  work 
either  on  the  road  or  in  the  field.  It  is  a merciful  operation 
by  which  many  horses  can  work  and  move  about  with  ease  and 
comfort,  that  must  otherwise  have  been  destroyed,  or  lived  in 
pain  and  misery  to  the  end  of  their  days. 

Roaring. — A disease  of  the  respiratory  organs,  causing  the 
horse  to  make  a noise  when  put  to  any  exertion. 

All  enlargements  of  sinews  and  tendons , arising  from  break- 
ing down  or  violent  strains,  unless  the  horse  has  been  properly 
fired  for  them,  and  is  intended  only  for  light,  easy  work,  when 
he  may  stand. 

All  horses  that  show  any  sort  of  vice,  as  rearing,  kicking, 
running  away,  being  restive,  and  shying  badly,  or  are  vicious  in 
the  stable.  Such  animals  are  highly  dangerous  to  all,  but  par- 
ticularly  so  to  the  inexperienced. 

THE  GROOM. 

There  are  several  descriptions  and  classes  of  grooms  em 
ployed  in  private  stables.  With  the  stud  groom,  for  the 
breaking  and  training  of  thorough-bred  horses,  we  have  here 
nothing  to  do.  The  most  important  is  the  groom  for  the 
training  and  management  of  hunters.  For  this  purpose  he 
must  be  steady,  respectable,  and  intelligent,  and  have  had 
considerable  experience  ; for,  as  the  hunter,  to  carry  a man 
well  and  safely  to  hounds,  must  be  very  fit,  it  follows  that  the 
groom  must  understand  not  only  how  to  prepare  him,  but 
when  he  is  fit. 

STABLE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  HORSE. 

In  the  morning  the  first  thing  the  groom  does  on  entering 
the  stable,  which  must  not  be  later  than  six  o’clock,  if  the 
weather  be  warm  and  fine,  will  be  to  open  the  door  and  admit 
some  fresh  air ; he  will  then  give  each  horse  a little  water  and 
a piece  of  hay  ; having  eaten  which,  he  will  put  on  the  hood 


55° 


THE  HORSE. 


and  the  watering-bridle,  and  take  him  out  for  exercise.  While 
out,  the  helpers  will  separate  the  dry  clean  straw  from  the 
damp  and  soiled,  removing  the  latter  to  the  manure-heap. 
Thoroughly  sweep  and  cleanse  the  floor  of  each  stall  and  box, 
allowing  the  straw  to  remain  turned  up  until  the  return  of  the 
horses,  when  it  may  be  partly  littered  down  again.  Each 
horse  will  then  have  a feed  of  corn,  and  having  eaten  it,  be 
well  dressed,  and  his  stall  or  box  set  fair.  When  one  groom 
only  is  kept,  or  where  the  horses  do  a fair  amount  of  work  dur- 
ing the  day,  early  exercise  is  impossible  and  unnecessary. 

In  dressing  the  horse  the  first  thing  the  groom  does  is  to 
turn  him  round  in  his  stall,  fold  the  rug  back  from  his  neck 
and  shoulders,  then  well  and  carefully  brush  his  head,  neck, 
and  shoulders  with  the  body-brush,  cleaning  it  with  the  curry- 
comb as  often  as  required.  He  is  then  turned  back  in  the 
stall,  the  clothing  removed,  and  his  body,  hind-quarters,  and 
legs  undergo  the  same  careful  and  thorough  brushing,  care 
being  taken  to  keep  the  brush  clean  with  frequent  use  of  the 
currycomb.  He  is  next  wiped  all  over  with  a damp  wisp 
made  of  hay-bands,  which  entirely  removes  any  remaining 
dust,  and  after  being  well  wiped  over  with  a linen  rubber  or 
wash-leather,  his  clothes  are  put  on  and  secured  by  the  roller. 
His  eyes,  nose,  and  anus  are  next  sponged  clean,  his  mane  and 
tail  carefully  combed  or  brushed,  first  with  a dry  and  then 
with  a damp  brush ; the  feet  are  carefully  picked  out  and 
washed,  the  legs  wel.  brushed,  and  if  dirty  or  stained,  well 
washed,  and  either  rubbed  dry  or  dried  in  flannel  bandages. 
The  stall  is  then  set  fair,  and  the  horse  is  ready  for  use. 

With  gray  or  light-colored  horses,  or  that  have  white  legs, 
the  better  plan  will  be  to  wash  all  stains  off  the  quarters,  etc., 
and  to  wash  the  legs  with  warm  water  and  soap,  rubbing  the 
first  dry  and  well  bandaging  the  latter  before  proceeding  to 
dress  the  horse,  as  by  the  time  that  operation  is  over  the  legs 
will  be  dry  and  the  horse  warm  and  comfortable. 

In  the  spring  and  autumn,  when  the  horse  is  shedding  his 
coat  and  the  hair  is  broken  and  thin,  the  body-brush  must  be 
laid  aside,  the  wisp  and  rubber  being  then  quite  sufficient  for 
the  necessary  dressing. 

Before  having  the  harness  put  on  to  go  out,  the  horse  must 
again  be  wiped  over,  his  mane  and  tail  brushed,  and  his  hoofs 
rubbed  round  with  the  oil-brush.  Some  people  object  to  the 
use  of  the  oil-brush  to  the  feet,  and  only  have  them  done 
round  with  a wet  brush. 

On  returning  to  the  stable  after  work,  if  he  be  clean  and 
dry,  his  feet  should  be  well  picked  out  and  washed,  and  he 
should  again  be  well  dressed  and  set  fair.  But  if  he  returns 
hot  and  tired  and  wet  and  dirty,  the  best  and  quickest  plan 
is  to  wash  him  all  over  with  tepid  water,  scraping  him  imme- 
diately as  dry  as  possible,  clothing  him  up,  and  bandaging  his 
legs  above  his  knees  and  hocks  with  flannel  bandages.  If  the 
weather  be  warm,  he  may  be  washed  in  the  open  air,  and  a 
light  suit  of  clothes  put  on,  to  be  replaced  by  fresh  as  soon  as 
he  is  dry  ; but  in  winter,  and  if  it  be  cold,  he  must  be  washed 
in  the  stable,  and  a suit  of  warm  clothing  put  on  until  he  is 
dry,  when  it  must  be  changed.  By  this  means  the  horse  will 
be  got  fresh  and  comfortable  in  a much  shorter  time  and  with 
less  fatigue  to  himself  than  if  the  dirt  and  sweat  were  removed 
in  any  other  way  and  he  was  rubbed  dry. 


At  seven  o’clock,  the  horses  that  have  not  been  out  or  done 
but  little  work  may  again  have  their  clothing  removed  and 
be  wiped  over,  which  must  not  be  done  when  the  horse  is 
tired  with  work  and  has  been  once  made  fresh.  They  may 
then  be  fed,  their  heads  let  down,  their  feet  stopped,  and  be 
shut  up  for  the  night. 

FEEDING. 

Horses  should  have  the  corn  four  times  a day — at  about  seven, 
eleven,  three,  and  seven  ; and  the  hay  twice— at  night  and  in 
the  morning.  These  times  may  be  slightly  varied  to  suit  the 
convenience.  The  quantity  of  each  must  depend,  as  we  have 
said,  upon  the  size  and  description  of  the  horse,  and  the  amount 
of  work  required  of  him.  A full-sized  carriage  horse  will  require 
at  least  five  quarterns  of  corn,  and  about  twelve  or  fourteen 
pounds  of  hay,  daily.  These  horses,  being  kept  for  show  and 
style  rather  than  for  work,  are  required  to  be  full  of  flesh  to  give 
them  a.  grander  and  more  imposing  appearance. 

Soiling  is  a term  used  for  the  feeding  of  horses  on  green  food 
indoors. 

Turning  out  to  grass  is  useful  when  the  health  is  injured  by 
long-continued  hard  work  and  dry  food,  or  when  the  legs  are 
sore,  or  the  feet  inflamed. 

EXERCISE  AND  WORK. 

Unless  the  weather  is  wet  and  bad,  every  horse,  whether  in  a 
stall  or  box,  is  better  for  going  out  every  day. 

The  work  of  a carriage  horse  does  not  on  an  average  exceed 
seven  or  eight  miles.  They  are  very  often  out  for  three  or  four 
hours  in  the  day,  but  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  time  they 
are  standing  about,  while  the  occupants  of  the  carriage  are 
either  shopping  or  making  calls,  etc.  From  their  size  and 
weight  they  are  generally  unfit  for  long  journeys  and  hard 
work. 

The  work  of  a hunter  is  to  carry  a man  to  hounds,  and  in 
order  to  render  him  fit  to  do  so  safely  and  well,  he  will  require 
a great  deal  of  exercise. 

Before  the  commencement  of  the  hunting-season  he  will  re- 
quire three  hours’  steady  walking  and  trotting  exercise,  with 
occasional  sweats  and  strong  gallops ; but  afterwards,  supposing 
he  is  ridden  to  hounds  three  days  a fortnight,  he  will  require 
but  little  fast  exercise — from  two  to  three  hours  a day  good 
steady  walking  will  keep  most  horses  quite  fit. 

The  fair  average  day’s  work  for  a hack  or  harness  horse  is 
nine  or  ten  miles,  in  which  case  exercise  is  quite  unnecessary. 
More  harm  and  injury  are  done  to  horses  by  the  grooms  when 
at  exercise  than  in  any  other  way  ; and  unless  the  man  can  be 
fully  depended  upon,  the  less  they  are  exercised  the  better 
Where  the  horse  is  only  occasionally  worked,  exercise  is  oi 
course  absolutely  necessary,  not  only  to  preserve  him  in  health 
but  to  keep  him  steady  and  from  getting  above  himself. 

CLIPPING  OR  SINGEING. 

The  best  time  to  clip  or  singe  a horse  must  depend  principally 
upon  the  state  of  his  coat.  Some  shed  their  coat  so  much  earlier 
than  others,  while  in  some  horses  it  is  much  thicker  and  coarser. 
About  the  end  of  September  is  the  best  time  for  singeing,  and 
three  weeks  or  a month  later  for  clipping. 


THE  HORSE. 


557 


Clipping  requires  much  practice  and  very  neatly  doing  to  look 
well;  it  is  far  more  difficult  than  singeing,  and  consequently  is 
not  so  frequently  used.  The  effect  of  both  is  the  same — to 
shorten  the  long  rough  winter  coat  to  the  length  of  the  short 
summer  one,  thereby  preventing  that  extreme  sweating  which 
is  always  consequent  on  a long  winter  coat.  It  is  performed 
with  scissors  and  a comb.  The  former  are  generally  curved, 
and  of  various  sizes,  to  suit  the  different  parts  of  the  body  of 
the  horse  for  which  they  are  used. 

Singeing  is  performed  with  a lamp  made  for  the  purpose, 
burning  naphtha  or  some  spirit  of  the  same  description,  and 
which  is  passed  lightly  over  the  whole  body  till  the  hair  is  re- 
duced to  the  required  length.  It  may  be  commenced  as  soon 
as  the  winter  coat  is  partly  grown,  and  must  be  repeated  about 
every  ten  days  or  a fortnight  till  the  coat  is  set  and  done  grow- 
ing, by  which  means  the  coat  will  not  only  be  kept  short,  but 
the  hair  will  better  retain  the  natural  color.  After  Christmas, 
about  once  in  three  weeks  will  generally  be  found  sufficient  to 
keep  down  the  long  rough  hairs. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  FEET. 

This  department  of  stable  management  is  often  sadly  neg- 
lected by  the  groom,  who  is  particular  enough  in  every  other 
respect ; but  if  his  master  is  only  a judge  of  skin  and  condition, 
he  is  too  apt  to  leave  the  feet  to  take  care  of  themselves. 

An  examination  of  the  shoes  should  be  carefully  made  every 
morning  when  the  horse  comes  in  from  exercise  ; and  if  they 
are  at  all  loose,  or  the  clenches  are  too  high,  or  the  shoes  are 
worn  out,  they  should  be  renewed  or  removed  at  once. 

Every  night  the  feet  should  be  well  brushed  out,  and  the 
picker  run  round  the  shoe.  If  the  horn  is  hard  and  dry,  they 
should  be  stopped  with  cow-dung  and  tar,  in  the  proportion  of 
3 to  I,  called  “ stopping,”  which  ought  always  to  be  kept  by 
the  groom  in  a box  for  the  purpose,  called  the  “stopping-box 
but  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  do  this  more  than  once  or  twice  a 
week  ; indeed,  in  most  feet  it  will  soften  the  horn  too  much  if 
used  more  frequently. 

STABLE  VICES. 

Stable  vices  may  be  considered  to  include  the  following  long 
list  of  offenses  against  the  code  of  laws  made  for  the  stabled 
horse,  and  enforced  by  the  stablemen.  They  are:  i,  getting 
loose  from  the  head-stall  ; 2,  Hanging  back  ; 3,  Leaping  into 
the  manger  ; 4,  Turning  round  in  the  stall;  5,  Lying  under 
the  manger  ; 6,  Halter-casting  ; 7,  Casting  in  the  stall  ; 8, 
Kicking  the  stall-post;  9,  Weaving;  10,  Pawing;  11,  Ealing 
the  litter;  12,  Kicking  at  man:  13,  Biting;  14,  Crib-biting ; 
15,  Wind-sucking. 

Hanging  back  in  the  collar  is  an  attempt  to  get  free  by  burst- 
ing the  throat-lash  or  collar-rein,  and  in  some  cases  great  force 
is  applied  in  this  way — so  much  so  that  many  horses  have 
broken  their  hips  from  the  sudden  giving-way  of  the  halter, 
letting  them  back  so  that  they  fall  over  and  injure  themselves 
irremediably.  The  only  cure  is  a strong  chain  and  ahead-stall 
that  no  force  will  break,  after  trying  to  burst  which  a few  times, 
the  horse  will  almost  always  desist.  If  the  manger  is  not  very 
firmly  placed,  another  ring  should  be  fixed  in  the  wallbypierc-  j 


ing  it  and  screwing  a nut  on  at  the  back.  The  groom  should 
likewise  watch  for  the  attempt,  and  well  flog  the  horse  from 
behind  immediately  he  sees  him  beginning. 

TRICKS  AND  VICES  TO  WHICH  HOKSES 
ARE  LIABLE  OUT  OF  THE  STABLE. 

Kicking  is  another  dangerous,  vicious  habit.  Lik«  rearing, 
it  may  be  cured  by  those  who  thoroughly  understand  horses  ; 
but  even  when  perfectly  quiet  and  manageable  in  their  hands, 
such  horses  are  never  to  be  trusted  with  less  experienced 
persons. 

Running  away  is  another  very  dangerous  fault.  It  may 
arise  from  vice  or  from  the  horse  having  been  at  some  time 
very  seriously  alarmed.  In  the  former  case,  a very  sharp  bit 
and  great  care  may  prevent  it  ; but  in  the  latter,  when  the 
horse  again  becomes  alarmed,  nothing  will  stop  him,  as  he  is 
for  the  time  in  a state  of  madness. 

Bucking  or  Plunging  is  another  dangerous  habit.  Sometimes 
it  arises  from  vice  and  sometimes  only  from  freshness,  the  horse 
being  above  himself  from  want  of  work;  in  the  latter  case  it  is 
soon  cured  by  putting  him  to  daily  steady  work. 

Jibbing,  either  in  saddle  or  harness,  is  a very  dangerous  vice, 
and  is  always  the  result  of  bad  temper.  In  saddle  the  horse 
rears,  kicks,  and  rubs  the  rider  against  anything  in  his  way. 
He  will  go  anywhere  and  rush  anywhere  but  in  the  direction 
in  which  he  is  wanted  to  go.  A good  thrashing  will  sometimes 
cure  him,  but  it  is  not  always  easy  to  doit,  as  the  horse  in- 
variably jibs  in  the  most  awkward  and  dangerous  places  in 
which  to  fight  him.  In  harness  the  jibber  will  not  start,  he 
runs  back,  and  if  whipped  or  punished,  will  plunge  and  throw 
himself  down.  Such  animals  are  quite  unfitted  for  private 
use. 

Skying. — This  bad  habit  may  arise  from  timidity,  defective 
eyesight,  or  bad  temper.  If  from  timidity,  it  can  only  be 
overcome  by  gentle  usage  and  allowing  the  horse  to  pass  the 
object  without  taking  any  notice  of  his  fear  beyond  patting 
and  encouraging  him  ; to  chastise  him  is  worse  than  useless 
and  senseless.  If  it  arise  from  defective  vision,  it  will  be  in- 
curable, as  it  will  be  impossible  for  the  animal  to  see  objects 
otherwise  than  through  a distorted  medium.  If  it  arise  from 
vice,  which  is  frequently  the  case,  the  horse  must  be  made 
firmly  but  temperately  to  pass  the  object  at  which  he  shies  ; 
having  passed  it,  continue  the  ride  ; do  not  return  and  pass  it 
again  and  again,  as  that  only  irritates  him  ; and  when  he  finds 
he  is  mastered,  he  will  daily  improve. 

HARNESS  FOR  SADDLE  HORSES. 

This  consists  of  saddles,  bridles,  breast-plates,  and  martin- 
gales. 

Saddles  may  be  had  of  almost  any  size  and  weight.  They 
may  be  made  with  either  plain  or  padded  flaps,  according  to 
the  seat  and  fancy  of  the  rider.  Some  prefer  the  former,  and 
others  the  latter.  For  the  generality  of  riders  there  cannot  be 
a doubt  that  the  padded  flaps  are  by  far  the  better,  as  they 
keep  the  knee  more  steadily  in  the  proper  place,  prevent  the 
leg  flying  backwards  and  forwards,  if  the  horse  jumps  or  plunges; 
while  in  hunting  they  are  of  very  material  assistance  in  taking 


558 


THE  HORSE. 


a drop  jump,  and  also  in  steadying  and  recovering  a horse 
when  blundering  or  falling  at  a fence.  The  plain  flaps  have 
perhaps  a smarter  appearance,  and  a clever  horseman  may  be 
able  to  ride  as  well  on  them  as  on  the  padded  flaps,  but  that  is 
almost  all  that  can  be  said  for  them. 

The  saddle  should  be  of  sufficient  length  and  breadth  that 
the  weight  of  the  rider  may  be  pretty  equally  distributed  over 
it,  or  the  back  of  the  horse  will  suffer,  and  saddle-galls  be  the 
result. 

The  stirrups  should  not  be  small,  for  in  the  event  of  a fall, 
the  foot  is  more  likely  to  hang  in  them.  All  well-made  saddles 
have  spring  bars,  which  should  be  occasionally  oiled,  that  they 
may  work  easily,  and  release  the  stirrup-leather  should  such  an 
accident  occur.  The  stirrup-leather  should  be  of  the  best, 
close  and  strong,  not  too  heavy,  or  it  will  look  clumsy. 

Every  saddle  requires  two  girths — which  may  either  be  of 
the  ordinary  kind  of  the  same  width,  with  a buckle  at  each 
end,  or  one  broad,  with  two  buckles  at  each  end,  which  is  put 
on  first,  and  a second,  about  half  the  width  only,  over  it,  with 
one  buckle  at  each  end. 

After  use,  the  lining  of  the  saddle  must  be  thoroughly  dried 
in  the  sun  or  before  the  fire,  and  then  well  brushed,  which  will 
keep  it  soft  and  clean. 

This  is  particularly  necessary  with  side-saddles.  It  is 
for  want  of  this  care  and  attention  that  so  many  horses  have 
sore  backs.  When  dirty,  the  saddle  must  be  sponged  clean, 
but  not  made  more  wet  than  is  absolutely  necessary  ; after 
which  a little  soft  soap  rubbed  on  will  preserve  the  leather 
soft  and  pliable,  and  prevent  it  cracking. 

In  choosing  a saddle,  go  to  a first-rate  maker  ; he  may  be  a 
little  more  expensive,  but  you  will  get  a good  article,  that  will 
wear  three  times  as  long  as  an  inferior  one,  will  fit  the  gene- 
rality of  horses,  will  never  get  out  of  form,  and  will  look  well 
to  the  last. 

The  Breast-plate  or  Hunting-plate  is  used  to  keep  the  saddle 
in  its  place  when  hunting.  It  is  also  of  great  service  on  horses 
with  short  back-ribs,  to  prevent  the  saddle  working  back, 
which  it  is  very  likely  to  do.  But  on  the  road  and  in  the  field 
no  lady  should  ride  without  one,  as  it  will  keep  the  side-saddle 
securely  in  its  place,  and  prevent  it  turning  round  should  the 
girth  get  loosened,  or  one  break. 

The  Martingale  is  used  to  steady  the  horse’s  head,  and  keep 
it  in  its  proper  place. 

It  is  generally  used  on  loose  weak-necked  horses,  and  though 
of  service  in  the  hands  of  the  experienced,  it  is  often  dangerous 
when  used  by  others,  as  being  apt  to  catch  on  the  bit  or  buckles 
of  the  bridle,  and  so  cause  serious  accidents. 

The  Bridle. — There  is  a great  variety  of  bits  suitable  for 
different  descriptions  and  tempers  of  horses,  but  it  is  impossible 
to  describe  them  all  in  so  limited  a space.  They  all  belong 
to  one  of  two  classes — the  snaffle  or  the  curb,  and  are  of  differ- 
ent degrees  of  severity  and  power. 

The  Snaffle  is  a piece  of  steel  with  a joint  in  the  middle ; it 
may  be  smooth  and  plain,  twisted,  or  double-jointed.  The 
smooth  snaffle  is  the  mildest  form  of  bit  there  is,  and,  except 
just  for  exercise,  few  horses  ride  pleasantly  in  one.  The  twisted 
bit  is  sharper,  and  if  drawn  quickly  backwards  and  forwards 
through  the  mouth,  is  very  punishing  The  double-jointed  is 


the  most  severe ; it  is  formed  of  two  plain  snaffles  one  above 
the  other  ; but  the  joints  in  each  not  being  opposite  each  other, 
cause  a sharper  and  more  narrow  pressure  on  the  tongue  and 
lower  jaw.  Very  few  horses  ride  well  and  pleasantly  in  a 
snaffle  of  any  kind,  as  they  all  cause  a horse  to  raise  his  head 
and  open  his  mouth  to  take  the  pressure  off  his  tongue.  In 
addition  to  this  there  are  the  Chain-snaffle,  which  is  a very 
light  bit,  and  the  Gag,  used  for  horses  that  get  their  heads 
down. 

The  Curb-bit  is  a lever  that,  by  means  of  a curb-chain,  acts 
upon  the  lower  jaw,  and  may  be  made  very  easy  or  very  severe 
according  to  the  length  of  cheek  or  leverage,  and  the  height 
of  the  port  or  arch  in  the  center  of  the  mouth-piece.  It  is  very 
seldom  used  singly,  but  in  conjunction  with  some  kind  of 
snaffle,  when  it  forms  a double-rein  bridle,  and  is  by  far  the 
most  useful  bit.  All  horses  go  better  in  it,  when  properly 
handled,  than  in  any  other ; as  by  lengthening  or  shortening 
the  curb-chain,  and  taking  up  or  dropping  the  bit  in  the 
mouth,  it  can  be  made  either  less  or  more  severe,  to  suit  most 
horses. 

The  Pelham  is  a curb  and  snaffle  in  one  ; it  is  a curb-bit 
with  a joint  in  the  middle,  instead  of  a port.  It  forms  a double- 
rein bridle,  and  is  very  light  and  easy. 

Like  saddles,  the  bridles  should  be  of  Jirst-rate  material  and 
workmanship  ; the  bits  sewn  on  to  the  head-pieces  and  reins, 
as  being  much  neater  and  lighter  than  the  buckles.  The 
leather  must  be  kept  clean  and  pliable  with  soft  soap,  and  the 
bits  clean  and  bright  with  silver-sand  and  oil. 

HARNESSING  AND  PUTTING-TO. 

Harnessing. — In  all  cases  the  first  thing  to  be  done,  after 
the  horse  is  dressed,  is  to  put  on  the  collar,  which  is  effected  by 
turning  the  horse  round  in  his  stall,  and  slipping  it  over  his 
head,  with  the  large  end  upward.  This  inversion  is  required 
because  the  front  of  the  head  is  the  widest  part,  and  is  in  this 
way  adapted  to  the  widest  part  of  the  collar,  which,  even  with 
this  arrangement,  will  in  coarsely-bred  horses  hardly  pass  over 
the  cheek-bones.  Before  the  collar  is  put  in  its  place,  the 
hamesare  put  on  and  buckled  ; for  if  this  was  delayed  until 
after  it  had  been  reversed,  they  would  have  to  be  held  on  while 
the  hame-straps  were  being  drawn  together,  whereas  in  this 
way  their  own  weight  keeps  them  in  place.  They  are  now 
reversed  altogether,  and  the  pad  put  in  its  place,  before  buckling 
the  belly-band,  of  which  the  crupper  is  slipped  over  the  tail 
by  doubling  up  all  the  hair,  grasping  it  carefully  in  the 
left  hand  while  the  right  adapts  the  crupper.  A careful  exami- 
nation should  always  be  made  that  no  hairs  are  left  under  it, 
for  if  they  are  they  irritate  the  skin,  and  often  cause  a fit  of 
kicking.  After  the  crupper  is  set  right  the  pad  is  drawn  forwards, 
and  its  belly-band  buckled  up  pretty  tightly  ; the  bridle  is  now 
put  on,  and  the  curb-chain  properly  applied;  the  reins  being 
slipped  through  the  terrets  and  buckled  on  both  sides,  if  for 
single  harness,  or  on  the  outside  only  if  for  double,  and  the 
driving  rein  folded  back  and  tied  in  the  pad  terret. 

Putting-to  is  managed  very  differently  according  to  whether 
the  horse  is  going  in  shafts  or  with  a pole.  If  for  shafts,  they 
are  tilted  up  and  held  there  by  one  person,  while  the  other 
backs  the  horse  until  he  is  under  them,  when  they  are  dropped 


THE  HORSE. 


559 


down,  and  the  tugs  slipped  under  or  over  the  ends  of  the  shafts, 
according  to  the  foimation  of  the  tugs,  some  being  hooks,  and 
others  merely  leather  loops.  Care  must  be  taken  that  they  do 
not  slip  beyond  the  pins  on  the  shafts.  The  traces  are  now 
attached  to  the  drawing-bar,  the  breechen  or  kicking-strap 
buckled,  and  the  false  belly-band  buckled  up  pretty  tightly,  so 
as  to  keep  the  shafts  steady.  In  four-wheeled  carriages  it 
should  be  left  tolerably  loose  when  a breechen  is  used,  to  allow 
of  this  having  free  play.  The  reins  are  now  untwisted  from 
the  terret,  and  the  horse  is  put-to.  For  double  harness,  the 
first  thing  is  to  bring  the  horse  round  by  the  side  of  the  pole, 
and  put  the  pole-piece  through  the  sliding  ring  of  the  hames, 
the  groom  holding  it,  or  else  buckling  it  at  the  longest  hole 
while  the  traces  are  being  put-to  ; as  soon  as  this  is  done,  the 
pole-piece  is  buckled  up  to  its  proper  length,  each  coupling- 
rein  buckled  to  the  opposite  horse’s  bit,  the  driving-reins  un- 
twisted from  the  terret,  and  the  two  buckled  together,  and  the 
horses  are  ready.  The  leaders  of  a tandem  or  four-in-hand 
are  easily  attached,  and  their  reins  are  passed  through  the  rings 
on  the  head  of  the  wheelers,  and  through  the  upper  half  of  the 
pad  terret. 

Unharnessing  is  exactly  the  reverse  of  the  above,  everything 
being  undone  exactly  in  the  same  order  in  which  it  was  done. 
The  chief  errors  in  either  are — in  double  harness,  in  not  at- 
taching the  pole-piece  at  once  in  putting-to,  or  in  unbuckling  it 
altogether  too  soon,  by  which  the  horse  is  at  liberty  to  get  back 
upon  the  bars,  and  often  does  considerable  damage  by  kicking. 

ORDINARY  DRUGS  USED  FOR  THE  HORSE, 
AND  THEIR  MODE  OF  ADMINISTRATION 

The  Action  of  Medicines,  and  the  Forms  in  which  they  are  gen- 
erly  prescribed. 

ALTERATIVES. 

Alteratives  are  intended  to  produce  a fresh  and  healthy  ac- 
tion, instead  of  the  previously  disordered  function.  The  pre- 
cise mode  of  action  is  not  well  understood,  and  it  is  only  by 
the  results  that  the  utility  of  these  medicines  is  recognized. 

1.  Stinking  hellebore,  5 to  8 grs.  ; powdered  rhubarb,  2 t0  4grs.  Mix, 
and  form  into  a pill,  to  be  given  every  night. 

2.  In  Disordered  States  0/ the  Skin. — Emetic  tartar,  5 oz.  ;'powdered 
ginger,  3 oz.  ; opium,  1 oz.  Syrup  enough  to  form  16  balls  ; one  to  be 
given  every  night. 

3.  Simply  cooling. — Barbadoes  aloes,  1 oz.  ; Castile  soap,  1}  oz.  ; gin- 
ger, } oz.  Syrup  enough  to  form  6 balls  ; one  to  be  given  every 
morning. 

4.  In  strangles.— Barbadoes  aloes,  1 oz.  ; emetic  tartar,  2 drms.  ; Cas- 
tile soap,  2 drms.  Mix. 

5.  Alterative  Ball  /or  General  Use. — Black  sulphuret  of  antimony,  2 
to  4 drms.  ; sulphur,  2 drms.  ; niter,  2 drms.  Linseed  meal  and  water 
enough  to  form  a ball. 

6.  For  Generally  Defective  Secretions. — Flowers  of  sulphur,  6 oz.  ; 
emetic  tartar,  5 to  8 drms.  ; corrosive  sublimate,  10  grs.  Linseed  meal 
mixed  with  hot  water,  enough  to  form  six  balls,  one  of  which  may  be 
given  two  or  three  times  a week. 

7.  In  Debility  0/  Stomach. — Calomel,  1 scruple  ; aloes,  1 drm.  ; cas- 
carilla,  gentian,  and  ginger,  of  each  in  powder,  1 drm.  ; Castile  soap,  3 
drms.  Syrup  enough  to  make  a ball,  which  may  be  given  twice  a week, 
or  every  other  night. 

ANODYNES. 

Anodyne  medicines  are  given  either  to  soothe  the  general  nervous 
system,  or  to  stop  diarrhoea  ; or  sometimes  to  relieve  spasm,  as  in  colic 
or  tetanus.  Opium  is  the  chief  anodyne  used  in  veterinary  medicine, 
and  it  may  be  employed  in  very  /arge  doses. 

1.  In  Colic.— Powdered  opium,  X to  2 drms.  ; Castile  soap  and  cam- 


phor, of  each  2 drms.  ; ginger,  iX  drm.  Make  into  a ball  with  liquor- 
ice powder  and  treacle,  and  give  every  hour  while  the  pain  lasts.  It 
should  be  kept  in  a bottle  or  bladder. 

2.  Anodyne  Ball  {ordinary). — Opium,  X to  1 drm.  ; Castile  soap,  2 to 
4 drms.  ; ginger,  1 to  2 drms.  ; powdered  aniseed,  X to  1 oz.  ; oil  of 
carraway  seeds,  X drm.  Syrup  enough  to  form  a ball,  to  be  dissolved 
in  a half-pint  of  warm  ale,  and  given  as  a drench. 

3.  Anodyne  Drench  in  Super  purgation,  or  ordinary  Diarrhoea. — 
Gum  arabic,  2 oz.  ; boiling  water,  1 pint  ; dissolve,  and  then  add  oil  of 
peppermint,  25  drops  ; tincture  of  opium,  X oz-  Mix,  and  give  night 
and  morning,  if  necessary. 

4.  In  Chronic  Diarrhoea. — Powdered  chalk  and  gum  arabic,  of  each 
1 oz.  ; tincture  of  opium,  X oz.  ; peppermint  water,  10  oz.  Mix,  and 
give  night  and  morning. 

ANTISPASMODICS. 

Antispasmodics,  as  their  name  implies,  are  medicines  which 
are  intended  to  counteract  excessive  muscular  action,  called 
spasm,  or,  in  the  limbs,  cramp.  This  deranged  condition  de- 
pends upon  a variety  of  causes,  which  are  generally  of  an  irritat- 
ing nature  ; and  its  successful  treatment  will  often  depend  upon 
the  employment  of  remedies  calculated  to  remove  the  cause, 
rather  than  directly  to  relieve  the  effect.  It  therefore  follows 
that,  in  many  cases,  the  medicines  most  successful  in  removing 
spasm  will  be  derived  from  widely  separate  divisions  of  the 
materia  tnedica,  such  as  aperients,  anodynes,  alteratives, 
stimulants,  and  tonics.  It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  give  many 
formulas  for  their  exhibition  ; but  there  are  one  or  two  medi- 
cines which  exercise  a peculiar  control  over  spasm,  and  I shall 
give  them  without  attempting  to  analyze  their  mode  of  operation. 

1.  For  Colic. — Spirits  of  turpentine,  3 oz.  ; tincture  of  opium,  1 oz. 
Mix  with  a pint  of  warm  ale,  and  give  as  a drench. 

2.  Spirits  of  turpentine,  3X  oz.  ; tincture  of  opium,  iX  oz.  ; Barba- 
does aloes,  1 oz.  Powder  the  aloes,  and  dissolve  in  warm  water  ; then 
add  the  other  ingredients,  and  give  as  a drench. 

3.  Clyster  in  Colic. — Spirits  of  turpentine,  6 oz.  ; aloes,  2 drms.  Dis- 
solve in  3 quarts  of  warm  water,  and  stir  the  turpentine  well  into  it. 

4.  Antispasmodic  Drench. — Gin,  4 to  6 oz.  ; tincture  of  capsicum,  2 
drms.  ; tincture  of  opium,  3 drms.  ; warm  water,  iX  pint.  Mix,  and 
give  as  a drench,  when  there  is  no  inflammation. 

APERIENTS. 

Aperients,  or  Purges,  are  those  medicines  which  quicken  or 
increase  the  evacuations  from  the  bowels,  varying,  however, 
a good  deal  in  their  mode  of  operation.  Some  act  merely  by 
exciting  the  muscular  coat  of  the  bowels  to  contract  ; olhers 
cause  an  immense  watery  discharge,  which,  as  it  were,  washes 
out  the  bowels  ; whilst  a third  set  combine  the  action  of  the 
two.  The  various  purges  also  act  upon  different  parls  of  the 
canal,  some  stimulating  the  small  intestines,  whilst  others  pass 
through  them  without  affecting  them,  and  only  act  upon  the 
large  bowels  ; and  others,  again,  act  upon  the  whole  canal. 
There  is  a third  point  of  difference  in  purges,  depending  upon 
their  influencing  the  liver  in  addition,  which  mercurial  purga- 
tives certainly  do,  as  well  as  rhubarb  and  some  others,  and 
which  effect  is  partly  due  to  their  absorption  into  the  circula- 
tion, so  that  they  may  be  made  to  act,  by  injecting  into  the 
veins,  as  strongly  as  by  actual  swallowing,  and  their  subsequent 
passage  into  the  bowels.  Purgatives  are  likewise  classed,  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  of  their  effect,  into  laxatives,  acting  mild- 
ly,  and  drastic  purges,  acting  very  severely. 

APERIENTS  FOR  THE  HORSE,  COMMONLY  CALLED 
PHYSIC. 

1.  Ordinary  Physic  Balls.— Barbadoes  aloes,  3 to  8 drms.  ; hard  soap 


56° 


THE  HORSE. 


4 arms.  ; ginger,  i drm.  Dissolve  in  as  small  a quantity  of  boilingwater 
as  will  suffice ; then  slowly  evaporate  to  the  proper  consistence,  by 
which  means  griping  is  avoided. 

2.  A Warmer  Pkysic  Ball. — Barbadoes  aloes,  3 to  8 drms.  ; carbonate 
of  soda,  X drm.  ; aromatic  powder,  1 drm.  ; oil  of  carraway,  12  drops. 
Dissolve  as  above,  and  then  add  the  oil. 

3.  Gently  Laxative  Ball. — Barbadoes  aloes,  3 to  5 drms.  ; rhubarb 
powder,  1 to  2 drms.  ; ginger,  2 drms.  ; oil  of  carraway,  15  drops.  Mix, 
and  form  into  a ball,  as  in  No.  1. 

4.  Stomackic  Laxative  Balls , /or  Washy  Horses. — Barbadoes  aloes, 
3 drms.  ; rhubarb,  2 drms.  ; ginger  and  cascarilla  powder,  of  each  1 
drm.  ; oil  of  carraway,  15  drops  ; carbonate  of  soda,  iX  drm.  Dissolve 
the  aloes  as  in  No.  1,  and  then  add  the  other  ingredients. 

5.  Purging  Balls,  witk  Calomel. — Barbadoes  aloes,  3 to  6 drms.  ; cal- 
omel, X to  1 drm.  ; rhubarb,  1 to  2 drms. ; ginger,  X to  i.drm.  Castile 
soap,  2 drms.  Mix  as  in  No.  1. 

6.  Laxative  Drench.— Barbadoes  aloes,  3 to  4 drms.  ; canella  alba,  1 
to  2 drms.  ; salt  of  tartar,  1 drm.  ; mint  water,  8 oz.  Mix. 

7.  Another  Laxative  Drench. — Castor  oil,  3 to  6 oz. ; Barbadoes  aloes, 
3 to  5 drms.  ; carbonate  of  soda,  2 drms.  ; mint  water,  8 oz.  Mix,  by 
dissolving  the  aloes  in  the  mint  water,  by  the  aid  of  heat,  and  then 
adding  the  other  ingredients. 

8.  AMild  Opening  Drench.— Castor  oil,  4 oz.  ; Epsom  salts, 3 to  50Z.  ; 
gruel,  2 pints.  Mix. 

9.  A Very  Mild  Laxative Castor  oil  and  linseed  oil,  4 oz.  of  each  ; 

warm  water,  or  gruel,  1 pint.  Mix. 

10.  Used  in  the  staggers. — Barbadoes  aloes,  6 drms.  ; common  salt,  6 
oz.  ; flour  of  mustard,  1 oz.  ; water,  2 pints.  Mix. 

11.  A Gently  Cooling  Drench  in  Slight  Attache  0/  Cold. — Epsom  salts, 
6 to  8 oz.  ; whey,  2 pints.  Mix. 

12.  Purgative  Clyster. — Common  salt,  4 to  8 oz.  ; warm  water,  8 to 
16  pints. 

ASTRINGENTS. 

Astringents  are  supposed  to  produce  contraction  in  all  living 
animal  tissues  with  which  they  come  in  contact,  whether  in  the 
interior  or  exterior  of  the  body,  and  whether  immediately  ap- 
plied or  by  absorption  into  the  circulation.  But  great  doubt 
exists  as  to  the  exact  mode  in  which  they  act  ; and,  as  in  many 
other  cases,  we  are  obliged  to  content  ourselves  with  their  effects, 
and  to  prescribe  them  empirically.  They  are  divided  into 
astringents  administered  by  the  mouth,  and  those  applied 
locally  to  external  ulcerated  or  wounded  surfaces. 

1.  Astringent  Wash  for  the  Eyes. — Sulphate  of  zinc,  5 to  8 grs. ; water, 

2 oz.  Mix. 

2.  Goulard  extract,  1 drm.  ; water,  1 oz.  Mix. 

3.  Astringent  Remedies  for  the  Horse.  For  Bloody  Urine. — Powdered 
catechu,  X oz.  ; alum,  X oz.  ; cascarilla  bark  in  powder,  1 to  2 drms. 
Licorice  powder  and  treacle,  enough  to  form  a ball,  to  be  given  twice 
1 day. 

4.  For  Diabetes.— Opium,  X drm.  ; ginger  powdered,  2 drms.  ; oak 
bark  powdered,  1 oz.  ; alum,  as  much  as  the  tea  will  dissolve  ; camo- 
mile tea,  1 pint.  Mix  for  a drench. 

5.  External  Astringent  Powder  for  Ulcerated  Surfaces. — Powdered 
alum,  4 oz.  ; Armenian  bole,  1 oz. 

6.  White  vitriol,  4 oz.  ; oxide  of  zinc,  1 oz.  Mix. 

7.  Astringent  Lotion.— Goulard  extract,  2 to  3 drms.  ; water,  X 
pint. 

8.  Sulphate  of  copper,  1 to  2 drms.  ; water,  X pint.  Mix. 

g.  Astringent  Ointment  for  Sore  Heels. — Superacetate  of  lead,  1 drm.  ; 
lard,  1 oz.  Mix. 

10.  Another  for  the  same. — Nitrate  of  silver  powdered,  X drm.  ; 
goi'lard  extract,  1 drm.  ; lard,  1 oz.  Mix. 

BLISTERS. 

Blisters  are  applications  which  inflame  the  skin,  and  cause 
watery  bladders  to  form  upon  it  ; they  consist  of  two  kinds, 
one  for  the  sake  of  counter-irritation,  by  which  the  original 
disease  is  lessened,  in  consequence  of  the  establishment  of  this 


called  “Sweating”  in  veterinary  surgery,  by  which  a discharge 
is  obtained  from  the  vessels  of  the  part  itself,  which  are  in  that 
way  relieved  and  unloaded  ; there  is  also  a subsequent  process 
of  absorption  in  consequence  of  the  peculiar  stimulus  applied. 
BLISTERS  FOR  HORSES. 

1.  Mild  Blister  Ointment  (counter-irritant).— Hog’s  lard,  4 oz.  ; 
Venice  turpentine,  1 oz.  ; powdered  cantharides,  6 drms.  Mix  and 
spread. 

2.  Stronger  Blister  Ointment  (counter-irritant). — Spirits  of  turpentine, 
1 oz.  ; sulphuric  acid,  by  measure,  2 drms.  Mix  carefully  in  an  open 
place,  and  add  hog’s  lard,  4 oz.  ; powdered  cantharides,  1 oz.  Mix  and 
spread. 

3.  Very  strong  Blister  (counter-irritant).— Strong  mercurial  ointment, 
4 oz.  ; oil  of  origanum,  X oz.  ; finely-powdered  euphorbium,  3 drms. 
powdered  cantharides,  X oz.  Mix  and  spread. 

4.  Rapidly  Acting  Blister  (counter-irritant). — Best  flour  of  mustard, 
8 oz.,  made  into  a paste  with  water.  Add  spirits  of  turpentine,  2 oz.  ; 
strong  liquor  of  ammonia,  1 oz.  This  is  to  be  well  rubbed  into  the 
chest,  belly,  or  back,  in  cases  of  acute  inflammation. 

5.  Sweating  Blister. — Strong  mercurial  ointment,  2 oz.  ; oil  of  origa- 
num, 2 drms.  ; corrosive  sublimate,  2 drms.  ; cantharides,  powdered,  3 
drms.  Mix,  and  rub  in  with  the  hand. 

6.  Strong  Sweating  Blister,  for  Splints,  Ring-Bones,  Spavins,  etc. — 
Red  iodide  of  mercury,  1 to  iX  drm.  ; lard,  1 oz.  To  be  well  rubbed  in 
the  legs  after  cutting  the  hair  short,  and  followed  by  the  daily  use  of 
arnica,  in  the  shape  of  a wash,  as  follows,  which  is  to  be  painted  on 
with  a brush  : tincture  of  arnica,  1 oz.  ; water,  12  to  15  oz.  Mix. 

7.  Tincture  of  Iodine , which  should  be  painted  on  with  a brush  daily, 
until  it  causes  the  cuticle  to  exfoliate.  It  may  then  be  omitted  for  a few 
days,  to  be  resumed  after  that  interval. 

CAUSTICS. 

Caustics  are  substance  which  burn  away  the  living  tissues  of 
the  body,  by  the  decomposition  of  their  elements.  They  are 
of  two  kinds,  viz. — first,  the  actual  cautery,  consisting  in  the 
application  of  the  burning  iron,  and  called  Firing  ; and, 
secondly,  the  potential  cautery,  by  means  of  the  powers  of 
mineral  caustics,  such  as  potash,  lunar-caustic,  etc. 

Firing  is  used  extensively  upon  horses  for  inflammation  of 
the  legs.  A set  of  firing-irons  is  heated  to  a great  heat,  and, 
one  at  a time,  are  lightly  applied  across  the  limb,  or  in  lines  up 
and  down,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  disease.  This  excites 
a very  great  amount  of  swelling  and  inflammation,  by  which 
the  mischief  is  often  abated,  and  is  followed  also  by  a contrac- 
tion of  the  skin,  which  appears  to  act  as  a bandage  in  the  weak 
state  of  the  vessels  of  the  legs  which  often  occurs.  The  firing 
is  generally  followed  by  blistering,  in  order  to  keep  up  the 
inflammation,  and  at  least  three  months  must  be  consumed 
before  the  fired  horse,  if  thoroughly  operated  on,  will  be  fit  for 
work. 

Strong  solid  caustics  are  as  follows  : — 

1.  Fused  Potass,  difficult  to  manage,  because  it  runs  about  in  all  direc- 
tions,  and  little  used  in  veterinary  medicine. 

2.  Lunar-Caustic,  or  nitrate  of  silver,  very  valuable  to  the  veterinary 
surgeon,  and  constantly  used  to  apply  to  profuse  granulations. 

3.  Sulphate  of  Copper,  almost  equally  useful,  but  not  so  strong  as 
lunar-caustic  ; it  may  be  well  rubbed  in  to  all  high  granulations,  as  in 
broken  knees,  and  similar  growths. 

4.  Corrosive  Sublimate  in  powder,  which  acts  most  energetically  upon 
warty  growths,  but  should  be  used  with  great  care  and  discretion.  It 
may  safely  be  applied  to  small  surfaces,  but  not  without  a regular  prac- 
titioner to  large  ones.  It  should  be  washed  off  after  remaining  on  a few 
minutes. 

5.  Yellow  Orpiment,  not  so  strong  as  the  corrosive  sublimate,  and 
may  be  uesd  with  more  freedom.  It  will  generally  remove  warty 
growths,  by  picking  off  their  heads  and  rubbing  it  in. 


THE  HORSE. 


561 


Strong  liquid  caustics  : — 

6.  Sulphuric  acid,  or  nitric  acid,  may  be  used  either  in  full  strength 
•r  diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water  ; but  it  must  be  used  with 
great  caution,  as  it  destroys  the  skin  rapidly. 

7.  In  Canker  a/ the  Foot.— Quicksilver,  1 oz.  ; nitric  acid,  2 oz.  Mix 
in  an  earthen  vessel,  and  when  cold  put  into  a wide  glass  bottle,  and 
cork  it.  It  may  be  mixed  with  lard,  in  the  proportion  of  1 to  3. 

8.  A similar  application,  which  may  be  used  alternately  with  the  last. 
— Copper  filings,  X oz.  ; nitric  acid,  1 oz.  Mix,  and  use  in  the  same 
way. 

g.  Muriate  of  antimony,  called  butter  of  antimony  ; a strong  but 
rather  unmanageable  caustic,  and  used  either  by  itself  or  mixed  with 
more  or  less  water. 

Mild  solid  caustics  : — 

10.  Verdigris,  either  in  powder  or  mixed  with  lard  as  an  ointment,  in 
the  proportion  of  1 to  3. 

11.  Red  precipitate,  do.,  do. 

12.  Burnt  alum,  used  dry. 

13.  Powdered  white  sugar. 

Mild  liquid  caustics : — 

14.  Solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  5 to  15  grains  to  the  ounce  of  distilled 
water. 

15.  Solution  of  blue  Vitriol,  of  about  double  the  above  strength. 

16.  Chloride  of  zinc,  3 grains  to  the  ounce  of  water. 

CHARGES. 

Charges  are  adhesive  plasters  which  are  spread  while  hot 
on  the  legs,  and  at  once  covered  with  short  tow,  so  as  to  form 
a strong  and  unyielding  support  while  the  horse  is  at  grass. 

1.  Ordinary  Charge—  Burgundy  pitch,  4 oz. ; Barbadoes  tar,  6 oz.  ; 
beeswax,  2 oz. ; red  lead,  4 oz.  The  first  three  are  to  be  melted  together, 
and  afterwards  the  lead  is  to  be  added.  The  mixture  is  to  be  kept  con- 
stantly stirred  until  sufficiently  cold  to  be  applied.  If  too  stiff  (which 
will  depend  upon  the  weather)  it  may  be  softened  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  lard  or  oil. 

2.  Arnica  Charge. — Canada  balsam,  2 oz.  ; powdered  arnica  leaves, 
X oz.  The  balsam  to  be  melted  and  worked  up  with  the  leaves, 
adding  spirits  of  turpentine  if  necessary.  When  thoroughly  mixed,  to 
be  well  rubbed  into  the  whole  leg  in  a thin  layer,  and  to  be  covered 
over  with  the  Charge  No.  1,  which  will  set  on  its  outside  and  act  as  a 
bandage,  while  the  arnica  acts  as  a restorative  to  the  weakened  vessels. 
This  is  an  excellent  application. 

CORDIALS. 

Cordials  are  medicines  which  act  as  warm  temporary  stim- 
ulants, augmenting  the  strength  and  spirits  when  depressed, 
and  often  relieving  an  animal  from  the  ill  effects  of  over-exer- 
tion. They  act  much  in  the  same  way  on  the  horse  and  dog, 
but  require  to  be  given  in  different  doses. 

1.  Cordial  Balls. — Powdered  carraway  seeds,  6 drms. ; ginger,  2 
drms. ; oil  of  cloves,  20  drops.  Treacle  enough  to  make  into  a ball. 

2.  Powdered  aniseed,  6 drms.  ; powdered  cardamoms,  2 drms.  ; 
powdered  cassia,  1 drm.  ; oil  of  carraway,  20  drops.  Mix  with  treacle 
into  a ball. 

3.  Cordial  Drench.— A quart  of  good  ale  warmed  and  with  plenty  of 
grated  ginger. 

4.  Cordial  and  Expectorant. — Powdered  aniseed,  X oz.  ; powdered 
squills,  1 drm.  ; powdered  myrrh,  1%  drm.  ; Balsam  of  Peru,  enough  to 
form  a ball. 

5.  Licorice  powder,  X oz.  ; gum  ammoniacum,  3 drms. ; balsam  of 
Tolu,  1 X drm. ; powdered  squills,  1 drm.  Linseed  meal  and  boiling 
water,  enough  to  form  into  a mass. 

DEMULCENTS. 

Demulcents  are  medicines  which  are  used  in  irritations  of 
the  bowels,  kidneys,  and  bladder. 

1.  Demulcent  Drench.— Gum  Arabic,  X oz.  ; water  1 pint.  The  whole 
to  be  given. 


2.  Linseed,  4 oz.  ; water,  1 quart.  Simmer  tU".  a strong  and  thick  de 
coction  is  obtained,  and  give  as  above. 

3.  Marshmallow  Drench. — Marshmallows,  a double  handful ; water 
1 quart.  Simmer  as  in  No.  2,  and  use  in  the  same  way. 

DIAPHORETICS. 

Diaphoretics  are  medicines  which  increase  the  insensible 
perspiration. 

1.  In  Hide-Bound. — Emetic  tartar,  iX  drm.  ; camphor,  X drm.  ;gin 

ger,  2 drms.  ; opium,  X drm.  ; oil  of  carraway,  15  drops.  Linseed  meal 
and  boiling  water,  to  form  a ball,  which  is  to  be  given  twice  or  thrice  a 
week.  , 

2.  In  Hide-Bound  (but  not  so  efficacious).— Antimonial  powder,  2 
drms.  ; ginger,  1 drm.  ; powdered  carraways,  6 drms.  ; oil  of  aniseed,  20 
drops.  Mix  as  above. 

These  remedies  require  exercise  in  clothing  to  bring  out  their  effects 
after  which  the  horse  should  be  wisped  till  quite  dry. 

DIGESTIVES. 

Digestives  are  applications  which  promote  suppuration,  and 
the  healing  of  wounds  or  ulcers. 

1.  Digestive  Ointment. — Red  precipitate,  2 oz.  ; Venice  turpentine,  3 
oz. ; beeswax,  1 oz.  ; hog’s  lard,  4 oz.  Melt  the  last  three  ingredients 
over  a slow  fire,  and,  when  nearly  cold,  stir  in  the  powder. 

DIURETICS. 

Diuretics  are  medicines  which  promote  the  secretion  and 
discharge  of  urine,  the  effect  being  produced  in  a different 
manner  by  different  medicines;  some  acting  directly  upon  the 
kidneys  by  sympathy  with  the  stomach,  while  others  are  taken 
up  by  the  blood-vessels,  and  in  their  elimination  fiom  the  blood 
cause  an  extra  secretion  of  the  urine.  In  either  case  their 
effect  is  to  diminish  the  watery  part  of  the  blood,  and  thus 
promote  the  absorption  of  fluid  effused  into  any  of  the 
cavities,  or  into  the  cellular  membrane,  ,in  the  various  forms 
of  dropsy. 

1 Stimulating  Diuretic  Ball  /or  the  Horse.  — Powdered  resin, 
sal  prunelle,  Castile  soap,  of  each  3 drms.  ; oil  of  juniper,  1 drm. 
Mix. 

2.  A more  Cooling  Diuretic  Ball. — Powdered  niter,  X to  I oz.  ; cam- 
phor and  oil  of  juniper,  of  each  1 drm.  ; soap,  3 drms.  Mix,  adding  lin- 
seed meal  enough  to  form  a ball. 

3.  Diuretic  Powder  /or  a Mash.— Niter  and  resin,  of  each  X to  J oz. 
Mix. 

4.  A nother  more  Active  Powder.— Niter,  6 drms. ; camphor,  iX  drm. 
Mix. 

EMBROCATIONS. 

Embrocations  or  liniments  are  stimulating  or  sedative 
external  applications,  intended  to  reduce  the  pain  and  in- 
flammation of  internal  parts  when  rubbed  into  the  skin  with  the 
hands. 

1.  Mustard  Embrocation.— Best  flour  of  mustard,  6oz.  ; liquor  of  am- 
monia, iX  oz.  ; oil  of  turpentine,  iX  oz.  Mix  with  sufficient  water  to 
form  a thin  paste. 

2.  Stimulating  Embrocation. — Camphor,^  oz.  ; oil  of  turpentine  and 
spirits  of  wine,  of  each  1 oz.  Mix. 

3.  Sweating  Embrocation  /or  IVindgalls , etc. — Strong  mercurial  oint- 
ment^ oz.  ; camphor,  X oz.;  oil  of  rosemary,  2 drms.  ; spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, 1 oz.  Mix. 

4.  A nother,  but  stronger. — Strong  mercurial  ointment,  2 oz.  ; oil  of 
bay,  1 oz. ; oil  of  origanum,  X oz.\  powdered  cantharidcs,  X oz. 
Mix. 

5.  A most  Active  Sweating  Embrocation. — Red  iodide  of  mercury, 
X to  z drm.  ; powdered  arnica  leaves,  1 drm.  ; soap  liniment,  2 oz. 
Mix. 


36 


562 


THE  HORSE. 


6.  This  must  be  repeated  until  a blister  is  raised,  which  usually  takes 
two  or  three  applications.  It  may  then  be  omitted  for  a week. 

EMULSIONS. 

Emulsions  are  very  useful  in  the  chronic  cough  of  the 
horse. 

1.  Simple  Emulsion. — Linseed  oil,  2 oz.  ; honey,  3 oz.  ; soft  water,  1 
pint ; subcarbonate  of  potass,  1 drm.  Dissolve  the  honey  and  potass  in 
the  water ; then  add  the  linseed  oil  by  degrees  in  a large  mortar,  when 
it  should  assume  a milky  appearance.  It  might  be  given  night  and 
morning. 

2.  Another  more  Active  Emulsion. — Simple  emulsion,  No.  1,  8 oz.  ; 
camphor,  1 drm.  ; opium  in  powder,  X drm. ; oil  of  aniseed,  30  drops. 
Rub  the  last  three  ingredients  together  in  a mortar  with  some  white 
sugar  ; then  add  the  emulsion  by  degrees. 

EXPECTORANTS. 

Expectorants  excite  or  promote  discharge  of  mucus  from  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  thereby  relieving  in- 
flammation and  allaying  cough. 

1.  In  Ordinary  Cough  •without  In fla m mat  ion . — Gum  ammoniacum, 
X oz.  ; powdered  squill,  1 drm.  ; Castile  soap,  2 drms.  Honey  enough 
to  form  a ball. 

2 .In  Old  Standing  Cough  (Stomach). — Assafcetida,  3 drms. ; galba- 
num,  1 drm.;  carbonate  of  ammonia,  X drm.;  ginger,  iX  drm.  Honey 
enough  to  form  a ball. 

3.  A Strong  Expectorant  Ball.— Emetic  tartar,  X drm.  ; calomel,  15 
grs.  ; digitalis,  X drm.  ; powdered  squills,  X drm.  Linseed  meal  and 
water  enough  to  form  a ball,  which  is  not  to  be  repeated  without  great 
care. 

FEBRIFUGES. 

Fever  medicines  a^e  given  to  allay  fever,  which  they  do  by 
increasing  the  secretions  of  urine  and  sweat,  and  also  by  re- 
ducing the  action  of  the  heart. 

1.  Fever  Ball. — Niter,  4 drms.  ; camphor,  1 dr. ; calomel  and  opium, 
of  each  1 scruple.  Linseed  meal  and  water  enough  to  form  a ball. 

2.  Another. — Emetic  tartar,  iX  to  2 drms.  ; compound  powder  of  tra- 
gacanth,  2 drms.  Linseed  meal  as  above. 

3.  Another.— Niter;  1 oz.  ; camphor,  2 drms.  Mix  as  above. 

4.  Cooling  Mash. — Niter,  1 oz.,  may  be  given  in  a bran  mash. 

5.  Cooling  Drench. — Niter,  1 oz.  ; sweet  spiritsof  niter,  2 oz. ; tincture 
of  digitalis,  2 drms. ; whey,  1 pint. 

CLYSTERS. 

Clysters  are  intended  either  to  relieve  obstructions  or  spasm 
of  the  bowels,  and  are  of  great  use.  They  may  in  the  general 
way  be  of  warm  water  or  gruel,  of  which  some  quarts  will  be 
required  in  colic.  They  should  be  thrown  up  with  the  proper 
syringe,  provided  with  valves  and  a flexible  tube. 

1.  Turpentine  clyster  in  colic,  see  Antispasmodics. 

2.  Aperient  clysters,  see  Aperients. 

3 .Anodyne  Clyster  in  Diarrhcea. — Starch,  made  as  for  washing,  1 
quart ; powdered  opium,  2 drms.  The  opium  is  to  be  boiled  in  water, 
and  added  to  the  starch. 

LOTIONS. 

Lotions  are  liquids  applied  to  the  external  parts  when  in- 
flamed, and  they  act  by  reducing  the  temperature,  and  by 
giving  tone  to  the  vessels  of  the  part. 

1.  Cooling  Lotion  in  Stiffness  from  Bruises  or  IVork. — Tincture  of 


arnica,  1 drm.;  spirits  of  wine,  7 drm.  Mix  and  rub  well  into  the  parts, 
before  the  fire,  with  the  hand. 

2.  For  Internal  Canker. — Nitrate  of  silver,  10  grs.  ; distilled  water.  1 
oz.  Mix,  and  drop  in  every  night. 

3.  Cooling  Lotion  /or  External  In/ a mm  at  io  n . — Goulard  extract,  1 
oz.  ; vinegar,  2 oz.  ; spirits  of  wine,  or  gin,  3 oz.  ; water  iX  pint.  Mix 
and  apply  with  a calico  bandage. 

4.  A not  her.  useful  for  Inflamed  Legs  or  for  Galled  Shoulders  or 
Back.— Sal  ammoniac,  1 oz.  ; vinegar,  4 oz.  ; spirits  of  wine,  2 oz. ; 
tincture  of  arnica,  2 drms.  ; water,  X pint.  Mix. 

5.  Lotion  for  Foul  Ulcers. — Sulphate  of  copper,  1 oz.  ; nitric  acid,  X 
oz.  ; water,  8 to  12  oz. 

OINTMENTS. 

Ointments  are  greasy  applications,  consisting  of  a powerful 
drug  mixed  with  lard,  or  some  similar  compound,  and  thus 
applied  to  the  sore;  they  are  generally  more  properly  described 
under  the  several  heads  for  which  they  are  used.  (See  Astrin* 
gents,  Anodynes,  etc.) 

STIMULANTS. 

By  this  term  is  understood  those  substances  which  excite  the 
action  of  the  whole  nervous  and  vascular  systems  ; almost  all 
medicines  are  stimulants  to  some  part  or  other  ; as,  for  in- 
stance, aperients,  which  stimulate  the  lining  of  the  bowels, 
but  to  the  general  system  are  lowering.  On  the  other  hand, 
stimulants,  so  called,  excite  and  raise  the  action  of  the  brain 
and  heart. 

1.  Old  ale,  1 quart ; carbonate  of  ammonia,  X to  2 drms.  ; tincture  of 
ginger,  4 drms.  Mix,  and  give  as  a drench. 

2.  For  other  stimulants,  see  Cordials. 

STOMACHICS. 

Stomachics  are  medicines  given  to  improve  the  tone  of  the 
stomach  when  impaired  by  bad  management  or  disease. 

1.  Stomachic  Ball.— Powdered  gentian,  X oz.  ; powdered  ginger,  iX 
drm.  ; carbonate  of  soda,  1 drm.  Treacle  to  form  a ball. 

2.  Another. — Cascarilla  powdered,  1 oz.  ; myrrh,  iX  drm.;  Castile 
soap,  1 drm.  Mix,  with  syrup  or  treacle,  into  a ball. 

3.  Another. — Powdered  Colombo,  X to  1 oz. ; powdered  cassia,  1 drm.; 
powdered  rhubarb,  2 drms.  Mix  as  in  No.  2. 

TONICS. 

Tonics  augment  the  vigor  of  the  whole  body  permanently, 
whilst  stimulants  only  act  for  a short  time.  They  are  chiefly 
useful  after  low  fever. 

1.  Tonic  Ball. — Powdered  yellow  bark,  1 oz.;  ginger,  2 drms.;  carbo- 
nate of  soda,  X drm.  Form  into  a ball  with  linseed  meal  and 
water. 

Another.— Sulphate  of  iron,  X oz.  ; extract  of  camomile,  1 oz.  Mix, 
and  form  into  a ball. 

Another.— Arsenic,  10  grs.  ; ginger,  1 drm.  ; powdered  aniseed,  1 oz. . 
compound  powder  of  tragacanth,  2 drms.  ; syrup  enough  to  form  a ball. 
It  is  a very  powerful  tonic. 

WORM  MEDICINES. 

Worm  medicines  are  given  in  order  to  expel  worms,  which 
they  do  partly  from  their  specific  action  upon  the  worm  itself, 
and  partly  by  their  purgative  qualities,  which  all  ought  to  pos* 
sess,  or  to  be  followed  by  medicines  of  that  class. 

1.  Calomel,  1 to  2 drms.  ; Barbadoes  aloes,  3 to  6 drms.  ; ginger,  1 
drm.  ; soap,  3 drms.  Mix. 

2.  Worm  Drench. — A pint  of  linseed  oil  every  day. 


HEALTH  AND  CONDITION. 


HE  state  of  thriving  pros- 
perity in  Poultry  so  well 
known  to  connoisseurs  as 
condition,  is  of  such  pri- 
mary importance  that  it 
may  justly  claim  first  at- 
tention. 

When  fowls  get  ill  and  die, 
without  any  apparent  cause,  care- 
ful observation  may  generally 
trace  it  to  one  or  other  of  a few 
fertile  sources  of  evil  to  them. 
They  have  been  overcrowded, 
they  have  had  too  much  pamper- 
ing, or  they  have  had  too  little  care.  All  fatal 
faults  in  feeding  come  under  one  of  the  last  two 
heads. 

If  the  apparent  health  and  appearance  of  the  fowls 
be  not  satisfactory,  visit  the  hen-house  after  it  has 
been  some  hours  shut  up  at  night,  and  if  the  air  be 
offensive  there  need  be  no  further  quest  after  the 
cause  of  illness  or  other  evil  there  may  be  among  the 
living  beings  breathing  its  close  atmosphere  for  many 
hours. 

The  remedy  should  at  once  be  applied  by  decreas- 
ing the  number  of  fowls,  and  by  giving  increased 
ventilation. 


A hen-house  6 or  8 feet  square  will  do  well  for 
seven  old  fowls,  or  one  large  brood  of  chickens. 
More  crowding  will  not  lead  to  a good  result  ; so  if 
the  increase  of  the  stock  seems  to  render  it  neces- 
sary, consider  means  for  housing  the  youngsters  out 
of  doors,  in  coops  or  by  other  contrivances,  rather 
than  overfill  the  houses. 

Fowls,  even  the  tallest,  live  and  breathe  very  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground  ; and  when  the  earth  be- 
comes foul  from  having  had  live  stock  on  it  for  some 
time,  they  cannot  fail  to  inhale  the  malaria  engen- 
dered by  it.  Human  beings  in  such  an  atmosphere 
would  fall  in  as  great  proportional  numbers  as  do  the 
fowls  of  the  most  unfortunate  amateurs  ; sanitary 
measures  in  their  case  stop  epidemics,  and  they  are 
the  remedies  to  use  with  our  fowls,  or  we  must  not 
look  to  have  them  prosperous  and  healthy. 

The  most  valuable  sanitary  measure  for  the  fowls 
is  to  renew  the  surface  of  the  runs  by  paring  from 
time  to  time.  Spring  is  a good  time  to  do  it,  when 
the  pared-off  surface,  rich  with  guano-like  manure, 
is  a valuable  strong  fertilizer.  Duck  and  pigeon 
manure  are  the  strongest. 

Means  must  be  taken  to  dry  the  runs,  made  pure 
by  paring.  Low  damp  ground  should  be  drained. 
Excellent  runs  may  be  made  by  paring  the  ground 
one  spit  deep,  t.  e .,  a foot,  good  measure,  and  filling 
in  with  a depth  of  nine  inches  of  chalk  and  three  of 
gravel. 

Sometimes,  when  paring  would  be  too  trouble- 


564 


POULTRY. 


some,  a sprinkle  of  lime  over  the  surface  will  purify 
it,  but  the  fowls  should  be  kept  off  it  until  after  rain. 
Where  the  fowls  have  extensive  ranges  the  immedi- 
ate neighborhood  of  the  houses  only  will  need  this 
cleansing  process  ; but  the  floors  of  the  hen-houses 
require  renewal  from  time  to  time. 

The  kind  of  pampering  which  leads  to  over-feed- 
ing fowls,  giving  them  dainties,  such  as  meat,  greaves, 
hemp-seed,  Indian  corn,  and  other  fattening  food, 
and  keeping  them  too  warmly  housed,  is  a fertile 
source  of  ill-health.  Poultry,  to  remain  thoroughly 
healthy,  and  not  to  become  unhealthily  fat,  should 
never  have  a grain  more  of  food  given  than  they  can 
eat  up  at  once  with  a hungry,  healthy  appetite  ; they 
should  not  be  fed  too  often,  they  should  not  have  a 
variety  of  food  given  at  the  same  time,  and  they 
should  have  to  run  for  all  the  food  they  eat,  and 
have  it  so  thrown  abroad  that  they  shall  have  plenty 
of  work,  and  consequently  plenty  of  amusement,  to 
find  it. 

The  well-being  of  fowls  requires  that  they  have 
regular  care  as  well  as  judicious  economical  feeding, 
regular  meals,  a regular  supply  of  water,  and  regular 
cleaning.  The  real  care  that  they  require  is  not 
pampering  and  superabundant,  almost  incessant, 
feeding,  and  sometimes  the  less  they  are  run  after 
the  better  they  will  thrive  ; but  the  little  care  they 
need  should  be  administered  with  regularity.  This 
is  the  kind  of  care  that  will  keep  poultry  in  the 
perfect  health  and  good  looks  which  amateurs 
know  so  well,  and  so  fully  appreciate  as  good  condi- 
tion. 

A fowl  in  good  condition  is  free  and  bold  in  gait, 
brisk  in  movement,  and  bright  in  the  eye.  The  plu- 
mage is  full,  firm,  crisp,  and  glossy  ; the  bird  feels 
firm  in  handling  ; it  is  neither  too  lean  nor  too  fat, 
and  the  comb  is  clear  and  bright  in  color,  according 
to  the  season. 

When  a bird  is  out  of  condition,  in  which  case  it 
will  do  no  good  service  to  its  owner,  it  handles 
flabby,  however  fat  it  may  be  ; it  is  heavy  and  list- 
less in  movement,  often  craves  continually  for  food, 
and  seems  too  lazy  to  wander  far  to  seek  any  for  it- 
self. The  comb  and  eye  lack  brightness,  but  the 
plumage  tells  the  tale  most  unmistakably  ; it  is  dull, 
ruffled,  and  broken,  sets  away  from  the  body,  and 
either  comes  out  with  a touch,  or  adheres  to  the  skin 
with  unnatural  tenacity,  fixed  by  a kind  of  leprous 
scurfiness.  A tendency  to  roup  is  often  seen. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  STOCK. 

The  cheapest  way  to  get  up  a stock,  allowing  time  and  work 
for  the  matter,  is  to  buy  really  first-class  reliable  eggs,  from 
sellers  of  established  character.  We  must  neither  expect  all 
the  eggs  to  hatch,  all  the  chickens  which  are  hatched  to  turn 
out  especially  good,  nor  find  fault  with  the  seller  if  this  be  not 
the  case  ; for  if  he  is  honest  he  will  tell  you  that  when  eggs 
are  set  at  home,  without  the  no  small  trial  of  a journey,  the 
hatching  of  two  out  of  three  is  a pretty  good  proportion,  and 
a first-class  pair  from  each  brood  is  ample  return  for  the  out- 
lay,  reckoning  the  value  of  the  eggs  at  the  usual  price  charged 
for  eggs  for  setting,  and  the  trouble  of  rearing. 

If  it  be  wished  to  get  a good  stock  together,  without  the  de- 
lay of  rearing  chickens,  it  may  be  done  by  purchasing  fowls. 

An  old  rooster  should  be  mated  with  pullets,  or  a fine  cock- 
erel of  the  year  before  with  old  hens.  Good  breeders  consider 
it  better  to  mate  a one  year  old  bird  with  young  hens,  than 
pullets  with  an  old  bird. 

In-breeding,  i.  e.,  breeding  among  relations,  must  be  care- 
fully avoided.  However  fine  the  stock,  it  is  altogether  against 
the  laws  of  good  breeding  to  keep  the  pullets  and  the  cock- 
erels, and  go  on  year  after  year  breeding  from  them  without 
the  introduction  of  fresh  blood.  Doing  so  will  produce  de- 
crease of  size  and  weakly  constitutions.  In-breeding  must,  on 
no  account,  be  carried  beyond  the  first  remove.  The  mother 
may  be  mated  with  her  son,  but  the  old  game  breeders  did  not 
consider  the  union  of  a rooster  with  the  pullets  bred  from  him 
nearly  so  good. 

In  the  purchase  of  stock,  therefore,  take  care  to  get  hens  and 
roosters  which  are  not  related,  either  by  buying  from  different 
persons,  or  by  asking  the  person  of  whom  you  purchase  for 
roosters  and  hens  of  different  families,  which  most  amateurs, 
and  all  dealers,  are  able  to  manage. 

It  has  not  unfrequently  happened  that  well-established,  good 
stocks  of  fowls  have  been  greatly  injured  by  a carelessly  in- 
troduced cross.  When  the  introduction  of  fresh  blood  be- 
comes necessary,  the  stock  with  which  to  cross  should  be 
chosen  with  reference  to  the  qualities  most  wanted,  and  great 
care  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  increase  of  present  failings  by 
it.  The  purity  of  the  breed  and  its  stamina  must  also  be  es- 
pecially considered  ; for  mongrel  crosses,  or  a weakly  consti- 
tution, may  be  introduced  in  one  year,  and  may  take  a great 
many  to  eradicate. 

With  regard  to  the  number  of  hens  to  be  allowed  to  run 
with  one  rooster,  various  opinions  have  been  given  ; but  while 
ten  or  a dozen  may  form  one  group  for  the  production  of  eggs 
for  that  of  really  fine  chickens  the  number  should  be  limited 
to  four,  or  at  most  six.  With  four  hens,  almost  all  the  eggs 
which  are  laid  will  prove  productive  of  fine  strong  chickens, 
provided,  of  course,  the  stock  birds  are  good. 

At  the  breeding  season  the  breeding  stock  should  most  de- 
cidedly be  confined  to  runs,  if  purity  and  precision  in  breed 
ing  be  a desideratum  ; and  each  family,  consisting  of  a male 
bird  and  his  harem,  should  be  kept  distinct.  This  separation 
from  stock  birds  less  to  be  depended  upon  than  those  which 
are  selected,  should  be  arranged  before  Christmas,  and  con- 
tinue until  eggs  are  no  longer  wanted  for  setting,  after 


POULTRY. 


565 


which  they  may  have  a fuller  range,  when  the  houses  they  have 
occupied  will  be  valuable  for  other  purposes. 

So  particular  have  some  game  breeders  been  in  that  impor- 
tant point,  purity  of  race,  that  they  considered  that  the  charac- 
ter of  the  chickens  might  be  influenced  by  the  hen  that 
hatched  them,  and  would  set  eggs  only  under  the  hen  that  laid 
them,  or  one  of  the  same  breed,  saying  that  roosters  lost  pluck 
by  being  hatched  by  common  hens. 

HOUSES. 

A simple  construction  is  better  for  a hen-house  than  a very 
elaborate  air-tight  building  ; for  too  confined  air,  while  the 
fowls  are  at  roost,  makes  the  place  offensive,  and  is  more 
prone  to  engender  disease  than  almost  anything. 

Poultry  amateurs  would  be  much  at  a loss  in  their  building 
operations,  if  they  could  not  have  that  useful  commodity,  the 
patent  felt  roofing.  It  measures  32  inches  wide,  and  is  a cap- 
ital water-tight  covering  for  a roof,  or  any  other  part  of  a hen- 
house ; it  is  like  wood  and  brickwork  to  the  builder  of  hen- 
houses, and  cheap  withal. 

About  the  cheapest  regularly  formed  house  may  be  made 
with  it,  stretched  over  a wooden  frame,  which  should  be  rather 
stout,  and  well  put  together.  The  roof  should  be  made  of 
common  boards,  under  the  felt,  which  without  that  support  is 
apt  to  bag,  make  hollows  for  water  to  lodge  in,  and  become 
rotten  in  consequence.  It  nails  most  easily  with  iron  lacks 
heated  in  a frying-pan  ; when  up  it  requires  tarring  and  thickly 
sprinkling  with  sand,  which  should  be  repeated  every  year  to 
make  it  durable.  In  sunny  weather  a felt  house  is  apt  to  be  hot, 
so  that,  to  keep  it  refreshingly  cool,  as  well  as  for  appearance 
sake,  it  is  a good  plan  to  plant  quick-growing  trees  round  it. 

Tolerably  stout  wooden  houses  have  done  hundreds  of  am- 
ateurs excellent  service.  For  the  house  to  keep  in  good  order, 
the  wood  should  be  well  seasoned,  and  any  amateur  carpenter 
can  put  it  up  at  small  costand  trouble.  Shape  the  house  with 
a framework  of  battens.  The  lowest  part  maybe  5 feet  high, 
and  the  roof  should  have  a good  pitch,  both  to  throw  off  the 
wet,  and  to  make  it  airy.  The  cheapest  description  of  boards 
will  do  for  the  roof  under  the  felt,  and  scarcely  any  wooden  roof 
is  good  without  that  covering,  from  its  being  liable,  after 
being  swelled  with  wet,  to  crack  with  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and 
so  let  in  water.  If  it  be  entirely  of  wood,  the  boards  can 
either  be  placed  horizontally,  with  an  overlap  of  at  least  an 
inch  and  a half,  or  vertically,  edge  to  edge,  with  fillets  of  wood 
nailed  over  the  joints.  A cheap  roof,  yet  one  which  is  tolera- 
bly lasting,  may  be  made  by  covering  the  boards  with  gas  tar 
and  coarse  brown  paper.  Lay  on  a coat  of  tar,  then  the  brown 
paper,  lapping  it  over  a full  inch  where  the  sheets  meet,  and 
finish  with  another  coat  of  tar.  When  the  wooden  roof  is  to 
be  covered  with  either  felt  or  brown  paper,  there  need  be  no 
overlap  of  the  boards,  but  they  may  lie  edge  to  edge,  either 
from  ridge  to  eaves,  or  across.  The  boards,  too,  for  covering 
the  framework  of  sides,  back  and  front  of  the  house,  can  go 
either  upright  or  across,  whichever  will  use  the  wood  to  the 
best  economy.  Eaves  should  project  well,  to  carry  of!  wet. 

If  the  boards  are  used  rough,  three-quarter  inch  planks  will 
do,  but  if  they  are  planed,  inch  deal  will  be  required  to  make 
up  for  the  waste. 


A hatch  for  the  fowls  to  go  in  and  out,  with  a door  to  slip 
down  over  it,  should  be  made  when  the  house  is  built  ; some- 
times two  on  different  sides  are  found  very  useful,  in  case  of 
changes  in  the  run,  which  can  then  be  put  to  one  side  of  the 
house,  instead  of  the  other,  without  further  alteration. 

A more  solid  kind  of  house,  as  well  as  one  which  will  be 
' more  costly,  can  be  built  with  regular  walls  of  brick,  stone, 
rough  stone,  or  earth.  These  may  be  more  lasting,  and  the 
first  three  more  secure  from  the  attacks  of  vermin,  but,  of 
course,  the  cost  both  in  material  and  labor  will  be  greater. 

For  a brick  wall,  what  bricklayers  call  half  a brick  thick  is 
sufficient,  as  very  great  strength  is  not  required.  A pattern  of 
a few  feet  square,  made  by  leaving  out  alternate  bricks  high 
up  on  the  side  of  the  house,  which  will  admit  air  that  will  not 
be  too  cold,  is  a good  means  of  ventilation,  and  of  giving  light 
also. 

Few  amateurs  would  go  to  the  expense  of  walls  of  hewn 
stone,  but  in  neighborhoods  where  rough  blasted  rock  or  stone 
is  plentiful,  and  consequently  cheap,  it  makes  good  walls, 
which  come  rather  cheaper  than  brickwork.  To  be  sufficiently 
solid  and  stable  these  walls  should  be  rather  over  than  under 
a foot  thick,  and  the  stones  fitted  together  with  judgment,  to 
avoid  interstices  causing  weakness,  or  great  consumption  of 
mortar,  of  which,  however  well  the  stones  may  be  fitted,  a 
great  deal  will  be  used.  While  building  this  kind  of  wall  it 
should  be  brought  to  a level  surface  at  the  top  every  16  inches 
or  so,  which  gives  the  stone  a look  of  order  in  the  arrange- 
ment, greatly  improving  the  appearance,  and  also  giving 
strength.  All  laminated  stone,  i.  e.,  stone  which  has  an  ap- 
pearance of  being  formed  in  layers,  should  have  these  layers 
placed  horizontally. 

Where  building  materials  of  most  kinds  are  difficult  to  ob- 
tain, earth  walls  may  be  used  with  advantage,  requiring,  if 
the  material  be  at  hand,  little  outlay  except  labor.  The 
proper  earth  is  neither  sand  nor  clay,  but  partaking  of  both. 
Clay,  chalk,  any  calcareous  earth,  or  sand,  is  bad  for  the 
purpose.  The  earlier  in  the  season  the  building  can  be  done 
the  better,  that  it  may  have  time  to  dry  ; but  a time  must  be 
chosen  when  the  earth  is  sufficiently  dry  for  working,  and  the 
coarser  and  bolder  it  is  the  better.  A foundation  of  brick  or 
stone  must  be  used,  which  can  be  brought  9 inches  above  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  or  less  if  preferred.  The  wall  is  made 
by  ramming  in  the  earth,  supported  during  the  process  by  a 
mold  formed  of  two  planks  of  inch  board.  These  planks  for 
a cottage  or  similar  building  should  be  12  feet  long  and  20 
inches  wide,  formed  of  two  breadths,  and  strengthened  with 
cross  pieces  strongly  nailed  outside  ; but  for  a hen-house,  sum- 
mer-house, or  similar  edifice  of  less  importance,  they  might  be 
shorter.  Cross-bolts  fix  these  planks  together  (two  near  each 
end),  with  as  many  inches  between  the  two  boards  as  the  wall 
is  to  be  thick,  say  14  or  16  inches,  and  the  bolts  have  large 
heads  at  one  end  to  fix  them,  and  eyelet  holes  and  cross 
pegs  at  the  other.  Place  the  planks  above  the  brick  founda- 
tion, bolt  them  together,  and  fit  bits  of  board  into  the  ends,  to 
prevent  the  building  material  running  out  there,  the  little 
boards  fitting  in  between  the  top  and  bottom  bolts,  and  mak- 
ing (with  them)  the  mold  into  a sort  of  box.  Then  work  the 
earth  up  well,  a little  at  a time,  mixing  in  cut  straw  or  some 


566 


POULTRY, 


similar  material  to  make  it  bind  ; and  when  it  is  used  it  should 
have  just  moisture  enough  to  adhere  together,  under  the  pres- 
sure of  the  thumb  and  finger.  Ram  in  no  more  at  a time  than 
will  make  an  inch  and  a half  when  well  rammed  ; and  the 
rammer,  to  do  its  work  well,  should  be  no  more  than  an  inch 
and  a half  wide.  When  the  earth  is  well  rammed  down,  as 
high  as  the  mold  will  allow,  draw  out  the  cross-bolts,  remove 
the  planks,  and  fix  the  mold  further  on,  the  bolt  at  one  end 
being  fitted  into  the  hole  left  by  that  at  the  other,  only  one 
end  board  being  of  course  required.  When  each  layer  of  the 
wall  is  completed  the  mold  must  be  placed  higher,  fitting  the 
bottom  bolts  into  the  holes  left  by  the  top  ones,  and  after  each 
course  pour  over  the  surface  (to  make  the  next  course  adhere, 
and  also  to  give  a nice  appearance)  a small  quantity  of  thick 
grout  composed  of  one-fifth  lime  and  fourth-fifths  earth. 

Before  the  wall  dries  the  holes  left  by  the  bolls  must  be 
carefully  filled  up  with  mortar  made  of  one-fourth  lime  and 
three-fourths  earth.  If  the  same  mixture  be  used  for  the  wall, 
it  will  dry  almost  like  stone. 

A stout  frame  of  wood  must  be  fixed  to  shape  the  door, 
hatch  and  windows,  and  the  building  may  have  a smooth  facing 
given  to  it  of  the  mortar  above  named,  or  one  made  with  more 
lime,  or  even  a little  cement.  As  a finish  it  may  be  washed  with 
a mixture  of  lime  and  sharp  sand,  mixed  in  small  quantities, 
and  used  while  hot,  which  may  easily  be  done  by  adding  a 
knob  of  lime  and  the  sand  a little  at  a time,  as  it  is  used. 

The  roofing  for  houses  of  regular  walls,  like  those  of  brick, 
stone,  or  earth,  should  be  slates  or  tiles. 

A slate  or  tile  roof  will  be  cold  in  winter  and  hot  in  summer 
unless  it  has  a lining  of  some  kind,  for  which  any  of  the  fol- 
lowing substances  will  do,  unless  a regular  ceiling  of  plaster 
be  preferred  : felt  nailed  to  the  under  side  of  the  tafters,  and 
tarred  ; a kind  of  inner  thatch  of  straw,  kept  in  its  place  by 
laths  nailed  to  the  rafters  ; stout  brown  paper  oiled  or 
painted  and  nailed  to  the  rafters. 

Every  hen-house  should  have  a good  wide  door,  as  it  may 
sometimes  be  useful  to  carry  a hen-coop  through  it,  especially 
in  wet  ungenial  seasons  ; and  the  door  should  be  so  placed, 
and  so  fixed  on  its  hinges,  that  it  will  open  back  thoroughly. 
A window,  too,  is  necessary,  as  light  within  is  quite  wanted, 
and  it  may  not  be  advisable  to  fix  the  door  open  at  all  times 
in  our  climate.  Perforated  zinc,  or  close  lattice,  is  good,  and 
will  give  no  more  air  than  enough,  except  in  very  intense 
weather,  when  it  may  be  covered  with  a bit  of  thin  board  or  a 
sheet  of  brown  paper. 

Give  the  hen-houses  a good  lime-washing  at  first,  to  prevent 
vermin  making  a settlement  in  the  wood  or  small  cracks  to 
be  found  about,  and  lepeat  it  once  a year  at  furthest. 

When  the  house  is  complete,  with  door  and  window  for 
convenient  access  and  ventilation,  a hatch  for  the  use  of  the 
fowls,  a good  firm  floor,  which  can  neither  be  too  cold,  too 
easily  saturated  with  impurity,  nor  too  facile  a harbor  for  ver- 
min, and  which  can  be  kept  clean  without  difficulty,  all  sweet 
from  the  hand  of  the  whitewasher,  it  must  be  fitted  with 
perches  and  nests.  All  heavy  fowls  should  have  the  perch 
made  of  a fir  pole,  not  less  than  4 inches  across.  One  pole 
sawed  in  halves  will  make  two  perches  ; they  should  be  about 
2 feet,  or  a little  more,  from  the  ground,  and  they  should  drop 


into  sockets,  so  that  they  can  be  taken  down  to  clean  or  lime, 
wash.  Light  active  fowls  often  crave  to  soar  higher  for 
roosting,  but  heavy  birds  should  on  no  account  be  allowed  to 

do  so. 

Almost  anything,  provided  it  be  steady  and  clean,  does  for 
a nest.  Some  wild  fowls  like  it  to  be  secret  and  out  of  the 
way,  but  those  that  are  tame  and  much  noticed  care  little  about 
that  ; only  lake  care  that  it  stands  firm  (to  provide  against 
losses),  and  that  it  is  filled  with  clean  sweet  straw  or  hay. 
Straw  is  best  in  warm  weather,  as  hay  is  said  to  be  heating, 
and  consequently  to  encourage  vermin. 

HOUSES  AND  RUNS. 

With  regard  to  the  size  of  the  hen-house,  the  important 
point  is  that  it  should  be  sufficiently  large  for  the  air  to  keep 
pure  and  sweet  when  the  fowls  are  shut  up  at  night.  A house 
of  medium  size,  with  a few  fowls,  is  preferable  to  a large  one 
with  a great  many. 

One  favorite  form  for  poultry  houses,  with  many  extensive 
amateurs,  has  always  been  ranges  of  houses,  side  by  side,  each 
having  a run  belonging  to  it.  Another  plan  has  been  a circu- 
lar, octagonal,  or  square  building,  of  large  size,  parted  into 
several  poultry  houses,  and  with  a run  to  each  division,  ar- 
ranged round  the  building. 

Every  poultry  run  should  have  a shed.  A felt  roof  on  fixed 
supports,  with  a pitch  from  4 feet  at  the  back  to  3 feet  in  front, 
will  do.  A little  common  boarding  under  the  felt  will  make 
it  very  good,  or  a roof  of  feather-edged  board  will  do  exceed- 
ingly well.  It  should  have  a warm  aspect  ; under  it  should  be 
spread  fine  dust  in  which  the  fowls  may  roll  and  cleanse  theii 
feathers,  gravel  to  give  small  stones,  without  which  fowls  can- 
not remain  healthy,  and  lime  rubbish,  or  lime  in  some  shape 
for  eggshell,  without  a due  supply  of  which  they  will  not  lay 
well. 

Where  the  range  is  necessarily  small,  the  important  point  is 
to  have  a small  number  of  fowls  in  proportion  to  its  size,  and 
to  clear  off  all  supernumeraries  before  winter.  Grass  is  ex- 
cellent for  fowls,  but  it  is  impossible  to  keep  a small  run  in 
grass,  as  the  constant  tramp  and  scratching  of  even  half  a 
dozen  grown  birds  will  make  it  bare. 

A well  laid  run,  kept  clean,  will  do  for  fowls,  but  a grass 
run  is  far  preferable,  if  it  can  be  managed. 

FEEDING. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  method  of  poultry  feeding  so  injuriou: 
as  throwing  down  a lot  of  food,  from  which  they  can  fill  their 
crops,  scarcely  moving  from  the  spot  where  they  stand. 
Fowls  thus  fed  will  grow  fat  internally,  but  they  will  not  put  on 
good  firm  meat,  and  strong  useful  muscle,  nor  will  they  ac- 
quire stamina  and  good  constitutions. 

Good  feeding  rather  requires  good  space,  but  if  the  run  be 
small,  it  must  be  made  the  most  of  by  throwing  the  food  as 
far  as  can  be,  and  making  the  fowls  run  the  whole  distance,  as 
many  times  as  possible. 

In  a small  run,  where  the  green  food  must  be  given  to  the 
fowls,  instead  of  their  going  afar  to  seek  it  for  themselves,  it 
is  a good  plan  to  tie  up  cabbage  stumps  and  lettuces  for  them 
to  pull  at,  rather  than  to  throw  them  on  the  ground. 


POULTRY. 


567 


Three  meals  a day  are  quite  enough  for  any  grown  fowls  ; 
those  that  have  range  enough  to  enable  them  to  pick  up  much 
for  themselves  will  do  well  with  two. 

A good  supply  of  clean  pure  water  is  as  necessary  as  a reg- 
ular supply  of  food.  Perhaps  there  is  nothing  better  in  which 
to  give  the  water,  than  firm  standing  crockery  pans.  They 
should  be  placed  a little  sunk  in  the  ground,  very  firm  and 
steady,  in  some  out-of-the-way  corner,  where  the  fowls  are 
least  likely  to  step  into  them  or  overturn  them,  washed  thor- 
oughly inside  and  out  once  a day,  filled  once  a day,  and  filled 
up  whenever  they  require  it.  Each  pan  should  hold  as  much 
water  as  the  fowls  for  whose  use  it  is  intended  could  consume 
in  twenty-four  hours,  but  it  should  be  replenished  oftener  in 
case  of  accidents. 

The  different  kinds  of  food  used  in  feeding  poultry,  are, 
grain  of  many  varieties,  the  meal  made  from  them  by  grind- 
ing, root  and  green  vegetables,  and  meat,  either  given  by  hand, 
or  found  by  themselves  in  the  shape  of  worms,  grubs,  and 
such  like.  It  is  the  best  economy  to  buy  food  of  the  best 
quality,  for  poor  or  damaged  things  are  dear  at  any  price. 
The  food,  of  whatever  kind,  should  be  fine  of  its  kind,  and  in 
good  condition.  Worm-eaten  corn,  and  meal  which  is  full  of 
mites,  is  deficient  in  nourishing  properties  and  unwholesome. 

Next  in  importance  to  good  food  is  good  variety  in  diet. 
Animals  need  change  of  food,  and  always  thrive  best  and  pro- 
duce best  upon  it.  Barley,  oats,  wheat,  buckwheat,  Indian 
corn,  the  meal  made  from  all  these,  potatoes,  lettuces,  and  all 
kinds  of  garden  stuff  offer  a good  variety,  and  may  be  yet 
further  varied  with  rice,  mangold,  linseed,  vetches,  turnips, 
etc.  A change,  altered  week  about,  has  often  been  found  to 
succeed. 

Barley  is  used  as  whole  corn  more  than  almost  any  other 
kind  of  food,  and  it  is  good,  but  the  stock  will  not  thrive  on 
it  or  any  other  grain,  without  variation. 

Wheat  is  very  nourishing,  but  rather  too  heating  for  poul- 
try which  has  not  full  liberty. 

Buckwheat  makes  an  excellent  change,  and  promotes  lay- 
ing ; on  the  continent  it  is  more  used  than  any  other  grain. 
Fowls  like  it  very  much  when  they  get  used  to  it,  but  when  it 
is  strange  they  will  sometimes  overlook  it  on  account  of  its 
dark  color. 

Indian  corn  is  good  as  an  occasional  change  ; its  fault  is  that 
it  promotes  internal  fat  rather  than  general  plumpness,  on 
which  account  it  should  be  used  with  caution,  and  not  for  too 
long  at  a time. 

The  diet  of  fowls  should  never,  however-,  oe  entirely  corn. 
Since  their  gizzards  are  made  for  getting  nutriment  from  corn, 
we  do  not  think  the  use  of  it  should  be  excluded,  but  they  are 
omnivorous,  and  it  is  best  to  feed  them  at  all  times  partly  on 
soft  food,  i.  e.,  meal,  and  such  like,  and  partly  on  corn.  If 
two  meals  a day  are  given,  we  would  give  one  of  meal  and 
other  soft  food,  and  one  of  corn  ; if  three,  one  of  corn  and  two 
of  soft  food,  generally,  and  sometimes,  for  a change,  two  of 
corn  and  one  of  soft  food. 

Meal  of  different  kinds  is  the  staple  material  for  soft  food. 
Perhaps  the  best  of  all  is  oats  ground  up,  as  already  men- 
tioned. 

Barley  meal  is  a good  plain  meal  of  moderate  price,  for 


common  use,  and  one  which  the  fowls  always  seem  to  relish 
well. 

Oatmeal  is  dearer.  Good  round  Scotch  oatmeal  is  excellent 
from  its  nourishing  properties. 

Malt  dust  is  said  to  be  very  nourishing  and  good. 

In  buying  meal,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  get  it  good,  as 
if  it  be  old,  stale,  and  mity,  or  made  from  bad  corn,  no  stock 
can  thrive  upon  it.  It  should  be  newly  ground,  from  good 
corn,  and  kept  until  used  in  a cool  dry  place. 

Potatoes  are  very  good  poultry  food,  in  change  with  food 
of  other  kinds.  The  more  mealy  they  are  the  belter  they  are 
for  food,  so  that  if  they  are  boiled  they  should  be  cooked  in 
an  iron  pot,  and  put  to  dry  after  the  water  is  strained  from 
them.  When  they  are  given  they  may  be  broken  to  pieces, 
and  scattered  far  and  wide,  like  other  food.  For  developing 
the  mealiness,  they  may  be  better  steamed  than  boiled,  and  yet 
better,  by  far,  baked. 

In  feeding  young  stock,  take  care  that  the  food  is  thoroughly 
good  and  appetizing,  fresh  and  well  made.  Satisfy  hunger  at 
every  meal,  leave  time  between  the  meals  for  hunger  to  re- 
turn, and  never  pamper  appetite.  If  the  chickens  refuse  to 
eat,  they  often  know  better  what  is  good  for  them,  than  we  do 
when  we  try  to  press  or  force  them. 

As  the  chickens  approach  maturity  they  will  eat  enormously. 
Let  them  do  so.  Let  them  have  as  much  exercise  as  you  can 
give  them,  and  plenty  of  food  will  not  hurt  them.  If  they  be- 
come too  expensive,  eat  them  or  sell  them  ; clear  them  off  any 
way  you  can,  and  leave  space  at  liberty  for  future  use. 

All  fowls,  old  and  young,  want  green  food.  Giving  them 
free  access  to  grass  is  the  best  way  of  supplying  it,  and  if  we 
have  not  the  opportunity  we  may  give  them  turfs  of  grass  in 
their  runs.  If  the  turfs  are  too  large  and  heavy  for  the  fowls 
to  knock  to  pieces,  they  may  be  removed  to  a safe  place  and 
watered,  and  used  again  and  again  as  often  as  the  grass  grows. 
Fresh  cuttings  of  a lawn  may  be  thrown  into  the  runs,  and 
will  be  relished. 

Lettuces  may  be  given  to  fowls  and  ducks  ; turnip  greens 
are  good  for  them,  and  cabbage  leaves,  and  any  refuse  from 
the  garden  may  be  given,  if  grass,  lettuce,  or  turnip  greens 
are  not  to  be  had.  In  the  absence  of  green,  boiled  roots  are 
better  than  no  vegetable  food. 

Animal  food  also  is  necessary.  That  which  they  get  for 
themselves  in  the  shape  of  worms,  grubs,  etc.,  is  the  best,  and 
in  its  absence  the  want  must  be  supplied  with  a little  cooked 
meat,  cut  small. 

Forcing  breeding — wheat,  beans,  peas  and  meat — may  in- 
duce fowls  to  lay  abundantly,  but  will  not  produce  lastingly 
strong  healthy  fowls,  and  those  thus  fed  will  seldom  either  live 
out  their  natural  term  of  life,  or  produce  chickens  of  natural 
strength  and  stamina. 

EGGS  AND  HATCHING. 

Warm  housing  and  abundant  feeding  make  the  hens  lay 
early,  provided  they  do  not  become  too  fat.  Meat  will  bring 
them  on  to  lay,  and  buckwheat,  oats  fried  in  fat,  and  brewers’ 
grains  are  all  good  stimulants. 

As  the  chicken  season  approaches,  the  best  hens  should  be 
watched,  that  their  eggs  may  be  known,  written  on,  and  put 


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aside  in  order,  as  they  are  laid.  If  any  have  imperfect  shells, 
a smooih  round  mark  on  one  side,  an  appearance  of  a grown 
up  crack,  a look  of  weakness  anywhere,  or  any  irregularity  of 
shape,  they  had  better  be  rejected  for  setting,  as  they 
would  be  little  likely  to  hatch,  and  very  likely  to  break  in  the 
nest  before  the  term  of  incubation  was  up,  thus  doing  harm  by 
soiling  the  other  eggs,  and  possibly  inducing  the  sitter  to  be- 
come an  egg-eater  by  the  temptation  of  a cracked  egg,  too 
strong  to  be  resisted.  The  eggs,  until  they  are  wanted  for 
setting,  may  be  arranged  in  a box,  according  to  freshness,  and 
kept  in  a place  where  they  will  be  cool,  if  the  weather  be 
hot,  and  safe  from  the  frost  if  the  weather  be  severe. 

Eggs  should  on  no  account  be  stale  when  they  are  set,  as, 
if  they  are,  they  will  very  likely  not  hatch,  and  if  they  do 
hatch  the  produce  will  be  weakly.  If  the  eggs  are  set  at  once, 
without  becoming  cold  after  they  are  laid,  they  will  often 
hatch  a day  sooner. 

There  is  no  doubt  as  to  its  being  best  for  a hen  to  let  her 
set  once  a year,  or  even  twice,  especially  if  she  be  a good 
layer,  as  the  rest  and  good  feeding  she  gets  while  she  is  on  the 
nest  and  rearing  her  chickens,  prove  very  restorative.  If, 
however,  it  is  necessary  to  break  her  of  the  wish  to  set,  it  may 
best  be  done  by  changing  her  to  a grass  run,  where  she  can 
find  no  nest  to  take  possession  of,  or  coop  her  on  the  grass, 
out  of  sight  of  her  favorite  nest,  and  avoid  overfeeding. 

If  the  broody  hens  are  to  be  set,  an  appropriate  place  must 
be  prepared  for  them.  It  never  answers  to  let  hens  sit  in  the 
hen-house  where  other  fowls  are  kept,  as  they  will  be  contin- 
ually interfering  with  them,  and  interrupting  their  work. 
They  must,  therefore,  be  removed  to  some  quiet  place  which 
they  can  have  to  themselves,  and  even  then  they  will  want 
watching  until  each  one  gets  thoroughly  established  on  her 
own  nest,  lest  they  squabble  together.  The  place  for  the  sit- 
ters should  be  warm  in  spring,  and  not  excessively  hot  in 
summer,  as  heat  occasions  too  much  evaporation  for  the  well- 
being of  the  eggs,  and  often  besides  makes  the  hen  feverish 
and  ill,  and  consequently  restless,  and  apt  to  come  off  too 
often  and  to  break  or  crack  her  eggs  by  fidgeting.  A damp 
warm  atmosphere  is  that  which  is  most  favorable  to  incuba- 
tion ; cold  and  dry  heat  are  both  bad. 

A box  or  basket  well  filled  with  clean  straw,  rammed  down 
tight,  a foot  or  more  in  thickness,  under  the  hen  at  first,  is 
good.  Never  use  a nest,  unless  it  be  a hole  in  the  earth,  which 
has  not  a good  massive  thickness  of  straw  under  the  hen  ; for 
if  her  attention  to  her  own  arrangements  displaces  the  straw, 
and  leaves  the  eggs  on  the  bare  bottom  of  the  nest,  there  is 
positively  no  chance  of  success.  A good  sod  of  turf,  covered 
with  grass  or  close  heather,  the  size  of  the  nest,  fitted  to  the 
bottom  of  it,  with  a nest  of  straw  over,  makes  a very  good 
nest. 

Let  every  sitter  have  a clean  new-made  nest,  as  one  taken 
from  the  hen-house,  or  which  has  been  in  use  before,  may  be 
infested  with  insects  ; and  never  let  the  same  nest  be  used 
twice  for  setting  without  having  it  thoroughly  cleaned,  washed 
and  filled  with  fresh  straw.  The  nest  should  be  quite  full  to 
the  top,  so  that  the  hen  may  never  run  the  risk  of  breaking 
the  eggs  by  having  to  jump  down  upon  them. 

When  the  sitting  place  and  nests  are  duly  prepared,  the  sit- 


ters must  be  removed  to  them.  Place  them  on  the  new  nests, 
with  not  less  than  four  nest  eggs,  or  hard-boiled  eggs,  undet 
each,  and  cover  them  up,  or  hang  things  round  them,  so  as  to 
keep  them  in  the  dark,  until  they  are  settled  to  the  new  nests. 

Let  them  keep  to  the  nest  eggs  until  they  have  been  off  to  feed 
once  only  in  the  day,  and  returned  to  the  right  nests  steadily 
of  their  own  accord.  Then  the  eggs  may  be  given  to  each, 
from  nine  to  thirteen,  according  to  the  size,  with  some  cer- 
tainty that  the  sitters  will  do  well.  It  is  a good  plan  to  set 
two  hens  at  once,  and  three  are  still  better,  as,  if  the  broods 
are  not  large,  they  may  be  put  together,  or  if  any  con/retemps 
happen  to  one  hen  the  eggs  may  be  saved.  If  two  broods  be 
given  to  one  hen  to  bring  up,  to  save  trouble,  the  second  hen 
may  be  broken  off  from  sitting,  taking  care  to  place  her  where 
she  cannot  hear  the  chickens  ; it  does  .not  often  answer  to  set 
a hen  on  a second  time  with  fresh  eggs. 

The  requirements  of  the  sitter  are,  fresh  water,  and  a good 
meal  of  barley  every  time  she  leaves  her  nest  to  feed,  which  is 
generally  once  a day  only,  in  the  early  part  of  the  day.  Bar- 
ley is  better  than  barley  meal  dough,  and  a sitting  hen  is  very 
hearty  ; she  will  eat  a good  deal.  It  is  best  to  let  her  come 
off  of  herself,  and  to  know  when  she  leaves  her  nest.  Give 
her  down  plenty  of  food,  without  keeping  her  wait:'ng  for  it, 
and  see  that  she  satisfies  her  hunger  without  molestation  from 
other  fowls,  and  that  she  returns  quietly  to  her  eggs.  Besides 
food  and  water,  the  sitting  hen  wants  a little  green  food, 
stones  to  promote  digestion,  and  dry  dust  in  which  to  rol] 
and  cleanse  her  feathers.  If  sitters  have  not  the  opportunity 
of  keeping  themselves  free  from  insects  in  the  dust  bath,  they 
will  get  infested  with  chickens’  fleas,  which  torment  them  so 
that  it  becomes  quite  impossible  for  them  to  remain  quiet,  and 
they  will  often  leave  the  nest  and  forsake  the  eggs.  A good 
heap  of  dust,  in  which  to  roll,  is  almost  as  necessary  to  a sit-  . 
ting  hen  as  her  daily  meal.  After  she  gets  thoroughly  accus- 
tomed to  the  place  and  the  nest,  a run  out  of  doors  to  pick  up 
insects,  and  peck  at  grass,  will  do  her  good,  care  being  taken 
to  see  that  she  goes  back  in  due  time.  Some  hens  return  to 
the  nest  in  a very  short  time  ; others  remain  off  the  great  part 
of  an  hour.  It  is  better  not  to  allow  them  to  wander  too  long 
or  too  far. 

The  eggs  ought  to  hatch  the  day  three  weeks  from  that  on 
which  they  are  set.  Under  favorable  circumstances  the 
chickens  make  their  appearance  the  day  before. 

The  growing  and  expanding  chicken  does  all  the  work  of 
breaking  the  shell ; the  sitter  takes  no  part  in  it,  but  only 
gives  her  genial  warmth.  As  soon  as  she  hears  the  chick 
within  the  shell  her  eye  puts  on  a bright  pleased  look,  by  which 
anyone  who  watches  hens  closely,  may  know  that  the  maternal 
instinct  is  gratified  by  the  certainty  of  success,  and  her  note 
changes  to  the  pleased  “took,  took,”  the  mother’s  call. 

The  first  sound  within  the  shell  is  a soft  tapping,  occasioned 
by  the  first  action  of  the  lungs  of  the  now  fully  formed  chicken, 
expanding  with  the  air  gaining  admittance  to  the  air  cavity  at 
the  broad  end  of  the  egg,  through  the  pores  of  the  shell.  The 
chick,  growing,  expanding,  and  unfolding  from  the  cramped 
closely-packed  position  in  which  it  has  grown,  presses  the  tip 
of  the  beak  against  the  shell  with  sufficient  force  to  start  it. 

Still  expanding  and  unfolding,  it  extends  the  cracks  which  the  t 


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569 


Jittle  beak  has  made,  until  the  shell  opens  completely  into  two 
unequal  parts,  and  the  little  wet  weakly  chicken  emerges  ; then 
‘.he  mother’s  warmth  nourishes  it  into  dryness  and  strength. 
When  the  chicken  first  comes  out  of  the  shell,  the  moist  down 
lies  close  to  the  skin,  each  particle  enveloped  in  a kind  of 
sheath.  As  the  down  dries,  it  throws  off  these  sheaths,  which 
may  be  seen  scattered  over  the  nest,  and  expands  into  the  soft 
full  covering  which  clothes  the  young  chickens  in  warmth  and 
beauty.  The  next  thing  is,  it  wants  to  eat  ; but  this  does  not 
happen  until  it  has  been  many  hours  hatched. 

It  is  best  not  to  interfere  with  the  mother  and  vex  her  by 
taking  her  chickens  from  her  ; but  as  soon  as  the  little  ones 
are  seen  to  pop  out  from  among  her  feathers,  a little  sopped 
bread  in  a cup  may  be  placed  before  her  ; she  will  be  hungry, 
and  will  eat  herself,  and  will  feed  her  little  ones  as  soon  as 
instinct  tells  her  they  require  food.  Offer  her  also  a little 
water  to  drink,  which  she  will  often  be  very  glad  of. 

If  the  hatching  is  protracted,  it  is  necessary  sometimes  to 
take  the  hen  off,  and  look  at  the  eggs,  in  case  of  untoward  ac- 
cidents, such  as  a weakly  chick  falling  to  the  bottom  of  the 
nest,  unable  to  recover  itself,  or  an  unhatched  egg  getting 
firmly  fixed  inside  an  empty  eggshell.  This  last  is  not  very 
unfrequent,  as  some  hens  have  a habit  of  systematically  pack- 
ing away  the  eggshells,  one  in  another,  like  market  baskets, 
and  sometimes  push  in  an  egg  by  mistake,  when  the  chicken 
in  it  may  be  sacrificed.  Hens  which  are  so  ill-tempered  that 
they  will  not  be  touched  without  putting  themselves  in  a tan- 
tram,  had  better  be  left  on  the  nest  undisturbed,  as,  if 
touched,  they  may  do  more  mischief  to  the  eggs  and  chickens 
than  is  likely  to  arise  from  accident.  Give  the  hen  food  while 
you  tidy  the  nest,  if  necessary,  and  remove  the  empty  egg- 
shells. Keep  the  chickens  which  are  hatched  warm  while  this 
is  done,  let  the  hen  go  back,  and  when  she  is  settled  upon  the 
eggs  give  her  her  chickens,  putting  them  carefully,  one  by  one, 
under  her  wings.  Many  hens  are  so  good  and  quiet  that  you 
may  raise  them  up  and  look  under  them,  without  taking  them 
off,  which  is  better. 

The  nen  should  never  be  unnecessarily  interfered  with. 
On  the  day  of  hatching,  get  her  off  to  feed  at  her  usual  time 
in  the  morning,  and  then  once  in  eight  or  twelve  hours  will  be 
often  enough  to  go  to  her,  to  see  how  the  hatching  progresses; 
but  do  not  take  her  off  the  nest  as  often  as  that,  unless  circum- 
stances render  it  necessary. 

The  more  the  hatching  is  left  to  nature  the  better,  but  there 
are  rare  instances  when  fine  chickens  would  be  lost,  if  not  a 
little  helped  out  of  the  eggshell. 

At  the  end  of  the  twenty-first  day,  put  the  eggs  which  re- 
main unhatched  to  the  ear,  give  them  a turn  over,  and  if  the 
inside  flops,  take  them  away.  If  any  eggs  seem  good,  put 
them  under  the  hen  again  ; she  will  be  mere  likely  to  hatch 
them  in  the  night,  when  she  sits  down  closer,  than  by  day, 
when  the  early  hatched  chickens  will  be  beginning  to  get  ac- 
tive, and  to  move  about  around  her  in  the  nest. 

If  it  is  wished  to  hatch  a good  many  chickens,  the  eggs  may 
be  examined  when  they  have  been  set  a week,  when,  if  there 
are  many  bad  ones,  two  batches  may  be  united,  and  new  lots 
given  to  the  other  hens.  Hold  the  eggs,  one  by  one,  against 
a circular  hole,  an  inch  and  a quarter  across,  in  a rather  dark- 


ened place,  with  the  sun  shining  outside.  The  chickens  in 
the  eggs,  and  the  ramifications  of  veins  inside  the  shells,  wifi 
be  plainly  seen,  and  the  eggs  which  have  no  chickens  in  them 
will  show  clear.  So  small  an  accident  may  interfere  with  the 
growth  of  the  chicken  in  the  egg,  that  unless  more  sitters  are 
much  wanted,  I think  it  best  to  leave  the  nests  undisturbed, 
except  in  taking  away  unmistakably  bad  eggs  when  they  are 
known. 

REARING  CHICKENS. 

When  the  hatching  is  done,  the  sooner  the  hen  can  be  re- 
moved to  a clean  nest,  free  from  vermin,  the  better.  That 
which  has  been  set  in  three  weeks  will  have  chickens’  fleas, 
encouraged  and  increased  by  the  unusual  warmth,  and  if  the 
chickens  remain  in  it,  they  will  swarm  to  their  soft  down  in  a 
manner  to  preclude  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  brood.  As 
soon,  therefore,  as  the  eggs  are  all  hatched,  or  found  not  likely 
to  hatch,  put  the  mother  and  her  brood  into  a comfortable 
warm  clean  nest. 

An  old  clothes  basket  does  as  well  as  anything,  for  there 
should  be  plenty  of  room,  or  the  chickens  may  get  crushed. 

If  the  weather  be  cold,  warm  the  straw  before  the  fire  for  a 
few  minutes,  or  warm  it  in  the  sunshine  if  there  be  any,  that 
the  latest  hatched,  some  of  them  possibly  scarcely  dry,  may 
not  be  chilled  by  the  change  ; and  when  the  hen  has  settled 
down  quietly,  with  her  little  ones  under  her,  place  food  and 
water  before  her,  that  she  may  eat  and  feed  her  young  family. 
The  food  thus  early  may  be  chopped  eggs  (shell  and  all),  and 
bread  crumbs,  sop,  oatmeal  and  barley  meal  mixed,  dry  and 
crumbly,  and  crushed  corn,  giving  now  as  later  only  one  thing 
at  a time.  The  drinking-pan  should  be  shallow,  that  the 
chickens  may  not  get  wet  by  going  into  it,  or  turning  it  over  ; 
and  constantly  replenished,  that  the  old  hen  may  not  want. 

If  the  weather  is  mild  and  dry,  the  sooner  mother  and  fam- 
ily can  be  placed  on  the  gravel,  out  of  doors,  the  better  ; but 
at  first  it  must  not  be  for  long  at  a time.  They  may  be  put 
down,  with  advantage  to  themselves,  on  the  floor  of  a green- 
house, and  if  the  hen  can  be  allowed  a roll  in  some  dust  in 
one  corner,  it  will  be  good  for  her  and  for  her  chickens  too. 

Under  a shed,  where  the  ground  is  clean  dust,  mixed  with 
small  stones,  is  a good  place  for  cooping  the  hen  for  the  first 
ten  days  or  so,  and  she  may  after  that  be  placed  on  the  grass 
in  dry  weather,  but  not  before  the  dew  is  off  it.  During  a 
portion  of  each  day  she  should  be  cooped  where  she  and  her 
little  ones  may  enjoy  a roll  in  dry  dusty  earth. 

In  choosing  a place  for  cooping  the  hen,  care  should  be 
taken  that  she  can  have  the  shelter  necessary  for  comfort. 
When  she  is  loose  she  can  lead  her  chickens  into  the  shade,  or 
into  the  sunshine,  or  to  warm  nooks  sheltered  from  cold  winds, 
and  it  is  cruel  to  confine  her  to  one  spot  without  consulting 
her  wants  in  these  matters.  The  imprisonment  alone  is  quite 
bad  enough  for  the  poor  hen  to  bear.  In  the  kind  of  coop 
used,  and  in  placing  the  coop,  take  care  that  there  is  ample 
and  complete  shelter  from  wet.  When  the  wind  is  cold,  place 
the  coop  where  the  hen  and  her  chickens  may  be  sheltered 
from  its  chilling  influence.  During  the  heat  of  the  day,  shade 
from  the  broiling  heat  of  the  sun  is  as  necessary  as  shelter  from 
wet  and  cold.  It  is  good  to  attain  these  ends  by  moving  the 
coops  about  three  times  a day,  or  as  often  as  necessary. 


57° 


POULTRY. 


If  the  brood  is  housed  at  night,  the  hen  may  brood  them  on 
the  ground,  if  it  be  bare  earth,  not  cold  pavement.  She  may 
either  have  a little  straw  thrown  down,  or  take  the  chickens 
into  a large  shallow  firm-standing  basket.  The  main  thing  is, 
whatever  the  bed  be,  let  it  be  clean  and  sweet  ; whether  it  be 
the  earth  or  straw,  let  it  be  well  cleaned  every  day,  and  re- 
newed when  it  becomes  soiled. 

If  two  or  more  broods  are  put  to  roost  in  one  hen-house,  the 
old  hens  should  be  confined  with  coops,  or  they  may  interfere 
with  each  other,  or  injure  each  other’s  chickens. 

The  spite  of  hens  towards  chickens  not  belonging  to  them* 
must  always  be  guarded  against.  The  best  way  is,  if  it  can 
be  managed,  to  place  the  coops  so  that  they  cannot  see  each 
other. 

From  the  time  the  hen  is  cooped  out,  especially  after  the 
wing  feathers  begin  to  show,  the  chickens  must  be  plentifully 
fed  on  good  food,  well  varied.  Rice  pudding,  made  of  rice, 
sharps,  or  Indian  meal,  and  milk,  and  baked,  makes  excellent 
nourishing  food,  to  which  eggs  and  chopped  meat,  one  or  both, 
may  be  added.  Rice,  boiled,  and  rolled  in  sharps  or  Indian 
meal,  instead  of  the  pudding,  is  good.  Other  kinds  of  food 
are  oatmeal  and  barley  meal,  mixed  into  a dry  friable  mass, 
canary  seed,  crushed  oats,  and  crushed  barley.  These  may 
be  varied  with  cooked  potatoes  (baked  are  best),  bread  sopped 
in  milk  or  in  water  (brown  bread  is  preferable  to  white)  and 
buckwheat.  To  get  size,  meat  may  be  given  every  other  day. 
They  should  have  green  food  of  some  kind  every  day.  Vary- 
ing the  meals,  and  sometimes  giving  an  entire  change,  feed 
the  chickens  constantly,  as  often  as  they  get  hungry,  with  as 
much  food  as  they  and  the  mother  like,  leaving  none  to  get 
stale,  waste  upon  the  ground,  and  encourage  hosts  of  sparrows. 
When  they  no  longer  eat  eagerly,  with  a good  appetite,  throw 
no  more  down.  At  first,  they  will  want  a bit  about  every  hour, 
and  by  degrees  they  will  get  hungry  less  often,  until  six  meals 
a day  will  be  enough. 

Chickens  which  are  hatched  before  the  natural  time — that 
is  to  say,  before  the  nights  become  mild  and  the  days  sunny, 
and  before  the  earth  teems  with  insects  which  they  can  catch 
for  themselves,  and  the  absence  of  which  no  meat  will  com- 
pensate— must  have  a little  artificial  warmth. 

Chickens  hatched  thus  early  must  be  fed  after  dark,  as  a 
fast  from  dark  to  daylight  is  too  long.  About  ten  o’clock  at 
night  put  down  a candle  or  a lantern,  and  place  food  and 
water  before  the  hen,  and  the  little  ones  soon  get  into  the 
habit  of  expecting  a meal  at  that  time,  and  of  making  a good 
one. 

It  is  a mistake  to  feed  chickens  on  plenty  of  excellent  food 
for  the  first  three  weeks,  and  then  to  some  extent  leave  them 
to  take  their  chance.  As  the  fledging  advances,  they  require 
better  and  more  nourishing  food  than  they  do  while  in  the 
down.  The  call  which  the  growth  of  the  feathers  makes  on 
the  resources  of  the  chickens  is  attested  by  the  wonderfully 
rapid  growth  which  immediately  commences  as  soon  as  they 
are  fledged,  and  this  increased  rate  of  growth  renders  good 
feeding  still  no  less  necessary,  and  so  on  until  growth  is  com- 
plete. 

About  the  best  kind  of  coop  is  a wooden  box,  with  a span 
roof  (either  2 or  3 feet  square,  according  to  the  space  at  com- 


mand, and  the  size  of  the  stock  kept),  to  give  shelter  and 
shade,  with  a run  of  wirework  rather  larger  to  place  in  front 
of  it,  to  increase  the  range  for  the  hen.  She  may  make  use  of 
both  and  the  chickens  have  full  liberty,  running  in  and  out 
through  the  wirework. 

By  the  time  the  chickens  are  turned  off  by  their  mothers,  it 
is  generally  necessary  to  clear  them  from  the  ground  they 
have  hitherto  occupied,  to  make  room  for  more  young  broods. 
It  is  far  better  if  each  brood  can  then  have  a house  and  run  to 
itself.  If  so  much  room  cannot  be  spared,  care  must,  at  any 
rate,  be  taken  only  to  put  together  chickens  of  about  the  same 
age. 

A few  chickens  well  bred,  well  accommodated,  well  cared 
for,  and  well  fed,  will  turn  out  a pleasure  and  a credit ; a 
good  many  chickens  crowded  together,  however  carefully 
looked  after  and  fed,  will  give  a great  deal  of  trouble,  con- 
stant work,  constant  care,  and  constant  disappointment,  and 
make  no  commensurate  return,  either  in  satisfaction  or  profit. 

The  difference  between  cockerels  and  pullets  may  some- 
times be  detected  while  they  are  very  young.  In  some  the 
cock’s  comb  soon  shows.  In  most  kinds  the  arrangement  of 
the  first  wing  feathers  is  rounder  and  wider  in  pullets  than  in 
cockerels,  whose  first  wing  feathers  come  more  to  a point  ; 
the  pullets’  heads  are  often  narrower  and  finer  than  the 
roosters,  and  they  fledge  earlier  on  the  back,  down  the  sides  of 
the  breast,  and  at  the  back  of  the  head.  In  fine  robust  chick- 
ens it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  pick  out  the  cockerels  and  pul- 
lets until  the  back  is  partly  feathered,  when  the  pointed  saddle 
hackle  feathers  soon  begin  to  sprout  ; the  surest  test  of  all. 

As  the  chickens  approach  maturity,  good  feeding  must  still 
be  continued,  supplying  the  place  of  the  rice  puddings,  canary 
seed,  and  other  young  chicken  dainties  with  abundant  sup- 
plies of  oatmeal,  barley  meal,  and  good  corn,  and  using  dis- 
cretion as  to  the  supply  of  meat.  The  bits  from  the  table 
may  always  be  collected  and  divided  among  the  chickens. 

As  they  approach  maturity,  too,  they  must  be  allotted  to 
their  destinations. 

The  young  birds  which  are  picked  out  for  the  table  may 
also  be  put  to  their  destination.  Plenty  of  exercise  develops 
strength  and  firmness  of  muscle,  and  is  good  for  chickens 
which  have  the  duties  of  a long  life  before  them  ; i.  e.,  a life 
which  is  long  for  chickens,  four  or  five  years  cr  so.  For  eat- 
ing we  want  tender,  not  strong,  firm  muscle  ; therefore  the 
chickens  which  are  to  be  eaten  need  not  have  an  extensive 
range.  They  may  be  made  happy  in  a small  run,  and  well 
fed  with  several  meals  a day  of  oatmeal  and  barley  meal 
mixed,  just  so  dry  that  the  balls  will  fall  to  pieces  when  they 
are  thrown  down,  and  a little  com,  with  good  supplies  of 
clean  fresh  water.  Those  who  like  good  chickens  in  natural 
condition  may  follow  this  plan,  giving  them  for  a little  time 
before  they  are  wanted  rice  boiled  in  water,  in  milk,  or  made 
into  puddings,  as  for  young  chickens ; but  those  who  like  to 
fatten  their  fowls  for  the  table  can  put  them  up  in  fatting 
coops. 

When  they  are  put  up,  feed  with  moderation  at  first,  as  re- 
pletion then,  or  at  any  time,  would  retard  the  fatting  process. 
As  soon  as  they  are  reconciled  to  captivity,  feed  them  on  oat- 
meal three  times  a day.  Milk  for  mixing  the  oatmeal  is  best ; 


POULTRY. 


57i 


If' 


every  meal  must  be  given  in  a well  scalded,  clean  trough  ; 
keep  the  coops  supplied  with  clean  water,  and  between  the 
meals  place  gravel  before  them,  for  them  to  peck  at,  and  a 
turf  cf  grass.  Keep  the  coops  scrupulously  clean,  give  the 
first  meal  at  sunrise,  or  thereabouts,  and  the  last  at  roosting 
time,  a 'id  the  chickens  will  be  ready  to  kill  in  about  ten  days 
or  a fortnight.  As  soon  as  they  are  fat  enough  they  must  be 
killed,  or  they  will  become  unhealthy.  When  one  lot  is 
fatted,  take  down  the  fattening  coops,  scrub  and  limewash 
them,  and  put  them  out  in  the  air  for  a time  before  using 
them  again. 

Those  who  wish  to  make  fowls  very  fat  by  the  unpleasant 
process  of  cramming,  may  either  choose  the  finest  and 
healthiest  from  the  fatting  coop,  or  any  good  fleshy  young 
fowls.  The  food  used  is  oatmeal,  mixed  stiff  with  milk, 
made  up  into  boluses  the  size  to  be  put  down  the  chicken's 
throat  without  danger  01  choking  it.  To  fatten  more  rapidly 
mutton  suet  may  be  boiled  in  the  milk  used  to  mix  the  oat- 
meal. The  person  employed  in  the  cramming  process  opens 
the  chicken’s  beak,  and  puts  six  or  eight  boluses  down  its 
throat  morning  and  evening.  If  it  seem  to  wish  for  food  at 
noon  a little  can  be  given  it  in  the  trough,  which  must  be  sup- 
olied  also  with  water  and  gravel.  Those  which  have  been  put 
up  will  be  finished  off  in  a week  ; those  which  have  to  be 
fatted  by  the  cramming  will  take  fourteen  or  sixteen  days. 
While  they  are  fattening  by  either  process  they  must  be  kept 
free  from  draft,  as  they  will  fatten  all  the  better  for  being 
comfortably  warm. 

Some  persons  kill  fowls  by  bleeding  them  in  the  mouth  ; 
others  wring  their  necks.  The  quickest  and  most  merciful 
way  is  with  a dexterous  jerk  to  break  the  neck. 

FANCY  VARIETIES. 

DORKINGS,  SPANISH,  AND  COCHINS. 

The  chief  large  fowls  occupying  the  attention  of  fanciers 
are  Dorkings,  Spanish,  Cochins,  Brahmas,  Malays,  and  Creve- 
coeurs,  and  the  other  French  breeds. 

Dorkings. — The  chickens  are  delicate  until  they  get  into 
their  feathers,  and  Dorkings  of  all  ages  are  more  subject  to 
roup  than  most  kinds.  Unless  they  have  a good  or  well- 
drained  soil,  or  an  extensive  grass  range,  they  do  not  lay  well, 
and  do  not  thrive  well.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  excel- 
lent and  economical  for  persons  to  keep  who  supply  the 
markets,  provided  they  possess  facilities  for  keeping  and  rear- 
ing them  with  success,  because  they  come  forward  early  ; they 
make  their  growth  early  in  life,  may  be  fatted  off,  and  cleared 
off  early,  and  thus  leave  the  ground  at  liberty  soon,  and  en- 
able the  owner  to  realize  his  returns  in  a short  time.  If 
Dorkings  are  kept,  they  must  have  great  care  in  feeding,  and 
perfect  cleanliness.  The  stamina  of  the  chickens  may  be  im- 
proved by  crossing  with  Brahmas,  Cochins,  or  Game. 

The  hens  are  good  sitters,  and  attentive  good  mothers,  and 
where  the  locality  suits  them,  they  are  very  good  layers  of 
nice,  well-flavored,  and  rather  large  eggs.  There  are  few 
kinds  which  vary  more,  as  layers,  than  they. 

The  white  Dorking  is  the  original  type  of  the  race  It  | 


should  have  a square,  plump,  compact  form,  plumage  of  spot- 
less white,  delicate  white  skin,  white  legs,  which  should  be 
delicate,  not  coarse,  five  toes  well  developed,  clear  white  or 
pale  yellow  beak,  and  a well-formed,  full-colored  rose-comb. 
Size  is  an  important  point,  and  one  in  which  white  Dorkings 
have  sometimes  failed,  but  which  the  careful  introduction  of 
fresh  blood  from  time  to  time  improves. 

The  fifth  toe  on  each  foot  is  a matter  of  primary  importL  ;ce 
in  all  Dorkings,  white  and  colored.  Careful  breeding  has 
firmly  fixed  this  property  in  the  Dorking,  and  no  fowl  without 
it  would  have  a chance  of  success  at  an  exhibition,  or  of  being 
purchased  as  a Dorking  fowl  anywhere.  The  fifth  toe  should 
be  distinct  and  well  developed  on  each  foot ; a sixth  is  no 
merit.  The  legs  must  have  no  suspicion  of  feathering 

The  colored  Dorkings,  like  the  white,  must  be  plump  made 
compact,  and  wide,  with  plenty  of  meat  on  the  breast,  short 
legs,  and  little  offal.  The  comb  may  be  single  or  rose,  but 
all  the  combs  in  a pen  must  match  well.  The  legs  must  De 
short,  white,  and  delicate — i.  e.,  not  coarse  in  the  scales. 

The  plumage  of  colored  Dorkings  varies  much,  as  may  be 
expected  in  fowls  w'hich  have  been  bred  chiefly  with  reference 
to  useful  properties. 

Spanish. — Brilliant  black  plumage,  bright  scarlet  combs 
and  wattles,  and  distinct  and  clear  white  faces  make  these 
fowls  very  attractive,  and  they  are  among  the  oldest  as  well  as 
greatest  favorites  of  poultry  lovers  ; for  early  in  this  century, 
specimens  which  were  at  the  time  thought  very  choice,  were 
brought  to  England  from  Holland.  It  seems  probable  that 
the  kind  may  have  been  introduced  into  Holland  from  Spain, 
and  taken  up  and  improved  by  the  keen  Dutch  fanciers,  but 
now  amateurs  can  find  no  vestige  of  the  kind  in  the  country 
which  gives  them  their  name. 

Spanish  roosters,  especially,  have  a tall,  majestic  carriage, 
and  the  kind  have  the  merit  of  doing  well,  and  looking  hand- 
some and  ornamental,  if  kept  in  a confined  place,  provided  it 
be  not  overcrowded.  They  lay  eggs  which  are  very  fine  in 
size,  but  they  are  apt  to  be  more  woolly  and  less  delicate  in 
the  white  than  those  of  many  other  fowls. 

Cold,  especially  if  it  be  damp  cold,  spoils  the  appearance  of 
the  old  birds,  by  injuring  the  combs  and  turning  them  black. 
The  combs  of  the  hens  shrink  very  much,  and  lose  their 
beauty,  while  they  are  moulting,  or  when  they  are  laying. 

Spanish  hens  do  not  sit,  so  other  sitters  must  be  provided  to 
hatch  and  rear  the  chickens  ; and  for  this  purpose  it  is  best  to 
choose  Dorkings,  if  possible,  or,  at  any  rate,  some  kind  which 
does  not  throw  off  the  chickens  early.  Spanish  chickens  had 
better  not  be  hatched  very  early  in  the  season,  as  they  fledge 
late,  and  are  delicate  until  they  get  into  feathers  ; from  March 
to  May  is  the  best  time. 

The  Minorca  is  a variety  of  the  Spanish,  which,  although 
wanting  in  valuable  fancy  points,  is  a good-looking,  useful 
fowl,  large  in  size,  better  for  the  table  than  Spanish,  and  s 
good  layer  of  fine  large  eggs. 

The  Andalusian  fowl  is  rather  an  attractive-looking  bird  ; in 
form  and  carriage  much  like  the  Spanish,  and  evidently  of  the 
same  family,  with  plumage  either  of  a uniform  slate  color,  or 
slate  shaded  or  laced  with  black,  and  showy,  well-developed 
scarlet  combs  and  wattles.  It  has  been  stated  that  they  were 


57? 


POULTRY. 


Drought  from  Andalusia,  hut  some  affirm  that  they  have  been 
Dred  from  the  Spanish— an  accidental  sport. 

Cochins  have  the  merit  of  being  excellent  layers.  Good 
Cochin  hens  will  lay  every  day,  or  two  days  out  of  three, 
until  they  want  to  sit  ; and  they  have  the  merit  of  being  good 
layers  in  the  winter,  when  fresh  eggs  are  rarities. 

The  thing  which  most  interferes  with  the  production  of  eggs 
is  the  Cochin's  constant  habit  of  wanting  to  sit ; but  if  she  is 
allowed  to  sit,  she  very  soon  lays  again. 

Cochins  are  tame,  docile,  and  manageable  ; little  children 
may  tend  them  without  a chance  of  getting  hurt,  and  they  are 
friendly  among  themselves.  When  the  hens  sit,  we  may  do 
what  we  like  with  them,  and  they  are  kind  mothers  as  long  as 
their  nice  little  hardy  chickens  require  their  care.  We  can 
keep  Cochins  where  we  can  keep  no  other  fowls,  and  make 
them  profitable  with  no  other  drawback  to  counteract  all  their 
merits  than  a too-frequent  wish  to  sit,  and  the  character  they 
have  of  not  being  good  for  the  table,  which  any  careful  breeder 
might  remedy  to  a great  extent. 

Cochins,  like  all  fowls  that  lay  so  many  eggs,  are  rather 
greedy  eaters,  and  they  are  very  ready  to  fatten  internally 
(hence  often  the  shelless  eggs,  and  two  eggs  a day);  so  that  in 
feeding  them  care  must  be  taken  to  feed  moderately,  and  to 
avoid  food  of  too  fattening  a nature.  The  fowls  and  the 
chickens  will  do  well  if  fed  and  treated  as  recommended  in  the 
chapters  on  feeding  and  chicken-rearing.  The  dangerous  time 
is  from  the  time  the  wing-feathers  are  grown  until  the  head 
is  covered  ; and  then  they  want  plenty  of  good  nourishing 
food.  They  are  nicest  for  the  table  at  from  five  to  seven  or 
eight  months  old : as  young  chickens,  they  are  not  nearly  so 
good,  but  are  better  fowls  when  nearer  maturity. 

COCHINS,  BRAHMAS,  MALAYS,  AND  THE 
FRENCH  FOWLS. 

White  Cochins  must,  of  course,  be  perfectly  white  in  plu- 
mage, and  shown  very  clean. 

Black  Cochins  have  almost  disappeared,  on  account  of  their 
incorrigible  habit  of  moulting  to  a mixture  of  colored  feathers 
among  the  black.  The  hens  remain  black,  but  the  roosters 
almost  invariably  display  a mixture  of  red  or  yellow  after  the 
first  moult,  if  not  before. 

Brahmas.  — No  one  knows  the  original  stock  ; no  one 
knows  whence  they  came  originally  ; this  is  the  accusation 
that  is  brought  against  the  Brahmas,  the  best  fowls  we  have 
ever  had,  as  regards  the  number  of  useful  properties  they 
possess. 

The  Brahmas  are  tame,  docile,  of  a contented  disposition, 
and  almost  as  easy  to  keep  in  as  the  Cochins  ; but  they  like  a 
good  range  when  they  can  get  it,  and  make  the  most  of  it  far 
more  industriously.  The  pullets  do  not  lay  so  early  as  Cochin 
pullets,  but  taking  the  year  round,  the  Brahmas  produce  more 
eggs  than  Cochins  do,  from  not  wanting  to  sit  so  often. 
They  are  good  sitters  and  mothers,  lay  early  after  hatching, 
and  often  tend  their  chickens  for  weeks  after  they  begin  to 
lay. 

They  are  good  table  fowls,  being  ready  in  putting  on  flesh, 
compact  in  make,  full  in  the  breast,  juicy,  and  good  in  flavor. 
They  should  be  large  and  heavy,  of  a free  majestic  bearing, 


removed  alike  from  the  waddle  of  the  Cochin,  and  the  upright 
carriage  of  the  Malay,  compactly  made,  not  long  in  the  leg 
or  neck,  wide  and  full  in  the  breast,  wide  and  deep  in  make  ; 
legs  are  yellow  and  well  feathered.  The  head  is  delicate  in 
character,  with  a fullness  over  the  eye  which  gives  breadth  to 
the  top  of  the  head,  and  a full  clear  eye.  The  tail  is  short  and 
full. 

In  color,  Brahmas  range  from  an  almost  white  plumage, 
with  more  or  less  black  penciling  on  the  hackle,  and  black  in 
the  feathers  of  the  tail  and  wings,  to  dark-gray  plumage. 
Perfection  in  a light  Brahma  is  a white  surface,  with  well- 
marked  hackle,  wings  and  tail,  and  such  uniform  pearly-gray 
under  color,  that  the  feathers  cannot  ruffle  without  showing  it. 

The  Malay.  Malays  are  great  favorites  with  a few,  but 
from  their  peculiar  gaunt  form  they  are  by  no  means  gen- 
erally liked  or  kept.  They  are  large  b ' vy  birds,  with  such  hard 
close  feathers  that  they  are  more  bulky  and  weighty  than  they 
look.  They  are  tall,  with  an  upright  gait ; the  tail  is  droop- 
ing and  small,  with  beautiful,  but  not  long,  sickle  feathers. 
The  thighs  are  remarkably  long,  strong,  and  firm,  and  the 
tarsi  round,  stout  and  yellow.  Their  head  is  snake-like,  with 
great  fullness  over  the  eye,  giving  it  a flattened  form  on  the 
top.  The  Malay  has  a bold  eye,  a red  skinny  face,  and  a 
strong  curved  hawk-beak.  The  comb  is  short,  small,  very 
thick,  and  close  to  the  head,  resembling  half  a strawberry  ; the 
wattles  are  very  small,  and  the  wings  rather  set  up. 

The  favorite  colors  are  different  shades  of  rich  chestnut 
brown,  or  cinnamon.  There  are  also  black-breasted  reds, 
black,  and  white. 

As  fowls  to  keep,  they  have  the  great  merit  of  doing  well  in 
any  back-yard,  and  looking  handsomer  there  than  at  a show. 
The  hens  are  often  pretty  good  winter  layers.  The  eggs  are 
of  medium  size,  with  tinted  shells  ; they  are  good  in  flavor 
and  hatch  well.  The  Malay  hen  is  a good  sitter  and  a good 
mother,  that  will  hold  her  own,  and  defend  her  brood  with 
her  good  strong  beak,  if  necessary.  The  chickens  are  hardy 
little  things,  if  well  bred;  but  they  fledge  late,  and  look  gaunt 
and  ugly  when  half  grown. 

Crevecceurs  and  some  other  French  breeds  fill  up  our 
list  of  large  fowls.  It  is  curious  that  the  change  from  a 
more  favorable  to  a worse  climate  should  seem  to  affect  the 
well-being  of  fowls  detrimentally,  in  coming  only  across  the 
Channel,  as  the  Crevecoeurs,  La  Fleche,  and  Houdans 
do,  and  not  in  coming  half  the  circumference  of  the 
globe,  as  in  the  case  of  Cochins,  Malays,  and  other  Asiatics  : 
but  so  it  is.  As  far  as  I have  had  an  opportunity  of  judging, 
importations  from  the  farther  side  of  Asia  arrive  here  and  do 
well  from  the  time  of  their  arrival  ; but  many  who  have  had 
the  French  fowls  have  found  the  Crevecoeurs  more  subject  to 
roup  than  even  the  Dorkings,  and  the  La  Fleche  change  from 
the  good  productive  fowls,  which  I suppose  they  are  in  their 
own  country,  to  but  indifferent  layers. 

The  Crevecoeur,  when  it  thrives,  is  an  excellent  fowl  for  the 
table,  being  square,  plump-made,  and  large,  ready  to  fatten 
easily  (if  in  thorough  health  and  good  condition),  compactly 
formed,  and  short  in  the  leg.  The  hens  are  said  to  be  goo« 
layers  ; their  eggs  are  very  large,  and  they  are  not  sitters. 
The  chickens  come  to  maturity  early,  and  Mrs.  F.  Blair  says 


POULTRY. 


573 


f 


the  pullets  often  exceed  the  cockerels  in  size.  They  are  evi- 
dently allied  to  the  Polish,  which  ate  nice  tame  fowls  to  keep, 
but  delicate  in  our  damp  chilly  variable  climate.  For  exhibi- 
tion, the  color  of  cocks  and  hens  should  be  unvarying  black 
throughout,  with  metallic  luster  on  the  feathers,  but  to  breed 
them  so,  requires  great  care  as  they  are  very  apt  to  have 
a mixture  of  colored  or  white  feathers.  As  in  black  Cochins 
and  some  other  black  fowls,  it  is  easier  to  breed  the  pullets 
quite  black  than  the  cockerels.  The  crest  is  full,  large, 
and  globular,  and  in  front  of  it  is  a comb  in  the  form  of  two 
well  defined  pikes,  and  these  horns  sometimes  grow  large  and 
spread  into  branches.  The  fowls  are  bearded,  and  the  legs 
blue  and  short. 

The  La  Fleche  is  also  a black  fowl,  with  metallic  luster, 
large  and  plump-made.  It  is  good  for  the  table,  but  the  legs 
are  long  and  dark — a great  objection.  The  eggs  are  very 
large,  but  the  hen  does  not  produce  well,  and  she  is  a non- 
sitter. The  head  is  very  peculiar,  being  graced  with  a comb 
in  the  form  of  upstanding  spikes,  in  front  of  a dark-crest,  a 
peculiar  rising  over  the  nostrils,  large  white  ear-lobes,  red 
face,  and  long  red  wattles.  The  plumage  is  very  close  and 
firm  ; the  tail  large.  The  legs  dark-blue  or  slate. 

The  Houdan  is  the  last  of  the  French  fowls  which  have 
gained  a certain  popularity  among  fanciers.  It  is  compactly 
made,  the  body  round  and  well-formed,  the  legs  short,  thick, 
and  blue,  or  slate-colored,  and  five-toed.  It  is  good  for  the 
table.  , 

HAMBURGHS. 

The  Hamburgh  family  is  a large  one,  including  two  totally 
distinct  races  of  fowls,  the  Spangledand  the  Pencilled — Ham- 
burghs  they  are  both  called — but  they  are  about  as  distinct  as 
Cochins  and  Dorkins.  Both  kinds  are  divided  into  two — the 
Golden  and  the  Silver,  thus  making  four  distinct  classes  at  our 
shows. 

The  Golden-Spangled  Hamburghs,  or  Golden  Pheasant 
Fowls,  were  very  generally  known  by  the  last  name  until 
recent  fancy  dubbed  them  Hamburghs. 

They  are  good  useful  fowls  to  keep,  and  excellent  layers, 
and  non-sitters.  The  eggs  are  not  large,  but  larger  than 
those  of  the  Pencilled  Hamburghs.  The  fowls  are  pretty 
hardy,  and  easy  to  keep  in  condition,  but  the  chickens  are 
rather  tender.  They  are  nice  plump  fowls  for  the  table, 
although  small.  In  breeding  them  the  parents  should  be  ex- 
act in  the  marking  and  rich  in  color,  the  rooster  darker  than 
the  hen  : it  is  best  for  maintaining  precision  in  marking  and 
other  points,  to  give  the  cock  very  few  mates. 

It  is  well  to  avoid  stimulating  food,  when  giving  it  may  in- 
duce precocious  laying.  A young  fowl,  be  it  pullet  or  cock- 
erel, should  be  well  developed  in  firmness  of  bone,  muscle, 
size,  and  furnishing,  before  it  assumes  the  position  of  a pro- 
ductive adult,  that  it  may  turn  out  one  which  will  do  us  good 
service  for  the  natural  term  of  its  life. 

All  the  Hamburghs  are  inherently  fond  of  liberty  ; they 
want  a good  range,  a trifle  will  not  prevent  their  breaking 
bounds  to  obtain  it  for  themselves,  and  their  lightness  and 
agility  enable  them  to  fly  like  sparrows. 

Silver-Spangled  Hamburghs  are  the  same  as  the  Golden, 
in  general  properties.  If  there  is  any  difference  between 


them,  the  Silver  are  the  stronger  ; they  are  the  best  layers, 
and  the  eggs  are  rather  the  larger. 

Golden  and  Silver  Pencilled  Hamburghs. — The  Pen- 
cilled Hamburghs  are  so  distinct  from  the  Spangled  in  some 
impoi  ant  characteristics,  that  it  seems  wrong  to  include  both 
under  one  general  name.  They  are  more  fragile  in  form  and 
constitution,  and  different  in  shape  and  in  plumage,  although 
all  the  Hamburghs  agree  in  comb,  and  several  other  points 
before  mentioned.  The  Pencilled  fowls  are  known  under  the 
different  names  of  Bolton  Bays  and  Grays  (the  gold  and  silver), 
Chittiprats,  Corals,  Creoles,  Dutch  every-day  layers,  everlast- 
ing layers,  and  many  others. 

THE  POLISH  AND  THE  VARIOUS  CLASS. 

The  Polish  fowls  are  pretty,  compactly-made  fowls,  rather 
under  than  over  medium  size  ; for  the  Polish  of  the  present 
time  are  decidedly  smaller  than  these  fowls  used  to  be  from 
twenty  to  thirty-five  years  back.  The  eggs,  too,  are  smaller. 
This  degeneracy  may  be  the  result  of  in-and-in-breeding, 
which  may  also  account  for  their  exceeding  delicacy  of  consti- 
tution. 

Their  beauty  renders  them  great  favorites  ; they  are  mild- 
tempered,  timid  birds,  loving  a genial  sunny  spot,  and  much 
disliking  to  be  handled.  They  are  good  layers  of  white  eggs, 
which  are  large  for  the  size  of  the  hens,  and  for  the  table 
the  flesh  is  white  and  tender,  but  the  chickens  are  small  for 
that  purpose.  The  hens  are  non-sitters. 

All  the  Polish  sub-varieties  are  decidedly  fancy  fowls,  re- 
quiring and  repaying  great  care  on  the  part  of  the  amateur. 

Silver-Spangled  Polish. — The  crest  of  the  cock  should  be 
white  streaked  with  black  ; that  of  the  hen  white  laced  with 
black.  The  hackle  of  both  cock  and  hen  white  streaked  with 
black,  and  the  wings  accurately  barred  and  laced.  In  the 
cock,  the  more  the  remainder  of  the  plumage  can  be  spangled 
the  better,  and  the  tail  should  be  white,  with  a rich,  well  de- 
fined spangle  at  the  end  of  each  feather.  In  the  hen,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  plumage  should  be  accurately  spangled,  and 
the  tail  white,  each  feather  spangled  with  black.  The  legs 
are  blue,  and  the  head  free  from  comb  or  gills. 

Golden-Spangled  Polish. — The  ground  color  throughout 
is  a rich  golden-brown.  The  hackle  of  both  cock  and  hen 
streaked  with  black,  the  wings  barred  and  laced,  the  breast 
spangled,  and  the  tails  black,  so  well  bronzed  with  the  rich 
ground  color  of  the  plumage  as  to  harmonize  with  it.  If  there 
be  a beard,  a good  mixture  of  the  ground  color  is  better  than 
a prevalence  of  black.  The  top-knot,  too,  should  be  streaked 
in  the  cock  and  laced  in  the  hen.  Black  feathers  and  white 
in  the  crest  are  faults,  but  the  white  feathers  will  come  in  both 
cocks  and  hens  as  they  grow  old. 

The  original  Spangled  Polish  fowl  appears  to  have  been  a 
bird  in  character  like  our  Polish,  the  ground  color  of  the 
plumage  of  a rich  golden-brown,  with  spangles  of  white  and 
black  united  in  each  spot,  and  white  legs.  These  and  two 
other  beautiful  varieties  are  entirely  or  almost  lost  to  us. 

BANTAMS. 

The  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  Sebright  bantaiu. 
besides  their  exactly-laced  plumage,  are  diminutive  beauty, 


574 


POULTRY. 


and  jaunty,  impudent  carriage.  Roosters  of  a year  old  should 
not  exceed  2X  oz.  in  weight,  nor  hens  18  oz.  ; and  some  advo- 
cate much  smaller  size  still.  Smallness  of  size  is  an  important 
point  in  all  Bantams,  so  that  the  smaller  they  are  the  better. 
To  gain  this  point  they  are  generally  bred  late  in  the  season, 
sometimes  very  late,  but  seldom  earlier  than  July.  Many 
have  been  so  dwarfed  as  to  interfere  with  their  reproductive 
qualities,  and  the  breeders  have  had  recourse  to  larger  speci- 
mens as  home  stock-birds,  reserving  the  very  small  ones 
for  exhibition  and  for  show.  To  breed  productive  stock- 
birds  the  in-breeding,  which  favors  small  size,  must  be 
avoided. 

The  proud  gait  of  the  Sebright  is  like  that  of  the  fantail 
pigeon  ; the  head  and  tail  are  held  erect  until  they  almost 
touch  each  other  ; the  wing  is  not  closely  packed  away,  but  is 
allowed  to  droop  with  jaunty  gallantry  ; the  body  is  plump, 
and  the  breast  protuberant. 

The  head  should  be  small  and  delicate,  with  a well-formed, 
firmly-set-rose-comb,  close  to  the  head,  exactly  in  the  center, 
with  a well-defined  pike,  a little  turned  up  at  the  end.  The 
legs  should  be  blue. 

The  rooster  must  have  no  hackle  on  neck  or  saddle,  and  no 
sickle  feathers  in  the  tail. 

The  chicken  should  be  bred  from  mature  birds.  They 
must  be  kept  from  damp,  but  in  a dry  spot  they  are  tolerably 
hardy.  Their  diminutive  size  and  compact  beauty  render 
them  the  prettiest  among  chickens.  There  is  scarcely  a pret- 
tier sight  than  a Sebright  mother  and  her  little  brood.  The 
little  ones  fledge  quickly,  and  require  constant  good  feeding 
during  the  process. 

The  Booted  Bantam  is  probably  the  earliest  type  of  the 
Bantam  race  ; it  is,  at  any  rate,  the  one  which  has  been  the 
longest  known  among  us,  having  been  introduced  as  long 
back  as  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It  is  a 
small,  compactly-made,  jaunty  little  bird,  with  abundant 
furnishing  in  hackle,  flowing  tail,  and  heavily-booted  legs. 
The  plumage  is  generally  perfectly  white,  but  there  are  also 
some  of  other  colors.  In  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, Booted  Bantams  were  more  thought  of  than  any  others  ; 
afterwards  they  were  almost  lost  sight  of  ; but  within  the  last 
very  few  years  they  have  appeared  again,  and  often  win  prizes 
in  a Bantam  class  for  other  varieties. 

White  and  Black  Bantams  are  beautifully  diminutive, 
bold  and  saucy  in  gait,  plentifully  furnished  in  hackle  and 
tail,  and  spotlessly  white  in  plumage,  or  perfectly  black,  as 
the  case  may  be.  The  white  and  the  black  have  each  a dis- 
tinct class  at  the  shows,  where  they  are  always  well  repre- 
sented. The  white  bantam  rooster  must  have  a fully  sickled 
tail  of  snowy  whiteness,  brilliantly  red  rose-comb  and  wattles, 
and  white  beak  and  legs, — the  last  perfectly  free  from  feathers. 
The  hen  must  agree.  Many  may  be  seen  weighing,  the  rooster 
not  more  than  15  ounces,  and  the  hen  12  ounces,  and  smaller 
weights  are  mentioned.  The  black  Bantams  are  compact  in 
form  and  bold  in  carriage.  They  are  hardier  than  the  whites 
very  prolific,  and  often  very  small.  The  plumage  should  be 
unmixed  black  with  metallic  luster.  Other  points  are  a rose- 
comb,  small  but  rather  wide  wattles,  and  rather  short  blue  or 
black  legs.  In  both  the  white  and  the  black  the  ear-lobes  I 


should  be  white,  but  in  the  black  especially  ; they  must  bt 
pure  in  the  white,  and  free  from  any  tinge  of  red. 

Game  Bantams  must  be  exact  Game  fowls  in  miniature. 

TURKEYS  AND  WATER-FOWL. 

TURKEYS. 

When  America  was  discovered,  turkeys  were  found  in  e 
domesticated  as  well  as  in  a wild  state,  and  the  French  name 
Dinde  (D’lnde)  seems  to  indicate  that  they  came  from  tbe 
West  Indies,  the  East  Indies  possessing  no  such  bird. 

Turkeys  do  not  attain  full  growth  and  maturity  until  the 
moult  after  they  are  two  years  old.  The  stock-birds  should 
therefore  be  not  less  than  three  years  old,  for  poults  bred 
from  young  birds  are  sure  to  be  tender.  To  obtain  fine  tur- 
key poults,  let  the  hen  sit  on  the  first  eggs  she  lays  in  the 
season,  as  soon  as  she  will,  that  the  brood  may  have  all  the 
best  of  '•he  year  in  which  to  make  their  growth.  Some  turkey 
roosters  are  very  spiteful  to  their  hens,  and  to  the  young  ones, 
so  that  it  is  necessary  to  put  the  nest  in  a place  of  safety. 
The  presence  of  the  rooster  is  not  necessary  after  the  early 
part  of  the  season,  as  the  entire  clutch  of  eggs  is  said  on  good 
authority  to  be  fertilized  at  once. 

The  turkey  cock  should  be  vigorous  and  healthy,  broad 
in  thj  chest,  clean  in  the  legs,  and  with  well  developed  wings 
and  tail.  His  eyes  should  be  bright,  and  the  corunculated 
skin  of  the  neck  full,  and  rapid  in  its  changes  cf  color.  He 
is  in  his  prime  from  three  years  old  to  seven  or  more.  The 
year  he  is  appointed  as  master  at  home,  or  the  year  after,  a 
fine  cock  poult  should  be  selected  and  reared  to  take  his 
place  when  necessary.  From  the  peculiar  property  in  turkeys 
of  the  whole  batch  of  eggs  being  fertilized  at  once,  one  turkey 
cock  would  well  serve  a whole  neighborhood  ; but  that  he 
should  be  a first-class  mature  bird  is  all-important. 

The  hen  should,  of  course,  match  her  lord  ; she  should  be 
plump,  lively,  and  animated,  and  her  plumage  should  be 
correct.  If  she  be  black,  white  feathers  are  a fault.  Her 
eggs  will  produce  the  hardiest  poults  after  she  is  three  years 
old. 

A number  of  companions  may  be  allowed  one  cock  in  the 
course  of  a year,  but  never  let  him  have  more  than  two  mates 
at  the  same  time. 

The  hen  foretells  laying  by  a peculiar  note  and  strut,  and 
by  hunting  about  for  a sly  corner  to  lay  in.  In  the  domesti- 
cated, as  in  the  wild  state,  the  cock  is  apt  to  destroy  the  eggs, 
and  the  hen  is  commensurately  anxious  to  hide  them  frorr 
danger.  She  should  be  watched  and  humored  to  the  nest  pre- 
pared for  her. 

If  the  turkey  hen  is  well  settled  to  the  nest  before  the  eggs 
are  given  to  her,  the  poults  may  be  looked  for  on  the  twenty 
sixth  day  ; but  four  weeks  is  the  time  of  incubation  usually 
reckoned  on  for  turkeys’  eggs,  and  some  persons  say  thirty- 
one  days.  Whether  me  sitter  is  interfered  with  or  not,  when 
she  hatches  must  depend  on  her  disposition. 

The  hen  turkey  will  sometimes  lay  and  hatch  a second  time 
in  the  season  , but  late  broods  require  gieat  care. 

Even  in  a wild  state  the  turkey  poults  are  delicate,  and  un- 
able to  endure  wet  : the  young  of  the  domesticated  race  are 


POULTRY. 


yet  more  so,  and  must  be  kept  from  wet  and  cold.  The  little 
poults  will  peck  for  themselves  as  soon  as  nature  prompts  the 
necessity  : until  then  leave  them  with  what  appears  to  be 
their  only  requirement — their  mother’s  warmth. 

At  first  the  little  ones  may  be  fed  on  hard-boiled  eggs, 
chopped  fine  and  mixed  with  bread-crumbs  and  herbs  finely 
minced,  or  on  curd  and  bread-crumbs.  The  herbs  to  use 
with  their  food  are  chives,  young  onion  tops,  fennel,  let- 
tuce, nettles,  and  parsley.  The  water  should  be  given  in 
shallow  pans,  that  they  may  not  get  the  down  wet.  As  they 
get  older  they  will  feed  on  food  made  of  barleymeal  and  oat- 
meal, and  on  grain.  Meal  bciled  in  milk  until  quite  thick  is 
good  food. 

The  little  turkey  poults  want  a tolerably  free  range,  and 
they  must  be  so  constantly  well  fed  from  the  first,  as  never 
to  lose  condition  ; for  if  they  once  get  poor  they  can  never  be 
restored. 

The  most  important  thing  of  all  is  never  to  let  the  little 
turkeys  get  wet,  or  even  damp.  Keep  them  in  in  the  morn- 
ing until  the  dew  is  off  the  grass,  put  them  up  before  the  damp 
of  evening,  and  never  let  them  be  out  in  the  rain.  Cottagers 
in  the  country,  who  think  it  worth  while  to  keep  in  the  brood 
in  wet  weather,  and  to  drive  them  in  when  rain  threatens, 
rear  them  successfully,  as  it  is  generally  after  a wetting  that 
the  little  poults  go  bad. 

When  the  turkeys  are  finished  up  with  cramming,  it  may  be 
done  by  giving  about  six  rolls  of  barleymeal  and  sugar  before 
roosting-time  every  night  for  a week  or  ten  days.  In  France, 
the  usual  food  is  meal  paste  mixed  with  chopped  suet  and 
milk,  or  with  ale  and  molasses.  Whole  pepper,  garlic,  ani- 
seed, and  tonic  herbs  are  also  given.  Whole  walnuts  given 
daily,  from  4 to  40,  are  said  to  fatten  well.  If  turkey  chicks 
look  heavy  and  ruffled,  a little  crushed  malt,  or  carroway  or 
coriander  seed,  will  do  good.  Let  them  be  fed  very  constantly, 
and  never  be  in  want  for  an  hour.  If  they  do  not  run  at 
large;  they  must  have  a little  meat,  turves  of  grass,  and  gravel. 
Most  hens  require  cooping  to  prevent  their  running  the  chicks 
too  far.  The  old  turkeys  are  very  fsnd  of  Indian  corn. 

GEESE. 

Common  Goose. — It  is  almost  superfluous  to  say  that  the 
usual  mode  of  keeping  geese  is  to  drive  them  out  to  pasture 
in  the  morning,  and  to  house  them  at  night.  If  there  be  any 
right  of  common  to  which  the  flock  can  be  turned  out,  they 
will  almost  get  their  own  living,  as  grass  is  their  main  food. 
Turning  their  heads  sideways,  they  nip  it  off  quite  close,  and 
consume  a good  quantity.  Whether  it  is  worth  while  to  keep 
geese  on  land  that  would  feed  larger  stock,  is  a question  for 
economists  ; but  they  are  worth  keeping  where  they  can  partly 
live  on  grass  which  cannot  be  turned  to  better  account. 

It  is  well  to  have  a house  for  the  geese  and  one  for  the 
young  stock,  but  any  shed  will  do,  and  it  need  not  be  too 
closely  shut  in.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  roof  does  not 
let  in  rain,  and  that  the  shelter  which  the  house  affords  excludes 
bitter  windy  draughts  upon  the  geese  at  night.  The  floors 
should  be  dry,  and  if  litter  is  used,  it  must  be  renewed  as  often 
as  cleanliness  requires.  If  the  geese  can  have  a pond  at  corn- 


575 


mand  within  the  day’s  range,  so  much  the  better  ; but  they 
will  do  without  it. 

Geese  are  essentially  vegetable  feeders  ; they  will  eat  any 
kind  of  corn,  pulse,  or  greens,  such  as  cabbage,  lettuce,  man- 
gold, lucern,  tares,  and  now  and  then  sliced  carrots  and  tur. 
nips. 

The  old  geese  require  a little  corn  twice  a day  ; a mere 
sprinkle  in  the  morning,  if  they  have  the  opportunity  of  doing 
much  for  themselves,  and  a good  feed  at  night.  In  mild  sea- 
sons the  goose  will  lay  early  : she  should  have  a good,  large 
nest,  in  a secure,  quiet  corner,  and  she  will  cover  about  fifteen 
eggs : the  time  of  incubation  is  thirty  days.  Give  her  plenty 
of  food  and  water,  to  which  to  help  herself,  when  she  leaves 
the  nest.  She  is  a patient,  good  sitter,  and  a good  mother. 

In  choosing  stock-birds,  select  those  which  are  long  in  the 
body  and  small  in  bone.  The  pouch  sagging  down  loose  behind 
is  generally  a mark  of  age.  Allow  three  geese  to  a gander  ; let 
all  be  of  mature  age,  and  they  will  all  do  well  up  to  twenty 
years  old,  if  not  longer. 

DUCKS. 

Ducks  are  very  hardy,  and  easy  to  feed,  as  regards  quality 
of  food  ; for  they  will  eat  almost  anything  with  appetite  and 
relish. 

The  humble  accommodation  of  a mere  shed  offers  quite 
good  housing  enough.  The  roof  should  be  water-tight,  and 
the  ground  of  the  shed  pretty  dry,  to  render  it  a good  place  for 
the  sitters  ; as,  if  the  nest  be  very  damp,  the  eggs  are  apt  to 
break,  however  quiet  the  sitter  may  be. 

Four  ducks  to  a drake  are  better  than  a larger  number.  The 
stock-birds  should  be  long  in  the  frame,  fleshy  (not  fat),  and 
small  in  bone. 

A good-sized  duck  will  cover  fourteen  eggs  well : according 
to  the  size  of  the  duck  the  number  allotted  her  may  be  from 
eleven  to  fifteen.  Give  her  oats  and  water  near  her  nest,  that 
she  may  come  off  and  feed  when  she  likes  ; and  a run  down 
to  the  pond  and  dip  therein  will  do  no  harm  to  her  eggs,  but 
rather  the  contrary,  by  imparting  from  the  sitter’s  moist  feath- 
ers the  warm  damp  which  is  favorable  to  incubation.  Hens 
may  be  set  on  ducks’  eggs,  when  it  is  considered  that  the  ex- 
tra care  which  can  be  bestowed  on  them  may  realize  greater 
size  for  exhibition  purposes  ; but  ducklings  so  reared  had  bet- 
ter not  be  kept  as  stock-birds. 

For  the  first  few  weeks  it  is  better  to  let  the  ducklings  have 
no  pan  of  water  in  which  they  can  immerse  themselves,  so  as 
to  wet  the  down  underneath  them. 

The  bill  of  fare  for  young  ducks  may  include  cold  boiled 
oatmeal  porridge,  cooked  vegetables,  mixed  up  with  barley, 
meal  or  sharps,  crushed  oats  thrown  into  water,  and  a little 
milk  when  convenient  ; but  in  giving  milk  to  young  things, 
scouring  must  always  be  guarded  against. 

Ducks,  old  and  young,  should  have  a little  litter  for  a bed 
— straw,  dry  fern,  pea-haum,  rushes,  or  anything  which  is  dry 
will  do.  The  eggs  do  not  keep  so  well  as  hens’  eggs,  so  they 
should  be  set  as  fresh  as  possible. 

Aylesbury  Ducks  must  be  very  large,  perfectly  white  in 
plumage,  with  yellow  legs  and  feet,  and  flesh-colored  bills. 
Dark  spots  or  streaks  on  the  bills  have  lost  many  fine  pens 


POULTRY. 


57° 


their  prizes.  Such  blemishes  may  arise  from  the  ducks  fre- 
quenting peaty  land  ; to  get  fair  unsullied  bills  is  a great 
trouble  to  exhibitors.  A good  pen  of  three  drakes  and  two  ducks 
will  weigh  23  lbs.  or  24  lbs.,  and  26  1-4  lbs.  have  been  reached. 

Rouen  Ducks,  in  plumage,  resemble  the  wild  duck,  but 
they  are  of  splendid  size. 

The  Buenos  Ayres,  or  East  Indian  ducks,  like  Bantams 
among  fowls,  are  the  dwarfs  among  ducks,  and  are  bred 
as  small  as  possible,  and  shown  young,  to  make  the  most  of 
this  important  point — diminutive  size.  They  must  be  very 
small,  and  quite  black,  with  brilliant  green  metallic  luster  on 
the  plumage.  They  have  dark  legs  and  bills.  They  often 
incline  to  mate  in  pairs,  so  that  if  only  one  drake  is  kept  to 
two  or  more  ducks,  many  eggs  will  prove  infertile  ; the  eggs 
are  colored,  and,  of  course,  small. 

The  Musk,  Muscovy,  or  Brazilian  Duck  is  very  distinct. 
They  vary  in  color,  the  usual  color  being  a dull  black,  with 
white  on  the  undersurface,  and  some  other  portions  of  their 
bodies.  A curious  red  warty  cere  near  the  bill  characterizes 
them  ; and  the  great  difference  of  size  between  the  drake  and 
the  duck  is  peculiar. 

A large  black  duck,  with  brilliant  luster  on  the  plumage, 
called  the  Cayuga  Black  duck,  is  mentioned.  It  is  a native 
of  America  and  is  said  to  have  been  domesticated  from  some 
wild  stock. 

Call  Ducks. — The  beautiful  little  Call  or  Decoy  ducks  are 
ornamental  and  very  small. 

These  are  the  kinds  most  frequently  seen.  There  are 
occasionally  sent  to  the  shows  the  Hook-billed,  the  Penguin^ 
and  the  Top-knotted  ducks. 

DISEASES. 

There  is  little  economy  in  an  attempt  to  doctor  sick  fowls ; 
as  a labor  of  love  and  a matter  of  humanity,  the  case  may  be 
different,  and  we  often  like  to  cure  or  lessen  the  sufferings  of 
a favorite. 


Warmth,  shelter,  and  safety  from  the  molestation  of  other 
fowls  is  often  a main  remedial  measure.  A bask  by  a kitchen 
fire,  for  a few  days,  a retreat  where  tyrants  cannot  hunt  or 
peck  the  sufferer,  and  simple  or  nourishing  food,  according  to 
whether  the  patient  is  suffering  from  weakness  or  repletion,  is 
frequently  by  itself  a curative  treatment. 

If  little  chickens  pine  and  droop  the  wings,  a pill  of  Barba- 
docs  aloes,  the  size  of  a pea,  or  a pellet  of  rue  and  butter,  may 
do  good  if  the  ailment  be  taken  in  good  time.  Insects  must 
always  be  duly  looked  after,  dislodged  with  a dusting  of  flour 
of  sulphur,  and  guarded  against  by  cleanliness,  and  a good 
provision  of  dust-bath.  Most  poultry  diseases  may  be  traced 
to  the  effect  of  our  chilly,  damp,  and  variable  climate,  so  that 
a warm  sheltered  locality,  and  good  shelter  for  young  chick- 
ens, are  all  important. 

Douglass’  mixture  is  excellent  for  giving  strength  and  sta- 
mina to  old  fowls,  or  young.  Dissolve  together  with  a little 
water  1-2  lb.  of  sulphate  of  iron,  and  1 oz.  of  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid,  add  spring  water  enough  to  make  up  two  gallons, 
let  it  stand  for  a fortnight,  mix  a teaspoonful  of  the  mixture 
with  a pint  of  water,  and  give  it  to  fowls  or  chickens  to  drink 
instead  of  water. 

Decoction  of  citrate  of  iron  mixed  with  water  in  the  pro- 
portion to  give  it  a very  perceptible  taste  of  iron,  is  also  good 
as  a strengthener. 

If  inflammation  in  the  egg  passage  be  denoted  by  the  produc- 
tion of  soft  or  misshapen  eggs,  give  one  grain  of  calomel,  with 
i-i2th  of  a grain  of  tartar  emetic.  It  should  be  repeated 
three  times  in  a week  at  intervals. 

If  mature  fowls  appear  feverish  and  drooping,  and  seem  to 
require  a dose  of  medicine,  give  one  of  Plummer’s  pill,  a bit  of 
Barbadoes  aloes  the  size  of  a large  pea,  or  five  grains  of  jalap 
in  a bolus  of  barley  meal,  according  to  the  strength  of  the 
dose  required.  If,  however,  they  are  judiciously  fed  and 
properly  cared  for,  medical  treatment  will  rarely  be  re- 
quired. 


AVING  decided  upon 
the  cultivation  of  fruit 
and  establishing  an 
orchard,  it  becomes  ne- 
cessary  to  fix  upon  its 
dimensions  and  extent.  In 
consideration  of  this  ques- 
tion of  extent,  two  other 
important  matters  are  to 
be  taken  into  account — 
these  are,  the  quantity  of 
ground  you  may  have 
suitable  and  to  spare,  and 
the  amount  of  means  you  can  set  apart  for  the  pur- 
pose. In  settling  these  points  you  should  possess, 
first,  a knowledge  of  the  kind  of  ground  necessary  ; 
and  second,  a determination  to  do  the  work  well,  at 
whatever  cost. 

For  an  ordinary  family  of  five  to  ten  persons,  not 
less  than  three  acres  will  suffice  for  home  consump- 
tion use,  and  as  many  more  as  can  be  made  profit- 
able for  market  use.  On  these  three  acres  can  be 
stocked  from  two  to  three  hundred  standard  trees  of 
the  different  sorts  of  fruit,  besides  a due  proportion 
of  all  the  smaller  kinds — an  amount  which,  if  properly 
managed,  will  in  a few  years  afford  an  ample  supply 
for  family  use. 


COST. 

The  cost  of  first  planting  will  vary  widely  in  dif- 
ferent localities — depending  on  the  condition  of  the 
ground,  the  quality  of  the  soil,  prices  of  trees,  price 
of  labor,  etc.  An  approximate  calculation  may  be 
made,  however,  by  estimating  the  cost  of  preparing 
the  ground  and  planting  the  trees,  at  an  amount  equal 
to  the  cost  of  the  trees  in  the  nursery  ; and,  when 
ditching  and  underdraining  is  necessary,  at  double 
that  amount.  The  following  rule  laid  down  by 
Thomas  Gregg  in  his  admirable  work  on  fruit  culture 
should  be  inflexibly  observed  in  all  cases  : Never 
slight  the  work,  nor  plant  an  inferior  tree,  because  it  is 
cheaper  to  do  so  ! Work  half  done  is  very  poor  econ- 
omy in  planting  an  orchard,  as  well  as  in  most  other 
things  ; and  a tree  costing  only  half  price  in  the 
nursery  may  turn  out  to  be  a very  dear  one  in  the 
end.  The  very  best  varieties  (and  these  are  not  al- 
ways the  most  costly),  as  well  as  the  very  best  trees, 
are  those  from  which  you  must  expect  to  realize  the 
most  profit. 

ESTIMATE  FOR  THREE  ACRES. 

The  following  estimate  will  answer  for  an  orchard 
of  three  acres  of  ground,  with  such  variations  as 
circumstances  may  require.  [The  number  of  trees 
will  vary  somewhat  as  the  shape  of  the  ground  is 


578 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  FRUIT. 


varied  ; the  calculation  is  based  on  a plat  twenty- 
four  rods  long  by  twenty  wide.] 

Eighty  apple  trees,  thirty-three  feet  apart,  covering 
two  acres. 

Seventy  peach-trees,  sixteen  and  a half  feet  apart, 
set  around  three  sides  of  the  whole. 

There  will  then  be  left  in  front  one  acre,  which 
may  be  divided  into  two  equal  plats  of  132  by  166 
feet.  These  may  be  filled  as  follows  : 

In  No.  i. — Twenty  standard  pears,  thirty-three 
feet  apart,  in  continuation  of  the  apple  rows. 

Thirty-two  dwarf  pears,  in  the  same  rows,  seven 
feet  apart  and  thirteen  feet  from  the  standards. 
And — 

Twenty-seven  pyramid  and  dwarf  plums,  quinces, 
cherries,  etc.,  in  the  alternate  rows,  sixteen  and  a 
half  feet  apart. 

In  No.  2. — Such  number  of  almonds,  apricots, 
grapes,  nectarines,  gooseberries,  currants,  raspberries, 
blackberries,  and  strawberries,  as  fancy  may  dictate, 
and  as  will  stock  it  properly. 

The  above  estimate  will  constitute  an  orchard  of 
about  250  orchard  trees — standard  and  dwarf — and 
perhaps  as  many  more  of  the  garden  or  bush 
fruits. 


DISTANCES. 


Every  planter  has  his  own  opinion  regarding  the  distance 
which  trees  should  be  planted  from  each  other.  Besides,  some 
kinds  of  soils  and  localities  require  greater  distance  than  others  ; 
and  some  varieties  will  bear  to  stand  closer  than  other  varie- 
ties of  the  same  fruit.  A good  rule  is  that,  when  full  grown, 
the  tops  should  not  be  nearer  to  each  other  than  one  third 
their  diameter.  An  apple-tree,  for  example,  when  fully  grown, 
will  spread,  on  an  average,  to  a distance  of  twenty-five  feet ; 
the  rule  will  give  thirty-three  feet  as  the  proper  distance  apart. 
Peaches  seldom  spread,  or  should  not,  if  properly  pruned,  more 
than  twelve  to  fifteen  feet ; the  rule  gives  sixteen  to  twenty  feet 
as  the  distance  to  plant.  In  planting  an  orchard  of  apples, 
with  plenty  of  ground,  thirty-three  feet  is  probably  the  safest 
distance  ; yet,  if  ground  is  an  object,  they  will  do  at  twenty- 
five  feet.  Apples  may  be  planted  a little  wider — say  forty  feet 
—and  rows  of  peach-trees  planted  both  ways  between  : as  the 
peach,  not  being  so  long-lived,  will  die  out  before  the  apple 
has  attained  to  a large  growth. 

When  the  saving  of  ground  is  an  important  consideration, 
and  none  but  standard  trees  are  to  be  planted,  more  space  may 
be  obtained  by  planting  in  rows,  according  to  the  following 
diagram  : 

* * * * * 

* * * * 
***** 


* 


* 


* 


Smaller  trees  may  be  set  closely  in  rows,  as  represented  in 
the  figure  below  : 

************* 

************* 

************* 


This  last  method  is  recommended  for  village  plats,  where  it 
is  desirable  to  combine  the  raising  of  vegetables  with  that  of 
fruit  ; as  the  spaces  between  the  rows  may  be  appropriated  to 
any  kind  of  root  crop,  with  decided  advantage  to  the  trees. 

The  following  table  of  distances  for  the  various  kinds  of 
fruit,  condensed  from  Thomas’s  Fruit  Cu/turist,  seems  to  have 
been  acquiesced  in  by  most  fruit-growers : 


Apples. — For  large  trees 25  to  40 

For  pyramids  and  dwarfs 6 to  8 

Pears. — Large  trees  on  pear  stocks 20 

Pyramids  on  “ “ 8 to  10 

Pyramids  on  quince  “ 6 

Dwarf  standards  on  quince 8 

Peaches. — Full  growth 20 

Shortened  in 12  to  15 

Cherries. — Common  standards 20 

Pyramids  on  common  stocks 10 

(Dukes  and  Morellos  require  less). 

Plums. — Standards 15 

Pyramids 6 to  8 

Apricots 15  to  20 

Quinces 6 to  8 

Grapes. — On  8-feet  trellis 25 

On  12  “ “ 16 

Trimmed  to  slakes 4 to  6 

Gooseberries  and  Currants 4 to  5 

Raspberries  and  Blackberries 4 


feet. 


For  the  above  distances, 
required  for  an  acre  : 

the  following  is  the  number  of  trees 

40  feet  apart 

. .27  trees.  12  feet  apart.  . . 

33  “ “ 

. .40 

14  10  “ “ ... 

••••435  “ 

25  “ “ 

..69 

“ 8 “ “ . . . 

....680  “ 

20  “ “ 

. 108 

“ 6 “ “ ... 

15  “ “ 

193 

4 “ “ ••• 

...2,720  “ 

LOCATION 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  concerning  the  location  of 
orchards.  Situation  and  aspect  doubtless  have  their  effects, 
yet  no  one  should  neglect  to  plant  merely  because  he  cannot 
give  his  trees  such  an  aspect  as  he  may  desire.  Trees  in  favor- 
able situations  will  undoubtedly  produce  more  good  crops  than 
those  less  fortunately  situated  ; yet  many  seasons  occur  when 
the  causes  of  the  difference  do  not  arise,  and  trees  in  any  ex- 
posure will  produce  abundantly.  To  this  general  rule  there 
can  be  very  few  exceptions,  namely — Elevated  situations  are 
better  than  lowlands,  and  the  brows  and  sides  of  hills  are  to  be 
chosen  in  preference  to  the  valleys.  Numerous  proofs  have  been 
adduced  to  show  that  the  peach  might  be  successfully  grown 
much  farther  north  than  it  usually  is,  if  the  "most  elevated  po- 
sitions were  chosen  instead  of  the  warm  valleys.  So,  farther 
south,  frequent  severe  frosts  cut  off  the  crops  on  the  low  grounds. 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  FRUIT. 


while  those  on  the  more  elevated  and  exposed  situations  are 
not  affected. 

The  old  rule  was  to  choose  a southern  or  south-eastern  ex- 
posure. A northern  exposure  is  now  very  generally  preferred. 
This  is  because  the  action  of  the  warm  sun,  in  a southern  ex. 
posure,  will  too  soon  thaw  away  the  frost  about  the  roots,  and 
occasion  the  buds  to  swell — leaving  them  exposed  to  alter- 
nations of  frost  and  thaw.  In  the  West,  the  rolling  prairies 
near  the  woodland,  the  hazel  ruffs  that  skirt  the  prairie  and 
wood,  and  the  richest  portions  of  the  timbered  bluffs  or  high- 
lands that  overlook  the  rivers,  are  regarded  as  the  best  loca- 
tions. The  best  bearing  orchards  are  those  on  the  bluff  over- 
looking the  Mississippi  at  the  Lower  Rapids. 

SOIL. 

Fruit  trees,  like  corn  and  cabbages,  will  grow  on  almost  any 
kind  of  soil  ; yet  some  soils  are  more  suited  to  their  natures  than 
others.  They  require  a soil  strong  enough  to  give  the  tree  a 
vigorous  growth,  and  the  better  and  more  vigorous  the  growth 
of  the  tree,  the  better  will  be  the  character  of  the  fruit.  As  a 
general  thing,  any  soil  that  will  produce  a good  crop  of  corn 
will  be  good  for  fruit-trees.  A strictly  alluvial  soil,  however, 
is  not  to  be  recommended  ; as,  while  it  will  produce  a rank 
growth  of  wood,  it  will  not  make  so  hardy  or  fruitful  a tree  ; 
nor  will  the  quality  of  the  fruit  be  equal  to  that  grown  on  a less 
fertile  soil.  A calcareous  soil  is  the  best  adapted  to  most  kinds 
of  fruit ; yet  in  other  than  limestone  regions  a gravelly  or  sandy 
loam  will  be  found  to  answer  a good  purpose.  Stiff,  clayey  soils 
are  not  promotive  of  a good  growth  ; yet  they  can  be  rendered 
available  by  a proper  incorporation  of  sand,  manure,  and  vege- 
table mold.  Most  soils — even  those  in  the  limestone  region — 
require  an  addition  of  more  or  less  lime  and  potash,  as  these  in- 
gredients enter  largely  into  the  composition  of  most  fruits. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  GROUND. 

Not  one  in  a hundred  of  those  who  plant  trees  bestows  the 
necessary  care  and  attention  to  the  preparation  of  the  ground. 
A very  common  mode  is  to  dig  a hole  about  a foot  wide  and 
five  or  six  inches  deep,  stick  in  the  tree,  bending  the  roots  or 
cutting  them  off  to  bring  them  within  the  proper  compass — 
shovel  in  a few  spadefuls  of  dirt  or  sod,  tread  it  down  with  the 
foot,  and  the  job  is  done  ! If  the  tree  grows,  well ; if  not,  the 
planter  has  only  been  unlucky,  and  all  the  neighbors  conclude 
not  to  plant,  it  is  so  hard  to  make  trees  grow  ! Is  it  any  wonder 
that  three  out  of  every  four  trees  taken  from  the  nursery  die 
without  having  reached  the  stage  of  fruit-bearing? 

In  the  first  place,  the  soil  must  be  dry  before  planting.  If  not 
so  naturally,  it  must  be  made  so  by  deep  plowing,  and,  if  this 
will  not  suffice,  then  by  underdraining.  A clay  subsoil  should 
be  underdrained  to  the  depth  of  three  feet  ; but  any  soil  not 
very  retentive  of  water  may  be  sufficiently  drained  by  the  use 
of  a subsoil  plow  and  a strong  team.  With  go®d  underdrain- 
ing and  a proper  admixture  of  manure,  ashes,  sand,  and  loam, 
the  toughest  clay  soils  may  be  reduced  to  a proper  condition  for 
fruit  trees.  All  soils  that  are  sufficiently  porous  to  drain  well 
should  be  first  prepared  with  the  plow,  harrow,  and  sub-soiler  ; 
and  then  the  holes  for  the  trees  should  be  made  only  of  proper 
size  and  depth  to  admit  the  roots  in  their  natural  position,  and 


at  two  or  three  inches  greater  depth  than  they  stood  in  the 
nursery.  Deep  holes  in  a hard  and  tenacious  subsoil  will  in- 
jure the  trees  by  retaining  too  much  water.  Such  soils  should 
be  avoided  for  a fruit  orchard  ; or  if  used,  should  first  be  prop- 
erly underdrained.  Many  young  trees  die  from  the  effects  of 
standing  in  deep  holes,  prepared  for  them  at  great  expense. 

Previous  to  planting,  the  soil  should  be  enriched  with  well- 
rotted  barn-yard  manure,  thoroughly  intermixed  and  pulverized 
by  the  harrow.  If  planting  is  to  be  done  in  the  spring,  the 
plowing  should  have  been  gone  through  with  the  fall  previous, 
and  then  thoroughly  stirred  again  just  before  planting.  When 
the  whole  field  is  thoroughly  prepared  by  the  plow,  it  can  be 
cultivated  to  some  useful  crop,  and  the  trees  will  be  more  likely 
to  receive  the  necessary  tillage  than  they  would  if  standing  in 
the  field  alone. 

MANURING. 

It  is  a quite  common  experience  that  the  quality  of  fruit  in 
orchards  will,  after  a few  years,  gradually  decline,  yielding  only 
small  and  imperfect  specimens.  Some  varieties  will  show  this 
decline  much  sooner  than  others.  Negligence  in  regard  to 
manuring  is  generally  the  cause  of  this  deterioration.  The 
application  of  barn-yard  manure  will  cure  the  evil,  though,  with 
some  fruits,  other  ingredients  are  very  valuable.  Ashes  is  a 
good  fertilizer  for  most  fruits,  and  is  worth  more  to  the  fruit- 
grower, as  such,  than  for  any  other  purpose.  In  the  peach 
orchard  there  is  little  danger  of  getting  too  much.  A free  use 
of  lime  on  some  soils  is  very  beneficial,  and  in  many  cases  salt 
may  be  used  to  advantage.  This  latter  has  been  strongly  re- 
commended as  a preventive  to  blight  in  the  pear. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

LAYING  OFF  THE  GROUND. 

The  best  way  to  lay  off  the  ground,  after  it  has  been  fully 
prepared  and  the  distances  decided  upon,  is  to  measure  along 
the  sides  and  ends,  setting  a stake  at  the  proper  distances,  and 
then  driving  small  stakes,  say  one  foot  high,  at  all  the  points 
where  the  lines  thus  indicated  intersect  each  other.  After  the 
ground  is  staked,  commence  digging  the  holes — and  this 
should  be  completed  before  the  trees  are  removed  from  the 
nursery. 

SEASON  FOR  TRANSPLANTING. 

The  proper  season  for  transplanting  a tree  is  any  time  be- 
tween the  falling  of  the  leaf  in  autumn  and  the  swelling  of  the 
buds  in  spring  ; and,  in  the  case  of  a hardy  tree,  as  the  apple, 
it  probably  makes  but  little  difference  whether  it  be  done  be- 
fore the  winter  or  after  it.  With  other  trees  it  is  different  ; 
the  less  hardy  ones,  with  diminished  strength,  cannot  so  easily 
withstand  the  severe  frosts  and  piercing  nor’westers  of  that 
season.  Hence  they  should  be  transplanted  only  in  the  spring. 
Apples  may  be  removed  either  in  November  or  April,  provided 
it  be  done  well,  with  probably  about  equal  success. 

SETTING  OUT  TREES. 

It  requires  three  men,  or  two  men  and  a boy,  to  set  out  trees 
as  it  should  be  done.  Before  inserting  the  roots  into  the  hole 


580 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  FRUIT. 


prepared  to  receive  them,  they  should  first  be  dipped  into  mud 
made  of  the  rich  surface  mold,  to  cause  the  earth  to  adhere  to 
all  their  parts.  This  done,  place  the  tree  in  its  proper  position 
in  the  hole,  shovel  in  a small  quantity  of  the  finely  pulverized 
mold,  and  then  give  it  a gentle  shaking  suddenly  up  and  down, 
in  order  to  settle  the  dirt  closely  about  the  roots — one  person 
to  hold  the  tree  to  its  proper  position,  while  another  shovels 
in  the  earth.  When  a sufficient  quantity  of  the  earth  has  been 
placed  upon  the  roots  to  bring  it  level  with  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  tread  it  down  gently  with  the  foot,  and  then  add 
more,  rounding  it  to  a slight  mound,  with  the  stem  of  the  tree 
for  a center.  The  tree  should  be  placed  in  the  hole  so  as  to 
allow  it  to  stand  about  as  deep,  when  the  earth  becomes  settled 
around  it,  as  it  stood  in  the  nursery. 

It  is  recommended  by  some  to  plant  the  tree  in  the  orchard 
in  the  same  relative  position  to  the  points  of  the  compass  that 
it  occupied  in  the  nursery.  This  may  or  may  not  be  bene- 
ficial ; at  any  rate,  it  can  do  no  harm,  and  it  is  quite  an  easy 
matter  to  mark  the  tree  before  it  is  lifted,  so  as  to  indicate  its 
position. 

If  the  planting  be  done  in  autumn,  there  should  be  a mound 
of  earth  ten  inches  to  a foot  high,  and  three  feet  in  diameter, 
raised  around  the  tree  to  steady  it,  and  protect  its  roots  from 
frost  and  the  bark  from  mice.  When  the  ground  becomes  well 
settled  in  the  spring,  the  mound  should  be  removed. 

TRIMMING. 

Before  setting  out,  each  tree  should  undergo  a proper  degree 
of  trimming.  This  requires  considerable  judgment.  As  the 
branches  and  roots  of  a tree  depend  upon  each  other  for  sup- 
port, it  will  readily  be  understood  that  neither  should  be  over- 
tasked. In  removing  it  from  the  nursery,  all  the  small  fibrous 
roots,  and  sometimes  many  of  the  larger,  are  lost  ; hence  the 
top  must  be  trimmed  to  correspond.  To  do  this  properly,  all 
the  leading  shoots  should  be  shortened  back  one-half  or  two- 
thirds  of  the  current  year’s  growth  ; and,  if  the  roots  have  been 
much  injured,  the  leading  branches  should  be  headed  back  still 
more. 

TAKING  FROM  THE  NURSERY. 

Trees  should  be  injured  as  little  as  possible  in  removing 
them  from  the  nursery.  Taking  them  from  the  row,  and  tying 
in  such  a manner  as  to  be  easily  transported,  is  properly  the 
nurseryman’s  business  ; yet  it  is  always  best  to  keep  a watchful 
eye  to  the  work.  Especial  care  should  be  taken  that  the  roots 
are  not  broken  or  bruised,  or  cut  away  by  the  spade  in  taking 
them  from  the  ground  ; and  when  any  of  the  roots  do  become 
injured,  they  should  be  nicely  cut  off  with  a sharp  knife.  As 
soon  as  dug,  the  trees  should  be  carefully  arranged  in  con- 
venient bunches,  as  much  damp  earth  as  possible  placed  about 
their  roots,  and  then  closely  enveloped  in  some  coarse  sacking, 
or  other  suitable  thing,  and  firmly  tied  with  strong  cord.  If 
they  are  to  be  re-set  at  but  a short  distance  from  the  nursery, 
these  precautions  are  unnecessary,  though,  if  they  are  to  be 
carried  any  considerable  distance,  too  much  care  cannot  be 
used  in  this  respect.  In  all  cases  the  roots  should  be  carefully 
secured  against  exposure  to  the  air  and  sun. 

If  from  any  cause  the  trees  are  not  to  be  immediately  planted, 


they  should  be  placed  in  the  ground,  root  and  stock,  by  digging 
a trench  and  shoveling  loose  dirt  upon  them,  to  a depth  suffi- 
cient to  exclude  the  air.  The  weather  will  not  always  permit 
of  immediate  re-planting,  but  it  should  in  no  case  be  delayed 
longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  This  covering  should  be 
done  in  the  orchard  or  garden,  and  the  trees  should  be  removed 
from  the  trench  one  by  one  as  they  are  planted. 

SELECTION  OF  TREES. 

There  is  a great  diversity  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  proper 
size  of  a tree  for  transplanting,  though  the  best  informed  and 
most  experienced  planters  now  prefer  a two-year-old  tree  rather 
than  one  of  a larger  size.  In  thrifty,  well-tilled  nurseries,  trees 
of  that  age  will  average  about  five  feet  high  ; and  such  a tree 
can  be  more  easily  handled,  and  is  also  in  a better  condition 
to  sustain  the  violence  done  to  its  nature  by  transplanting,  and 
better  able  to  recover  from  it,  than  those  of  an  older  and  larger 
growth.  Care  should  also  be  taken  to  select  trees  of  well- 
branched  and  well-formed  heads,  and  of  as  near  the  same  size, 
vigor,  and  general  condition  as  possible. 

AFTER-CULTURE. 

PLOWING  AND  HOEING. 

One  of  the  most  common  errors  among  the  people  in  regard 
to  fruit-growing  is  that  pertaining  to  after-culture.  Many  sup- 
pose that  all  that  is  necessary  to  get  good  fruit  is  to  set  the  tree 
in  the  ground,  right  end  downward,  to  be  sure,  and  nature  will 
do  the  rest.  This  is  a most  fatal  error — nothing  can  be  more 
unreasonable.  It  is  as  absolutely  necessary  that  the  tree  which 
you  have  planted  should  receive  culture  and  care  afterward,  as 
that  the  corn  which  rustles  in  the  breeze  should  be  plowed  and 
hoed,  and  harrowed,  to  make  it  yield  its  golden  harvest. 
Trees,  as  well  as  vegetables,  must  have  food  and  drink. 
It  is  by  culture  that  they  obtain  them. 

Hence,  in  the  orchard,  the  growing  of  some  crop  is  very 
desirable.  Roots  are  perhaps  the  best  of  all.  Potatoes,  beets, 
beans,  carrots,  parsnips,  onions — all  require  thorough  culture, 
and  do  not  shade  the  trees;  while  Indian  corn,  clover,  grass, 
and  all  the  cereal  grains,  should  be  rigidly  excluded. 

PRUNING. 

In  the  matter  of  pruning  we  find  there  is  a great  diversity  ot 
opinion  among  experienced  fruit  growers.  Some  advise  a free 
use  of  the  knife  ; others  prune  but  little,  or  none  at  all.  The 
first  are  doubtless  right,  as  regards  some  sorts  of  trees  ; while, 
in  regard  to  other  varieties,  the  second  class  are  correct.  And 
the  point  must  be  settled  between  them  by  considering  the 
objects  sought  to  be  attained  by  pruning. 

To  our  mind  there  are  four  objects  to  be  had  in  view  in 
pruning  a fruit-tree.  These  are  : — 

1.  To  relieve  it  of  its  dead  and  decaying  branches. 

2.  To  promote  the  growth  of  the  tree. 

3.  To  encourage  the  production,  and  increase  the  size  and 
quality  of  the  fruit. 

4.  To  change  its  shape. 

Now,  the  above  being  ALL  the  objects  for  which  a tree  ought 
to  be  pruned  (except  as  heretofore  stated,  under  the  head  of 
“ Trimming,”  to  preserve  an  equilibrium  between  roots  and 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  FRUIT. 


58i 


branches  in  transplanting),  it  is  evident  that,  while  a permanent 
vigor  and  productiveness  are  maintained  without  it,  the  less 
pruning  the  better.  Many  planters  insist  that  a tree  should 
never  be  pruned  except  for  the  first  of  these  objects  ; because, 
as  they  allege,  if  a tree  be  faithfully  kept  free  from  all  dead 
and  decaying  wood,  its  growth  and  productiveness  will  both 
be  promoted.  This  is  doubtless  true  to  some  extent  with  some 
sorts  of  fruit,  and,  unless  some  peculiar  form  is  desired,  it  is 
better  to  do  but  little  other  pruning.  Yet  withal  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  prune  more  freely.  Some  varieties  of  the 
apple,  for  instance,  will  grow,  if  left  alone,  to  too  thick  a head, 
and  require  thinning  out  ; others  grow  so  straggling  that  it  is 
frequently  necessary  to  cut  away  drooping,  or  crooked  and 
deformed  branches,  to  give  the  tree  some  symmetry  of  appear- 
ance. After  the  first  object  is  attained,  the  apple,  the  pear, 
and  the  cherry,  as  standards,  require  little  more,  except  in  the 
cases  last  alluded  to.  Other  trees  require  much  more,  which 
will  be  treated  of  in  the  proper  place. 

PROTECTION. 

All  orchards  and  fruit  gardens,  whether  of  old  or  young 
trees,  should  be  carefully  protected  against  the  depredations 
of  cattle  or  other  animals.  Good  fences  to  secure  them  are 


indispensable,  as  it  is  utter  folly  to  expend  time  and  money  in 
planting  and  rearing  a fine  orchard,  and  then  allow  animals  to 
disfigure,  maim,  and  destroy  the  trees.  Cattle,  horses,  or 
sheep  should  never  be  allowed  to  run  in  orchards  ; nor  should 
swine  be  admitted  except  at  intervals  of  very  short  periods,  in 
order  that  they  may  have  time  only  to  eat  up  the  fallen  fruit, 
and  not  to  bark  the  trees  or  root  up  the  ground. 

In  some  sections  birds  are  great  depredators  upon  fruit,  but 
as  a general  thing  they  do  more  good  in  devouring  the  insects 
than  harm  in  consuming  the  fruit.  If  they  become  too  nu- 
merous, they  can  be  frightened  away  with  guns. 

MULCHING. 

This  is  simp'y  the  process  of  distributing  some  proper  ma- 
terial around  the  root  of  each  tree  to  retain  the  moisture. 
When  not  thus  protected,  the  ground  will  frequently  bake  and 
greatly  retard  the  growth  of  the  tree.  Any  coarse  litter,  straw, 
or  forest  leaves  will  be  suitable  for  mulching.  It  should  be 
used  plentifully — spread  on  to  a depth  of  at  least  six  inches. 
When  properly  mulched,  trees  will  retain  moisture  about  their 
roots,  and  make  a vigorous  growth,  through  the  dry  and  sultry 
summer  months,  while  others  not  protected  in  this  way  cease 
to  grow  altogether,  and  in  many  cases  wither  and  die. 


X 


S vine  culture  is  so  rapidly  developing  into  a source 
of  national  wealth,  the  following  instructions  will 
be  found  of  considerable  value. 

PROPAGATION. 

The  grape  is  easily  grown  from  cuttings — some 
sorts,  however,  much  more  readily  than  others.  Those 
that  are  not  so  easily  produced  in  this  way  are  usually  grown 
in  the  hot-house  or  hot-beds,  bottom  heat  being  required  for 
the  production  of  roots.  This  method  we  shall  leave  to  those 
who  are  prepared  for  it. 

For  out-door  growth  the  cuttings  should  be  made  late  in  the 
fall,  or  during  the  winter,  or  in  the  early  spring.  They  should 
be  cut  from  well-ripened  wood  of  the  new  growth,  and  should 
be  made  about  a foot  in  length,  including  two  eyes,  one  near 
each  end  ; if  the  wood  is  short-jointed,  more  eyes  may  be  used, 
but  in  no  case  should  a cutting  be  used  with  less  than  two. 
When  cut,  they  should  be  tied  in  bunches  of  fifty,  with  the 
butts  all  one  way,  and  should  be  protected  from  the  weather 
until  time  for  planting.  The  safest  plan  to  do  this  is  to  bury 
in  the  ground  in  a well-drained  soil,  below  the  reach  of  frost. 
Or  they  may  be  packed  in  very  slightly  moistened  sawdust  or 
sand,  in  boxes,  in  a dry  cellar. 

In  the  spring,  when  the  weather  becomes  sufficiently  settled, 
they  may  be  taken  up  and  planted  in  good  garden  soil,  pre- 
viously well-prepared.  In  planting,  make  a trench  with  the 
plow,  or  spade,  ten  inches  deep;  place  the  cuttings  in  the 
trench  at  a slight  angle,  and  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  apart, 


line. 

close  against  the  side  and  with  the  top-bud  just  even  with  the 
surface.  Then  fill  in  a few  inches  of  earth  at  the  bottom,  and 
press  tightly  with  the  foot,  continuing  the  process  with  less 
pressure  to  the  top.  Level  and  smooth,  and  the  work  is 
done. 

In  a favorable  season  and  with  free-growing  sorts,  nineteen- 
twentieths  of  them  will  grow,  and  with  proper  tillage  will  be- 
come good  plants.  The  only  cultivation  necessary  will  be  to 
keep  the  weeds  down  with  the  hoe,  and  the  ground  mellow 
and  moist.  If  not  intended  for  sale,  or  transplanting  the  next 
season,  they  may  remain  another  year.  Otherwise  they  should 
be  taken  up  in  the  fall,  and  stored  in  cellar  during  winter, 
packed  in  earth  or  sand. 

In  transplanting,  the  tops  should  be  cut  back  to  two  buds, 
and  the  roots  shortened  in  to  fifteen  or  twenty  inches. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  about  preparation  of  the 
soil  for  grapes  that  is  calculated  to  mislead  the  planter.  Some 
have  urged  the  entire  trenching  of  the  ground  to  a depth  of 
three  to  five  feet,  with  heavy  manuring;  others  require  the 
digging  °f  deep  holes,  four  by  four  feet,  and  filling  in  with 
manure  and  other  enriching  material ; while  a third  and  more 
reasonable  class  would  only  subsoil  and  drain,  in  addition  to 
good  depth  of  culture.  In  all  soils  suited  to  the  growth  of  a 
good  crop  of  corn  or  potatoes,  grapes  will  flourish,  and  the 
plow,  harrow,  and  sub-soiler  are  the  tools  necessary  for  its 
preparation. 

If  new  ground  is  used,  the  stumps  and  roots  should  be  care- 
fully grubbed  out,  as  they  will  be  much  in  the  way  while  plant- 


582 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  FRUIT. 


ing  and  in  after-cultivation,  and  can  be  easier  taken  out  before 
than  after  planting. 

The  timbered  lands  of  our  bluffs  are  more  suited  to  grapes 
than  the  richer  and  heavier  soils  of  the  Western  prairies,  or  the 
alluvial  soils  of  the  river  bottoms.  Thin  soils,  with  proper 
cultivation,  will  produce  grapes  of  a richer  and  better  quality 
than  others,  though  the  size  may  not  be  so  great,  or  the  growth 
of  wood  so  abundant. 

TRANSPLANTING 

may  be  safely  done  in  spring  or  fall,  according  to  latitude.  In 
northern  locations  spring  planting  is  preferable.  Southward, 
fall  is  preferred.  No  certain  line  of  division  can  be  fixed  ; but 
we  should  say  that,  as  a rule,  all  south  of  the  latitude  of  Phila- 
delphia, Columbus  in  Ohio,  and  Quincy  in  Illinois,  may  most 
safely  plant  in  the  fall,  while  north  of  those  points  it  is  better 
to  plant  in  the  spring. 

In  fall  planting  there  is  this  advantage — the  young  plants 
can  be  taken  directly  from  the  nursery  bed  and  planted,  with- 
out remaining  out  of  ground  for  any  great  length  of  time. 
Whereas,  if  planting  be  delayed  till  spring,  tire  vines  must 
be  taken  care  of  for  the  winter — as  heretofore  noted — 
with  more  or  less  loss.  In  any  case  it  is  important  that  the 
roots  shall  not  be  exposed  to  the  weather,  or  allowed  to  be- 
come dry.  In  removing  from  the  nursery  row,  they  should  be 
securely  packed  in  damp  moss,  straw,  hay,  or  litter  of  some 
sort,  until  they  are  finally  disposed  of  by  planting  or  packing 
for  the  winter. 

After  frost,  and  the  leaves  have  begun  to  fall,  the  fall  plant- 
ing may  commence.  In  spring  it  should  be  done  as  early  as 
the  weather  becomes  settled  and  the  soil  in  good  condition. 
The  last  of  October,  and  through  November,  will  do  for  fall 
planting;  in  spring,  the  1st  of  May. 

Fall  planting  is  preferable  on  this  account  also — that  the  soil 
will  become  packed  to  the  roots  during  winter,  the  new 
growth  of  roots  will  be  ready  to  start,  and  the  plant  will  com- 
mence growing  by  the  usual  time  of  spring  planting. 

To  prevent  heaving  by  the  action  of  the  frost,  and  throwing 
out  the  plants — a very  serious  matter  if  not  prevented — a furrow 
should  be  turned  on  the  plants  from  each  side  after  planting  in 
fall  ; or  they  should  be  mounded  up  with  the  hoe.  This  should 
be  leveled  down  again  in  the  spring. 

Having  prepared  the  ground  well,  as  before  stated,  with 
plow,  sub-soiler,  and  harrow,  run  off  the  distances  for  the  rows 
with  a plow,  making  a clean  furrow  nine  or  ten  inches  deep — 
being  careful,  if  crooked,  to  straighten  with  a hoe  or  spade. 
Then  set  stakes  the  proper  distances  along  the  furrow,  and 
plant  at  the  stakes.  Stand  the  plant  at  a slight  angle  against 
the  perpendicular  side  of  the  furrow,  and  spread  the  roots 
nicely  each  way.  Cover  and  pack  the  soil  well  around  the 
roots 

DISTANCE. 

Most  vineyardists  choose  to  plant  in  rows  about  eight  feet 
apart,  and  eight  feet  in  the  row.  Some  adopt  six  feet,  or  even 
less  according  to  the  variety,  and  the  mode  of  training.  Some 
of  the  strong-growing  sorts  require  greater  distances.  Concord, 
Isabella,  Hartford  Prolific,  Ives  seedling,  Clinton,  and  such, 
need  eight  feet  or  more  ; while  the  little  Delaware  may  do 
with  four  or  five,  and  the  Catawba,  Iona,  and  similar  ones. 


with  five  or  six.  Where  ground  is  plenty,  it  is  best  to  allow 
plenty  of  room. 

NUMBER  PER  ACRE. 

An  acre  of  ground  contains  43,560  square  feet,  or  4,840 
square  yards.  It  will  require  for  planting  the  numbers  speci- 
fied in  the  following  estimate,  viz.  : 


At  distance  of  10  by  10  feet 435  plants. 

At  distance  of  9 by  9 feet 537  plants. 

At  distance  of  8 by  8 feet 680  plants. 

At  distance  of  6 by  6 feet r,2io  plants. 


For  Concords  10  by  10 — certainly  not  less  than  9 by  9 — is 
desirable,  giving  plenty  of  room  for  the  plow  and  cultivator, 
and  also  sufficient  distance  to  train  on  the  trellis. 

Where  the  ground  is  level,  or  nearly  so,  the  rows  should  be 
run  north  and  south,  thereby  giving  more  sunshine  and  freer 
circulation  of  air.  If  it  be  hilly — and  it  is  presumed  that 
grapes  will  be  more  frequently  planted  on  hilly  and  uneven 
ground  than  elsewhere — the  rows  should  be  run  across  the 
slope,  so  as  to  make  the  cultivation  as  near  on  a level  as  pos- 
sible, in  order  that  the  ground  shall  not  wash. 

SELECTION  OF  PLANTS. 

In  purchasing  from  a nursery,  No.  1 yearling  plants  are 
generally  preferred.  Two-year-old  plants  cost  more  in  price 
and  for  transportation,  and  are  not  so  likely  to  live,  and  will 
gain  little,  if  any,  in  point  of  time,  Good  No.  1 plants,  from 
honest  nursery  men,  should  have  four  to  eight  roots  not  less 
than  two  feet  long,  and  a corresponding  growth  of  top.  Before 
transplanting,  all  roots  should  be  cut  back  to  eighteen  or  twenty 
inches,  and  the  top  shortened  to  two  eyes,  and  these  should 
be  set  nearly  level  with  the  ground. 

CULTIVATION. 

The  young  plant  should  be  allowed  to  take  its  own  course 
the  first  year  after  transplanting.  No  pinching,  no  tying-up, 
is  necessary.  But  the  ground  should  be  kept  well  tilled  and 
clear  of  weeds,  by  the  free  use  of  the  cultivator  and  hoe.  A 
row  of  early  cabbages,  beans,  beets,  or  other  root  crop,  maybe 
beneficially  grown  between.  In  a favorable  season,  the  strong- 
growing sorts  will  usually  make  a growth  of  five  or  six  feet  in 
length,  and,  in  some  cases,  as  much  as  ten  or  fifteen  feet,  the 
first  year. 

TRAINING  AND  AFTER-CULTURE. 

We  have  now  got  our  plants  with  two-year-old  roots  and 
stems  one  year  old.  The  after-management  is  various.  It  is 
best,  however,  that  this  one-year  vine  should  not  be  permitted  to 
bear  fruit  the  next  season  : which  it  would  do  if  left  to  itself. 
It  should  now  be  cut  back  to  two  eyes,  and  protected  during 
winter  by  a slight  covering  of  straw,  or  some  other  light  litter. 

And  here  comes  up  the  question  of  winter  protection.  What 
shall  be  done  with  our  vines,  now  that  we  have  got  them 
planted  and  growing?  Shall  they  be  protected,  or  shall  they 
be  left  exposed  to  the  rigors  of  the  winter,  and  run  the  risk  of 
life  or  death  ? Some  will  say — Let  them  alone  ; plant  only 
such  varieties  as  will  not  need  winter  protection.  Others, 
claiming  that  whatever  is  worth  doing  at  all,  is  worth  doing 
well,  advise  protection.  It  is  very  desirable,  certainly,  that 
we  shall  be  able  to  secure  such  varieties  as  will  withstand  the 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  FRUIT. 


583 


rigors  of  our  winters  without  this  labor  and  care  ; and  there 
are  such  ; but  it  must  be  confessed  that  they — as  in  the  case 
of  many  other  fruits — are  not  of  the  best  sorts.  It  is  also 
equally  evident  that,  as  a rule,  the  great  mass  of  grape-growers 
— the  million — will  not,  however  much  they  may  be  urged,  be 
induced  to  adopt  any  system  of  winter  protection  that  involves 
care  and  trouble. 

The  Concords,  the  Clintons,  the  Ives,  the  Nortons,  and 
others,  may  get  along  safely  through  most  winters  without 
protection.  But  if  we  expect  to  obtain  the  luscious  Delaware, 
the  Rebecca,  the  Maxitawny,  or  even  the  Catawba,  we  must 
make  up  our  minds  to  protect. 

The  mode  of  protection  usually  practiced  is  to  lay  the  vine 
down  upon  the  ground,  and  cover  with  earth  to  the  depth  of 
an  inch  or  two.  This  requires  that  the  annual  trimming  shall 
be  done  in  the  fall,  before  the  freezing  weather  commences. 
In  most  vineyards,  where  protection  is  not  practiced,  this  work 
is  omitted  till  in  the  winter  or  early  spring. 

This  question  of  protection  we  shall  leave  for  each  one  to 
judge  for  himself,  according  to  circumstances ; with  the  addi- 
tional remark,  that  of  the  varieties  named  in  the  succeeding  list 
probably  one-half  had  better  be  protected,  north  of  Ohio  and 
Pennsylvania,  while  the  other  half  may  get  along  without  it. 

Different  modes  of  training  are  adopted.  Some  tie  to  stout 
stakes,  six  or  seven  feet  high,  one  to  each  plant.  Where  wood 
is  scarce  and  costly,  this  is  an  expensive  mode.  The  most 
common  method  is  to  use  a trellis  of  wire.  For  this  purpose 
posts  are  set  in  the  ground  at  proper  distances — say  twenty  feet 
— and  wire  fastened  to  these  horizontally.  The  posts  at  the 
ends  should  be  firmly  set  and  braced,  in  order  that  the  strain 
of  the  wire  shall  not  loosen  them.  The  wire  is  fastened  to  the 
posts  by  means  of  small  staples,  to  be  had  at  the  hardware  stores. 
Three  wires  are  usually  required,  placed  twenty  inches  or  two 
feet  apart,  and  the  lower  one  a foot 'or  so  from  the  ground. 

Manufacturers  now  supply  a wire  especially  for  the  purpose. 
This  annealed  wire,  No.  12,  is  strong,  and  will  answer  ; but 
No  10  is  heavier,  and  will  last  longer.  To  wire  an  acre  of 
trellis,  the  cost  will  be  from  thirty  to  sixty  dollars,  while  the 
posts,  at  ten  cents  each,  may  bring  the  sum  total  form  sixty  to 
one  hundred  dollars,  according  as  wood  and  labor  are  costly 
or  cheap.  Inferior  trellis,  made  of  split  or  sawed  slats,  may  be 
obtained  at  cheaper  rates  in  places  where  wood  is  plentiful.  A 
primitive  mode  of  building  a trellis  is  to  use  split  poles, 
obtained  from  the  woods  when  the  bark  will  peel ; these,  while 
answering  a present  purpose,  will  be  of  short  duration. 

PRUNING. 

On  this  subject  there  is  a great  diversity  of  opinion,  and  the 
limits  of  this  work  will  not  permit  of  a lengthy  treatise  on  the 
subject.  It  is  proper  to  say,  that  the  tendency  to  vine-growth 
is  a check  to  the  fruiting  ; and  that  cultivators  consider  it  neces- 
sary to  counteract  this  excessive  growth  by  pinching  and 
pruning.  Many  carry  this  practice  to  excess  ; and  with  spring 
and  summer  pinching,  and  fall  and  winter  pruning,  we  believe, 
very  materially  injure  their  vines. 

In  this  description  of  the  pruning  process,  we  shall  condense 
from  various  treatises  on  the  subject.  Buchanan,  a practical 
Cincinnati  vineyardist  of  several  years  ago,  says  : — 


“ In  the  second  spring  after  planting,  cut  down  to  two  or 
three  eyes,  or  joints,  and  the  third  year  to  four  or  five  ; pinch- 
ing off  laterals  and  tying  up.  * * Pruning  the  fourth  year 

requires  good  judgment,  as  the  standard  stem  or  stalk  has  to 
be  established.  * * Select  the  best  stem  or  cane  of  last 

year,  and  cut  it  down  to  six  or  eight  joints  ; * * the  other 

cane  cut  down  to  a spur  of  two  or  three  eyes,  to  make  bearing- 
wood  for  the  next  season.” 

His  mode  has  reference  to  tying  to  upright  stakes,  instead  of 
trellis,  and  must  be  varied  accordingly.  He  says:  “In  the 
succeeding  and  all  subsequent  years,  cut  away  the  old  bearing- 
wood,  and  form  a new  bow,  or  arch,  from  the  best  branch  of 
the  new  wood  of  the  last  year,  leaving  a spur  as  before,  to  pro- 
duce bearing-wood  for  the  coming  year  ; thus  keeping  the  old 
stalk  of  the  vine  down  to  within  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches 
from  the  ground.  The  vine  is  then  always  within  reach  and 
control.”  This  is  the  renewal  system. 

Spur  pruning  consists  in  continuing  the  old  or  main  stem, 
and  annually  cutting  back  the  laterals  to  two  or  three  good 
buds.  A blending  of  the  two  is  often  practiced. 

For  summer  prunning,  we  can  do  no  better  than  to  quote 
from  Husmann,  a noted  grape-grower,  and  writer  in  Missouri. 
He  says  : — 

“ We  are  glad  to  see  that  the  attention  of  the  grape-growers 
of  the  country  is  thoroughly  aroused  to  the  importance  of  this 
subject,  and  that  the  practice  of  cutting  and  slashing  the  young 
growth  in  July  and  August  is  generally  discountenanced.  It 
has  murdered  more  promising  vineyards  than  any  other  prac- 
tice. But  people  are  apt  to  run  into  extremes,  and  many 
are  now  advocating  the  ‘let  alone’  doctrine.  We  think  both 
are  wrong,  and  that  the  true  course  to  steer  is  in  the  middle. 

“ 1.  Perform  the  operation  early.  Do  it  as  soon  as  the 
shoots  are  six  inches  long.  At  this  time  you  can  oversee  your 
vine  much  easier.  Every  young  shoot  is  soft  and  pliable.  * * 
Remember  that  the  knife  has  nothing  to  do  with  summer 
pruning.  Your  thumb  and  finger  should  perform  all  the  work, 
and  they  can  do  it  easily  if  it  is  done  early. 

“2.  Perform  it  thoroughly  and  systematically.  Select  the 
shoots  you  intend  for  bearing  wood  for  next  year.  These  are 
left  unchecked  ; but  do  not  leave  more  than  you  really  need. 
Remember  that  each  part  of  the  vine  should  be  thoroughly 
ventilated,  and  if  you  crowd  it  too  much,  none  of  these  canes 
will  ripen  their  wood  as  thoroughly,  nor  be  as  vigorous,  as  when 
each  has  room,  air,  and  light.  Having  selected  these,  com. 
mence  at  the  bottom  of  the  vine,  rubbing  off  all  superfluous 
shoots,  and  all  which  appear  weak  and  imperfect.  Then  go 
over  each  arm  or  part  of  the  vine,  pinching  every  fruit-bearing 
branch  above  the  last  bunch  of  grapes. 

“We  come  now  to  the  second  stage  of  summer  pruning. 
After  the  first  pinching,  the  dormant  buds  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves,  on  fruit-bearing  shoots,  will  each  push  out  a lateral 
shoot  opposite  the  young  bunches.  Our  second  operation 
consists  in  pinching  each  of  these  laterals  back  to  one  leaf  as 
soon  as  we  can  get  hold  of  the  shoot  above  the  first  leaf,  so 
that  we  get  a young,  vigorous  leaf  additional,  opposite  to  each 
bunch  of  grapes.  These  serve  as  elevators  of  the  sap,  and  also 
as  an  excellent  protection  and  shade  to  the  fruit.  Remember, 
our  aim  is  not  to  rob  the  plant  of  its  foliage,  but  to  make  two 


584 


THE  CULTIVATION  OF  FRUIT. 


leaves  grow  where  there  was  but  one  before,  and  at  a place 
where  they  are  of  more  benefit  to  the  fruit.” 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

Mildew  and  rot  are  the  chief  diseases  affecting  the  grape, 
and  are  both  believed  to  be  caused  by  atmospheric  influences. 
Excessive  rains  and  damp,  sultry  weather  are  deemed  the  chief 
causes  of  these  allied  diseases.  No  specific  remedy  has  been 
found,  as  no  means  of  preventing  the  recurrence  of  the  unfavor- 
able causes  are  within  human  reach. 

Of  insects,  there  are  several  that  are  quite  destructive  to  the 
grape  plant,  among  which  the  most  formidable  is  the  phyl- 
loxera, a tiny  insect  which,  in  its  several  stages, is  lately  making 
deadly  havoc  among  the  vineyards  of  both  Europe  and  America 
— affecting  the  roots  as  well  as  the  foliage.  In  its  work  upon 
the  foliage  it  does  comparatively  little  injury,  but  its  work  upon 
the  roots  is  very  destructive — eating  away  the  fibrous  portions, 
and  causing  them  to  decay  and  die. 

Against  the  ravages  of  this  insect  there  is  as  yet  no  known 
satisfactory  remedy.  Large  rewards  have  been  offered  in 
Europe  to  stimulate  discovery,  and  in  America  the  ento- 


mologists and  others  are  diligently  pursuing  their  investiga 
tions. 

The  leaf-hopper  is  a troublesome  insect  on  some  varieties. 
It  is  an  active  little  beetle,  and  works  on  the  underside  of  the 
leaves,  causing  them  to  assume  a deadly  appearance  in  spots, 
and  finally  killing  the  leaf  entirely.  Soapsuds  have  been  re- 
commended as  a remedy  ; also  tobacco  infusion  thrown  upon 
them  with  a syringe. 

The  leaf-folder  is  a green  worm  that  folds  itself  up  in  the 
leaf,  where  it  goes  into  the  chrysalis  state.  The  parent  moth 
appears  in  the  spring  and  deposits  her  eggs,  v/hich  hatch  and 
fold  themselves  up  dur'ng  the  summer.  The  increase  of  both 
this  and  the  leaf  hopper  may  be  checked  by  raking  up  and 
burning  the  leaves  in  the  fall. 

There  is  also  a grape  curculio,  inferior  in  size  to  the  plum 
curculio,  but  with  habits  somewhat  similar.  It  punctures  the 
fruit  and  deposits  an  egg,  which  hatches  a worm  to  live  on  the 
juices.  This  larva  leaves  the  berry  during  summer,  and  passes 
into  the  ground.  It  is  believed,  however,  to  issue  again  in  the 
fall  as  a beetle,  and  thus  pass  the  winter. 

Many  other  more  or  less  destructive  insect  enemies  of  tne 
grape  might  be  mentioned. 


CARVING. 


VERYBODY  should 
know  how  to  carve. 
Parents  should  instruct 
their  children  in  this  neces- 
sary art,  and  on  given  oc- 
casions practically  exercise 
the  youngsters  in  the  use  of 
the  “ big  ” knife  and  fork. 

Ladies  ought  especially  to  make 
carving  a study  ; at  their  own 
houses  they  grace  the  table,  and 
should  be  enabled  to  perform  the 
task  allotted  to  them  with  suffi- 
cient skill  to  prevent  remark,  or 
the  calling  forth  of  eager  proffers 
of  assistance  from  good-natured  visitors  near,  who 
probably  would  not  present  any  better  claim  to  a 
neat  performance. 

Carving  presents  no  difficulties  ; it  simply  requires 
knowledge.  All  displays  of  exertion  or  violence  are 
in  very  bad  taste  ; for,  if  not  proved  an  evidence 
of  the  want  of  ability  on  the  part  of  the  carver,  they 
present  a very  strong  testimony  of  the  toughness  of 
a joint. 

Lightness  of  hand  and  dexterity  of  management 
are  necessary,  and  can  only  be  acquired  by  practice. 
The  flakes,  which  in  such  fish  as  salmon  and  cod  are 
large,  should  not  be  broken  in  serving,  for  the 
beauty  of  the  fish  is  then  destroyed,  and  the  appe- 
tite for  it  injured.  In  addition  to  the  skill  in  the 
use  of  the  knife,  there  is  also  required  another  de- 


scription of  knowledge,  and  that  is  an  acquaintance 
with  the  best  part  of  the  joint,  fowl  or  fish  being 
carved.  Thus  in  a haunch  of  venison  the  fat, 
which  is  a favorite,  must  be  served  with  each  slice  ; 
in  the  shoulder  of  mutton  there  are  some  delicate 
cuts  in  the  under  part.  The  breast  and  wings  are 
the  best  part  of  a fowl,  and  the  trail  of  a woodcock 
on  a toast  is  the  choicest  part  of  the  bird.  In  fish 
a part  of  the  roe,  melt  or  liver  should  accompany 
the  piece  of  fish  served.  The  list,  however,  is  too 
numerous  to  mention  here  ; and,  indeed,  the  knowl- 
edge can  only  be  acquired  by  experience.  In  large 
establishments  the  gross  dishes  are  carved  at  the  buffet 
by  the  butler,  but  in  middle  society  they  are  placed 
upon  the  table.  In  the  following  directions,  accom- 
panied by  diagrams,  we  have  endeavored  to  be  as 
explict  as  possible  ; but  while  they  will  prove  as 
landmarks  to  the  uninitiated,  he  will  find  that  prac- 
tice alone  will  enable  him  to  carve  with  skill  and 
facility. 

Part  of  a Sirloin  of  Beef. — There  are  two  modes  of 


2 _ __ ' " \ 


helping  this  joint  : either  by  carving  long  thin  slices  from  3 


586 


CARVING. 


to  4,  and  assisting  a portion  of  the  marrowy  fat,  which  is  found 
underneath  the  ribs,  to  each  person  ; or  by  cutting  thicker 
slices  in  the  direction  1 to  2.  When  sent  to  the  table  the 
joint  should  be  laid  down  on  the  dish  with  the  surface  2 up- 
permost. 

An  Aitch-Bone  of  Beef. — This  is  a simple  joint  to  carve, 
but  the  slices  from  it  must  be  cut  quite  even,  and  of  a very 
moderate  thickness.  When  the  joint  is  boiled,  before  cutting 
to  serve,  remove  a slice  from  the  whole  of  the  upper  part  of 
sufficient  thickness,  say  a quarter  of  an  inch,  in  order  to  ar- 


rive at  the  juicy  part  of  the  meat  at  once.  Carve  from  1 to 
2 ; let  the  slices  be  moderately  thin — not  too  thin  ; help  fat 
with  the  lean  in  one  piece,  and  give  a little  additional  fat 
which  you  will  find  below  3 ; the  solid  fat  is  at  1,  and  must  be 
cut  in  slices  horizontally.  The  round  of  beef  is  carved  in  the 
same  manner. 


Ham. — It  is  served  as  placed  in  the  engraving,  and  should 
come  to  the  table  ornamented.  Carve  from  A to  B,  cutting 
thin  slices  slantingly,  to  give  a wedge-like  appearance.  Those 


from  A to  B,  then  carve  from  D to  C,  in  thin  slices,  as  indicated 
in  the  diagram. 

The  Sirloin  of  Beef. — The  under  part  should  be  first 
served,  and  carved  as  indicated  in  the  engraving,  across  the 


G 


SIRLOIN  OF  BEEF. 

bone.  In  carving  the  upper  part  the  same  directions  should  be 
followed  as  for  the  ribs,  or  in  the  center,  from  A to  B,  and 
helping  the  fat  from  D. 


Sucking  Pig. — The  cook  should  send  a roast  pig  to  table 
garnished  with  head  and  ears.  Carve  the  joints,  then  divide  the 
ribs,  serve  with  plenty  of  sauce  : should  one  of  the  joints  be 
too  much,  it  may  be  separated  : bread  sauce  and  stuffing 
should  accompany  it.  An  ear  and  the  jaw  are  favorite  parts 
with  many  people. 

Boiled  Tongue. — Carve  across  the  tongue,  but  do  not  cut 
through  ; keep  the  slices  rather  thin,  and  help  the  fat  from 
underneath. 

Brisket  of  Beef  must  be  carved  in  the  direction  1 and  2 
quite  down  to  the  bone,  after  cutting  off  the  outside,  which 
should  be  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick. 


Ribs  of  Beef  are  carved  similar  to  the  sirloin,  commenc- 
ing  at  the  thin  end  of  the  joint,  and  cutting  long  slices,  so  as 
to  assist  fat  and  lean  at  the  same  time. 

Round  or  Buttock  of  Beef. — Remove  the  upper  surface 
in  the  same  manner  as  for  an  aitch-bone  of  beef,  carve  thin 
horizontal  slices  of  fat  and  lean,  as  evenly  as  possible.  It  re- 
quires a sharp  knife  and  steady  hand  to  carve  it  well. 

Leg  of  Mutton. — The  under  or  thickest  part  of  the  leg 
should  be  placed  uppermost,  and  carved  in  slices  moderately 
thin,  from  B to  C.  Many  persons  have  a taste  for  the  knuckle. 


and  this  question  should  be  asked,  and,  if  preferred,  should  be 
assisted.  When  cold  the  back  of  the  leg  should  be  placed  up. 
permost,  and  thus  carved  ; if  the  cramp  bone  is  reqaested,  and 
some  persons  regard  it  as  a dainty,  hold  the  shank  with  your 
left  hand,  and  insert  your  knife  at  D,  passing  it  round  to  E, 
and  you  will  remove  it. 

Ribs  of  Beef. — There  are  two  modes  of  carving  this  joint. 
The  first,  which  is  now  becoming  common,  and  is  easy  to  an 
amateur  carver,  is  to  cut  across  the  bone  commencing  in  the 
center,  and  serving  fat  from  A,  as  marked  in  the  engraving 
of  the  sirloin;  or  it  should  be  carved  in  slices  from  A to  c, 
commencing  either  in  the  center  of  the  joint  or  at  the  sides. 
Occasionally  the  bones  are  removed,  and  the  meat  formed  :nt< 
a fillet  ; it  should  then  be  carved  as  a round  of  beef. 

The  Loin  of  Mutton,  if  small,  should  be  carved  in  chops, 
beginning  with  the  outer  chop  ; if  large,  carve  slices  the  whole 


CARVING. 


r 


587 


length.  A neat  way  is  to  run  the  knife  along  the  chine  bone 
and  under  the  meat  along  the  ribs  : it  may  then  be  cut  in 
slices  ; and  by  this  process  fat  and  lean  are  served  together. 
Your  knife  should  be  very  sharp,  and  it  should  be  done 
cleverly. 

Neck  of  Mutton,  if  the  scrag  and  chine  bone  are  re- 
moved,  is  carved  in  the  direction  of  the  bones. 

The  Scrag  of  Mutton  should  be  separated  from  the  ribs 
of  the  neck,  and  when  roasted  the  bone  assisted  with  the  meat. 
Haunch  of  Mutton  is  carved  as  haunch  of  venison. 

Roast  Fowl. — This 
operation  is  a nice  and 
skillful  one  to  perform  ; 
it  requires  both  observa- 
tion and  practice.  Insert 
the  knife  between  the 
legs  and  the  side,  press 
back  the  leg  with  the 
blade  of  the  knife,  and 
the  joint  will  disclose  itself  : if  young,  it  will  part,  but  at  best, 
if  judiciously  managed,  will  require  but  a nick  where  the  joints 
unite.  Remove  your  wing  from  D to  B,  cut  through  and  lay 
it  back  as  with  the  leg,  separating  the  joint  with  the  edge  of 
your  knife,  remove  the  merrythought  and  neck  bones  next : 
this  you  will  accomplish  by  inserting  the  knife  and  forcing  it 
under  the  bones : raise  it,  and  it  will  readily  separate  from  the 
breast.  You  will  divide  the  breast  from  the  body  by  cutting 
through  the  small  ribs  down  to  the  vent,  turn  the  back  upper- 
most, now  put  your  knife  into  about  the  center  between  the 
neck  and  rump,  raise  the  lower  part  firmly  yet  gently,  it  will 
easily  separate  ; turn  the  neck  or  rump  from  you,  take  off  the 
side  bones  and  the  fowl  is  carved. 

In  separating  the  thigh  from  the  drumstick,  you  must  insert 
the  knife  exactly  at  the  joint,  as  we  have  in- 
dicated in  the  engraving  ; this,  however,  will 
be  found  to  require  practice,  for  the  joint 
must  be  accurately  hit,  or  else  much  difficulty 
will  be  experienced  in  getting  the  parts 
asunder.  There  is  no  difference  in  carving 
roast  and  boiled  fowls,  if  full  grown  ; but  in 
a very  young  fowl  when  roasted,  the  breast  is 
served  whole.  The  wings  and  breast  are  in 
the  highest  favor,  but  the  leg  of  a young 
fowl  is  an  excellent  part.  Capons,  when  very 
fine  and  roasted,  should  have  slices  carved 
from  the  breast. 

Geese. — Follow  with  your  knife  the  lines  marked  in  the 

engraving,  A to  B, 
and  cut  slices,  then 
remove  the  wing, 
and  if  the  party  be 
large,  the  legs  must 
also  be  removed,  and 
here  the  disjointer 
will  again  prove  ser- 
viceable. The  stuff- 
ing, as  in  the  tur- 
key. will  be  obtained  by  making  an  insertion  at  the  apron. 

A, — 


Guinea  Fowl  are  carved  in  the  same  manner. 

Quails,  Landrail,  Wheatears,  Larks,  and  all  small 
birds  are  served  whole. 

Grouse  and  Plover  are  carved  as  partridges. 

Snipe  and  Woodcock  are  divided  into  two  parts;  the 
trail  being  served  on  a toast. 

Fish  should  never  be  carved  with  steel  ; assisting  requires 

more  care  than  knowl- 
edge ; the  principal 
caution  is  to  avoid 
breaking  the  flakes. 
In  carving  a piece  of 
salmon  as  here  en- 
graved, cut  thin  slices, 
as  from  A to  B,  and 
middle  cut  of  salmon.  help  with  it  pieces  of 

the  belly  in  the  direction  marked  from  c to  D.  The  best 
flavored  is  the  upper  or  thick  part. 

Haddock. — It  is  dressed  whole,  unless  unusually  large. 
When  sent  to  the  table  it  is  split  its  whole  length,  and  served 
one-half  the  head  to  the  tail  of  the  other  part  ; it  is  carved 
across. 

Mackerel  should  always  be  sent  to  table  head  to  tail.  Di- 
vide the  meat  from 
the  bone  by  cutting 
down  the  back  length- 
wise from  1 tr  2 : 
upper  part  is  the  best. 
All  small  fish,  such 
as  herrings,  smelts, 
mackerel.  etc.,  are  served  whole. 

Neck  of  Veal. — Were  you  to  attempt  to  carve  each  chop 
and  serve  it,  you  would  not  only  place  a gigantic  bit  upon  the 
plate  of  the  person  you  intended  to  help,  but  you  would  waste 
time,  and  if  the  vertebrae  had  not  been  jointed  by  the  butcher 


you  would  find  yourself  in  the  position  of  the  ungraceful 
carver,  being  compelled  to  exercise  a degree  of  strength  which 
should  never  be  suffered  to  appear  ; very  possibly,  too,  assist- 
ing gravy  in  a manner  not  contemplated  by  the  person  unfor- 
tunate enough  to  receive  it.  Cut  diagonally  from  B to  A,  and 
help  in  slices  of  moderate  thickness  ; you  can  cut  from  c to 
D in  order  to  separate  the  small  bones  ; divide  and  serve  them, 
having  first  inquired  if  they  are  desired. 

The  Breast  of  Veal. — Separate  the  ribs  from  A to  b ; 
these  small  bones,  which  are  the  sweetest  and  mostly  chosen, 
you  will  cut  them  as  D D D,  and  serve.  The  long  ribs  are  di- 
vided as  at  C c C ; and  having  ascertained  the  preference  of 


c 


588 


CARVING. 


the  person,  help  accordingly.  At  good  tables  the  scrag  is  not 
served,  but  is  found,  when  properly  cooked,  a very  good  stew. 


Calfs  Head. — There  is  much  more  meat  to  be  obtained 


from  A to  b,  cutting  quite  down  to  the  bone.  At  the  fleshy 
part  of  the  neck  end  you  will  find  the  throat  sweetbread,  which 
you  can  help  a slice  of  with  the  other  part  ; you  will  remove 
the  eye  with  the  point  of  the  knife,  and  divide  it  in  half,  help- 
ing those  to  it  who  profess  a preference  for  it  : there  are  some 
tasty,  gelatinous  pieces  around  it  which  are  palatable.  Re- 
move the  jaw-bone,  and  then  you  will  meet  with  some  fine- 
flavored  lean  ; the  palate,  which  is  under  the  head,  is  by  some 
thought  a dainty,  and  should  be  proffered  when  carving. 

Boiled  Turkey  is  trussed  in  a different  fashion  to  the 

the  roast,  but  the  same 
directions  given  for 
the  first  apply  to  the 
second.  The  legs  in 
the  boiled  turkey  be- 
ing drawn  into  the 
body  may  cause  some 
little  difficulty  at  first 
boiled  turkey.  in  their  separation, 

but  a little  practice  will  soon  surmount  it. 

Fillet  of  Veal. — Cut  a slice  off  the  whole  of  the  upper 

part  in  the  same  way 
as  from  a round  of 
beef  : this  being,  if 
well  roasted,  of  a nice 
brown,  should  be 
helped  in  small  pieces 
with  the  slices  you  cut 
for  each  person.  The 
stuffing  is  skewered 
in  the  flap,  and  where 
fillet  of  veal.  the  bones  come  out 

there  is  some  placed  ; help  this  with  the  meat,  with  a piece  of 
the  fa* 


Loin  of  Veal. — This  joint  is  sent  to  table  served  as  a sirloin 
of  beef.  Having  turned  it  over,  cut  out  the  kidney  and  the 
fat,  return  it  to  its  proper  position, and  carve  it  as  in  the  neck  of 
veal,  from  B to  A ; help  with  it  a slice  of  kidney  and  fat.  The 
kidney  is  usually  placed  upon  a dry  toast  when  removed  from 
the  joint. 

Shoulder  of  Veal  is  sent  to  table  with  the  under  part 
placed  uppermost.  Help  it  as  a shoulder  of  mutton,  begin- 
ning at  the  knuckle  end. 

A Shoulder  of  Mutton. — This  is  a joint  upon  which  a 
great  diversity  of  opinion  exists,  many  professing  a species  of 
horror  at  its  insipidity,  others  finding  much  delicacy  of  flavor 

in  certain  parts.  In 
good  mutton  there  is  no 
doubt  but  that,  if  prop- 
erly managed,  it  is  an 
excellent  joint,  and,  if 
judiciously  served,  will 
give  satisfaction  to  all 
who  partake  of  it.  It 
should  be  served  hot. 
It  is  sent  to  table  lying 
on  the  dish  as  shown  in 
shoulder  of  mutton.  the  annexed  engraving. 

Commence  carving  from  A to  B,  taking  out  moderately  thin 
slices  in  the  shape  of  a wedge  ; some  nice  pieces  may  then  be 
helped  from  the  blade-bone,  from  c to  B,  cutting  on  both  sides 
of  the  bone.  Cut  the  fat  from  D,  carving  it  in  thin  slices. 
Some  of  the  most  delicate  parts,  however,  lie  on  the  under 
part  of  the  shoulder ; take  off  thin  pieces  horizontally  from  B 
to  c,  and  from  A ; some  tender  slices  are  to  be  met  with  at  D, 
but  they  must  be  cut  through  as  indicated. 

The  shoulder  of  mutton  is  essentially  a joint  of  titbits,  and 
therefore,  when  carving  it,  the  tastes  of  those  at  the  table 
should  be  consulted.  It  is  a very  insipid  joint  when  cold,  and 
should  therefore  be  hashed  if  sent  to  table  a second  time. 

Wild  Duck  and  Widgeon. — The  breast  of  these  fowls, 
being  the  best  portion,  is  carved  in  slices,  which  being  re- 
moved, a glass  of  old  port  made  hot  is  poured  in,  the  half  oi 
a lemon  seasoned  with  cayenne  and  salt  should  then  be 
squeezed  in,  the  slices  relaid  in  their  places,  and  then  served 
the  joints  being  removed  the  same  as  in  other  fowl. 

Partridge. — Separate  the  legs,  and  then  divide  the  bird 
into  three  parts,  leaving  each  leg  and  wing  together.  .The 
breast  is  then  divided  from  the  back,  and  helped  whole,  the 
latter  being  assisted  with  any  of  the  other  parts.  When  the 
party  consists  of  gentlemen  only,  the  bird  is  divided  into  two 
by  cutting  right  through  from  the  vent  to  the  neck. 

Pigeon. — Like  woodcock,  these  birds  are  cut  in  half, 
through  the  breast  and  back,  and  helped. 

Roast  Turkey. — Cut  long  slices  from  both  sides  of  the 
breast  down  to  the  ribs  at  the  breast-bone.  If  a large  bird 
the  legs  may  be  removed,  and  the  drumsticks  taken  off.  The 
stuffing  may  be  removed  by  making  an  incision  in  the  apron. 

Boiled  Fowl. — There  is  but  little  difference  in  the  mode 
of  carving  roast  and  boiled  fowl,  and  that  little  lies  in  the 
breast  of  the  former  being  generally  served  entire — the  thigh 
bone,  too,  is  preferred  by  many  to  the  wing. 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  LADIES. 


589 


n 


: flf  flf  flf  fit  flf  f!f  flf  flf  flf  t'f  f-t  f-t  t-t  t*t  t‘t  t*t  t-t  t*t  t’t  t*t  t‘t  t*t  t‘t  t*t  f-t  f-t  t*t  #| 


TIQUETTE  may  be  defined 
as  the  minor  morality  of  life. 
Its  laws,  like  all  other  social 
laws,  are  the  accumulated  re- 
sults of  the  wisdom  and  ex- 
perience of  many  generations. 
They  form  a code  with  which 
every  educated  person  is  bound 
to  be  acquainted  ; and  the  ob- 
ject of  this  portion  of  Collier’s 
Cyclopedia  is  to  place  that 
code  before  the  reader  in  as 
succinct,  as  agreeable,  and  as 
explanatory  a light  as  the  sub- 
ject admits  of.  We  hope  and  believe  that  it  will  be 
found  in  all  respects  a trusty  and  pleasant  guide. 


INTRODUCTIONS. 


To  introduce  persons  who  are  mutually  unknown  is  to 
undertake  a serious  responsibility,  and  to  certify  to  each  the 
respectability  of  the  other.  Never  undertake  this  responsibility 
without,  in  the  first  place,  asking  yourself  whether  the  persons 
are  likely  to  be  agreeable  to  each  other  ; nor,  in  the  second 
place,  without  ascertaining  whether  it  will  be  acceptable  to 
both  parties  to  become  acquainted. 

Always  introduce  the  gentleman  to  the  lady — never  the  lady 
to  the  gentleman.  The  chivalry  of  etiquette  assumes  that  the 
lady  is  invariably  the  superior  in  right  of  her  sex,  and  that  the 
gentleman  is  honored  in  the  introduction. 

Never  present  a gentleman  to  a lady  without  first  asking  her 
permission  to  do  so. 

When  you  are  introduced  to  a gentleman,  never  offer  your 
hand.  When  introduced,  persons  limit  their  recognition  of 
each  other  to  a bow. 


Sir 


Persons  who  have  met  at  the  house  of  a mutual  friend  with- 
out being  introduced  should  not  bow  if  they  afterwards  meet 
elsewhere.  A bow  implies  acquaintance  ; and  persons  who 
have  not  been  introduced  are  not  acquainted. 

If  you  are  walking  with  one  friend,  and  presently  meet  with, 
or  are  joined  by,  a second,  do  not  commit  the  too  frequent  error 
of  introducing  them  to  each  other.  You  have  even  less  light 
to  do  so  than  if  they  encountered  each  other  at  your  house 
during  a morning  call. 

There  are  some  exceptions  to  the  etiquette  of  introduction. 
At  a ball,  or  evening  party  where  there  is  dancing,  the  mistress 
of  the  house  may  introduce  any  gentleman  to  any  lady'  without 
first  asking  the  lady’s  permission.  But  she  should  first  ascer- 
tain whether  the  lady  is  willing  to  dance  ; and  this  out  of 
consideration  for  the  gentleman,  who  may  otherwise  be  refused. 
No  man  likes  to  be  refused  the  hand  of  a lady,  though  it  be 
only  for  a quadrille. 

A sister  may  present  her  brother,  or  a mother  her  son,  with- 
out any  kind  of  preliminary. 

Friends  may  introduce  friends  at  the  house  of  a mutual 
acquaintance  ; but,  as  a rule,  it  is  better  to  be  introduced  by 
the  mistress  of  the  house.  Such  an  introduction  carries  more 
authority  with  it. 

Introductions  at  evening  parties  are  now  almost  wholly 
dispensed  with.  Persons  who  meet  at  a friend’s  house  are 
ostensibly  upon  an  equality,  and  pay  a bad  compliment  to  the 
host  by  appearing  suspicious  and  formal.  Some  old-fashioned 
country  hosts  still  persevere  in  introducing  each  new  comer  to 
all  the  assembled  guests.  It  is  a custom  that  cannot  be  too 
soon  abolished,  and  one  that  places  the  last  unfortunate  visitor 
in  a singularly  awkward  position.  All  that  she  can  do  is  to 
make  a semicircular  courtesy,  like  a concert  singer  before  an 
audience,  and  bear  the  general  gaze  with  as  much  composure 
as  possible. 

An  introduction  given  at  a ball  for  the  mere  purpose  of 
conducting  a lady  through  a dance  does  not  give  the  gentleman 
any  right  to  bow  to  her  on  a future  occasion.  If  he  commits 
this  error,  she  may  remember  that  she  is  not  bound  to  see,  or 
return,  his  salutation. 


59° 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  LADIES. 


LETTERS  OF  INTRODUCTION. 

Do  not  lightly  give  or  promise  letters  of  introduction. 
Always  remember  that  when  you  give  a letter  of  introduction 
you  lay  yourself  under  an  obligation  to  the  friend  to  whom  it 
is  addressed.  If  she  lives  in  a great  city,  such  as  Chicago  or 
Boston,  you  in  a measure  compel  her  to  undergo  the  penalty  of 
escorting  the  stranger  to  some  of  those  places  of  public  enter- 
tainment in  which  the  capital  abounds.  If  your  friend  be  a 
married  lady,  and  the  mistress  of  a house,  you  put  her  to  the 
expense  of  inviting  the  stranger  to  her  table.  We  cannot  be 
too  cautious  how  we  tax  the  time  and  purse  of  a friend,  or  weigh 
too  seriously  the  question  of  mutual  advantage  in  the  introduc- 
tion. Always  ask  yourself  whether  the  person  introduced  will 
be  an  acceptable  acquaintance  to  the  one  to  whom  you  present 
her;  and  whether  the  pleasure  of  knowing  her  will  compensate 
for  the  time  or  money  which  it  costs  to  entertain  her.  If  the 
stranger  is  in  any  way  unsuitable  in  habits  or  temperament,  you 
inflict  an  annoyance  on  your  friend  instead  of  a pleasure.  In 
questions  of  introduction  never  oblige  one  friend  to  the  discom- 
fort of  another. 

Those  to  whom  letters  of  introduction  have  been  given 
should  send  them  to  the  person  to  whom  they  are  addressed, 
and  inclose  a card.  Avoid  delivering  a letter  of  introduction 
in  person.  It  places  you  in  the  most  undignified  position 
imaginable,  and  compels  you  to  wait  while  it  is  being  read, 
like  a servant  who  has  been  told  to  wait  for  an  answer.  If  the 
receiver  of  the  letter  be  a really  well-bred  person,  she  will  call 
upon  you  or  leave  her  card  the  next  day,  and  you  should  return 
her  attention  within  the  week. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  a stranger  sends  you  a letter  of 
introduction  and  her  card,  you  are  bound  by  the  laws  of  polite- 
ness and  hospitality,  not  only  to  call  upon  her  the  next  day,  but 
to  follow  up  that  attention  with  others.  If  you  are  in  a posi- 
tion to  do  so,  the  most  correct  proceeding  is  to  invite  her  to 
dine  with  you.  Should  this  not  be  within  your  power,  you  can 
probably  escort  her  to  some  of  the  exhibitions,  bazaars,  or  con- 
certs of  the  season  ; any  of  which  would  be  interesting  to  a 
provincial  visitor.  In  short,  etiquette  demands  that  you  shall 
exert  yourself  to  show  kindness  to  the  stranger,  if  only  out  of 
compliment  to  the  friend  who  introduced  her  to  you. 

If  you  invite  her  to  take  dinner  with  you,  it  is  a better 
compliment  to  ask  some  others  to  meet  her  than  to  dine  with 
her  tete-a-tete.  You  are  thereby  giving  her  an  opportunity  of 
making  other  acquaintances,  and  are  assisting  your  friend  in 
still  farther  promoting  the  purpose  for  which  she  gave  her  the 
introduction  to  yourself. 

A letter  of  introduction  should  be  given  unsealed,  not  alone 
because  your  friend  may  wish  to  know  what  you  have  said  of 
her,  but  also  as  a guarantee  of  your  own  good  faith.  As  you 
should  never  give  such  a letter  unless  you  can  speak  highly  of 
the  bearer,  this  rule  of  etiquette  is  easy  to  observe.  By  request- 
ing your  friend  to  fasten  the  envelope  before  forwarding  the 
letter  to  its  destination,  you  tacitly  give  her  permission  to  inspect 
its  contents. 

VISITING  CARDS. 

Visits  of  ceremony  should  be  short.  If  even  the  conversation 
should  have  become  animated,  beware  of  letting  your  call  ex- 


ceed half-an-hour’s  length.  It  is  always  better  to  let  youi 
friends  regret  rather  than  desire  your  withdrawal. 

On  returning  visits  of  ceremony  you  may,  without  impolite- 
ness, leave  your  card  at  the  door  without  going  in.  Do  not 
fail,  however,  to  inquire  if  the  family  be  well. 

Should  there  be  daughters  or  sisters  residing  with  the  lady 
upon  whom  you  call,  you  may  turn  down  a corner  of  your  card, 
to  signify  that  the  visit  is  paid  to  all.  It  is  in  better  taste,  how- 
ever, to  leave  cards  for  each. 

Unless  when  returning  thanks  for  “kind  inquiries,’' or 
announcing  your  arrival  in,  or  departure  from,  town,  it  is  not 
considered  respectful  to  send  round  cards  by  a servant. 

Leave-taking  cards  have  P.P.C.  ( pour  prendre  cong^)  written 
in  the  corner.  Some  use  P.D.  A.  (pour  dire  adieu). 

Autographic  facsimiles  for  visiting  cards  are  affectations  in 
any  persons  but  those  who  are  personally  remarkable  for  talent, 
and  whose  autographs,  or  facsimiles  of  them,  would  be  prized 
as  curiosities. 

Visits  of  condolence  are  paid  within  the  week  after  the  event 
which  occasions  them.  Personal  visits  of  this  kind  are  made 
by  relations  and  very  intimate  friends  only.  Acquaintances 
should  leave  cards  with  narrow  mourning  borders. 

On  the  first  occasion  when  you  are  received  by  the  family 
after  the  death  of  one  of  its  members,  it  is  etiquette  to  wear 
slight  mourning. 

Umbrellas  should  invariably  be  left  in  the  hall. 

Never  take  favorite  dogs  into  a drawing-room  when  you 
make  a morning  call.  Their  feet  may  be  dusty,  or  they  may 
bark  at  the  sight  of  strangers,  or,  being  of  a too  friendly  dis- 
position, may  take  the  liberty  of  lying  on  a lady’s  gown,  or 
jumping  on  the  sofas  and  easy  chairs.  Where  your  friend  has 
a favorite  cat  already  established  before  the  fire,  a battle  may 
ensue,  and  one  or  both  of  the  pets  be  seriously  hurt.  Besides, 
many  persons  have  a constitutional  antipathy  to  dogs,  and 
others  never  allow  their  own  to  be  seen  in  the  sitting-rooms. 
For  all  or  any  of  these  reasons,  a visitor  has  no  right  to  inflict 
upon  her  friend  the  society  of  her  dog  as  well  as  of  herself 
Neither  is  it  well  for  a mother  to  take  young  children  with  her 
when  she  pays  morning  visits  ; their  presence,  unless  they  are 
unusually  well  trained,  can  only  be  productive  of  anxiety  to 
both  yourself  and  your  hostess.  She,  while  striving  to  amuse 
them,  or  to  appear  interested  in  them,  is  secretly  anxious  for 
the  fate  of  her  album,  or  the  ornaments  on  her  etagere ; while 
the  mother  is  trembling  lest  her  children  should  say  or  dc 
something  objectionable. 

If  other  visitors  are  announced,  and  you  have  already  re- 
mained as  long  as  courtesy  requires,  wait  till  they  are  seated, 
and  then  rise  from  your  chair,  take  leave  of  your  hostess,  and 
bow  politely  to  the  newly  arrived  guests.  You  will,  perhaps, 
be  urged  to  remain,  but,  having  once  risen,  it  is  best  to  go. 
There  is  always  a certain  air  of  gaucherie  in  resuming  your  seat 
and  repeating  the  ceremony  of  leave-taking. 

If  you  have  occasion  to  look  at  your  watch  during  a call,  ask 
permission  to  do  so,  and  apologize  for  it  on  the  plea  of  other 
appointments. 

In  receiving  morning  visitors,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  lady 
should  lay  aside  the  employment  in  which  she  may  be  engaged, 
particularly  if  it  consists  of  light  or  ornamental  needle-work. 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  LADIES. 


r 


59^ 


Politeness,  however,  requires  that  music,  drawing,  or  any 
occupation  which  would  completely  engross  the  attention,  be 
at  once  abandoned. 

You  need  not  advance  to  receive  visitors  when  announced, 
unless  they  are  persons  to  whom  you  are  desirous  of  testifying 
particular  attention.  It  is  sufficient  if  a lady  rises  to  receive 
her  visitors,  moves  forward  a single  step  to  shake  hands  with 
them,  and  remains  standing  till  they  are  seated. 

When  your  visitors  rise  to  take  leave  you  should  rise  also, 
and  remain  standing  till  they  have  quite  left  the  room. 

A lady  should  dress  well,  but  not  too  richly,  when  she  pays 
a morning  visit. 

CONVERSATION. 


There  is  no  conversation  so  graceful,  so  varied,  so  sparkling, 
as  that  of  an  intellectual  and  cultivated  woman.  Excellence 
in  this  particular  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  attributes  of  the  sex, 
and  should  be  cultivated  by  every  gentlewoman  who  aspires  to 
please  in  general  society. 

In  order  to  talk  well,  three  conditions  are  indispensable, 
namely — tact,  a good  memory,  and  a fair  education. 

Remember  that  people  take  more  interest  in  their  own 
affairs  than  in  anything  else  which  you  can  name.  If  you  wish 
your  conversation  to  be  thoroughly  agreeable,  lead  a mother  to 
talk  of  her  children,  a young  lady  of  her  last  ball,  an  author  of 
his  forthcoming  book,  or  an  artist  of  his  exhibition  picture. 
Having  furnished  the  topic,  you  need  only  listen  ; and  you  are 
sure  to  be  thought  not  only  agreeable,  but  thoroughly  sensible 
and  well-informed. 

Be  careful,  however,  on  the  other  hand,  not  always  to  make 
a point  of  talking  to  persons  upon  general  matters  relating  to 
their  profession.  To  show  an  interest  in  their  immediate 
concerns  is  flattering  ; but  to  converse  with  them  too  much 
about  their  own  arts  looks  as  if  you  thought  them  ignorant  of 
other  topics. 

Remember  in  conversation  that  a voice  “gentle  and  low” 
is,  above  all  other  extraneous  acquirements,  “an  excellent 
thing  in  woman.”  There  is  a certain  distinct  but  subdued 
tone  of  voice  which  is  peculiar  to  only  well-bred  persons.  A 
loud  voice  is  both  disagreeable  and  vulgar.  It  is  better  to  err 
by  the  use  of  too  low  rather  than  too  loud  a tone. 

Remember  that  all  “ slang”  is  vulgar. 

The  use  of  proverbs  is  equally  vulgar  in  conversation  ; and 
puns,  unless  they  rise  to  the  rank  of  witticisms,  are  to  be  scru- 
pulously avoided.  A lady-punster  is  a most  unpleasing  phenom- 
enon, and  we  would  advise  no  young  woman,  however  witty 
she  may  be,  to  cultivate  this  kind  of  verbal  talent. 

Long  arguments  in  general  company,  however  entertaining 
to  the  disputants,  are  tiresome  to  the  last  degree  to  all  others. 
You  should  always  endeavor  to  prevent  the  conversation  from 
dwelling  too  long  upon  one  topic. 

Religion  is  a topic  which  should  never  be  introduced  into 
society.  It  is  the  one  subject  on  which  persons  are  most  likely 
to  differ,  and  least  able  to  preserve  temper. 

Never  interrupt  a person  who  is  speaking.  It  has  been  aptly 
said  that  “ if  you  interrupt  a speaker  in  the  middle  of  his 
sentence,  you  act  almost  as  rudely  as  if,  when  walking  with  a 
companion,  you  were  to  thrust  yourself  before  him,  and  stop 
his  progress.” 


To  listen  well  is  almost  as  great  an  art  as  to  talk  well.  It 
is  not  enough  only  to  listen.  You  must  endeavor  to  seem  in- 
terested in  the  conversation  of  others. 

It  is  considered  extremely  ill  bred  when  two  persons  whisper 
in  society,  or  converse  in  a language  with  which  all  present  are 
not  familiar.  If  you  have  private  matters  to  discuss,  you 
should  appoint  a proper  time  and  place  to  do  so,  without  pay- 
ing others  the  ill  compliment  of  excluding  them  from  your 
conversation. 

If  a foreigner  be  one  of  the  guests  at  a small  party,  and  does 
not  understand  English  sufficiently  to  follow  what  is  said,  good 
breeding  demands  that  the  conversation  shall  be  carried  on  in 
his  own  language.  If  at  a dinner-party,  the  same  rule  applies 
to  those  at  his  end  of  the  table. 

If  upon  the  entrance  of  a visitor  you  carry  on  the  thread  of 
a previous  conversation,  you  should  briefly  recapitulate  to  him 
what  has  been  said  before  he  arrived. 

Do  not  be  always  witty,  even,  though  you  should  be  so  hap- 
pily  gifted  as  to  need  the  caution.  To  outshine  others  on  every 
occasion  is  the  surest  road  to  unpopularity. 

Always  look,  but  never  stare,  at  those  with  whom  you 
converse. 

In  order  to  meet  the  general  needs  of  conversation  in 
society,  it  is  necessary  that  a gentlewoman  should  be  acquainted 
with  the  current  news  and  historical  events  of,  at  least,  the  last 
few  years. 

Never  talk  upon  subjects  of  which  you  know  nothing,  unless 
it  be  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  information.  Many  young 
ladies  imagine  that  because  they  play  a little,  sing  a little, 
draw  a little,  and  frequent  exhibitions  and  operas,  they  are 
qualified  judges  of  art.  No  mistake  is  more  egregious  or 
universal. 

Those  who  introduce  anecdotes  into  their  conversation  are 
warned  that  these  should  invariably  be  “ short,  witty,  eloquent, 
new,  and  not  far-fetched.” 

Scandal  is  the  least  excusable  of  all  conversational  vulgari- 
ties. 

DRESS. 

To  dress  well  requires  something  more  than  a full  purse 
and  a pretty  figure.  It  needs  taste,  good  sense,  and  refine- 
ment. Dress  may  almost  be  classed  as  one  of  the  fine  arts. 
It  is  certainly  one  of  those  arts  the  cultivation  of  which  is  in- 
dispensable to  any  person  moving  in  the  upper  or  middle 
classes  of  society.  Very  clever  women  are  too  frequently  in- 
different to  the  graces  of  the  toilette  ; and  women  who  wish  to 
be  thought  clever  affect  indifference.  In  the  one  case  it  is  an 
error,  and  in  the  other  a folly.  It  is  not  enough  that  a gentle- 
woman should  be  clever,  or  well  educated,  or  well-born.  To 
take  her  due  place  in  society,  she  must  be  acquainted  with  all 
that  this  little  book  proposes  to  teach.  She  must,  above  all 
else,  know  how  to  enter  a room,  how  to  perform  a graceful 
salutation,  and  how  to  dress.  Of  these  three  important  quali- 
fications, the  most  important,  because  the  most  observed,  is 
the  latter. 

Let  your  style  of  dress  always  be  appropriate  to  the  hour  of 
the  day.  To  dress  too  finely  in  the  morning,  or  to  be  seen  in 
a morning  dress  in  the  evening,  is  equally  vulgar  and  out  of 
place. 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  LADIES. 


592 


Light  and  inexpensive  materials  are  fittest  for  morning  wear  ; 
dark  silk  dresses  for  the  promenade  or  carriage  ; and  low 
dresses  of  rich  or  transparent  stuffs  for  the  dinner  and  ball.  A 
young  lady  cannot  dress  with  too  much  simplicity  in  the  early 
part  of  the  day.  A morning  dress  of  some  simple  material, 
and  delicate  whole  color,  with  collar  and  cuffs  of  spotless 
linen,  is,  perhaps,  the  most  becoming  and  elegant  of  morning 
toilettes. 

Never  dress  very  richly  or  showily  in  the  street.  It  attracts 
attention  of  no  enviable  kind,  and  is  looked  upon  as  a want  of 
good  breeding.  In  the  carriage  a lady  may  dress  as  elegantly 
as  she  pleases.  With  respect  to  ball-room  toilette,  its  fashions 
are  so  variable,  that  statements  which  are  true  of  it  to-day  may 
be  false  a month  hence.  Respecting  no  institution  of  modern 
society,  is  it  so  difficult  to  pronounce  half-a-dozen  permanent 
rules. 

We  may,  perhaps,  be  permitted  to  suggest  the  following 
leading  principles  ; but  we  do  so  with  diffidence.  Rich  colors 
harmonize  with  rich  brunette  complexions  and  dark  hair.  Del- 
icate colors  are  the  most  suitable  for  delicate  and  fragile  styles 
of  beauty.  Very  young  ladies  are  never  so  suitably  attired  as 
in  white.  Ladies  who  dance  should  wear  dresses  of  light  and 
diaphanous  materials,  such  as  tulle,  gauze,  crape,  net,  etc., 
over  colored  silk  slips.  Silk  dresses  are  not  suitable  for  dan- 
cing. A married  lady  who  dances  only  a few  quadrilles  may 
wear  a ddcolletd  silk  dress  with  propriety. 

Very  stout  persons  should  never  wear  white.  It  has  the 
effect  of  adding  to  the  bulk  of  the  figure. 

Black  and  scarlet,  or  black  and  violet,  are  worn  in 
mourning. 

A lady  in  deep  mourning  should  not  dance  at  all. 

However  fashionable  it  may  be  to  wear  very  long  dresses, 
those  ladies  who  go  to  a ball  with  the  intention  of  dancing, 
and  enjoying  the  dance,  should  cause  their  dresses  to  be  made 
short  enough  to  clear  the  ground.  We  would  ask  them  whether 
it  is  not  better  to  accept  this  slight  deviation  from  an  absurd 
fashion,  than  to  appear  for  three  parts  of  the  evening  in  a torn 
and  pinned-up  skirt? 

Well-made  shoes,  whatever  their  color  or  material,  and 
faultless  gloves,  are  indispensable  to  the  effect  of  a ball-room 
toilette. 

Much  jewelry  is  out  of  place  in  a ball-room.  Beautiful 
flowers,  whether  natural  or  artificial,  are  the  loveliest  ornaments 
that  a lady  can  wear  on  these  occasions. 

At  small  dinner  parties,  low  dresses  are  not  so  indispensable 
as  they  were  held  to  be  some  years  since.  High  dresses  of 
transparent  materials,  and  low  bodices  with  capes  of  black 
lace,  are  considered  sufficiently  full  dress  on  these  occasions. 
At  large  dinners  only  the  fullest  dress  is  appropriate. 

Very  young  ladies  should  wear  but  little  jewelry.  Pearls 
are  deemed  most  appropriate  for  the  young  and  unmarried. 

Let  your  jewelry  be  always  the  best  of  its  kind.  Nothing 
is  so  vulgar,  either  in  youth  or  in  age,  as  the  use  of  false  orna- 
ments. 

There  is  as  much  propriety  to  be  observed  in  the  wearing  of 
jewelry  as  in  the  wearing  of  dresses.  Diamonds,  pearls, 
rubies,  and  all  transparent  precious  stones,  belong  to  evening 
dress,  and  should  on  no  account  be  worn  before  dinner.  In 


the  morning  let  your  rings  be  of  the  more  simple  and  massive 
kind  ; wear  no  bracelets  ; and  limit  your  jewelry  to  a good 
brooch,  gold  chain,  and  watch.  Your  diamonds  and  pearls 
would  be  as  much  out  of  place  during  the  morning  as  a low 
dress,  or  a wreath. 

It  is  well  to  remember  in  the  choice  of  jewelry  that  mere 
costliness  is  not  always  the  test  of  value  ; and  that  an  exquisite 
work  of  art,  such  as  a'fine  cameo,  or  a natural  rarity,  such  as 
black  pearl,  is  a more  distingud  possession  than  a large  brilliant 
which  any  rich  and  tasteless  vulgarian  can  buy  as  easily  as 
yourself.  Of  all  precious  stones,  the  opal  is  one  of  the  most 
lovely  and  least  common-place.  No  vulgar  woman  purchases 
an  opal.  She  invariably  prefers  the  more  showy  ruby,  emerald, 
or  sapphire. 

A true  gentlewoman  is  always  faultlessly  neat.  No  richness 
of  toilette  in  the  afternoon,  no  diamonds  in  the  evening,  can 
atone  for  unbrushed  hair,  a soiled  collar,  or  untidy  slippers  at 
breakfast. 

Never  be  seen  in  the  street  without  gloves.  Your  gloves 
should  fit  to  the  last  degree  of  perfection. 

In  these  days  of  public  baths  and  universal  progress,  we  trust 
that  it  is  unnecessary  to  do  more  than  hint  at  the  necessity 
of  the  most  fastidious  personal  cleanliness.  The  hair,  the 
teeth,  the  nails,  should  be  faultlessly  kept  ; and  a muslin  dress 
that  has  been  worn  once  too  often,  a dingy  pocket-handker- 
chief, or  a soiled  pair  of  light  gloves,  are  things  to  be  scrupu- 
lously avoided  by  any  young  lady  who  is  ambitious  of  preserving 
the  exterior  of  a gentlewoman. 

Remember  that  the  make  of  your  corsage  is  of  even  greater 
importance  than  the  make  of  your  dress.  No  dressmaker  can 
fit  you  well,  or  make  your  bodices  in  the  manner  most  becom- 
ing to  your  figure,  if  the  corsage  beneath  be  not  of  the  best 
description. 

Your  shoes  and  gloves  should  always  be  faultless. 

Perfumes  should  be  used  only  in  the  evening,  and  then  in 
moderation.  Let  your  perfumes  be  of  the  most  delicate  and 
recherchd  kind.  Nothing  is  more  vulgar  than  a coarse,  ordinary 
scent ; and  of  all  coarse,  ordinary  scents,  the  most  objectionable 
are  musk  and  patchouli. 

Finally,  every  lady  should  remember  that  to  dress  well  is  a 
duty  which  she  owes  to  society  ; but  that  to  make  it  her  idol 
is  to  commit  something  worse  than  a folly.  Fashion  is  made 
for  woman  ; not  woman  for  fashion. 

MORNING  AND  EVENING  PARTIES. 

The  morning  party  is  a modern  invention.  It  was  unknown 
to  car  fathers  and  mothers,  and  even  to  ourselves  till  quite 
lately.  A morning  party  is  given  during  the  months  of 
June,  July,  August,  September,  and  sometimes  October.  It 
begins  about  two  o’clock  and  ends  about  seven,  and  the  enter- 
tainment consists  for  the  most  part  of  conversation,  music,  and 
(if  there  be  a garden)  croquet,  lawn  tennis,  archery,  etc.  The 
refreshments  are  given  in  the  form  of  a dejeuner  a la  fourchette. 
Receptions  are  held  during  the  winter  season. 

Elegant  morning  dress,  general  good  manners,  and  some 
acquaintance  with  the  topics  of  the  day  and  the  games  above 
named,  are  all  the  qualifications  especially  necessary  to  a lady 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  LADIES. 


593 


at  a morning  party,  and  “ At  Homes  ; ” music  and  elocution 
at  receptions. 

An  evening  party  begins  about  nine  o’clock  p.m.,  and  ends 
about  midnight,  or  somewhat  later.  Good-breeding  neither 
demands  that  you  should  present  yourself  at  the  commencement, 
nor  remain  till  the  close  of  the  evening.  You  come  and  go  as 
may  be  most  convenient  to  you,  and  by  these  means  are  at 
liberty,  during  the  height  of  the  season  when  evening  parties 
are  numerous,  to  present  yourself  at  two  or  three  houses  during 
a single  evening. 

When  your  name  is  announced,  look  for  the  lady  of  the 
house,  and  pay  your  respects  to  her  before  you  even  seem  to 
see  any  other  of  your  friends  who  may  be  in  the  room.  At 
very  large  and  fashionable  receptions,  the  hostess  is  generally 
to  be  found  near  the  door.  Should  you,  however,  find  your- 
self separated  by  a dense  crowd  of  guests,  you  are  at  liberty  to 
recognize  those  who  are  near  you,  and  those  whom  you  en- 
counter as  you  make  your  way  slowly  through  the  throng. 

If  you  are  at  the  house  of  a new  acquaintance  and  find  your- 
self among  entire  strangers,  remember  that  by  so  meeting  under 
one  roof  you  are  all  in  a certain  sense  made  known  to  one 
another,  and  should,  therefore,  converse  freely,  as  equals.  To 
shrink  away  to  a side-table  and  affect  to  be  absorbed  in  some 
album  or  illustrated  work  ; or,  if  you  find  one  unlucky  acquaint- 
ance in  the  room  to  fasten  upon  her  like  a drowning  man 
clinging  to  a spar,  are  gancheries  which  no  shyness  can 
excuse. 

If  you  possess  any  musical  accomplishments,  do  not  wait  to 
be  pressed  and  entreated  by  your  hostess,  but  comply  imme- 
diately when  she  pays  you  the  compliment  of  inviting  you  to 
play  or  sing.  Remember,  however,  that  only  the  lady  of  the 
house  has  the  right  to  ask  you.  If  others  do  so,  you  can  put 
them  off  in  some  polite  way,  but  must  not  comply  till  the 
hostess  herself  invites  you. 

Be  scrupulous  to  observe  silence  when  any  of  the  company 
are  playing  or  singing.  Remember  that  they  are  doing  this 
for  the  amusement  of  the  rest  ; and  that  to  talk  at  such  a time 
is  as  ill-bred  as  if  you  were  to  turn  your  back  upon  a person 
who  was  talking  to  you  and  begin  a conversation  with  some 
one  else. 

If  you  are  yourself  the  performer,  bear  in  mind  that  in 
music,  as  in  speech,  “brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit.”  Two  verses 
of  a song,  or  four  pages  of  a piece,  are  at  all  times  enough  to 
give  pleasure.  If  your  audience  desire  more  they  will  ask  for 
it ; and  it  is  infinitely  more  flattering  to  be  encored  than  to 
receive  the  thanks  of  your  hearers,  not  so  much  in  gratitude  for 
what  you  have  given  them,  but  in  relief  that  you  have  left  off. 
You  should  try  to  suit  your  music,  like  your  conversation,  to 
your  company.  A solo  of  Beethoven’s  would  be  as  much  out 
of  place  in  some  circles  as  a comic  song  at  a Quakers’  meet- 
ing. To  those  who  only  care  for  the  light  popularities  of  the 
season,  give  Verdi,  Suppe,  Sullivan,  or  Offenbach.  To  con- 
noisseurs, if  you  perform  well  enough  to  venture,  give  such 
music  as  will  be  likely  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  a fine  taste. 
Above  all,  attempt  nothing  that  you  cannot  execute  with  ease 
and  precision. 

If  the  party  be  of  a small  and  social  kind  and  those  games 
called  by  the  French  les  jcux  innocents  are  proposed,  do  not 


object  to  join  in  them  when  invited.  It  may  be  that  they  de- 
mand some  slight  exercise  of  wit  and  readiness,  and  that  you 
do  not  feel  yourself  calculated  to  shine  in  them  ; but  it  is  better 
to  seem  dull  than  disagreeable,  and  those  who  are  obliging  can 
always  find  some  clever  neighbor  to  assist  them  in  the  moment 
of  need. 

Impromptu  charades  are  frequently  organized  at  friendly 
parties.  Unless  you  have  really  some  talent  for  acting  and 
some  readiness  of  speech,  you  should  remember  that  you  only 
put  others  out  and  expose  your  own  inability  by  taking  part 
in  these  entertainments.  Of  course,  if  your  help  is  really  needed, 
and  you  would  disoblige  by  refusing,  you  must  do  your  best, 
and  by  doing  it  as  quietly  and  coolly  as  possible,  avoid  being 
awkward  or  ridiculous. 

Even  though  you  may  take  no  pleasure  in  cards,  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  etiquette  and  rules  belonging  to  the  games  most 
in  vogue  is  necessary  to  you  in  society.  If  a fourth  hand  is 
wanted  at  euchre,  or  if  the  rest  of  the  company  sit  down  to  a 
round  game,  you  would  be  deemed  guilty  of  an  impoliteness 
if  you  refused  to  join. 

The  games  most  commonly  played  in  society  are  euchre, 
draw-poker,  and  whist. 

THE  DINNER-PARTY. 

To  be  acquainted  with  every  detail  of  the  etiquette  pertain* 
ing  to  this  subject  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  every  lady. 
Ease,  savoir-faire , and  good-breeding  are  nowhere  more  in- 
dispensable than  at  the  dinner-table,  and  the  absence  of  them 
is  nowhere  more  apparent.  How  to  eat  soup  and  what  to  do 
with  a cherry-stone  are  weighty  considerations  when  taken  as 
the  index  of  social  status  ; and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  a 
young  woman  who  elected  to  take  claret  with  her  fish,  or  ate 
peas  with  her  knife,  would  justly  risk  the  punishment  of  being 
banished  from  good  society. 

An  invitation  to  dinner  should  be  replied  to  immediately, 
and  unequivocally  accepted  or  declined.  Once  accepted,  no- 
thing but  an  event  of  the  last  importance  should  cause  you  to 
fail  in  your  engagement. 

To  be  exactly  punctual  is  the  strictest  politeness  on  these 
occasions.  If  you  are  too  early,  you  are  in  the  way  ; if  too  late 
you  spoil  the  dinner,  annoy  the  hostess,  and  are  hated  by  the 
rest  of  the  guests.  Some  authorities  are  even  of  opinion  that 
in  the  question  of  a dinner-party  “ never  ” is  better  than  “ late  ” ; 
and  one  author  has  gone  so  far  as  to  say,  “ if  you  do  not  reach 
the  house  till  dinner  is  served,  you  had  better  retire,  and  send 
an  apology,  and  not  interrupt  the  harmony  of  the  courses  by 
awkward  excuses  and  cold  acceptance.” 

When  the  party  is  assembled,  the  mistress  or  master  of  the 
house  will  point  out  to  each  gentleman  the  lady  whom  he  is  to 
conduct  to  the  table. 

The  lady  who  is  the  greatest  stranger  should  be  taken  down 
by  the  master  of  the  house,  and  the  gentleman  who  is  the 
greatest  stranger  should  conduct  the  hostess.  Married  ladies 
take  precedence  of  single  ladies,  elder  ladies  of  younger  ones, 
and  so  forth. 

When  dinner  is  announced,  the  host  offers  his  arm  to  the 
lady  of  most  distinction,  invites  the  rest  to  follow  by  a few 
words  or  a bow,  and  leads  the  way.  The  lady  of  the  house 


594 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  LADIES. 


should  then  follow  with  the  gentleman  who  is  most  entitled  to 
that  honor,  and  the  visitors  follow  in  the  order  that  has  been 
previously  arranged.  The  lady  of  the  house  frequently  re- 
mains, however,  till  the  last,  that  she  may  see  her  guests  go  in 
their  prescribed  order  ; but  the  plan  is  not  a convenient  one. 
It  is  much  better  that  the  hostesss  should  be  in  her  place  as 
the  guests  enter  the  dining-room,  in  order  that  she  may  in- 
dicate their  seats  to  them  as  they  enter,  and  not  find  them  all 
crowded  together  in  uncertainty  when  she  arrives. 

The  plan  of  cards,  with  the  names  of  the  guests  on  them,  op- 
posite their  chairs,  is  a very  useful  one. 

The  lady  of  the  house  takes  the  head  of  the  table.  The 
gentleman  who  led  her  down  to  dinner  occupies  the  seat  on 
her  right  hand,  and  the  gentleman  next  in  order  of  precedence, 
that  on  her  left.  The  master  of  the  house  takes  the  foot  of 
the  table.  The  lady  whom  he  escorted  sits  on  his  right  hand, 
and  the  lady  next  in  order  of  precedence  on  his  left. 

As  soon  as  you  are  seated  at  table,  remove  your  gloves,  place 
your  table  napkin  across  your  knees,  and  remove  the  roll  which 
you  will  probably  find  within  it  to  the  left  side  of  your  plate. 

The  soup  should  be  placed  on  the  table  first.  All  well- 
ordered  dinners  begin  with  soup,  whether  in  summer  or  winter. 
The  lady  of  the  house  should  help  it,  and  send  it  round  with- 
out asking  each  individual  in  turn.  It  is  as  much  an  understood 
thing  as  the  bread  beside  each  plate,  and  those  who  do  not 
choose  it  are  always  at  liberty  to  leave  it  untasted. 

In  eating  soup,  remember  always  to  take  it  from  the  side  of 
the  spoon,  and  to  make  no  sound  in  doing  so. 

If  the  servants  do  not  go  round  with  wine,  the  gentlemen 
should  help  the  ladies  and  themselves  to  sherry  or  sauterne 
immediately  after  the  soup. 

You  should  never  ask  for  a second  supply  of  either  soup  or 
fish  ; it  delays  the  next  course,  and  keeps  the  table  waiting. 

Never  offer  to  “ assist”  your  neighbors  to  this  or  that  dish. 
The  word  is  inexpressibly  vulgar — all  the  more  vulgar  for  its 
affectation  of  elegance.  “ Shall  I send  you  some  mutton  ? ” or 
“ may  I help  you  to  canvas  back  ? ” is  better  chosen  and  better 
bred. 

As  a general  rule,  it  is  better  not  to  ask  your  guests  if  they 
will  partake  of  the  dishes  ; but  to  send  the  plates  round,  and 
let  them  accept  or  decline  them  as  they  please.  At  very  large 
dinners  it  is  sometimes  customary  to  distribute  little  lists  of 
the  order  of  the  dishes  at  intervals  along  the  table.  It  must 
be  confessed  that  this  gives  somewhat  the  air  of  a dinner  at  an 
hotel  ; but  it  has  the  advantage  of  enabling  the  visitors  to 
select  their  fare,  and,  as  “ forewarned  is  forearmed,”  to  keep  a 
corner,  as  the  children  say,  for  their  favorite  dishes. 

As  soon  as  you  are  helped,  begin  to  eat  ; or,  if  the  viands 
are  too  hot  for  your  palate,  take  up  your  knife  and  fork  and 
appear  to  begin.  To  wait  for  others  is  now  not  only  old- 
fashioned,  but  ill-bred. 

Never  offer  to  pass  on  the  plate  to  which  you  have  been  helped. 

In  helping  soup,  fish,  or  any  other  dish,  remember  that  to 
overfill  a plate  is  as  bad  as  to  supply  it  too  scantily. 

Silver  fish  knives  will  now  always  be  met  with  at  the  best 
tables  ; but  where  there  are  none,  a piece  of  crust  should  be 
taken  in  the  left  hand,  and  the  fork  in  the  right.  There  is  no 
exception  to  this  rule  in  eating  fish. 


We  presume  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remind  our  fait 
reader  that  she  is  never,  under  any  circumstances,  to  convey 
hei  knife  to  her  mouth.  Peas  are  eaten  with  the  fork  ; tarts, 
curry,  and  puddings  of  all  kinds  with  the  spoon. 

Always  help  fish  with  a fish-slice,  and  tart  and  puddings  with 
a spoon,  or,  if  necessary,  a spoon  and  fork. 

Asparagus  must  be  helped  with  the  asparagus-tongs. 

In  eating  asparagus,  it  is  well  to  observe  what  others  do, 
and  act  accordingly.  Some  very  well-bred  people  eat  it  with 
the  fingers  ; others  cut  off  the  heads,  and  convey  them  to  the 
mouth  upon  the  fork.  If  would  be  difficult  to  say  which  is 
the  more  correct. 

In  eating  stone  fruit,  such  as  cherries,  damsons,  etc.,  the 
same  rule  had  better  be  observed.  Some  put  the  stones  out 
from  the  mouth  into  a spoon,  and  so  convey  them  to  the  plate. 
Others  cover  the  lips  with  the  hand,  drop  them  unseen  into  the 
palm,  and  so  deposit  them  on  the  side  of  the  plate.  In  our 
own  opinion,  the  latter  is  the  better  way,  as  it  effectually  con- 
ceals the  return  of  the  stones,  which  is  certainly  the  point  of 
highest  importance.  Of  one  thing  we  may  be  sure,  and  that 
is,  that  they  must  never  be  dropped  from  the  mouth  to  the 
plate. 

In  helping  sauce,  always  pour  it  on  the  side  of  the  plate. 

If  the  servants  do  not  go  round  with  the  wine  (which  is  by 
far  the  best  custom),  the  gentlemen  at  a dinner-table  should 
take  upon  themselves  the  office  of  helping  those  ladies  who  sit 
near  them. 

Unless  you  are  a total  abstainer,  it  is  extremely  uncivil  to 
decline  taking  wine  if  you  are  invited  to  do  so. 

It  is  particularly  ill-bred  to  empty  your  glass  on  these 
occasions. 

Certain  wines  are  taken  with  certain  dishes,  by  old-establish- 
ed custom — as  sherry  or  sauterne,  with  soup  and  fish  ; hock 
and  claret  with  roast  meat  ; punch  with  turtle  ; champagne  with 
sweet-bread  or  cutlets  ; port  with  venison  ; port  or  burgundy, 
with  game ; sparkling  wines  between  the  roast  and  the  confec- 
tionery ; madeira  with  sweets  ; port  with  cheese  ; and  for  des- 
sert, port,  tokay,  madeira,  sherry,  and  claret.  Red  wines 
should  never  be  iced,  even  in  summer.  Claret  and  burgundy 
should  always  be  slightly  warmed  ; claret-cup  and  champagne 
should,  of  course,  be  iced. 

Instead  of  cooling  their  wines  in  the  ice-pail,  some  hosts  intro, 
duce  clear  ice  upon  the  table,  broken  up  in  small  lumps,  to  be 
put  inside  the  glasses.  This  cannot  be  too  strictly  reprehended. 
Melting  ice  can  but  weaken  the  quality  and  flavor  of  the  wine. 
Those  who  desire  to  drink  wine  and  water  can  ask  for  iced 
water  if  they  choose  ; but  it  savors  too  much  of  economy  on 
the  part  of  a host  to  insinuate  the  ice  inside  the  glasses  of  his 
guests  when  the  wine  could  be  more  effectually  iced  outside 
the  bottle. 

A silver  knife  and  fork  should  be  placed  to  each  guest  at 
dessert. 

It  is  wise  never  to  partake  of  any  dish  without  knowing  of 
what  ingredients  it  is  composed.  You  can  always  ask  the 
servant  who  hands  it  to  you,  and  you  thereby  avoid  all  danger 
of  having  to  commit  the  impoliteness  of  leaving  it,  and  show- 
ing that  you  do  not  approve  of  it. 

Never  speak  while  you  have  anything  in  your  mouth. 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  LADIES. 


595 


Be  careful  never  to  taste  soups  or  puddings  till  you  are  sure 
they  are  sufficiently  cool  ; as,  by  disregarding  this  caution,  you 
may  be  compelled  to  swallow  what  is  dangerously  hot,  or  be 
driven  to  the  unpardonable  alternative  of  returning  it  to  your 
plate. 

When  eating  or  drinking,  avoid  every  kind  of  audible  tes- 
timony to  the  fact. 

Finger-glasses,  containing  water  slightly  wanned  and  per- 
fumed, are  placed  to  each  person  at  dessert.  In  these  you 
may  dip  the  tips  of  your  fingers,  wiping  them  afterwards  on 
your  table-napkin.  If  the  finger-glass  and  doyley  are  placed 
on  your  dessert-plate,  you  should  immediately  remove  the 
doyley  to  the  left  of  your  plate,  and  place  the  finger-glass  upon 
it.  By  these  means  you  leave  the  right  for  the  wine-glasses. 

Be  careful  to  know  the  shapes  of  the  various  kinds  of  wine- 
glasses commonly  in  use,  in  order  that  you  may  never  put  for- 
ward one  for  another.  High  and  narrow,  and  very  broad  and 
shallow  glasses,  are  used  for  champagne  ; large  goblet-shaped 
glasses  for  burgundy  and  claret ; ordinary  wine-glasses  for 
sherry  and  madeira  ; green  glasses  for  hock  ; and  somewhat 
large,  bell-shaped  glasses  for  port. 

Port,  sherry,  and  madeira  are  decanted.  Hocks  and  cham- 
pagnes appear  in  their  native  bottles.  Claret  and  burgundy 
are  handed  round  in  a claret-jug. 

The  servants  leave  the  room  when  the  dessert  is  on  the 
table. 

Coffee  and  liqueurs  should  be  handed  round  when  the  des- 
sert has  been  about  a quarter  of  an  hour  on  the  table.  After 
this  the  ladies  generally  retire. 

The  lady  of  the  house  should  never  send  away  her  plate,  or 
appear  to  have  done  eating,  till  all  her  guests  have  finished. 

If  you  should  unfortunately  overturn  or  break  anything,  do 
not  apologize  for  it.  You  can  show  your  regret  in  your  face, 
but  it  is  not  well-bred  to  put  it  into  words. 

To  abstain  from  taking  the  last  piece  on  the  dish,  or  the  last 
glass  of  wine  in  the  decanter,  only  because  it  is  the  last,  is 
highly  ill-bred.  It  implies  a fear  on  your  part  that  the  vacancy 
cannot  be  supplied,  and  almost  conveys  an  affront  to  your 
host. 

To  those  ladies  who  have  houses  and  servants  at  command, 
we  have  one  or  two  remarks  to  offer.  Every  housekeeper 
should  be  acquainted  with  the  routine  of  a dinner  and  the  eti- 
quette of  a dinner-table.  No  lady  should  be  utterly  depend- 
ent on  the  taste  and  judgment  of  her  cook.  Though  she  need 
not  know  how  to  dress  a dish,  she  should  be  able  to  judge  of 
it  when  served.  The  mistress  of  the  house,  in  short,  should 
be  to  a cook  what  a publisher  is  to  his  authors — :that  is  to  say, 
competent  to  form  a judgment  upon  their  works,  though  him- 
self incapable  of  writing  even  a magazine  article. 

If  you  wish  to  have  a good  dinner,  and  do  not  know  in 
what  manner  to  set  about  it,  you  will  do  wisely  to  order  it  from 
some  first-rate  i-estaurateur.  By  these  means  you  insure  the 
best  cookery  and  a faultless  carte. 

Bear  in  mind  that  it  is  your  duty  to  entertain  your  friends 
in  the  best  manner  that  your  means  permit.  This  is  the  least 
you  can  do  to  recompense  them  for  the  expenditure  of  time 
and  money  which  they  incur  in  accepting  your  invitation. 

“ To  invite  a friend  to  dinner,”  says  Brillat  Savarin,  “ is  to 


become  responsible  for  his  happiness  so  long  as  he  is  under 
your  roof.” 

A dinner,  to  be  excellent,  need  not  consist  of  a great  variety 
of  dishes  ; but  everything  should  be  of  the  best,  and  the  cook- 
ery should  be  perfect.  That  which  should  be  cool  should  be 
cool  as  ice  ; that  which  should  be  hot  should  be  smoking  ; the 
attendance  should  be  rapid  and  noiseless  ; the  guests  well  as- 
sorted ; the  wines  of  the  best  quality  ; the  host  attentive  and 
courteous  ; the  room  well  lighted,  and  the  time  punctual. 

Every  dinner  should  begin  with  soup,  be  followed  by  fish, 
and  include  some  kind  of  game.  “ The  soup  is  to  the  dinner,” 
we  are  told  by  Grisnod  de  la  Regniere,  “ what  the  portico  is 
to  a building,  or  the  overture  to  an  opera.” 

To  this  aphorism  we  may  be  permitted  to  add  that  a chasse 
of  cognac  or  curajoa  at  the  close  of  a dinner  is  like  the  epi- 
logue at  the  end  of  a comedy. 

Never  reprove  or  give  directions  to  your  servants  before 
guests.  If  a dish  is  not  placed  precisely  where  you  would 
have  wished  it  to  stand,  or  the  order  of  a course  is  reversed, 
let  the  error  pass  unobserved  by  yourself,  and  you  may  de- 
pend that  it  will  be  unnoticed  by  others. 

The  duties  of  hostess  at  a dinner-party  are  not  onerous  ; but 
they  demand  tact  and  good  breeding,  grace  of  bearing,  and 
self-possession  of  no  ordinary  degree.  She  does  not  often 
carve.  She  has  no  active  duties  to  perform  ; but  she  must  neg- 
lect nothing,  forget  nothing,  put  all  her  guests  at  their  ease, 
encourage  the  timid,  draw  out  the  silent,  and  pay  every  possi- 
ble attention  to  the  requirements  of  each  and  all  around  her. 
No  accident  must  ruffle  her  temper.  No  disappointment  must 
embarrass  her.  She  must  see  her  old  china  broken  without  a 
sigh,  and  her  best  glass  shattered  with  a smile. 

STAYING  AT  A FRIEND’S  HOUSE— BREAK- 
FAST, LUNCHEON,  ETC. 

A visitor  is  bound  by  the  laws  of  social  intercourse  to  con- 
form in  all  respects  to  the  habits  of  the  house.  In  order  to  do 
this  effectually,  she  should  inquire,  or  cause  her  personal  ser- 
vant to  inquire,  what  those  habits  are.  To  keep  your  friend’s 
breakfast  on  the  table  till  a late  hour  ; to  delay  the  dinner  by 
want  of  punctuality  ; to  accept  other  invitations,  and  treat  his 
house  as  if  it  were  merely  an  hotel  to  be  slept  in  ; or  to  keep 
the  family  up  till  unwonted  hours,  are  alike  evidences  of  a 
want  of  good  feeling  and  good-breeding. 

At  breakfast  and  lunch  absolute  punctuality  is  not  impera- 
tive ; but  a visitor  should  avoid  being  always  the  last  to  appear 
at  table. 

No  order  of  precedence  is  observed  at  either  breakfast  or 
luncheon.  Persons  take  their  seats  as  they  come  in,  and, 
having  exchanged  their  morning  salutations,  begin  to  eat  with- 
out waiting  for  the  rest  of  the  party. 

If  letters  are  delivered  to  you  at  breakfast  or  luncheon, 
you  may  read  them  by  asking  permission  from  the  lady  who 
presides  at  the  urn. 

Always  hold  yourself  at  the  disposal  of  those  in  whose  house 
you  are  visiting.  If  they  propose  to  ride,  drive,  walk,  or 
otherwise  occupy  the  day,  you  may  take  it  for  granted  that 
these  plans  are  made  with  reference  to  your  enjoyment.  You 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  LADIES. 


should,  therefore,  receive  them  with  cheerfulness,  enter  into 
them  with  alacrity,  and  do  your  best  to  seem  pleased,  and  be 
pleased,  by  the  efforts  which  your  friends  make  to  entertain 
you. 

You  should  never  take  a book  from  the  library  to  your  own 
room  without  requesting  permission  to  borrow  it.  When  it  is 
lent,  you  should  take  every  care  that  it  sustains  no  injury  while 
in  your  possession,  and  should  cover  it,  if  necessary. 

A guest  should  endeavor  to  amuse  herself  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, and  not  be  continually  dependent  on  her  hosts  for  en- 
tertainment. She  should  remember  that,  however  welcome 
she  may  be,  she  is  not  always  wanted. 

A visitor  should  avoid  giving  unnecessary  trouble  to  the  ser- 
vants of  the  house. 

The  signal  for  retiring  to  rest  is  generally  given  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  servant  with  wine,  water,  and  biscuits,  where 
a late  dinner  hour  is  observed  and  suppers  are  not  the  custom. 
This  is  the  last  refreshment  of  the  evening,  and  the  visitor  will 
do  well  to  rise  and  wish  good  night  shortly  after  it  has  been 
partaken  of  by  the  family. 

GENERAL  HINTS. 

Do  not  frequently  repeat  the  name  of  the  person  with  whom 
you  are  conversing.  It  implies  either  the  extreme  of  hauteur 
or  familiarity. 

Never  speak  of  absent  persons  by  only  their  Christian  or 

surnames  ; but  always  as  Mr.  , or  Mrs.  . Above  all, 

never  name  anybody  by  the  first  letter  of  his  name.  Married 
people  are  sometimes  guilty  of  this  flagrant  offense  against  taste. 

Look  at  those  who  address  you. 

Never  boast  of  your  birth,  your  money,  your  grand  friends, 
or  anything  that  is  yours.  If  you  have  traveled,  do  not  intro- 
duce that  information  into  your  conversation  at  every  oppor- 
tunity. Any  one  can  travel  with  money  and  leisure.  The 
real  distinction  is  to  come  home  with  enlarged  views,  improved 
tastes,  and  a mind  free  from  prejudice. 


If  you  present  a book  to  a friend,  do  not  write  his  or  her 
name  in  it,  unless  requested.  You  have  no  right  to  presume 
that  it  will  be  rendered  any  the  more  valuable  for  that  addi- 
tion ; and  you  ought  not  to  conclude  beforehand  that  your  gift 
will  be  accepted. 

Never  undervalue  the  gift  which  you  are  yourself  offering  ; 
you  have  no  business  to  offer  it  if  it  is  valueless.  Neither  say 
that  you  do  not  want  it  yourself,  or  that  you  should  throw  it 
away  if  it  were  not  accepted,  etc.,  etc.  Such  apologies  would 
be  insults  if  true,  and  mean  nothing  if  false. 

No  compliment  that  bears  insincerity  on  the  face  of  it  is  a 
compliment  at  all. 

Presents  made  by  a married  lady  to  a gentleman  can  only  be 
offered  in  the  joint  names  of  her  husband  and  herself. 

Married  ladies  may  occasionally  accept  presents  from  gentle- 
men who  visit  frequently  at  their  houses,  and  who  desire  to 
show  their  sense  of  the  hospitality  which  they  receive  there. 

Acknowledge  the  receipt  of  a present  without  delay. 

Give  a foreigner  his  name  in  full,  as  Monsieur  de  Vigny— 
never  as  Monsieur  only.  In  speaking  of  him,  give  him  his 
title,  if  he  has  one.  Foreign  noblemen  are  addressed  viva  voce 
as  Monsieur.  In  speaking  of  a foreign  nobleman  before  his 
face,  say  Monsieur  le  Comte,  or  Monsieur  le  Marquis.  In  his 
absence,  say  Monsieur  le  Comte  de  Vigny. 

Converse  with  a foreigner  in  his  own  language.  If  not  com- 
petent to  do  so,  apologize,  and  beg  permission  to  speak  Eng- 
lish. 

To  get  in  and  out  of  a carriage  gracefully  is  a simple  but  im- 
portant accomplishment.  If  there  is  but  one  step,  and  you  are 
going  to  take  the  seat  facing  the  horses,  put  your  left  foot  on 
the  step,  and  enter  the  carriage  with  your  right,  in  such  a man- 
ner as  to  drop  at  once  into  your  seat.  If  you  are  about  to  sit 
with  your  back  to  the  horses,  reverse  the  process.  As  you  step 
into  the  carriage,  be  careful  to  keep  your  back  towards  the 
seat  you  are  about  to  occupy,  so  as  to  avoid  the  awkwardness 
of  turning  when  you  are  once  in. 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  GENTLEMEN. 


597 


INTRODUCTIONS. 


O introduce  persons  who  are  mutually  unknown 
is  to  undertake  a serious  responsibility,  and  to 
certify  to  each  the  respectability  of  the  other. 
Never  undertake  this  responsibility  without 
in  the  first  place  asking  yourself  whether  the 
persons  are  likely  to  be  agreeable  to  each 
other ; nor,  in  the  second  place,  without  ascertain- 
ing whether  it  will  be  acceptable  to  both  parties  to 
become  acquainted. 

Always  introduce  the  gentleman  to  the  lady — never  the 
lady  to  the  gentleman.  The  chivalry  of  etiquette  assumes 
that  the  lady  is  invariably  the  superior  in  right  of  her  sex,  and 
that  the  gentleman  is  honored  by  the  introduction. 

Never  present  a gentleman  to  a lady  without  first  asking 
her  permission  to  do  so. 

When  you  are  introduced  to  a lady,  never  offer  your  hand. 
When  introduced,  persons  limit  their  recognition  of  each 
other  to  a bow. 

Persons  who  have  met  at  the  house  of  a mutual  friend 
without  being  introduced,  should  not  bow  if  they  afterwards 
meet  elsewhere  ; a bow  implies  acquaintance,  and  persons 
who  have  not  been  introduced  are  not  acquainted. 

If  you  are  walking  with  one  friend,  and  presently  meet  with, 
or  are  joined  by,  a second,  do  not  commit  the  too  frequent 
error  of  introducing  them  to  each  other.  You  have  even  less 
right  to  do  so  than  if  they  encountered  each  other  at  your 
house  during  a morning  call. 

There  are  some  exceptions  to  the  etiquette  of  introductions. 
At  a ball  or  evening  party,  where  there  is  dancing,  the  mis- 
tress of  the  house  may  introduce  any  gentleman  to  any  lady 
without  first  asking  the  lady’s  permission.  But  she  should 
first  ascertain  whether  the  lady  is  willing  to  dance  ; and  this 
out  of  consideration  for  the  gentleman,  who  may  otherwise  be 
refused.  No  man  likes  to  be  refused  the  hand  of  a lady, 
though  it  be  only  for  a quadrille. 

A brother  may  present  his  sister,  or  a father  his  son,  with- 
out any  kind  of  preliminary  : but  only  when  there  is  no  infe- ' 


riority  on  the  part  of  his  own  family  to  that  of  the  acquaint- 
ance. 

Friends  may  introduce  friends  at  the  house  of  a mutual  ac- 
quaintance, but,  as  a rule,  it  is  better  to  be  introduced  by  the 
mistress  of  the  house.  Such  an  introduction  carries  more 
authority  with  it. 

Introductions  at  evening  parties  are  now  almost  wholly  dis- 
pensed with.  Persons  who  meet  at  a friend’s  house  are  osten- 
sibly upon  an  equality,  and  pay  a bad  compliment  to  the  host 
by  appearing  suspicious  and  formal.  Some  old-fashioned 
country  hosts  yet  persevere  in  introducing  each  newcomer  to 
all  the  assembled  guests.  It  is  a custom  that  cannot  be  too 
soon  abolished,  and  one  that  places  the  last  unfortunate  visitor 
in  a singularly  awkward  position.  All  that  he  can  do  is  to 
make  a semicircular  bow,  like  a concert  singer  before  an  audi- 
ence, and  bear  the  general  gaze  with  as  much  composure  as 
possible. 

If,  when  you  enter  a drawing-room,  your  name  has  been 
wrongly  announced,  or  has  passed  unheard  in  the  buzz  of  con- 
versation, make  your  way  at  once  to  the  mistress  of  the  house, 
if  you  are  a stranger,  and  introduce  yourself  by  name.  This 
should  be  done  with  the  greatest  simplicity,  and  your  profes- 
sional or  titular  rank  made  as  little  of  as  possible. 

An  introduction  given  at  a ball  for  the  mere  purpose  of 
conducting  a lady  through  a dance  does  not  give  the  gentle- 
man any  right  to  bow  to  her  on  a future  occasion.  If  he  com- 
mits this  error,  he  must  remember  that  she  is  not  bound  to  see 
or  return  his  salutation. 

LETTERS  OF  INTRODUCTION. 

Do  not  lightly  give  or  promise  letters  of  introduction. 
Always  remember  that  when  you  give  a letter  of  introduction 
you  lay  yourself  under  an  obligation  to  the  friend  to  whom  it 
is  addressed. 

No  one  delivers  a letter  of  introduction  in  person.  It 
places  you  in  the  most  undignified  position  imaginable,  and 
compels  you  to  wait  while  it  is  being  read,  like  a footman 
who  has  been  told  to  wait  for  an  answer. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  a stranger  sends  you  a letter  of  in- 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  GENTLEMEN. 


troduction  and  his  card,  you  are  bound  by  the  laws  of  polite- 
ness and  hospitality,  not  only  to  call  upon  him  the  next  day, 
but  to  follow  up  that  attention  with  others.  If  you  are  in  a 
position  to  do  so,  the  most  correct  proceeding  is  to  invite  him 
to  dine  with  you.  Should  this  not  be  within  your  power,  you 
have  probably  the  entree  to  some  private  collections,  club- 
houses, theaters,  or  reading-rooms,  and  could  devote  a few 
hours  to  showing  him  these  places. 

A letter  of  introduction  should  be  given  unsealed,  not 
alone  because  your  friend  may  wish  to  know  what  you  have 
said  of  him,  but  also  as  a guarantee  of  your  own  good  faith. 
As  you  should  never  give  such  a letter  unless  you  can  speak 
highly  of  the  bearer,  this  rule  of  etiquette  is  easy  to  observe. 
By  requesting  your  friend  to  fasten  the  envelope  before  for- 
warding the  letter  to  its  destination  you  tacitly  give  him  per- 
mission to  inspect  its  contents. 

Let  your  note  paper  be  of  the  best  quality  and  proper  size. 

VISITING.— MORNING  CALLS.— CARDS. 


A morning  visit  should  be  paid  between  the  hours  of  2 
and  4 P.M.  in  winter,  and  2 and  5 in  summer. 

Visits  of  ceremony  should  be  short.  If  even  the  conversa- 
tion should  have  become  animated,  beware  of  letting  your  call 
exceed  half  an  hour’s  length.  It  is  always  better  to  let  your 
friends  regret  rather  than  desire  your  withdrawal. 

On  returning  visits  of  ceremony  you  may,  without  impolite- 
ness, leave  your  card  at  the  door  without  going  in.  Do  not 
fail,  however,  to  inquire  if  the  family  be  well. 

Should  there  be  daughters  or  sisters  residing  with  the  lady 
upon  whom  you  call,  you  may  turn  down  a corner  of  your 
card,  to  signify  that  the  visit  is  paid  to  all.  It  is  in  better 
taste,  however,  to  leave  cards  for  each. 

Unless  when  returning  thanks  for  “kind  inquiries,”  or 
announcing  your  arrival  in,  or  departure  from,  town,  it  is  not 
considered  respectful  to  send  cards  round  by  a servant. 

Leave-taking  cards  have  P.  P.C.  (pour prendre  congt!)  written 
in  the  corner.  Some  use  P.D.A.  ( pour  dire  adieu). 

The  visiting  cards  of  gentlemen  are  half  the  size  of  those 
used  by  ladies. 

Visits  of  condolence  are  paid  within  the  week  after  the 
event  which  occasions  them.  Personal  visits  of  this  kind  are 
made  by  relations  and  very  intimate  friends  only.  Acquaint- 
ances should  leave  cards  with  narrow  mourning  borders. 

On  the  first  occasion  when  you  are  received  by  the  family 
after  the  death  of  one  of  its  members,  it  is  etiquette  to  wear 
slight  mourning. 

When  a gentleman  makes  a morning  call,  he  should  never 
leave  his  hat  or  riding-whip  in  the  hall,  but  should  take  both 
into  the  room.  To  do  otherwise  would  be  to  make  himself 
too  much  at  home.  The  hat,  however,  must  never  be  laid  on 
a table,  piano,  or  any  article  of  furniture,  it  should  be  held 
gracefully  in  the  hand.  If  you  are  compelled  to  lay  it  aside 
put  it  on  the  floor. 

Umbrellas  should  invariably  be  left  in  the  hall. 

Never  take  favorite  dogs  into  a drawing-room  when  you 
make  a morning  call.  Their  feet  may  be  dusty,  or  they  may 
bark  at  the  sight  of  strangers,  or,  being  of  too  friendly  a dis- 
position, may  take  the  liberty  of  lying  on  a lady’s  gown,  or 


jumping  on  the  sofas  and  easy  chairs.  Where  your  friend  has 
a favorite  cat  already  established  before  the  fire,  a battle  may 
ensue,  and  one  or  both  of  the  pets  be  seriously  hurt.  Be- 
sides, many  persons  have  a constitutional  antipathy  to  dogs, 
and  others  never  allow  their  own  to  be  seen  in  the  sitting- 
rooms.  For  all  or  any  of  these  reasons  a visitor  has  no  right 
to  inflict  upon  his  friend  the  society  of  his  dog  as  well  as  of 
himself. 

If,  when  you  call  upon  a lady,  you  meet  a lady  visitor  in  her 
drawing-room,  you  should  rise  when  that  lady  takes  her  leave. 

If  other  visitors  are  announced,  and  you  have  already  re- 
mained as  long  as  courtesy  requires,  wait  till  they  are  seated, 
and  then  rise  from  your  chair,  take  leave  of  your  hostess,  and 
bo\^  politely  to  the  newly  arrived  guests.  You  will,  perhaps, 
be  urged  to  remain,  but,  having  once  risen,  it  is  always  best 
to  go.  There  is  always  a certain  air  of  gaucherie  in  resuming 
your  seat  and  repeating  the  ceremony  of  leave  taking. 

If  you  have  occasion  to  look  at  your  watch  during  a call,  ask 
permission  to  do  so,  and  apologize  for  it  on  the  plea  of  other 
appointments. 

CONVERSATION. 

Let  your  conversation  be  adapted  as  skillfully  as  may  be  to 
your  company.  Some  men  make  a point  of  talking  common- 
places to  all  ladies  alike,  as  if  a woman  could  only  be  a trifler. 
Others,  on  the  contrary,  seem  to  forget  in  what  respects  the 
education  of  a lady  differs  from  that  of  a gentleman,  and 
commit  the  opposite  error  of  conversing  on  topics  with  which 
ladies  are  seldom  acquainted.  A woman  of  sense  has  as  much 
right  to  be  annoyed  by  the  one,  as  a lady  of  ordinary  educa- 
tion by  the  other.  You  cannot  pay  a finer  compliment  to  a 
woman  of  refinement  and  esprit  than  by  leading  the  conversa- 
tion into  such  a channel  as  may  mark  your  appreciation  of  her 
superior  attainments. 

In  talking  with  ladies  of  ordinary  education,  avoid  political, 
scientific,  or  commercial  topics,  and  choose  only  such  subjects 
as  are  likely  to  be  of  interest  to  them. 

Remember  that  people  take  more  interest  in  their  own 
affairs  than  in  anything  else  which  you  can  name.  If  you  wish 
your  conversation  to  be  thoroughly  agreeable,  lead  a mother 
to  talk  of  her  children,  a young  lady  of  her  last  ball,  an  au- 
thor of  his  forthcoming  book,  or  an  artist  of  his  exhibition 
picture.  Having  furnished  the  topic,  you  need  only  listen  ; 
and  you  are  sure  to  be  thought  not  only  agreeable,  but 
thoroughly  sensible  and  well-informed. 

Be  careful,  however,  on  the  other  hand,  not  always  to  make 
a point  of  talking  to  persons  upon  general  matters  relating  to 
their  professions.  To  show  an  interest  in  their  immediate 
concerns  is  flattering  ; but  to  converse  with  them  too  much 
about  their  own  arts  looks  as  if  you  thought  them  ignorant  of 
other  topics. 

Do  not  use  a classical  quotation  in  the  presence  of  ladies 
without  apologizing  for,  or  translating  it.  Even  this  should 
only  be  done  when  no  other  phrase  would  so  aptly  express 
your  meaning.  Whether  in  the  presence  of  ladies  or  gentle- 
men, much  display  of  learning  is  pedantic  and  out  of  place. 

There  is  a certain  distinct  but  subdued  tone  of  voice  which 
is  peculiar  to  only  well-bred  persons.  A loud  voice  is  both 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  GENTLEMEN. 


599 


disagreeable  and  vulgar.  It  is  better  to  err  by  the  use  of  too 
lew  rather  than  too  loud  a tone. 

Remember  that  all  “ slang”  is  vulgar. 

Do  not  pun.  Puns  unless  they  rise  to  the  rank  of  wit- 
ticisms, are  to  be  scrupulously  avoided. 

Long  arguments  in  general  company,  however  entertaining 
to  the  disputants,  are  tiresome  to  the  last  degree  to  all  others. 
You  should  always  endeavor  to  prevent  the  conversation  from 
dwelling  too  long  upon  one  topic. 

Religion  is  a topic  which  should  never  be  introduced  in 
society.  It  is  the  one  subject  on  which  persons  are  most  likely 
to  differ,  and  least  able  to  preserve  temper. 

Never  interrupt  a person  who  is  speaking. 

To  listen  well,  is  almost  as  great  an  art  as  to  talk  well.  It 
is  not  enough  only  to  listen.  You  must  endeavor  to  seem  in- 
terested in  the  conversation  of  others. 

It  is  considered  extremely  ill-bred  when  two  persons  whisper 
in  society,  or  converse  in  a language  with  which  all  present 
are  not  familiar.  If  you  have  private  matters  to  discuss,  you 
should  appoint  a proper  time  and  place  to  do  so,  without  pay- 
ing others  the  ill  compliment  of  excluding  them  from  your 
conversation. 

If  a foreigner  be  one  of  the  guests  at  a small-party,  and  does 
not  understand  English  sufficiently  to  follow  what  is  said, 
good-breeding  demands  that  the  conversation  shall  be  carried 
on  in  his  own  language.  If  at  a dinner-party,  the  same  rule 
applies  to  those  at  his  end  of  the  table. 

If  upon  the  entrance  of  a visitor  you  carry  on  the  thread  of 
a previous  conversation,  you  should  briefly  recapitulate  to  him 
what  has  been  said  before  he  arrived. 

Always  look,  but  never  stare,  at  those  with  whom  you  con- 
verse. 

In  order  to  meet  the  general  needs  of  conversation  in  society, 
it  is  necessary  that  a man  should  be  well  acquainted  with  the 
current  news  and  historical  events  of  at  least  the  last  few 
years . 

Never  talk  upon  subjects  of  which  you  know  nothing,  un- 
less it  be  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  information.  Many 
young  men  imagine  that  because  they  frequent  exhibitions  and 
operas  they  are  qualified  judges  of  art.  No  mistake  is  more 
egregious  or  universal. 

Those  who  introduce  anecdotes  into  their  conversation  are 
warned  that  these  should  invariably  be  “short,  witty,  elo- 
quent, new,  and  not  far-fetched.” 

Scandal  is  the  least  excusable  of  all  conversational  vulgari- 
ties. 

In  conversing  with  a man  of  rank,  do  not  too  frequently 
give  him  his  title. 

THE  PROMENADE. 

A well-bred  man  must  entertain  no  respect  for  the  brim  of 
his  hat.  “ A bow,”  says  La  Fontaine,  “ is  a note  drawn  at 
sight.”  You  are  bound  to  acknowledge  it  immediately,  and 
to  the  full  amount.  True  politeness  demands  that  the  hat 
should  be  quite  lifted  from  the  head. 

On  meeting  friends  with  whom  you  are  likely  to  shake 
hands,  remove  your  hat  with  the  left  hand  in  order  to  leave 
the  right  hand  free. 


If  you  meet  a lady  in  the  street  whom  you  are  sufficiently 
intimate  to  address,  do  not  stop  her,  but  turn  round  and  walk 
beside  her  in  whichever  direction  she  is  going.  When  you 
have  said  all  that  you  wish  to  say,  you  can  take  your  leave. 

If  you  meet  a lady  with  whom  you  are  not  particularly  well 
acquainted,  wait  for  her  recognition  before  you  venture  to  bow 
to  her. 

In  bowing  to  a lady  whom  you  are  not  going  to  address,  lift 
your  hat  with  that  hand  which  is  farthest  from  her.  For  in- 
stance, if  you  pass  her  on  the  right  side,  use  your  left  hand  ; 
if  on  the  left,  use  your  right. 

If  you  are  on  horseback  and  wish  to  converse  with  a lady 
who  is  on  foot,  you  must  dismount  and  lead  your  horse,  so  as 
not  to  give  her  the  fatigue  of  looking  up  to  your  level. 
Neither  should  you  subject  her  to  the  impropriety  of  carrying 
on  a conversation  in  a tone  necessarily  louder  than  is  sanc- 
tioned in  public  by  the  laws  of  good  breeding. 

When  you  meet  friends  or  acquaintances  in  the  streets,  at 
the  exhibitions,  or  any  public  places,  take  care  not  to  pro- 
nounce their  names  so  loudly  as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
passers-by.  Never  call  across  the  street  ; and  never  carry  on 
a dialogue  in  a public  vehicle,  unless  your  interlocutor  occu- 
pies the  seat  beside  your  own. 

In  walking  with  a lady,  take  charge  of  any  small  parcel, 
parasol,  or  book  with  which  she  may  be  encumbered. 

DRESS. 

A gentleman  should  always  be  so  well  dressed  that  his  dress 
shall  never  be  observed  at  all.  Does  this  sound  like  an  enig- 
ma? It  is  not  meant  for  one.  It  only  implies  that  perfect 
simplicity  is  perfect  elegance,  and  that  the  true  test  of  taste 
in  the  toilet  of  a gentleman  is  its  entire  harmony,  unobtrusive- 
ness, and  becomingness.  If  any  friend  should  say  to  you, 
“What  a handsome  waistcoat  you  have  on  ! ” you  may  de- 
pend that  a less  handsome  waistcoat  would  be  in  better  taste. 
If  you  hear  it  said  that  Mr.  So-and-So  wears  superb  jewelry, 
you  may  conclude  beforehand  that  he  wears  too  much.  Dis- 
play, in  short,  is  ever  to  be  avoided,  especially  in  matters  of 
dress.  The  toilet  is  the  domain  of  the  fair  sex.  Let  a wise 
man  leave  its  graces  and  luxuries  to  his  wife,  daughters,  or 
sisters,  and  seek  to  be  himself  appreciated  for  something  of 
higher  worth  than  the  stud  in  his  shirt  or  the  trinkets  on  his 
chain. 

To  be  too  much  in  the  fashion  is  as  vulgar  as  to  be  too  far 
behind  it.  No  really  well-bred  man  follows  every  new  cut 
that  he  sees  in  his  tailor’s  fashion-book. 

In  the  morning  wear  frock  coats,  double-breasted  waist- 
coats, and  trousers  of  light  or  dark  colors,  according  to  the 
season. 

In  the  evening,  though  only  in  the  bosom  of  your  own  fam- 
ily, wear  only  black,  and  be  as  scrupulous  to  put  on  a dress 
coat  as  if  you  expected  visitors.  If  you  have  sons,  bring  them 
up  to  do  the  same.  It  is  the  observance  of  these  minor  trifles 
in  domestic  etiquette  which  marks  the  true  gentleman. 

For  evening  parties,  dinner  parties,  and  balls,  wear  a black 
dress  coat,  black  trousers,  black  silk  or  cloth  waistcoat,  white 
cravat,  white  or  gray  kid  gloves,  and  thin  patent  leather  boots. 


6oo 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  GENTLEMEN. 


A black  cravat  may  be  worn  in  full  dress,  but  is  not  so  elegant 
as  a white  one. 

Let  your  jewelry  be  of  the  best,  but  the  least  gaudy  descrip- 
tion, and  wear  it  very  sparingly.  A single  stud,  a gold  watch 
and  guard,  and  one  handsome  ring,  are  as  many  ornaments  as 
a gentleman  can  wear  with  propriety. 

It  is  well  to  remember  in  the  choice  of  jewelry  that  mere 
costliness  is  not  always  the  test  of  value  ; and  that  an  exqui- 
site work  of  art,  such  as  a fine  cameo,  or  a natural  rarity,  such 
as  a black  pearl,  is  a more  distingue ’ possession  than  a large 
brilliant,  which  any  rich  and  tasteless  vulgarian  can  buy  as 
easily  as  yourself.  For  a ring,  the  gentleman  of  fine  taste 
would  prefer  a precious  antiqe  intaglio  to  the  handsomest  dia- 
mond or  ruby  that  could  be  bought  at  Tiffany’s. 

Of  all  precious  stones,  the  opal  is  one  of  the  most  lovely 
and  the  least  common-place.  No  vulgar  man  purchases  an 
opal.  He  invariably  prefers  the  more  showy  diamond,  ruby, 
sapphire,  or  emerald. 

Unless  you  are  a snuff-taker,  never  carry  any  but  a white 
pocket-handkerchief. 

If  in  the  morning  you  wear  a long  cravat  fastened  by  a pin, 
be  careful  to  avoid  what  may  be  called  alliteration  of  color. 
We  have  seen  a turquois  pin  worn  in  a violet-colored  cravat, 
and  the  effect  was  frightful.  Choose,  if  possible,  complemen- 
tary colors,  and  their  secondaries.  For  instance,  if  the  stone 
in  your  pin  be  a turquois,  wear  it  with  brown,  or  crimson 
mixed  with  black,  or  black  and  orange.  If  a ruby,  contrast  it 
with  shades  of  green.  The  same  rule  holds  good  with  regard 
to  the  mixture  and  contrast  of  colors  in  your  waistcoat  and 
cravat.  Thus,  a buff  waistcoat  and  a blue  tie,  or  brown  and 
blue,  or  brown  and  green,  or  brown  and  magenta,  green  and 
magenta,  green  and  mauve,  are  all  good  arrangements  of 
color. 

Colored  shirts  may  be  worn  in  the  morning  ; but  they  should 
be  small  in  pattern  and  quiet  in  color. 

In  these  days  of  public  baths  and  universal  progress,  we 
trust  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  do  more  than  hint  at  the  ne- 
cessity of  the  most  fastidious  personal  cleanliness.  The  hair, 
the  teeth,  the  nails,  should  be  faultlessly  kept  ; and  a soiled 
shirt,  a dingy  pocket-handkerchief,  or  a light  waistcoat  that 
has  been  worn  once  too  often,  are  things  to  be  scrupulously 
avoided  by  any  man  who  is  ambitious  of  preserving  the  ex- 
terior of  a gentleman. 

RIDING  AND  DRIVING. 

riding,  as  in  walking,  give  the  lady  the  wall. 

If  you  assist  a lady  to  mount,  hold  your  hand  at  a conven- 
ient distance  from  the  ground  that  she  may  place  her  foot  in 
it.  As  she  springs,  you  aid  her  by  the  impetus  of  your  hand. 
In  doing  this,  it  is  always  better  to  agree  upon  a signal,  that 
her  spring  and  your  assistance  may  come  at  the  same  moment. 

For  this  purpose  there  is  no  better  form  than  the  old  dueling 
one  of  “ one,  two,  three.'' 

When  the  lady  is  in  the  saddle,  it  is  your  place  to  find  the 
stirrup  for  her,  and  guide  her  left  foot  to  it.  When  this  is 
done,  she  rises  in  her  seat  and  you  assist  her  to  draw  her  habit 
Straight. 

Even  when  a groom  is  present,  it  is  more  polite  for  the 


gentleman  himself  to  perform  this  office  for  his  fair  compan- 
ion ; as  it  would  be  more  polite  for  him  to  hand  her  a chair 
than  to  have  it  handed  by  a servant. 

If  the  lady  be  light,  you  must  take  care  not  to  give  her  too 
much  impetus  in  mounting.  We  have  known  a lady  nearly 
thrown  over  her  horse  by  a misplaced  zeal  of  this  kind. 

If  a gate  has  to  be  opened,  we  need  hardly  observe  that  it 
is  your  place  to  hold  it  open  till  the  lady  has  passed  through. 

In  driving,  a gentleman  places  himself  with  his  back  to  the 
horses,  and  leaves  the  best  seat  for  the  ladies. 

When  the  carriage  stops,  the  gentleman  should  alight  first, 
in  order  to  assist  the  lady. 

To  get  in  and  out  of  a carriage  gracefully  is  a simple  but 
important  accomplishment.  If  there  is  but  one  step,  and  you 
are  going  to  take  your  seat  facing  the  horses,  put  your  left 
foot  on  the  step,  and  enter  the  carriage  with  your  right  in 
such  a manner  as  to  drop  at  once  into  your  seat.  If  you  are 
about  to  sit  with  your  back  to  the  horses,  reverse  the  process. 
As  you  step  into  the  carriage,  be  careful  to  keep  your  back 
towards  the  seat  you  are  about  to  occupy,  so  as  to  avoid  the 
awkwardness  of  turning  when  you  are  once  in. 

A gentleman  cannot  be  too  careful  to  avoid  stepping  on 
ladies’  dresses  when  he  gets  in  or  out  of  a carriage.  He  should 
also  beware  of  shutting  them  in  with  the  door. 

MORNING  AND  EVENING  PARTIES. 

Elegant  morning  dress,  general  good  manners,  and  some 
acquaintance  with  the  topics  of  the  day  and  the  games  above 
named,  are  all  the  qualifications  especially  necessary  to  a 
gentleman  at  a morning  party. 

An  evening  party  begins  about  nine  o’clock  P.M.,  and  ends 
about  midnight,  or  somewhat  later.  Good-breeding  neither 
demands  that  you  should  present  yourself  at  the  commence- 
ment, nor  remain  till  the  close  of  the  evening.  You  come  and 
go  as  may  be  most  convenient  to  you,  and  by  these  means  are 
at  liberty,  during  the  height  of  the  season  when  evening  parties 
are  numerous,  to  present  yourself  at  two  or  three  houses 
during  a single  evening. 

At  very  large  and  fashionable  receptions,  the  hostess  is 
generally  to  be  found  near  the  door.  Should  you,  however, 
find  yourself  separated  by  a dense  crowd  of  guests,  you  are  at 
liberty  to  recognize  those  who  are  near  you,  and  those  whom 
you  encounter  as  you  make  your  way  slowly  through  the 
throng. 

If  you  are  at  the  house  of  a new  acquaintance  and  find 
yourself  among  entire  strangers,  remember  that  by  so  meeting 
under  one  roof  you  are  all  in  a certain  sense  made  known  to 
one  another,  and  should  therefore  converse  freely,  as  equals. 
To  shrink  away  to  a side-table  and  affect  to  be  absorbed  in 
some  album  or  illustrated  work  ; or,  if  you  find  one  unlucky 
acquaintance  in  the  room,  to  fasten  upon  him  like  a drowning 
man  clinging  to  a spar,  are  gaucketies  which  no  shyness  can 
excuse.  An  easy  and  unembarrassed  manner,  and  the  self- 
possession  requisite  to  open  a conversation  with  those  who 
happen  to  be  near  you,  are  the  indispensable  credentials  of 
a well-bred  man. 

At  an  evening  party,  do  not  remain  too  long  in  one  spot 




^ ETIQUETTE  FOR  GENTLEMEN. 


To  be  afraid  to  move  from  one  drawing-room  to  another  is  the 
sure  sign  of  a neophyte  in  society. 

If  you  have  occasion  to  use  your  handkerchief,  do  so  as 
noiselessly  as  possible.  To  blow  your  nose  as  if  it  were  a 
trombone,  or  to  turn  your  head  aside  when  using  your  hand- 
kerchief, are  vulgarities  scrupulously  to  be  avoided. 

Never  stand  upon  the  hearth  with  your  back  to  the  fire  or 
stove,  either  in  a friend’s  house  or  your  own. 

Never  offer  any  one  the  chair  from  which  you  have  just 
risen,  unless  there  be  no  other  disengaged. 

If,  when  supper  is  announced,  no  lady  has  been  specially 
placed  under  your  care  by  the  hostess,  offer  your  arm  to  which- 
ever lady  you  may  have  last  conversed  with. 

If  you  possess  any  musical  accomplishments,  do  not  wait  to 
be  pressed  and  entreated  by  your  hostess,  but  comply  immedi- 
ately when  she  pays  you  the  compliment  of  inviting  you  to 
play  or  sing.  Remember,  however,  that  only  the  lady  of  the 
house  has  the  right  to  ask  you.  If  others  do  so,  you  can  put 
them  off  in  some  polite  way  ; but  must  not  comply  till  the 
hostess  herself  invites  you. 

If  you  sing  comic  songs,  be  careful  that  they  are  of  the 
most  unexceptionable  kind,  and  likely  to  offend  neither  the 
tastes  nor  prejudices  of  the  society  in  which  you  find  yourself. 

If  the  party  be  of  a small  and  social  kind,  and  those  games 
called  by  the  French  les  jeux  innocents  are  proposed,  do  not 
object  to  join  in  them  when  invited.  It  may  be  that  they 
demand  some  slight  exercise  of  wit  and  readiness,  and  that 
you  do  not  feel  yourself  calculated  to  shine  in  them  ; but  it  is 
better  to  seem  dull  than  disagreeable,  and  those  who  are 
obliging  can  always  ffnd  some  clever  neighbor  to  assist  them 
in  the  moment  of  need.  The  game  of  “ consequences  ” 
is  one  which  unfortunately  gives  too  much  scope  to  liberty 
of  expression.  If  you  join  in  this  game,  we  cannot  too 
earnestly  enjoin  you  never  to  write  down  one  word  which 
the  most  pure-minded  woman  present  might  not  read  aloud 
without  a blush.  Jests  of  an  equivocal  character  are  not  only 
vulgar,  but  contemptible. 

Impromptu  charades  are  frequently  organized  at  friendly 
parties.  Unless  you  have  really  some  talent  for  acting  and 
some  readiness  of  speech,  you  should  remember  that  you  only 
put  others  out  and  expose  your  own  inability  by  taking  part  in 
these  entertainments.  Of  course,  if  your  help  is  really  needed 
and  you  would  disoblige  by  refusing,  you  must  do  your  best, 
and  by  doing  it  as  quietly  and  coolly  as  possible,  avoid  being 
awkward  or  ridiculous. 

Should  an  impromptu  polka  or  quadrille  be  got  up  after 
supper  at  a party  where  no  dancing  was  intended,  be  sure  not 
to  omit  putting  on  gloves  before  you  stand  up.  It  is  well 
always  to  have  a pair  of  white  gloves  in  your  pocket  in  case  of 
need  ; but  even  black  are  better  under  these  circumstances 
than  none. 

Even  though  you  may  take  no  pleasure  in  cards,  some 
knowledge  of  the  etiquette  and  rules  belonging  to  the  games 
most  in  vogue  is  necessary  to  you  in  society. 

Never  let  even  politeness  induce  you  to  play  for  high 
stakes.  Etiquette  is  the  minor  morality  of  life  ; but  it  never 
should  be  allowed  to  outweigh  the  higher  code  of  right  and 
wrong. 


Be  scrupulous  to  observe  silence  when  any  of  the  company 
are  playing  or  singing.  Remember  that  they  are  doing  this 
for  the  amusement  of  the  rest  ; and  that  to  talk  at  such  a time 
is  as  ill-bred  as  if  you  were  to  turn  your  back  upon  a person 
who  was  talking  to  you,  and  begin  a conversation  with  some 
one  else. 

If  you  are  yourself  the  performer,  bear  in  mind  that  in 
music,  as  in  speech,  “ brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit.”  Two  verses 
of  a song,  or  four  pages  of  a piece,  are  at  all  times  enough  to 
give  pleasure.  If  your  audience  desire  more  they  will  ask  for 
it  ; and  it  is  infinitely  more  flattering  to  be  encored  than 
to  receive  the  thanks  of  you  hearers,  not  so  much  in  gratitude 
for  what  you  have  given  them,  but  in  relief  that  you  have  left 
off.  You  should  try  to  suit  your  music,  like  your  conversa- 
tion, to  your  company.  A solo  of  Beethoven’s  would  be  as 
much  out  of  place  in  some  circles  as  a comic  song  at  a 
Quakers’  meeting.  To  those  who  only  care  for  the  light 
popularities  of  the  season,  give  Verdi.  To  connoisseurs,  if 
you  perform  well  enough  to  venture,  give  such  music  as  will 
be  likely  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  a fine  taste.  Above  all, 
attempt  nothing  that  you  cannot  execute  with  ease  and  precis- 
ion. 

In  retiring  from  a crowded  party  it  is  unnecessary  that  you 
should  seek  out  the  hostess  for  the  purpose  of  bidding  her  a 
formal  good-night.  By  doing  this  you  would,  perhaps,  remind 
others  that  it  was  getting  late,  and  cause  the  party  to  break 
up.  If  you  meet  the  lady  of  the  house  on  your  way  to  the 
drawing-room  door,  take  your  leave  of  her  as  unobtrusively  as 
possible,  and  slip  away  without  attracting  the  attention  of  her 
other  guests. 

THE  DINNER  TABLE. 

To  be  acquainted  with  every  detail  of  the  etiquette  pertain- 
ing to  this  subject  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  every  gentle- 
man. Ease,  savoir  faire , and  good-breeding  are  nowhere 
more  indispensable  than  at  the  dinner-table,  and  the  absence 
of  them  is  nowhere  more  apparent. 

An  invitation  to  dine  should  be  replied  to  immediately,  and 
unequivocally  accepted  or  declined.  Once  accepted,  nothing 
but  an  event  of  the  last  importance  should  cause  you  to  fail  in 
your  engagement. 

To  be  exactly  punctual  is  the  strictest  politeness  on  these 
occasions.  If  you  are  too  early,  you  are  in  the  way;  if  too 
late,  you  spoil  the  dinner,  annoy  the  hostess,  and  are  hated  by 
the  rest  of  the  guests.  Some  authorities  are  even  of  opinion 
that  in  the  question  of  a dinner-party  “ never  ” is  better  than 
“ late  ” ; and  one  author  has  gone  so  far  as  to  say,  “ if  you  do 
not  reach  the  house  till  dinner  is  served,  you  had  better  retire 
to  a restaurateur’s,  and  thence  send  an  apology,  and  not  inter- 
rupt the  harmony  of  the  courses  by  awkward  excuses  and  cold 
acceptance.” 

When  the  party  is  assembled,  the  mistress  or  master  of  the 
house  will  point  out  to  each  gentleman  the  lady  whom  he  is 
to  conduct  to  table.  If  she  be  a stranger,  you  had  better 
seek  an  introduction  ; if  a previous  acquaintance,  take  care  to 
be  near  her  when  the  dinner  is  announced  ; offer  your  arm, 
and  go  down  according  to  precedence.  This  order  of  prece- 
dence must  be  arranged  by  the  host  or  hostess. 


602 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  GENTLEMEN. 


When  dinner  is  announced,  the  host  offers  his  arm  to  the 
lady  of  most  distinction,  invites  the  rest  to  follow  by  a few 
words  or  a bow,  and  leads  the  way.  The  lady  of  the  house 
should  then  follow  with  the  gentleman  who  is  most  entitled  to 
that  honor,  and  the  visitors  follow  in  the  order  that  the  master 
of  the  house  has  previously  arranged.  The  lady  of  the  house 
frequently  remains,  however,  till  the  last,  that  she  may  see 
her  guests  go  down  in  their  prescribed  order  ; but  the  plan  is 
not  a convenient  one.  It  is  much  better  that  the  hostess 
should  be  in  her  place  as  the  guests  enter  the  dining-room,  in 
order  that  she  may  indicate  their  seats  to  them  as  they  come 
in,  and  not  find  them  all  crowded  together  in  uncertainty  when 
she  arrives.  If  cards  with  names  are  on  the  table  seek  that  of 
the  lady  whom  you  have  taken  to  dinner. 

The  number  of  guests  at  a dinner-party  should  always  be 
determined  by  the  size  of  the  table.  When  the  party  is  too 
small,  conversation  flags,  and  a general  air  of  desolation  per- 
vades the  table.  When  they  are  too  many,  every  one  is  in- 
convenienced. A space  of  two  feet  should  be  allowed  to  each 
person.  It  is  well  to  arrange  a party  in  such  wise  that  the 
number  of  ladies  and  gentlemen  be  equal. 

The  lady  of  the  house  takes  the  head  of  the  table.  The 
gentleman  who  led  her  down  to  dinner  occupies  the  seat  on 
her  right  hand,  and  the  gentleman  next  in  order  of  precedence 
that  on  her  left.  The  master  of  the  house  takes  the  foot  of 
the  table.  The  lady  whom  he  escorted  sits  on  his  right  hand, 
and  the  lady  next  in  order  of  precedence  on  his  left. 

The  gentlemen  who  support  the  lady  of  the  house  should 
offer  to  relieve  her  of  the  duties  of  hostess.  Many  ladies  are 
well  pleased  thus  to  delegate  the  difficulties  of  carving,  and  all 
gentlemen  who  accept  invitations  to  dinner  should  be  pre- 
pared to  render  such  assistance  when  called  upon.  To  offer 
to  carve  a dish,  and  then  perform  the  office  unskillfully,  is  an 
unpardonable  gaucherie.  Every  gentleman  should  carve,  and 
carve  well. 

As  soon  as  you  are  seated  at  table,  remove  your  gloves,  place 
your  table  napkin  across  your  knees,  and  remove  the  roll  which 
you  find  probably  within  it  to  the  left  side  of  your  plate. 

The  soup  should  be  placed  on  the  table  first. 

In  eating  soup,  remember  always  to  take  it  from  the  side  of 
the  spoon,  and  to  make  no  sound  in  doing  so. 

If  the  servants  do  not  go  round  with  wine  the  gentlemen 
should  help  the  ladies  and  themselves  to  sherry  or  sauterne 
immediately  after  the  soup. 

You  should  never  ask  for  a second  supply  of  either  soup  or 
fish  ; it  delays  the  next  course  and  keeps  the  table  waiting. 

Never  offer  to  “ assist”  your  neighbors  to  this  or  that  dish. 
The  word  is  inexpressibly  vulgar — all  the  more  vulgar  for  its 
affectation  of  elegance.  “ Shall  I send  you  some  mutton?” 
or  “ may  I help  you  to  canvas  back?”  k better  chosen  and 
better  bred. 

If  you  are  asked  to  take  wine,  it  is  polite  to  select  the  same 
as  that  which  your  interlocutor  is  drinking.  If  you  invite  a 
lady  to  take  wine,  you  should  ask  her  which  she  will  prefer, 
and  then  take  the  same  yourself.  Should  you,  however,  for 
any  reason  prefer  some  other  vintage,  you  can  take  it  by  cour- 
teously requesting  her  permission. 

As  soon  as  you  are  helped,  begin  to  eat ; or,  if  the  viands 


are  too  hot  for  your  palate,  take  up  your  knife  and  fork  and 
appear  to  begin.  To  wait  for  others  is  now  not  only  old-, 
fashioned,  but  ill-bred. 

Never  offer  to  pass  on  the  plate  to  which  you  have  been 
helped. 

In  helping  soup,  fish,  or  any  other  dish,  remember  that  to 
overfill  a plate  is  as  bad  as  to  supply  it  too  scantily. 

Silver  fish-knives  will  now  always  be  met  with  at  the  best 
tables  ; but  where  there  are  none,  a piece  of  crust  should  be 
taken  in  the  left  hand,  and  the  fork  in  the  right.  There  is  no 
exception  to  this  rule  in  eating  fish. 

We  presume  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remind  the  reader 
that  he  is  never,  under  any  circumstances,  to  convey  his  knife 
to  his  mouth.  Peas  are  eaten  with  the  fork  ; tarts,  curry,  and 
puddings  of  all  kinds  with  the  spoon. 

Always  help  fish  with  a fish-slice,  and  tart  and  puddings 
with  a spoon,  or,  if  necessary,  a spoon  and  fork. 

Asparagus  must  be  helped  with  the  asparagus-tongs. 

In  eating  asparagus,  it  is  well  to  observe  what  others  do, 
and  act  accordingly.  Some  very  well-bred  people  eat  it  with 
the  fingers  ; others  cut  off  the  heads,  and  convey  them  to  the 
mouth  upon  the  fork.  It  would  be  difficult  to  say  which  is  the 
more  correct. 

In  eating  stone  fruit,  such  as  cherries,  damsons,  etc.,  the 
same  rule  had  better  be  observed.  Some  put  the  stones  out 
from  the  mouth  into  a spoon,  and  so  convey  them  to  the  plate. 
Others  cover  the  lips  with  the  hand,  drop  them  unseen  into 
the  palm,  and  so  deposit  them  on  the  side  of  the  plate.  In 
our  own  opinion,  the  latter  is  the  better  way,  as  it  effectually 
conceals  the  return  of  the  stones,  which  is  certainly  the  point 
of  highest  importance.  Of  one  thing  we  may  be  sure,  and 
that  is,  that  they  must  never  be  dropped  from  the  mouth  to 
the  plate. 

In  helping  sauce,  always  pour  it  on  the  side  of  the  plate. 

If  the  servants  do  not  go  round  with  the  wine  (which  is  by 
far  the  best  custom),  the  gentlemen  at  a dinner  table  should 
take  upon  themselves  the  office  of  helping  those  ladies  who  sit 
near  them.  Ladies  take  more  wine  in  the  present  day  than 
they  did  fifty  years  ago,  and  gentlemen  should  remember  this, 
and  offer  it  frequently.  Ladies  cannot  very  well  ask  for  wine, 
but  they  can  always  decline  it.  At  all  events  they  do  not  like 
to  be  neglected,  or  to  see  gentlemen  liberally  helping  them- 
selves, without  observing  whether  their  fair  neighbors’  glasses 
are  full  or  empty. 

The  habit  of  taking  wine  with  each  other  has  almost  wholly 
gone  out  of  fashion.  A gentleman  may  ask  the  lady  whom  he 
conducted  down  to  dinner,  or  he  may  ask  the  lady  of  the 
house  to  take  wine  with  him.  But  even  these  last  remnants 
of  the  old  custom  are  fast  falling  into  disuse. 

Unless  you  are  a total  abstainer,  it  is  extremely  uncivil  to 
decline  taking  wine  if  you  are  invited  to  do  so.  In  accepting, 
you  have  only  to  pour  a little  fresh  wine  into  your  glass,  look 
at  the  person  who  invited  you,  bow  slightly,  and  take  a sip 
from  the  glass. 

It  is  particularly  ill-bred  to  empty  your  glass  on  these  oc- 
casions. 

Certain  wines  are  taken  with  certain  dishes,  by  old-estab- 
lished custom — as  sherry  or  sauterne,  with  soup  and  fish 


ETIQUETTE  FOR  GENTLEMEN. 


603 


hock  and  claret,  with  roast  meat  ; punch  with  turtle  ; cham- 
pagne with  sweet-bread  and  cutlets  ; port  with  venison  ; port 
or  burgundy,  with  game  ; sparkling  wines  between  the  roast 
and  the  confectionery  ; madeira  with  sweets  ; port  with  cheese  ; 
and  for  dessert,  port,  tokay,  madeira,  sherry  and  claret.  Red 
wines  should  never  be  iced,  even  in  summer.  Claret  and  bur- 
gundy should  always  be  slightly  warmed  ; claret-cup  and 
champagne-cup  should,  of  course,  be  iced. 

Instead  of  cooling  their  wines  in  the  ice  pail,  some  hosts 
introduce  clear  ice  upon  the  table,  broken  up  in  small  lumps, 
to  be  put  inside  the  glasses.  This  cannot  be  too  strongly  rep- 
rehended. Melting  ice  can  but  weaken  the  quality  and  flavor 
of  the  wine.  Those  who  desire  to  drink  wine  and  water,  can 
ask  for  iced  water  if  they  choose,  but-  it  savors  too  much  of 
economy  on  the  part  of  the  host  to  insinuate  the  ice  inside  the 
glasses  of  his  guests  when  the  wine  could  be  more  effectually 
iced  outside  the  bottle. 

A silver  knife  and  fork  should  be  placed  to  each  guest  at 
dessert. 

If  you  are  asked  to  prepare  fruit  for  a lady,  be  careful  to  do 
so  by  means  of  the  silver  knife  and  fork  only,  and  never  to 
touch  it  with  your  fingers. 

It  is  wise  never  to  partake  of  any  dish  without  knowing  of 
what  ingredients  it  is  composed.  You  can  always  ask  the  ser- 
vant who  hands  it  to  you,  and  you  thereby  avoid  all  danger  of 
having  to  commit  the  impoliteness  of  leaving  it,  and  showing 
that  you  do  not  approve  of  it. 

Never  speak  while  you  have  anything  in  your  mouth. 

Be  careful  never  to  taste  soups  or  puddings  till  you  are  sure 
they  are  sufficiently  cool  ; as,  by  disregarding  this  caution, 
you  may  be  compelled  to  swallow  what  is  dangerously  hot,  or 
be  driven  to  the  unpardonable  alternative  of  returning  it  to 
your  plate. 

When  eating  or  drinking,  avcrd  every  kind  of  audible  testi- 
mony to  the  fact. 

Finger-glasses,  containing  water  slightly  warmed  and  per- 
fumed. are  placed  to  each  person  at  dessert.  In  these  you 
may  dip  the  tips  of  your  fingers,  wiping  them  afterwards  on 
your  table-napkin.  If  the  finger-glass  and  doyley  are  placed 
on  your  dessert-plate,  you  should  immediately  remove  the 
doyley  to  the  left  of  your  plate,  and  place  the  finger-glass 
upon  it.  By  these  means  you  leave  the  right  for  the  wine- 
glasses. 

Be  careful  to  know  the  shapes  of  the  various  kinds  of  wine- 
glasses commonly  in  use,  in  order  that  you  may  never  put  for- 
ward one  for  another.  High  and  narrow,  and  very  broad  and 
shallow  glasses,  are  used  for  champagne  ; large,  goblet-shaped 
glasses  for  burgundy  and  claret ; ordinary  wine-glasses  for 


sherry  and  madeira  ; green  glasses  for  hock  ; and  somewhat 
large,  bell-shaped  glasses  for  port. 

Port,  sherry,  and  madeira  are  decanted.  Hocks  and  cham- 
pagnes appear  in  their  native  bottles.  Claret  and  burgundy 
are  handed  around  in  a claret  jug. 

Coffee  and  liqueurs  should  be  handed  round  when  the  des- 
sert has  been  about  a quarter  of  an  hour  on  the  table.  After 
this,  the  ladies  generally  retire. 

Should  no  servant  be  present  to  do  so,  the  gentleman  who  is 
nearest  the  door  should  hold  it  for  the  ladies  to  pass  through. 

When  the  ladies  are  leaving  the  dining-room,  the  gentle- 
men all  rise  in  their  places,  and  do  not  resume  their  seats  till 
the  last  lady  is  gone. 

If  you  should  unfortunately  overturn  or  break  anything,  do 
not  apologize  for  it.  You  can  show  your  regret  in  your  face, 
but  it  is  not  well-bred  to  put  it  into  words. 

Should  you  injure  a lady’s  dress,  apologize  amply,  and 
assist  her,  if  possible,  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  damage. 

To  abstain  from  taking  the  last  piece  on  the  dish,  or  the 
last  glass  of  wine  in  the  decanter,  only  because  it  is  the  last,  is 
highly  ill-bred.  It  implies  a fear  that  the  vacancy  cannot  be 
supplied,  and  almost  conveys  an  affront  to  your  host. 

In  summing  up  the  little  duties  and  laws  of  the  table,  a 
popular  author  has  said  that — “ The  chief  matter  of  consider- 
ation at  the  dinner-table  — as,  indeed,  everywhere  else  in  the 
life  of  a gentleman — is  to  be  perfectly  composed  and  at  his 
ease.  He  speaks  deliberately  ; he  performs  the  most  impor- 
tant act  of  the  day  as  if  he  were  performing  the  most  ordinary. 
Yet  there  is  no  appearance  of  trifling  or  want  of  gravity  in  his 
manner,  he  maintains  the  dignity  which  is  so  becoming  on  so 
vital  an  occasion.  He  performs  all  the  ceremonies,  yet  in  the 
style  of  one  who  who  performs  no  ceremonies  at  all.  He 
goes  through  all  the  complicated  duties  of  the  scene  as  if  he 
were  ‘ to  the  manner  born.’  ” 

To  the  giver  of  a dinner  we  have  but  one  or  two  remarks 
to  offer.  If  he  be  a bachelor,  he  had  better  give  his  dinner 
at  a good  hotel.  If  a married  man,  he  will,  we  presume, 
enter  into  council  with  his  wife  and  his  cook.  In  any  case, 
however,  he  should  always  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  his  duty 
to  entertain  his  friends  in  the  best  manner  that  his  means 
permit  ; and  that  this  is  the  least  he  can  do  to  recompense 
them  for  the  expenditure  of  time  and  money  which  they 
incur  in  accepting  his  invitation. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  observe  that  to  sit  long  in  the  dining- 
room after  the  ladies  have  retired  is  to  pay  a bad  compliment 
to  the  hostess  and  her  fair  visitors  ; and  that  it  is  still  worse 
to  rejoin  them  with  a flushed  face  and  impaired  powers  o* 
thought.  A refined  gentleman  is  always  temperate. 


PARTY  AND  BALL-ROOM  ETIQUETTE. 


£som  (fctiqiuttt 


GTS;£t>  <STS^73 


I.— HOW  TO  ORGANIZE  A DANCING  PARTY 
OR  BALL. 

'S  the  number  of  guests  at  a dinner-party  is  regu- 
lated by  the  size  of  the  table,  so  should  the  num- 
ber of  invitations  to  a ball  be  limited  by  the 
proportions  of  the  dancing  or  ball-room.  A pru- 
dent hostess  will  always  invite  a few  more  guests 
than  she  really  desires  to  entertain,  in  the  certainty 
that  there  will  be  some  deserters  when  the  appointed 
evening  comes  round  ; but  she  will  at  the  same  time 
remember  that  to  overcrowd  her  room  is  to  spoil  the  pleasure 
of  those  who  love  dancing,  and  that  a party  of  this  kind  when 
too  numerously  attended  is  as  great  a failure  as  one  at  which 
too  few  are  present. 

A room  which  is  nearly  square,  yet  a little  longer  than  it  is 
broad,  will  be  found  the  most  favorable  for  a ball.  It  admits 
of  two  quadrille  parties,  or  two  round  dances,  at  the  same 
time.  In  a perfectly  square  room  this  arrangement  is  not  so 
practicable  or  pleasant.  A very  long  and  narrow  room,  and 
their  number  in  this  country  is  legion,  is  obviously  of  the 
worst  shape  for  the  purpose  of  dancing,  and  is  fit  only  for 
quadrilles  and  country  dances. 

The  top  of  the  ball  room  is  the  part  nearest  the  musicians. 
In  a private  room,  the  top  is  where  it  would  be  if  the  room 
were  a dining-room.  It  is  generally  at  the  farthest  point  from 
the  door.  Dancers  should  be  careful  to  ascertain  the  top  of 
the  room  before  taking  their  places,  as  the  top  couples  always 
lead  the  dances. 

A good  floor  is  of  the  first  importance  in  a ball-room.  In  a 
private  house,  nothing  can  be  better  than  a smooth,  well- 
stretched  holland,  with  the  carpet  beneath. 

Abundance  of  light  and  free  ventilation  are  indispensable  to 
the  spirits  and  comfort  of  the  dancers. 

Good  music  is  as  necessary  to  the  prosperity  of  a ball  as 
good  wine  to  the  excellence  of  a dinner.  No  hostess  should 
tax  her  friends  for  this  part  of  the  entertainment.  It  is  the 
most  injurious  economy  imaginable.  Ladies  who  would  pre- 
i fer  to  dance  are  tied  to  the  pianoforte  : and  as  few  amateurs 


have  been  trained  in  the  art  of  playing  dance  music,  with  that 
strict  attention  to  time  and  accent  which  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  the  comfort  of  the  dancers,  a total  and  general  discon- 
tent is  sure  to  be  the  result.  To  play  dance  music  thoroughly 
well  is  a branch  of  the  art  which  requires  considerable  prac- 
tice. It  is  as  different  from  every  other  kind  of  playing  as 
whale  fishing  is  from  fly  fishing.  Those  who  give  private 
balls  will  do  well  ever  to  bear  this  in  mind,  and  to  provide 
skilled  musicians  for  the  evening.  For  a small  party,  a piano 
and  cornopean  make  a very  pleasant  combination.  Unless 
where  several  instruments  are  engaged  we  do  not  recommend 
the  introduction  of  the  violin  ; although  in  some  respects  the 
finest  of  all  solo  instruments,  it  is  apt  to  sound  thin  and  shrill 
when  employed  on  mere  inexpressive  dance  tunes,  and  played 
by  a mere  dance  player. 

Invitations  to  a ball  or  dance  should  be  issued  in  the  name  of 
the  lady  of  the  house,  and  written  on  small  note-paper  of  the 
best  quality.  Elegant  printed  forms,  some  of  them  printed  in 
gold  or  silver,  are  to  be  had  at  every  stationer’s  by  those  who 
prefer  them.  The  paper  may  be  gilt-edged,  but  not  colored. 

An  invitation  to  a ball  should  be  sent  out  at  least  ten  days 
before  the  evening  appointed.  A fortnight,  three  weeks,  and 
even  a month  may  be  allowed  in  the  way  of  notice. 

Not  more  than  two  or  three  days  should  be  permitted  to 
elapse  before  you  reply  to  an  invitation  of  this  kind.  The 
reply  should  always  be  addressed  to  the  lady  of  the  house, 
and  should  be  couched  in  the  same  person  as  the  invitation. 
The  following  are  the  forms  generally  in  use  : — 

Mrs.  Molyneux  requests  the  honor  of  Captain  Hamilton’s  company 
at  an  evening  party,  on  Monday,  March  the  nth  instant. 

Dancing  will  begin  at  Nine  o'clock. 

Thursday,  March  ist. 


Captain  Hamilton  has  much  pleasure  in  accepting  Mrs.  Molyneux’s 
polite  invitation  for  Monday  evening,  March  the  nth  instant. 

Friday,  March  2d. 

The  old  form  of  “presenting  compliments”  is  now  out  of 
fashion. 

If  Mrs.  Molyneux  writes  to  Captain  Hamilton  in  the  first  1 


PARTY  AND  BALL-ROOM  ETIQUETTE. 


person,  as  “ My  dear  Sir,”  he  is  bound  in  etiquette  to  reply 
“ My  dear  Madam.” 

The  lady  who  gives  a ball  * should  endeavor  to  secure  an 
equal  number  of  dancers  of  both  sexes.  Many  private  parties 
are  spoiled  by  the  preponderance  of  young  ladies,  some  of 
whom  never  get  partners  at  all,  unless  they  dance  with  each 
other. 

A room  should  in  all  cases  be  provided  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  ladies.  In  this  room  there  ought  to  be  several 
looking-glasses  ; attendants  to  assist  the  fair  visitors  in  the 
arrangement  of  their  hair  and  dress ; and  some  place  in  which 
the  cloaks  and  shawls  can  be  laid  in  order,  and  found  at  a 
moment’s  notice.  It  is  well  to  affix  tickets  to  the  cloaks,  giv- 
ing a duplicate  at  the  same  time  to  each  lady,  as  at  the  public 
theaters  and  concert  rooms.  Needles  and  thread  should  also 
be  at  hand,  to  repair  any  little  accident  incurred  in  dancing. 

Another  room  should  be  devoted  to  refreshments,  and  kept 
amply  supplied  with  coffee,  lemonade,  ices,  wine,  and  biscuits 
during  the  evening.  Where  this  cannot  be  arranged,  the  re- 
freshments should  be  handed  round  between  the  dances. 

The  question  of  supper  is  one  which  so  entirely  depends  on 
the  means  of  those  who  give  a ball  or  evening  party,  that  very 
little  can  be  said  upon  it  in  a treatise  of  this  description.  Where 
money  is  no  object,  it  is  of  course  always  preferable  to  have 
the  whole  supper,  “with  all  appliances  and  means  to  boot,” 
sent  in  from  some  first-rate  house.  It  spares  all  trouble 
whether  to  the  entertainers  or  their  servants,  and  relieves  the 
hostess  of  every  anxiety.  Where  circumstances  render  such  a 
course  imprudent,  we  would  only  observe  that  a home-provided 
supper,  however  simple,  should  be  good  of  its  kind,  and 
abundant  in  quantity.  Dancers  are  generally  hungry  people, 
and  feel  themselves  much  aggrieved  if  the  supply  of  sand- 
wiches proves  unequal  to  the  demand. 


II. — BALL-ROOM  TOILETTE. 


LADIES. 


The  style  of  a lady’s  dress  is  a matter  so  entirely  dependent 
on  age,  means,  and  fashion,  that  we  can  offer  but  little  advice 
upon  it.  Fashion  is  so  variable,  that  statements  which  are 
true  of  it  to-day  may  be  false  a month  hence.  Respecting  no 
institution  of  modem  society  is  it  so  difficult  to  pronounce 
half-a-dozen  permanent  rules. 

We  may  perhaps  be  permitted  to  suggest  the  following  lead- 
ing principles ; but  we  do  so  with  diffidence.  Rich  colors 
harmonize  with  rich  brunette  complexions  and  dark  hair. 
Delicate  colors  are  the  most  suitable  for  delicate  and  fragile 
styles  of  beauty.  Very  young  ladies  are  never  so  suitably 
attired  as  in  white.  Ladies  who  dance  should  wear  dresses  of 
light  and  diaphanous  materials,  such  as  tulle , gauze,  crape, 
net,  etc.,  over  colored  silk  slips.  Silk  dresses  are  not  suitable 
for  dancing.  A married  lady  who  dances  only  a few  quadrilles 
may  wear  a decollett'e  silk  dress  with  propriety. 

Very  stout  persons  should  never  wear  white.  It  has  the 
effect  of  adding  to  the  bulk  of  the  figure. 


* It  will  be  understood  that  we  use  the  word  “ ball  ” to  signify  a 
private  party  where  there  is  dancing,  as  well  as  a public  ball. 


Black  and  scarlet  or  black  and  violet  are  worn  in  mourn- 
ing. 

A lady  in  deep  mourning  should  not  dance  at  all. 

However  fashionable  it  may  be  to  wear  very  long  dresses, 
those  ladies  who  go  to  a ball  with  the  intention  of  dancing 
and  enjoying  the  dance,  should  cause  their  dresses  to  be  made 
short  enough  to  clear  the  ground.  We  would  ask  them 
whether  it  is  not  better  to  accept  this  slight  deviation  from  an 
absurd  fashion,  than  to  appear  for  three  parts  of  the  evening 
in  a torn  and  pinned-up  skirt. 

Well-made  shoes,  whatever  their  color  or  material,  and 
faultless  gloves,  are  indispensable  to  the  effect  of  a ball-room 
toilette. 

Much  jewelry  is  out  of  place  in  a ball-room.  Beautiful 
flowers,  whether  natural  or  artificial,  are  the  loveliest  orna 
ments  that  a lady  can  wear  on  these  occasions. 

GENTLEMEN. 

A black  suit,  thin  enameled  boots,  a white  neckcloth,  and 
white  or  delicate  gray  gloves,  are  the  chief  points  of  a gen- 
tleman’s ball-room  toilette.  He  may  wear  a plain-bosomed 
shirt  with  one  stud.  White  waistcoats  are  now  fashionable. 
Much  display  of  jewelry  is  no  proof  of  good  taste.  A hand- 
some watch-chain  with,  perhaps,  the  addition  of  a few  costly 
trifles  suspended  to  it,  and  a single  shirt-stud,  are  the  only 
adornments  of  this  kind  that  a gentleman  should  wear. 

A gentleman’s  dress  is  necessarily  so  simple  that  it  admits 
of  no  compromise  in  point  of  quality  and  style.  The  material 
should  be  the  best  that  money  can  procure,  and  the  fashion 
unexceptionable.  So  much  of  the  outward  man  depends  on 
his  tailor,  that  we  would  urge  no  gentleman  to  economize  in 
this  matter. 

ETIQUETTE  OF  THE  BALL-ROOM. 

On  entering  the  ball-room,  the  visitor  should  at  once  seek 
the  lady  of  the  house,  and  pay  his  respects  to  her.  Having 
done  this,  he  may  exchange  salutations  with  such  friends  and 
acquaintances  as  may  be  in  the  room. 

If  the  ball  be  a public  one,  and  a gentleman  desires  to 
dance  with  any  lady  to  whom  he  is  a stranger,  he  must  apply 
to  a member  of  the  floor  committee  for  an  introduction. 

Even  in  private  balls,  no  gentleman  can  invite  a lady  to 
dance  without  a previous  introduction.  This  introduction 
should  be  effected  through  the  lady  of  the  house  or  a member 
of  her  family. 

No  lady  should  accept  an  invitation  to  dance  from  a gen- 
tleman to  whom  she  has  not  been  introduced.  In  case  any 
gentleman  should  commit  the  error  of  so  inviting  her,  she 
should  not  excuse  herself  on  the  plea  of  a previous  engage- 
ment or  of  fatigue,  as  to  do  so  would  imply  that  she  did  not 
herself  attach  due  importance  to  the  necessary  ceremony  of 
introduction.  Her  best  reply  would  be  to  the  effect  that  she 
would  have  much  pleasure  in  accepting  his  invitation  if  he 
would  procure  an  introduction  to  her.  This  observation  may 
be  taken  as  applying  only  to  public  balls.  At  a private  party 
the  host  and  hostess  are  sufficient  guarantees  for  the  respect- 
ability of  their  guests  ; and  although  a gentleman  would  show 
a singular  want  of  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  society  in  acting 




9 — 

do6 


PARTY  AND  BALL-ROOM  ETIQUETTE. 


as  we  have  supposed,  the  lady  who  should  reply  to  him  as  if 
he  were  merely  an  impertinent  stranger  in  a public  assembly- 
room  would  be  implying  an  affront  to  her  entertainers.  The 
mere  fact  of  being  assembled  together  under  the  roof  of  a mutual 
friend,  is  in  itself  a kind  of  general  introduction  of  the  guests 
to  each  other. 

An  introduction  given  for  the  mere  purpose  of  enabling  a 
lady  and  gentleman  to  go  through  a dance  together  does  not 
constitute  an  acquaintanceship.  The  lady  is  at  liberty,  should 
she  feel  like  doing  so,  to  pass  the  gentleman  the  next  day 
without  recognition. 

To  attempt  to  dance  without  a knowledge  of  dancing  is  not 
only  to  make  one’s  self  ridiculous,  but  one’s  partner  also.  No 
lady  or  gentleman  has  a right  to  place  a partner  in  this  ab- 
surd position. 

Never  forget  a ball-room  engagement.  To  do  so  is  to  com- 
mit an  unpardonable  offense  against  good  breeding. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  a lady  or  gentleman  should  be  ac- 
quainted with  the  steps  in  order  to  walk  gracefully  and  easily 
through  a quadrille.  An  easy  carriage  and  a knowledge-  of 
the  figure  is  all  that  is  requisite.  A round  dance,  however, 
should  on  no  account  be  attempted  without  a thorough  know- 
ledge of  the  steps  and  some  previous  practice. 

No  person  who  has  not  a good  ear  for  time  and  tune  need 
hope  to  dance  well. 

At  the  conclusion  of  a dance  the  gentleman  bows  to  his 
partner,  and  either  promenades  with  her  round  the  room  or 
takes  her  to  a seat.  Where  a room  is  set  apart  for  refresh- 
ments he  offers  to  conduct  her  thither.  At  a public  ball  no 
gentleman  would,  of  course,  permit  a lady  to  pay  for  refresh- 
ments. Good  taste  forbids  that  a lady  and  gentleman  should 
dance  too  frequently  together  at  either  a public  or  private  ball. 
Engaged  persons  should  be  careful  not  to  commit  this  con- 
spicuous solecism. 

If  a lady  happens  to  forget  a previous  engagement,  and 
stands  up  with  another  partner,  the  gentleman  whom  she  has 
thus  slighted  is  bound  to  believe  that  she  has  acted  from  mere 
inadvertence,  and  should  by  no  means  suffer  his  pride  to 
master  his  good  temper.  To  cause  a disagreeable  scene  in  a 
private  ball-room  is  to  affront  your  host  and  hostess,  and  to 
make  yourself  absurd.  In  a public  room  it  is  no  less  repre- 
hensible. 

Always  remember  that  good  breeding  and  good  temper  (or 
the  appearance  of  good  temper)  are  inseparably  connected. 

Young  gentlemen  are  earnestly  advised  not  to  limit  their 
conversation  to  remarks  on  the  weather  and  the  heat  of  the 
room.  It  is  to  a certain  extent  incumbent  on  them  to  do 
something  more  than  dance  when  they  invite  a lady  to  join  a 
quadrille.  If  it  be  only  upon  the  news  of  the  day,  a gentle- 
man should  be  able  to  afford  at  least  three  or  four  observations 
to  his  partner  in  the  course  of  a long  half  hour. 

Gentlemen  who  dance  cannot  be  too  careful  not  to  injure 
the  dresses  of  the  ladies  who  do  them  the  honor  to  stand  up 
with  them.  The  young  men  of  the  present  day  are  singularly 
careless  in  this  respect,  and  when  they  have  torn  a lady’s  deli- 
cate skirt  appear  to  think  the  mischief  they  have  done  scarcely 
worth  the  trouble  of  an  apology. 

A gentleman  conducts  his  last  partner  to  the  supper-room, 


and  having  waited  upon  her  while  there,  re-conducts  her  to 
the  ball-room. 

Never  attempt  to  take  a place  in  a dance  which  has  been 
previously  engaged. 

A thoughtful  hostess  will  never  introduce  a bad  dancer  to  a 
good  one,  because  she  has  no  right  to  punish  one  friend  in 
order  to  oblige  another. 

It  is  not  customary  for  married  persons  to  dance  together  in 
society. 

IV.  — THE  QUADRILLE. 

The  Quadrille  is  the  most  universal,  as  it  is  certainly  the 
most  sociable  of  all  fashionable  dances.  It  admits  of  pleasant 
conversation,  frequent  interchange  of  partners,  and  is  adapted 
to  every  age,  the  young  or  old  ; the  ponderous  paterfamilias 
or  his  sylph-like  daughter,  may  with  equal  propriety  take 
part  in  its  easy  and  elegant  figures.  Even  an  occasional  blunder 
is  of  less  consequence  in  this  dance  than  in  many  others, 
for  each  personage  is  in  some  degree  free  as  to  his  own  move- 
ments, not  being  compelled  by  the  continual  embrace  of  his 
partner  to  dance  either  better  or  worse  than  he  may  find  con- 
venient. 

People  now  generally  walk  through  a quadrille.  Nothing 
more  than  a perfect  knowledge  of  the  figure,  a graceful 
demeanor,  and  a correct  ear  for  the  time  of  the  music  are 
requisite  to  enable  any  one  to  take  a creditable  part  in  this 
dance. 

As  soon  as  a gentleman  has  engaged  his  partner  for  the 
quadrille,  he  should  endeavor  to  secure  as  his  vis-a-vis  some 
friend  or  acquaintance  and  should  then  lead  his  partner  to  the 
top  of  the  quadiille,  provided  that  post  of  honor  be  still 
vacant.  He  will  place  the  lady  always  at  his  right  hand. 

Quadrille  music  is  divided  into  eight  bars  for  each  part  of 
the  figure  ; two  steps  should  be  taken  in  every  bar  ; every 
movement  thus  invariably  consists  of  eight  or  four  steps. 

It  is  well  not  to  learn  too  many  new  figures  : the  memory  is 
liable  to  become  confused  among  them  ; besides  which,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  your  partner,  or  your  vis-a-vis,  is  as  learned 
in  the  matter  as  yourself.  Masters  are  extremely  fond  of  in- 
venting and  teaching  new  figures  ; but  you  will  do  well  to 
confine  your  attention  to  a few  simple  and  universally  received 
sets,  which  you  will  find  quite  sufficient  for  your  purpose.  We 
begin  with  the  oldest  and  most  common,  the 

FIRST  SET  OF  QUADRILLES. 

First  Figure. — Le  Pantalon. 

The  couples  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  quadrille  cross  to 
each  other’s  places  in  eight  steps,  occupying  four  bars  of  the 
time  ; re-cross  immediately  to  their  own  places,  which  com- 
pletes the  movement  of  eight  bars.  This  is  called  the  Chaine 
Anglaise.  The  gentleman  always  keeps  to  the  right  of  vis-a- 
vis  lady  in  crossing,  thus  placing  her  inside. 

Set  to  partners,  or  balancez  j turn  your  partners.  (This  oc- 
cupies the  second  eight  bars.)  Ladies  chain,  or  chaine  des 
dames.  (Eight  bars  more.)  Each  couple  crosses  to  opposite 
couple’s  place,  gentleman  giving  his  hand  to  his  partner  : this 
is  called  half-promenade.  Couples  recross  right  and  left  to 


PARTY  AND  BALL-ROOM  ETIQUETTE. 


607 


their  places,  without  giving  hands,  which  completes  another 
eight  bars,  and  ends  the  figure. 

The  side  couples  repeat  what  the  top  and  bottom  couples 
have  done. 

Second  Figure. — L’EtS. 

The  ladies  in  all  the  top  couples,  and  their  vis-a-vis  gentle- 
men, advance  four  steps,  and  retire  the  same,  repeating  this 
movement  once  again,  which  makes  the  first  eight  bars. 

Top  ladies  and  vis-a-vis  gentlemen  cross  to  each  other’s 
places  ; advance  four  steps  ; retreat  ditto  ; cross  back  towards 
partners,  who  set  to  them  as  they  advance  ; turn  partners, 
which  ends  first  half  of  figure. 

Second  ladies  and  top  vis-a-vis  gentlemen  execute  the  same 
movements.  Then  side  couples  begin,  the  privilege  of  com- 
mencement being  conferred  on  those  ladies  who  stand  at  the 
tight  of  the  top  couples. 

This  figure  is  sometimes  performed  in  a different  manner, 
known  as  double  L'  EtL  Instead  of  the  top  lady  and  vis-a-vis 
gentleman  advancing  alone,  they  advance  with  partners,  join- 
ing hands  ; cross  and  return,  as  in  the  single  figure.  This 
variation  is,  however,  somewhat  out  of  vogue,  except  (as  will 
presently  be  seen)  in  the  last  figure  of  the  quadrille,  where  it 
is  still  frequently  introduced. 

Third  Figure. — La  Poule. 

Top  lady  and  vis-a-vis  gentleman  cross  to  each  other’s  places, 
giving  right  hand  in  passing  ; cross  back  again  with  left  hand. 
(Eight  bars.)  The  two  couples  form  in  a line,  and  join  hands, 
the  left  hand  of  one  holding  the  right  hand  of  his  or  her 
neighbor,  so  that  each  faces  different  ways  ; in  this  position 
all  four  balancez,  then  half  promenade  with  partner  10  opposite 
place  : top  lady  and  vis-a-vis  gentleman  advance  four  steps  and 
retire  ditto.  (2d  eight  bars.)  Both  top  and  bottom  couples 
advance  together,  and  retire  the  same  ; then  re-cross  right  and 
left  to  places.  (3d  eight  bars.)  Second  lady  and  first  oppos- 
ite gentleman  repeat  figure.  Side  couples  repeat,  observing 
same  rule  for  commencement  as  in  L'  EtL 

Fourth  Figure. — La  Trenise. 

Top  couples  join  hands,  advance  four  steps  and  retreat 
ditto  ; advance  again,  gentleman  leaving  lady  at  left  hand  of 
vis-h-vis  gentleman,  and  retiring  alone.  (1st  eight  bars.) 
Two  ladies  advance,  crossing  to  opposite  side  ; gentleman  ad- 
vances to  meet  his  partner,  vis-a-vis  lady  returns  to  hers.  (2d 
eight  bars.)  Balaticez;  turns  partners  to  places.  (3d  eight 
bars.)  Second  couple  performs  same  figure  ; side  couples  re- 
peat as  before. 

If  La  Pastorale  be  preferred,  it  will  be  performed  thus  : — 
Top  couples  advance  and  retreat  ; advance,  gentleman  leading 
lady  to  left  hand  of  vis-h-vis  gentleman  ; he  advances  with 
both  ladies  four  steps,  retreating  ditto  ; again  advancing  he 
leaves  both  ladies  with  first  gentleman,  retreating  alone  ; top 
gentleman  and  both  ladies  advance  and  retreat  ; again  ad- 
vance, joining  hands  in  ciicle,  go  half  round,  half  promenade 
to  opposite  places,  then  return  right  and  left  to  their  own. 
Second  couples  and  side  couples  repeat  as  before. 

Fifth  Figure.— La  Finale. 

Begin  with  the  grand  rond  or  great  round  ; that  is,  the 
whole  quadrille  ; first  and  second  couples  and  sides  join  hands 


all  around,  advance  four  steps,  and  retreat  ditto.  Z’  Ete  is  now 
sometimes  introduced,  the  grand  rond  being  repeated  between 
each  division  of  the  figure.  But  it  gives  a greater  variety  and 
brio  to  the  quadrille  if,  after  the  first  grand  rond,  the  follow- 
ing figure  be  performed,  the  galop  step  being  used  throughout. 
Each  gentleman  (at  top  and  bottom  couples)  takes  his  lady 
round  the  waist,  as  for  the  galop  ; advance  four  steps,  retreat 
ditto,  advance  again,  cross  to  opposite  places  ; advance,  re- 
treat, re-cross  to  own  places.  Ladies  chain  ; half  promenade 
across  ; half  right  and  left  to  places  ; grand  rond.  Side 
couples  repeat  figure.  Grand  rond  between  each  division  and 
at  the  conclusion.  Bow  to  your  partners,  and  conduct  your 
lady  to  seat. 

V.— THE  LANCERS. 

The  Lancers  Quadrille  is  perhaps  the  most  graceful  and 
animated  of  any.  Within  the  last  few  years  it  has  become 
a great  favorite  in  fashionable  circles.  It  admits  of  much 
skill  and  elegance  in  executing  its  quick  and  varied  figures,  a 
correct  acquaintance  with  which  is  absolutely  requisite  to  all 
who  take  part  in  it.  Unlike  the  common  quadrille,  the  Lan- 
cers must  be  danced  by  four  couples  only  in  each  set ; though 
of  course  there  can  be  many  sets  dancing  at  the  same  time. 
The  number  being  so  limited,  one  awkward  or  ignorant  person 
confuses  the  whole  set  ; thereiore,  it  is  indispensable  that 
every  one  who  dances  in  this  quadrille  should  have  a thorough 
mastery  of  its  graceful  intricacies.  We  have  observed  that  of 
late  it  has  become  the  fashion  to  substitute  new  tunes  and 
new  figures  for  the  old  well-known  music  of  the  Lancers 
Quadrille.  We  cannot  consider  this  an  improvement.  The 
old  simple  melodies  are  peculiarly  fitted  to  the  sprightly,  joy- 
ous character  of  the  dance  ; which  is  more  than  can  be  said 
for  any  of  the  modern  substitutes.  When  these  are  used, 
the  Lancers,  in  our  opinion,  loses  its  individuality  and  spirit, 
becoming  almost  like  a common  quadrille.  We  should  be 
heartily  glad  to  see  the  old  tunes  restored,  once  for  all,  to  their 
rightful  supremacy. 

The  sets  of  four  couples,  top,  opposite,  and  sides,  having 
been  arranged,  the  dance  begins  as  follows  : — 

1st  Figure. — First  lady  and  opposite  gentleman  advance 
and  retreat ; advance  again,  joining  their  hands  ; pass  round 
each  other  and  back  to  places.  (1st  eight  bars.)  Top  couple 
join  hands,  and  cross,  opposite  couple  crossing  at  the  same 
time,  separately,  outside  them  ; the  same  reversed,  back  to 
places.  (2d  eight  bars.)  All  the  couples  balaticez  to  corners  ; 
each  gentleman  turns  his  neighbor’s  partner  back  to  places. 
(3d  eight  bars.)  Second  couple  repeat  figure  from  beginning; 
after  them  side  couples,  those  who  stand  to  the  right  of  top 
couple  having  always  the  priority,  as  in  the  common  quad- 
rille. 

id  Figure. — First  couple  advance  and  retreat,  gentleman 
holding  lady’s  left  hand  ; advance  again  ; gentleman  leaves 
his  partner  in  the  center  of  the  quadrille,  and  retires  to  place. 
(1st  eight  bars.)  Balancez  to  each  other  and  turn  to  places. 
(2d  eight  bars.)  Side  couples  join  first  and  second  couples, 
forming  a line  of  four  on  either  side.  Each  line  advances 
four  steps,  retreats  ditto  ; then  advances  again,  each  gentle- 
man reclaiming  his  partner,  and  all  turn  to  places.  Second 
and  side  couples  repeat  figure  in  succession. 


Oo8 


PARTY  AND  BALL-ROOM  ETIQUETTE. 


3</  Figure. — First  lady  advances  four  steps  alone,  and  stops; 
vis-a-vis  gentleman  does  the  same  ; first  lady  retires,  facing 
gentleman,  to  whom  she  makes  a slow  profound  courtesy. 
(The  courtesy  must  occupy  a bar  or  two  of  the  music  ; and  as, 
if  made  with  grace  and  dignity,  it  is  most  effective,  we  would 
recommend  ladies  to  practice  it  carefully  beforehand.)  The 
gentleman  at  the  same  time  bows  and  retires  (ist  eight  bars). 
All  four  ladies  advance  to  center,  give  right  hands  across  to 
each  other  (which  is  called  the  double  chain),  and  left  hand  to 
vis-a-vis  gentleman  ; then  back  again,  left  hands  across  in  the 
middle,  and  right  hands  to  partners  back  to  places.  (2d  eight 
bars.)  Second  and  side  couples  repeat  figure  from  commence- 
ment. 

A more  recent  fashion  for  dancing  this  figure  is  as  follows  : 
Instead  of  one  lady  advancing  at  first,  all  four  advance,  and 
courtesy  to  each  other  ; then  turn  and  courtesy  to  their  part- 
ners. Ladies  do  the  moulinet  in  the  center  ; that  is,  give 
right  hands  across  to  each  other,  and  half  round  ; left  hands 
across  back  again,  and  return  to  places.  Gentlemen  meantime 
all  move  round  outside  the  ladies,  till  each  has  regained  his 
place.  Figure  as  usual  repeated  four  times  ; but  the  second 
and  fourth  time  the  gentlemen  advance  instead  of  the  ladies, 
and  bow,  first  to  each  other,  then  to  their  partners;  continuing 
as  before  through  the  rest  of  the  figure. 

4 th  Figure. — Top  gentleman,  taking  partner’s  left  hand, 
leads  her  to  the  couple  on  their  right,  to  whom  they  bow  and 
courtesy  (which  civility  must  be  met  with  the  like  acknowledg- 
ment), then  cross  quickly  to  fourth  couple,  and  do  the  same, 
(ist  eight  bars.)  All  four  couples  chassez  croisez  right  and  left 
(gentleman  invariably  passing  behind  his  partner),  then  turn 
hands  {tour  des  mains)  back  to  places.  (2d  eight  bars.)  First 
and  opposite  couples  right  and  left  across  and  back  again  to 
places.  (3d  eight  bars.)  Second  and  sides  repeat  as  usual. 

5 th  Figure. — This  figure  commences  with  the  music.  Each 
couple  should  stand  ready,  the  gentleman  facing  his  partner, 
his  right  hand  holding  hers.  If  every  one  does  not  start  di- 
rectly the  music  begins,  and  does  not  observe  strict  time 
throughout,  this  somewhat  intricate  figure  becomes  hopelessly 
embarrassed  ; but,  when  well  danced,  it  is  the  prettiest  of  the 
set.  It  commences  with  the  grande  chaine  all  round  ; each 
gentleman  giving  his  right  hand  to  his  partner  at  starting,  his 
left  to  the  next  lady,  then  his  right  again,  and  so  all  round, 
till  all  have  returned  to  their  places.  (This  occupies  sixteen 
bars  of  the  music.)  First  couple  promenade  inside  figure,  re- 
turning to  places  with  their  backs  turned  to  opposite  couple. 
The  side  couple  on  their  right  falls  in  immediately  behind 
them  ; the  fourth  couple  follows,  the  second  couple  remaining 
in  their  places.  A double  line  is  thus  formed — ladies  on  one 
side  and  gentlemen  on  the  other.  (3d  eight  bars.)  All  chassez 
croisez,  ladies  left,  gentlemen  right,  behind  partners.  First 
lady  leads  off,  turning  sharply  round  to  the  right ; first  gentle- 
man does  the  same  to  the  left,  meeting  at  the  bottom  of  the 
quadrille,  and  promenade  back  to  places.  All  the  ladies  fol- 
low first  lady  ; all  the  gentlemen  follow  first  gentleman  ; and 
as  each  meets  his  partner  at  the  bottom  of  the  figure,  they 
touch  hands,  then  fall  back  in  two  lines — ladies  on  one  side, 
gentlemen  on  the  other — facing  each  other.  (4th  eight  bars.) 
Four  ladies  join  hands,  advance,  and  retreat  ; four  gentlemen 


ditto  at  the  same  time  ; then  each  turns  his  partner  to  places. 
(5th  eight  bars.)  Grande  chaine  again.  Second  and  side 
couples  repeat  the  whole  figure  in  succession,  each  couple  tak- 
ing its  turn  to  lead  off,  as  the  first  had  done.  Grande  chaine 
between  each  figure  and  in  conclusion. 

VI. -THE  LANCERS  FOR  SIXTEEN,  OR 
DOUBLE  LANCERS. 

1st  Figure. — Two  first  ladies  and  vis-a-vis  gentlemen  begin 
at  the  same  moment,  and  go  through  the  figure  as  in  Single 
Lancers.  All  balancez  to  corners  ; in  other  words,  each  lady 
sets  to  gentlemen  at  her  right,  who  turns  her  to  her  place. 
Second  couples  and  sides  repeat  as  usual. 

2i i Figure. — First  couples  advance,  retreat,  advance  again, 
leaving  ladies  in  center  ; set  to  partners  and  turn  to  places. 
Two  side  couples  nearest  first  couples  join  them  ; two  side 
couples  nearest  second  couples  do  the  same,  thus  forming  eight 
in  each  line.  They  all  advance  and  retreat,  holding  hands, 
then  turn  partners  to  places.  Repeated  by  second  and  side 
couples  as  usual. 

3 d Figure. — First  ladies  advance  and  stop  ; vis-a-vis  gen- 
tlemen ditto  ; courtesy  profoundly,  bow,  and  back  to  places. 
Ladies  do  the  moulinet,  gentlemen  go  round  outside,  and  back 
to  places.  Or,  ladies  advance  and  courtesy  to  each  other  and 
then  to  partners  ; gentlemen  doing  the  same  when  the  second 
and  fourth  couples  begin  the  figure,  as  in  Single  Lancers. 

4 th  Figure. — First  couples  advance  to  couples  on  their  right ; 
bow  and  courtesy  ; cross  to  opposite  side,  bow  and  cour- 
tesy, chassez  croisez,  and  return  to  place.  Right  and  left  to 
opposite  places,  and  back  again.  Second  couples  and  sides 
repeat  figure. 

5 th  Figure. — Grande  chaine  all  round,  pausing  at  the  end  of 
every  eight  bars  to  bow  and  courtesy  ; continue  chauie  back  to 
places,  which  will  occupy  altogether  thirty-two  bars  of  the 
music.  Figure  almost  the  same  as  in  Single  Lancers.  Both 
first  couples  lead  around,  side  couples  falling  in  behind,  thus 
forming  four  sets  of  lines.  Figure  repeated  by  second  and 
side  couples  ; grande  chaine  between  each  figure  and  at  the 
conclusion. 

VII.  DOUBLE  QUADRILLE. 

This  quadrille  contains  the  same  figures  as  the  common 
quadrille,  but  so  arranged  that  they  are  danced  by  four 
instead  of  two  couples.  All  quadrille  music  suits  it  ; and  it 
occupies  just  half  the  time  of  the  old  quadrille.  It  makes 
an  agreeable  variety  in  the  movements  of  the  dance,  and  is 
easily  learned.  It  requires  four  couples. 

First  Figure. — Pantalon. 

First  and  second  couples  right  and  left,  whilst  side  couples 
dance  the  chaine  Anglaise  outside  them.  All  four  couples  set 
to  partners  and  turn  them.  Four  ladies  form  ladies’  chain,  01 
hands  across  in  the  middle  of  the  figure,  giving  first  right 
hands,  and  then  left,  back  to  places.  Half  promenade,  first 
and  second  couples  do  chaine  Anglaise,  while  side  couples 
do  grande  chaine  round  them.  This  leaves  all  in  their  right 
places,  and  ends  figure. 


PARTY  AND  BALL-ROOM  ETIQUETTE. 


609 


Second  Figure. — L’Etc. 

First  lady,  and  lady  on  her  right  hand,  perform  the  figure 
with  their  vis-a-vis  gentlemen,  as  in  common  LEU  ; taking 
care,  when  they  cross,  to  make  a semi-circle  to  the  left. 
Second  couple  and  second  side  couple  repeat  figure,  as  in  com- 
mon L' EU. 

Third  Figure.— l^a  Poule. 

Top  lady  and  vis-a-vis  gentleman,  lady  at  her  right,  and 
her  opposite  gentleman,  perform  figure  at  the  same  time,  set- 
ting to  each  other  in  two  cross  lines.  Other  couples  follow  as 
usual. 

Fourth  Figure. — La  Pastorale. 

The  first  and  opposite  couples  dance  the  figure,  not  with 
each  other,  but  with  the  couples  to  their  right.  The  latter  do 
the  same  with  first  and  second  couples. 

Fifth  Figure.— Finale. 

Galopade  all  round.  Top  and  opposite  couples  galopade 
forwards,  and  retreat.  As  they  retreat  side  couples  advance  ; 
and,  as  they  retreat  in  their  turn,  first  and  second  couples  gal- 
opade to  each  others  places.  Side  couples  the  same.  First 
and  second  couples  advance  again  ; side  couples  the  same  as 
the  others  retreat  ; first  and  second  back  to  places  as  side 
couples  retreat.  Side  couples  back  to  places.  Double  chaine 
des  dames,  and  galopade  all  round.  Then  side  couples  repeat 
figure  as  usual,  and  galop  all  round  in  conclusion. 

It  is  requisite  to  keep  correct  time  and  step  in  this  quad- 
rille, which  would  otherwise  become  much  confused. 

VIII.  THE  POLKA. 

The  origin  of  this  once  celebrated  dance  is  difficult  to  ascer- 
tain. It  is  believed  by  some  to  be  of  great  antiquity,  and  to 
have  been  brought  into  Germany  from  the  East.  Others  affirm 
that  its  origin  is  of  more  recent  date,  and  its  birthplace  con- 
siderably nearer  home.  An  authority  on  these  matters  re- 
marks : “ In  spite  of  what  those  professors  say  who  proclaim 
themselves  to  have  learned  the  Polka  in  Germany,  or  as  being 
indebted  for  it  to  an  Hungarian  nobleman,  we  are  far  from 
placing  confidence  in  their  assertions.  In  our  opinion  Paris 
is  Its  birthplace,  and  its  true  author,  undoubtedly,  the  now 
far-famed  Monsieur  Cellarius,  for  whom  this  offspring  of  his 
genius  has  gained  a European  celebrity.” 

Whatever  we  may  be  inclined  to  believe  with  regard  to  this 
disputed  question,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  wide-spread 
popularity  which  for  many  years  was  enjoyed  by  the  Polka. 
When  first  introduced  in  1843,  it  was  received  with  enthusi- 
asm ; and  it  effected  a complete  revolution  in  the  style  of 
dancing  which  had  prevailed  up  to  that  period.  A brisk, 
lively  character  was  imparted  even  to  the  steady-going  quad- 
rille ; the  old  Valse  a Trois  Temps  was  pronounced  insuffera- 
bly “ slow”  ; and  its  brilliant  rival,  the  Valse  a Deux  Temps , 
which  had  been  recently  introduced,  at  once  established  the 
supremacy  which  it  has  ever  since  maintained.  The  galop, 
which  had  been  until  this  period  only  an  occasional  dance, 
now  assumed  a prominent  post  in  every  ball-room,  dividing 
the  honors  with  the  valse. 

Perhaps  no  dance  affords  greater  facilities  for  the  display  of 

2L 


ignorance  or  skill,  elegance  or  vulgarity,  than  the  Polka.  The 
step  is  simple  and  easily  acquired,  but  the  method  of  dancing 
it  varies  ad  infinitum.  Some  persons  race  and  romp  through 
the  dance  in  a manner  fatiguing  to  themselves  and  dangerous 
to  their  fellow-dancers.  Others  (though  this  is  more  rare) 
drag  their  partner  listlessly  along,  with  a sovereign  contempt 
alike  for  the  requirements  of  the  time  and  the  spirit  of  the 
music.  Some  gentlemen  hold  their  partner  so  tight  that  she  is 
half  suffocated  ; others  hold  her  so  loosely  that  she  continually 
slips  away  from  them.  All  these  extremes  are  equally  objec- 
tionable, and  defeat  the  graceful  intention  of  the  dance.  It 
should  be  performed  quietly,  but  with  spirit,  and  ahvays  in 
strict  time.  The  head  and  shoulders  should  be  kept  still,  not 
jerked  and  turned  at  every  step,  as  is  the  manner  of  some. 
The  feet  should  glide  swiftly  along  the  floor — not  hopping  or 
jumping  as  if  the  boards  were  red-hot. 

You  should  clasp  your  partner  lightly  but  firmly  round  the 
waist  with  your  right  arm. 

Your  left  hand  takes  her  right  hand  ; but  beware  of  elevat- 
ing your  arm  and  hers  in  the  air,  or  holding  them  out  straight, 
which  suggests  the  idea  of  windmills. 

Above  all,  never  place  your  left  hand  on  your  hip  or  behind 
you.  In  the  first  place,  you  thus  drag  your  partner  too  much 
forward,  which  makes  her  look  ungraceful  ; in  the  next,  this 
attitude  is  never  used  except  in  casinos,  and  it  is  almost  an 
insult  to  introduce  it  in  a respectable  ball-room. 

Let  the  hand  which  clasps  your  partner’s  fall  easily  by  your 
side  in  a natural  position,  and  keep  it  there.  Your  partner’s 
left  hand  rests  on  your  right  shoulder  ; her  right  arm  is  thrown 
a little  forwards  toward  your  left. 

The  Polka  is  danced  in  £ time.  There  are  three  steps  in 
each  bar  ; the  fourth  beat  is  always  a rest. 

It  is  next  to  impossible  to  describe  in  words  the  step  of  the 
Polka,  or  of  any  circular  dance : nothing  but  example  can 
correctly  teach  it ; and  although  we  shall  do  our  best  to  be  as 
clear  as  possible,  we  would  earnestly  recommend  those  of  our 
readers  who  desire  to  excel,  whether  in  this  or  the  following 
dances,  to  take  a few  lessons  from  some  competent  instructor. 

The  gentleman  starts  with  his  left  foot,  the  lady  with  her 
right.  We  shall  describe  the  step  as  danced  by  the  gentle- 
man ; the  same  directions,  reversing  the  order  of  the  feet,  will 
apply  to  the  lady. 

1st  beat. — Spring  slightly  on  right  foot,  at  the  same  tinvj 
slide  left  foot  forward. 

2 d beat. — Bring  right  foot  forward  by  glissade,  at  the  same 
time  raising  left  foot. 

3 d beat. — Bring  left  foot  slightly  forward  and  fall  upon  it, 
leaving  right  foot  raised,  and  the  knee  slightly  bent,  ready  to 
begin  the  step  at  the  first  beat  of  the  next  bar. 

4 th  beat. — Remain  on  left  foot.  Begin  next  bar  with  the 
right  foot,  and  repeat  the  step  to  end  of  third  beat.  Begin 
the  following  bar  with  left  foot,  and  so  on  ; commencing 
each  bar  with  right  or  left  foot  alternately. 

The  Polka  is  danced  with  a circular  movement,  like  the 
Valse  ; in  each  bar  you  half  turn,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the 
second  bar,  you  have  brought  your  partner  completely  round. 

The  circular  movement  of  the  Polka  admits  of  two  direc- 
tions— from  right  or  left  or  from  left  to  right.  The  ordinary 


PARTY  AND  BALL-ROOM  ETIQUETTE. 


Jfr" — 

A 610 


direction  is  from  right  to  left.  The  opposite  one  is  known  as 
the  reverse  step.  It  is  more  difficult  to  execute,  but  is  a pleas- 
ant change  for  skilled  dancers,  if  they  have  become  giddy  from 
turning  too  long  in  one  direction. 

In  dancing  the  Polka,  or  any  circular  dance  where  a large 
number  of  couples  are  performing  at  the  same  time,  the  gen- 
tleman must  be  careful  to  steer  his  fair  burden  safely  through 
the  mazes  of  the  crowded  ball-room.  A little  watchfulness 
can  almost  always  avoid  collisions,  and  a good  dancer  would 
consider  himself  disgraced  if  any  mishap  occurred  to  a lady 
under  his  care.  Keep  a sharp  lookout,  and  avoid  crowded 
corners.  Should  so  many  couples  be  dancing  as  to  render 
such  caution  impossible,  stop  at  once  and  do  not  go  on  until 
the  room  has  become  somewhat  cleared.  In  a few  minutes 
others  will  have  paused  to  rest,  and  you  can  then  continue.  Your 
partner  will  be  grateful  that  your  consideration  has  preserved 
her  from  the  dismal  plight  in  which  we  have  seen  some  ladies 
emerge  from  this  dance — their  coiffeurs  disordered,  their  dresses 
torn,  and  their  cheeks  crimson  with  fatigue  and  mortification, 
while  their  indignant  glances  plainly  showed  the  anger  they 
did  not  care  to  express  in  words,  and  which  their  reckless 
partner  had  fully  deserved.  A torn  dress  is  sometimes  not 
the  heaviest  penalty  incurred  : we  have  known  more  than  one 
instance  where  ladies  have  been  lamed  for  weeks  through  the 
culpable  carelessness  of  their  partners  ; their  tender  feet  having 
been  half  crushed  beneath  some  heavy  boot  in  one  of  these  awk- 
ward collisions.  This  is  a severe  price  to  pay  for  an  even- 
ing’s amusement,  and  gentlemen  are  bound  to  be  cautious  how 
they  inflict  it  or  anything  approaching  to  it,  upon  their  fair 
companions.  Ladies,  on  the  other  hand  will  do  well  to  re- 
member that  by  leaning  heavily  upon  their  partner’s  shoulder, 
dragging  back  from  his  encircling  arm,  or  otherwise  impeding 
the  freedom  of  his  movements,  they  materially  add  to  his 
labor  and  take  from  his  pleasure  in  the  dance.  They  should 
endeavor  to  lean  as  lightly,  and  give  as  little  trouble  as  possi- 
ble ; for,  however  flattering  to  the  vanity  of  the  nobler  sex 
may  be  the  idea  of  feminine  dependence,  we  question  whether 
the  reality,  in  the  shape  of  a dead  weight  upon  their  aching 
arms  throughout  a Polka  or  a Valse  of  twenty  minutes’  dura- 
tion, would  be  acceptable  to  even  the  most  chivalrous  among 
them. 

We  have  been  thus  minute  in  our  instructions,  because  they 
not  only  apply  to  the  Polka,  but  equally  to  all  circular  dances 
where  a great  number  stand  up  to  dance  at  the  same  time. 
We  now  pass  on  to  the  Mazourka. 

The  time  of  the  Mazourka  is  f,  like  the  common  valse  ; but 
it  should  be  played  much  more  slowly  ; if  danced  quickly,  it 
becomes  an  unmeaning  succession  of  hops,  and  its  graceful 
character  is  destroyed. 

We  describe  the  step  as  danced  by  the  lady  ; for  the  gen- 
gentleman  it  will  be  the  same,  with  the  feet  reversed  ; that  is, 
for  right  foot  read  left,  and  so  on. 

First  Step. 

1st  and  2 d beats.  — Spring  on  left  foot,  sliding  forward  right 
foot  at  the  same  time,  and  immediately  let  your  weight  rest  on 
the  forward  foot.  This  occupies  two  beats. 

3 d beat. — Spring  on  right  foot  ; this  ends  the  bar. 

1 

%r 


id  bar , 1st  and  id  beats. — Spring  again  on  right  foot,  and 
slide  forward  left  at  same  time.  Rest  on  it  a moment  as  be- 
fore during  second  beat ; at  third  beat  spring  on  it ; which 
ends  second  bar.  Continue  same  step  throughout.  You  will 
perceive  that,  at  the  first  and  third  beats  of  the  time,  you  hop 
slightly,  resting,  during  the  second  beats,  on  the  foremost  foot. 

Second  Step. 

1st  beat. — Spring  on  left  foot,  slightly  striking  both  heels 
together. 

id  beat. — Slide  right  foot  to  the  right,  bending  the  knee. 

3 d beat. — Bring  the  left  foot  up  to  right  foot  with  a slight 
spring,  raising  right  foot  ; which  ends  the  first  bar. 

id  bar , 1st  beat. — Spring  again  on  left  foot,  striking  it  with 
heel  of  right. 

id  beat. — Slide  right  foot  to  the  right. 

3 d beat. — Fall  on  right  foot,  raising  left  foot  behind  it, 
which  ends  the  second  bar.  Reverse  the  step  by  springing 
first  on  the  right  foot,  and  sliding  the  left,  etc.  The  music 
generally  indicates  that  this  step  should  be  repeated  three 
times  to  the  right,  which  occupies  three  bars  then  rest  during 
the  fourth  bar,  and  return  with  reverse  step  to  the  left  during 
the  three  bars  which  follow,  resting  again  at  the  eighth  bar. 

Third  Step. 

1st  beat. — Spring  on  left  foot,  and  slide  right  foot  to  the 
right. 

id  beat. — Rest  on  right  foot. 

3 d beat. — Spring  on  right  foot,  bringing  left  foot  up  be- 
hind it. 

id  bar , 1st  beat. — Spring  on  right  foot,  sliding  left  foot  to 
the  left. 

id  beat. — Rest  on  left  foot. 

3 d beat. — Hop  on  left  foot,  bringing  right  behind  as  before. 
Continue  at  pleasure. 

The  first  of  these  three  steps  is  most  commonly  used  in  the 
valse  ; but  the  second  is  an  agreeable  change  for  those  who 
may  have  grown  giddy  or  weary  in  doing  the  figure  en  tour - 
nant  (circular  movement). 

Be  careful  not  to  exaggerate  the  slight  hop  at  the  first  and 
third  beats  of  each  bar  ; and  to  slide  the  foot  gracefully  for- 
ward, not  merely  to  make  a step,  as  some  bad  dancers  do. 

IX.  THE  MAZOURKA  QUADRILLE. 

This  elegant  quadrille  has  five  figures,  and  can  be  performed 
by  any  even  number  of  couples.  The  music,  like  the  step, 
is  that  of  the  Mazourka.  The  couples  are  arranged  as  in  the 
ordinary  quadrille. 

Join  hands  all  round  ; grand  rond  to  the  left  (four  bars), 
then  back  again  to  the  right  (four  bars),  employing  the  second 
step  of  the  Mazourka.  Each  couple  does  the  petit  tour  forwards 
and  backwards,  still  using  the  second  step,  and  repeating  it 
three  times  to  the  right — then  resting  a bar  ; three  times  to 
the  left — then  resting  another  bar  ; which  occupies  eight  bars 
of  the  music.  These  figures  may  be  considered  as  prelim  i- 
nary. 

1st  Figure. — Top  and  bottom  couples  right  and  left  (eight 


PARTY  AND  BALL-ROOM  ETIQUETTE. 


61 1 


bars),  with  Redowa  step  ;*  then  they  advance,  the  ladies  cross 
over,  the  gentlemen  meanwhile  pass  quickly  round  each  other, 
and  return  to  own  places  (four  bars)  ; petit  tour  forward  with 
opposite  ladies  (four  bars)  ; right  and  left  (eight  bars) ; ad- 
vance again  ; the  ladies  return  to  own  places,  and  the  gentle- 
men pass  again  round  each  other  to  their  own  ladies  (four 
bars  ; petit  tour  backward  (four  bars).  Side  couples  do  like- 
wise. 

2d  Figure.  — (Eight  bars  rest).  Top  and  bottom  couples 
advance  and  retire,  hands  joined  (four  bars).  All  cross  over 
into  opposite  places,  each  going  to  each  other’s  left  (four 
bars)  ; petit  tour  forward  (four  bars)  ; advance  and  retire  (four 
bars),  and  return  to  places  (four  bars)  ; petit  tour  (four  bars). 
Side  couples  do  likewise. 

^d  Figure. — (Eight  bars  rest.)  Top  and  bottom  ladies  cross 
over  into  opposite  places  (four  bars)  ; return,  presenting  left 
hand  to  each  other,  and  right  hand  to  partner,  as  in  La  Poule 
(four  bars)  ; pass  round  with  partners  into  opposite  places 
(four  bars)  ; petit  tour  backward  (four  bars)  ; vis-a-vis  couples 
hands  across,  round  (six  bars) ; retire  (two  bars)  ; top  and 
bottom  ladies  cross  over  (four  bars)  ; ladies  cross  again,  giv- 
ing each  other  left  hands,  and  right  to  partners  (four  bars). 
All  pass  round  to  own  places  (four  bars) ; petit  tour  backward 
(four  bars). 

4 th  Figure. — (Eight  bars  rest.)  Top  couple  lead  round  in- 
side the  figure  (eight  bars) ; petit  tour  forward  and  backward 
(eight  bars) ; advance  to  opposite  couple  ; the  gentleman 
turns  half  round  without  quitting  his  partner,  and  gives  his 
left  hand  to  opposite  lady  ; the  two  ladies  join  hands  behind 
gentleman  (four  bars) ; in  this  position  the  three  advance  and 
retire  (eight  bars).  The  gentleman  passes  under  the  ladies’ 
arms  ; all  three  pass  round  to  the  left,  with  second  step  of 
Mazourka,  the  opposite  lady  finishing  in  her  own  place  (four 
bars).  The  top  couple  return  to  places  (four  bars)  ; petit  tour 
forward  (four  bars).  Opposite  couple  and  side  couples  do 
likewise. 

5th  Figure. — (Eight  bars  rest.)  Top  and  bottom  couples 
half  right  and  left  (four  bars)  ; petit  tour  backward  (four  bars) ; 
half  right  and  left  to  places  (four  bars)  ; petit  tour  backward 
(four  bars) ; vis-a-vis  couples  hands  round  to  opposite  places 
(four  bars)  ; petit  tour  forward  (four  bars)  ; hands  round  to 
own  places  (four  bars) ; petit  tour  (four  bars) ; right  and  left 
(eight  bars). 

Side  couples  do  likewise. 

Finale. — Grand  round  all  to  the  left,  and  then  to  the  right 
(sixteen  bars) ; grand  chain,  as  in  the  Lancers,  with  first  step 
of  Mazourka  (sixteen  bars).  But  if  there  are  more  than  eight 
in  the  quadrille,  the  music  must  be  continued  until  all  have 
regained  their  places. 

N.B. — Music  continues  during  rests. 

X.— THE  POLKA  MAZOURKA. 

The  step  of  this  dance  is,  as  its  name  implies,  a mixture  of 
the  steps  of  the  Polka  and  the  Mazourka.  The  time  is  jj 
quicker  than  that  of  the  Mazourka. 

Gentleman  takes  his  partner  as  in  the  valse.  Figure  en 


toumant.  We  describe  the  steps  for  the  gentleman  ; the  lady 
simply  reverses  the  order  of  the  feet,  using  left  foot  for  right 
throughout. 

ist  beat. — Rest  on  right  foot,  with  left  foot  a little  raised 
behind,  and  slide  left  foot  to  the  left. 

2 d beat. — Spring  on  the  right  foot,  bringing  it  up  to  where 
left  foot  is,  and  raising  the  latter  in  front. 

3 d beat. — Spring  once  more  on  right  foot,  passing  left  foot 
behind  without  touching  the  ground  with  it  ; this  ends  first 
bar. 

2 d bar , 1st  beat. — Slide  left  foot  to  the  left,  as  before. 

2d  beat. — Spring  on  right  foot,  as  before,  and  bring  it  up 
to  the  place  of  left  foot,  raising  latter  at  same  moment. 

3 d beat. — Fall  on  the  left  foot,  and  raise  the  right  foot 
behind  ; end  of  second  bar. 

Begin  third  bar  with  right  foot,  and  continue  as  before. 
You  turn  half  round  in  the  first  three  beats,  and  complete  the 
circle  in  the  second  three. 

XI -THE  REDOWA,  OR  REDOVA. 

The  step  of  this  valse  somewhat  resembles  that  of  the 
Mazourka,  and  is  used,  as  we  have  seen,  in  dancing  the  Ma- 
zourka Quadrille.  It  is  an  elegant  valse,  not  so  lively  as  the 
Polka  Mazourka,  but,  if  danced  in  correct  time,  not  too 
slowly,  is  very  graceful  and  pleasing.  The  step  is  not  so  diffi- 
cult as  that  of  the  Mazourka  : it  is  almost  a Pas  de  Basque , 
with  the  addition  of  the  hop.  In  all  these  dances,  which  par- 
take of  the  nature  of  the  Mazourka,  it  is  requisite  to  mark 
distinctly  the  first  and  third  beats  of  every  bar,  otherwise  the 
peculiar  character  of  the  movement  is  completely  lost.  We 
describe  the  step  for  the  lady  as  it  is  employed  in  the  forward 
movement. 

1st  beat. — Stand  with  right  foot  slightly  forward;  spring 
upon  it,  bringing  it  behind  left  foot,  which  is  raised  at  same 
time. 

2 d beat. — Slide  your  left  foot  forward,  bending  the  knee. 

3 d beat. — Bring  your  right  foot,  with  a slight  hop,  up  behind 
your  left  foot,  raising  the  latter  and  keeping  it  in  front.  (One 
bar.) 

1st  beat. — Spring  upon  your  left  foot,  passing  it  behind  your 
right,  and  raising  latter. 

2d  beat. — Slide  right  foot  forward,  bending  the  knee. 

3 d beat. — Bring  left  foot  up  to  right,  with  slight  hop,  and 
raise  right  foot  at  same  moment,  keeping  it  in  front  as  be- 
fore. 

When  the  figure  en  toumant  (circular  movement)  is  em- 
ployed, the  lady  begins  by  sliding  the  left  foot  forward,  and 
the  right  foot  backward.  Gentleman  always  does  the  same, 
with  order  of  feet  reversed. 

This  dance  has  been  very  popular  in  Paris  : in  England  it  is 
now  seldom  seen. 

XII— THE  SCHOTT  I SC  HE. 

The  Schottische  was  introduced  about  the  same  time  as  the 
Polka  Mazourka.  Its  origin  is  as  uncertain  as  that  of  the 
Polka,  and  it  is  believed  to  be  a very  ancient  national  dance. 
It  is  a great  favorite  with  the  German  peasantry  ; and  although 
its  name,  Schottische,  would  seem  io  imply  that  it  came  form 


* This  step  will  be  found  farther  on  under  the  head  of  Redowa  Valse. 


PARTY  AND  BALL-ROOM  ETIQUETTE. 


Scotland,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  essentially  German  alike 
in  character  and  in  music. 

The  step,  although  easy  to  learn,  requires  great  precision. 
We  would  recommend  our  readers  to  adhere  throughout  to  the 
circular  movement.  Some  dancers  begin  by  four  steps  to  the 
right,  then  back  again,  not  turning  until  they  commence  the 
second  half  of  the  figure.  But  when  many  couples  are  danc- 
ing this  practice  involves  a risk  of  collisions,  and  it  is  safer  to 
begin  at  once  with  the  figure  en  tournant.  The  second  part 
of  the  step  consists  of  a series  of  slight  hops,  which  must  be 
made  exactly  at  the  same  moment  by  both  parties,  otherwise  a 
break-down  is  inevitable.  They  should  be  executed  as  quickly 
as  possible,  so  as  to  avoid  the  jigging  effect  which  bad  dancers 
impart  to  the  Schottische.  When  well  performed  it  is  a very 
animated  and  elegant  dance,  forming  an  agreeable  variety  to 
the  Polka  and  Valse. 

The  time  is  l ; it  should  be  played  a good  deal  slower  than 
the  Polka  ; when  hurried  it  becomes  ungraceful  and  vulgar. 
The  first  and  third  beat  in  each  bar  should  be  slightly  marked. 

We  proceed  to  describe  the  step  as  danced  by  the  gentle- 
man. 

Slide  the  left  foot  forward  ; bring  right  foot  close  behind 
left  foot.  Slide  left  foot  forward  a second  time.  Spring 
upon  left  foot.  Then  do  the  same  with  right  foot. 

Having  completed  four  steps,  first  with  the  left  foot,  and 
then  with  the  right,  you  come  to  the  second  part,  which  con- 
sists of  a series  of  double  hops,  two  on  each  foot  alternately. 
Hop  twice  on  the  left  foot  (one  hop  for  each  beat  of  time), 
and  half  turn  round  ; then  twice  on  the  right,  completing  the 
circular  movement.  Repeat  the  same  through  another  four 
beats  ; then  resume  first  step  through  the  next  two  bars,  and 
continue  to  alternate  them  every  second  bar.  You  can  also 
vary  the  dance  at  pleasure,  by  continuing  the  first  step  with- 
out changing  it  for  the  hops  ; or  you  can  likewise  continue 
these  throughout  several  bars  in  succession  ; taking  care,  of 
course,  to  appraise  your  partner  of  your  intention.  Even  when 
well  and  quietly  danced,  there  is  something  undignified  in  the 
hopping  movement  of  the  second  step  ; and  we  have  observed 
with  satisfaction  that  for  some  time  past  it  has  been  replaced 
by  the  step  of  the  Valse  a Deux  Temps , which  is  now  gener- 
ally used  instead  of  the  double  hops. 

XIII.— LA  VARSOVIENNE. 

This  is  a round  dance  for  two,  which,  like  the  Polka  Ma- 
zourka,  is  a combination  of  the  steps  of  one  or  two  other 
dances.  Since  the  introduction  of  the  Polka  and  the  Ma- 
zourka,  several  dances  have  been  invented  which  partake 
largely  of  the  character  of  both.  La  Varsovienne  is  very 
graceful.  It  is  not  often  danced  now. 

Take  your  partner  as  for  the  valse.  Count  three  in  each 
bar.  Time  much  the  same  as  in  Polka  Mazourka.  The 
music  is  generally  divided  into  parts  of  sixteen  bars  each. 
The  step  for  the  gentleman  is  as  follows  in  the  first  part  : — 

Slide  left  foot  to  the  left  ; slightly  spring  forward  with 
right  foot,  twice,  leaving  the  left  foot  raised  behind,  in  readi- 
ness for  next  step,  (ist  bar.)  Repeat  the  same.  (2d  bar.) 
One  polka  step,  during  which  turn.  (3d  bar.)  Bring  your 

&r 


right  foot  to  the  second  position,  and  wait  a whole  bar.  (4th 
bar.)  Resume  first  step  with  right  foot,  and  repeat  through, 
out,  reversing  order  of  feet.  Lady,  as  usual,  begins  with  her 
right  foot,  doing  the  same  step. 

Second  step  in  second  part.  1st  bar. — Gentleman,  beginning 
with  his  left  foot,  does  one  polka  step  to  the  left,  turning 
partner. 

2< i bar. — Bring  right  foot  to  the  second  position,  and  bend 
towards  it  ; wait  a whole  bar. 

3 d bat. — One  polka  step  with  right  foot  to  the  right,  turn- 
ing partner. 

4 th  bar. — Left  foot  to  second  position  ; bend  towards  it, 
and  wait  as  before. 

Third  part. — Take  three  polka  steps  to  the  left.  (This 
occupies  three  bars.)  Bring  right  foot  to  second  position,  and 
wait  one  bar.  Repeat  the  same,  beginning  with  right  foot  to 
the  right. 

XIV.— THE  GORLITZA. 

This  is  a Polish  round  dance  for  two.  Like  the  Varsovienne, 
it  is  now  seldom  seen  beyond  the  walls  of  the  dancing  acad- 
emy. Perhaps  one  reason  of  its  short-lived  popularity  is  to 
be  found  in  the  fact  that  it  is  rather  troublesome  to  learn,  the 
steps  being  changed  continually.  The  time  is  the  same  as 
the  Schottische,  but  not  quite  so  quick.  Take  your  position  as 
for  the  Polka. 

1st  bar. — One  polka  step  to  the  left,  beginning  with  left 
foot,  and  turning  half  round. 

2 d bar. — Slide  your  right  foot  to  right  ; bring  left  foot  up 
close  behind  it,  as  in  the  fifth  position  ; make  a glissade  with 
your  right  foot,  ending  with  your  left  in  front. 

3 d bar. — Spring  on  your  right  foot,  raising  your  left  in 
front.  Fall  on  your  left  foot,  passing  it  behind  your  right 
foot.  Glissade  right  with  right  foot,  ending  with  left  in  front. 

0,t/i  bar. — Again  spring  on  right  foot,  raising  left  in  front. 
Fall  on  left  foot,  passing  it  behind  right.  Glissade  to  right, 
with  your  right  foot ; end  with  same  foot  in  front.  Then  re- 
peat from  beginning  during  the  next  four  bars,  but  the  second 
time  be  careful  to  end  with  the  left  foot  in  front.  During  the 
last  two  bars  you  turn  round,  but  do  not  move  forward. 

The  step  for  the  lady  is  the  same,  with  the  order  of  the 
feet,  as  usual,  reversed  ; except,  however,  in  the  last  two  bars 
of  this  figure,  which  both  begin  with  the  same  foot. 

The  Gorlitza,  like  the  preceding  dance,  is  divided  into  parts. 
The  first  part  occupies  eight  bars  of  the  music  ; the  second 
sixteen  bars.  The  step  for  the  second  part  is  as  follows  : — 

ist  four  bars. — Commence  with  Polka  Mazourka  step,  with 
left  foot  to  the  left,  and  turn  half  round.  Then  do  the  step  of 
Mazourka  to  the  right,  beginning  with  the  right  foot.  Fall  on 
left  foot,  keeping  it  behind  right  foot  ; glissade  with  righ; 
foot,  and  end  with  same  in  front. 

2 d four  bars. — Polka  Mazourka  with  right  foot  to  the  right, 
and  turn  half  round.  Mazourka  step  with  left  foot  to  the  left. 
Fall  on  right  foot,  keeping  it  behind  ; glissade  with  left  foot, 
bringing  it  behind. 

Repeat  from  beginning,  which  completes  the  sixteen  bars  of 
second  half  of  the  figure. 

Lady  does  the  same  steps,  with  order  of  feet  reversed. 


PARTY  AND  BALL-ROOM  ETIQUETTE. 


613 


XV. — THE  VALSE  A TROIS  TEMPS. 

Forty  years  ago,  the  Valse  (or  as  it  was  then  pronounced, 
Waltz ) was  a stately  measure,  danced  with  gravity  and  delib- 
eration. Each  couple  wheeled  round  and  round  with  digni- 
fied composure,  never  interrupting  the  monotony  of  the 
dance  by  any  movements  forward  or  backward.  They  conse- 
quently soon  became  giddy,  although  the  music  was  not  played 
above  half  as  fast  as  the  valse  music  of  our  day.  We  are 
bound  to  admit  that  this  stately  fashion  of  waltzing  was  in- 
finitely more  graceful  than  the  style  which  has  superseded  it. 
But  having  confessed  so  much,  we  may  venture  to  add  that 
Valse,  as  danced  by  the  present  generation,  possesses  a spirit, 
lightness,  and  variety  quite  unknown  to  its  stately  predecessor. 

Although  we  cannot  regret  the  introduction  of  a more  ani- 
mated style  of  dancing,  we  are  sorry  that  the  old  Waltz  has 
been  so  entirely  given  up.  When  restored  to  its  original 
temps,  the  Valse  a Trois  Temps  is  nearly  as  spirited  as  the 
Valse  a Deux  ; and  twice  as  graceful.  It  has  the  additional 
advantage  over  the  latter,  that  it  contains  in  each  bar  three 
steps  to  three  beats  of  the  time  ; whereas  the  Deux  Temps, 
as  its  name  implies,  numbers  only  two  steps  in  a bar  of  three 
notes  ; and  is  thus  incorrect  in  time.  We  venture  to  predict 
that  the  old  Waltz  will,  at  no  distant  day,  be  restored  to  pub- 
lic favor. 

Gentleman  takes  his  partner  round  the  waist  with  his  right 
arm  ; his  left  hand  holds  hers,  as  in  the  Polka.  Lady  places 
left  hand  on  his  shoulder,  and  right  hand  in  his  left  hand. 
Begin  at  once  with  th z figure  e n toumant.  Time  j ; one  step 
to  each  beat.  First  beat  in  each  bar  should  be  slightly  marked 
by  the  dancers. 

1st  beat. — Slide  left  foot  backwards,  towards  the  left. 

: 2d  beat. — Slide  your  right  foot  past  your  left  in  same  di- 
rection, keeping  right  foot  behind  left,  and  turning  slightly  to 

the  right. 

3 d beat. — Bfing  left  foot  up  behind  right  (one  bar). 

1st  beat. — Slide  right  foot  forward  toward  the  right. 

2 d beat. — Slide  left  foot  forward,  still  turning  towards  right. 

3 d beat. — Bring  right  foot  up  to  right,  turning  on  both  feet, 
so  as  to  complete  the  circle  (two  bars).  Remember  to  finish 
with  right  foot  in  front.  Repeat  from  first  beat  of  first  bar. 
Gentleman  always  turns  from  left  to  right  ; lady  from  right  to 
left. 

The  step  of  the  old  Waltz  is  simple  enough  ; nevertheless 
some  practice  is  required  to  dance  it  really  well.  Remember 
always  to  slide,  not  to  step,  forward  ; for  the  beauty  of  this 
valse  consists  in  its  gliding  motion.  It  is  not  at  first  easy  to 
dance  swiftly  and  quietly  at  the  same  time  ; but  a little  pa- 
tience will  soon  enable  you  to  conquer  that  difficulty,  and  to 
do  full  justice  to  what  is,  in  our  opinion,  the  most  perfectly 
graceful  of  all  the  round  dances,  without  a single  exception. 

XVI.  THE  VALSE  A DEUX  TEMPS. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  mirth-loving  capital  of  Austria  for 
this  brilliant  Valse. 

This  Valse  is  incorrect  in  time.  Two  steps  can  never  properly 
be  made  to  occupy  the  space  of  three  beats  in  the  music. 
The  ear  requires  that  each  beat  shall  have  its  step.  This  in- 


accuracy in  the  measure  has  exposed  the  Valse  a Deux  Tempi 
to  the  just  censure  of  musicians,  but  has  never  interfered  with 
its  success  among  dancers.  We  must  caution  our  readers, 
however,  against  one  mistake  often  made  by  the  inexperienced. 
They  imagine  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  observe  any  rule  of 
time  in  this  dance,  and  are  perfectly  careless  whether  they 
begin  the  step  at  the  beginning,  end,  or  middle  of  the  bar. 
This  is  quite  inadmissible.  Every  bar  must  contain  within  its 
three  beats  two  steps.  These  steps  must  begin  and  end  strictly 
with  the  beginning  and  end  of  each  bar  ; otherwise  a hopeless 
confusion  of  the  measure  will  ensue.  Precision  in  this  matter 
is  the  more  requisite,  because  of  the  peculiarity  in  the  meas- 
ure. If  the  first  step  in  each  bar  be  not  strongly  marked,  the 
valse  measure  has  no  chance  of  making  itself  apparent  ; and 
the  dance  becomes  a meaningless  galop. 

The  step  contains  two  movements,  a glissade  and  a chassez, 
following  each  other  quickly  in  the  same  direction.  Gentle- 
man begins  as  usual  with  his  left  foot  ; lady  with  her  right. 

1st  beat. — Glissade  to  the  left  with  left  foot. 

2d  and  id  beats. — Chassez  in  the  same  direction  with  right 
foot  ; do  not  turn  in  this  first  bar. 

2 d bar,  1st  beat. — Slide  right  foot  backwards,  turning  half 
round. 

2 d and  id  beats. — Pass  left  foot  behind  right,  and  chassez 
forward  with  it,  turning  half  round  to  complete  the  figure  en 
toumant.  Finish  with  right  foot  in  front,  and  begin  over 
again  with  left  foot. 

There  is  no  variation  in  this  step  ; but  you  can  vary  the 
movement  by  going  backward  or  forward  at  pleasure,  instead 
of  continuing  the  rotary  motion.  The  Valse  a Deux  Temps, 
like  the  Polka,  admits  of  a reverse  step  ; but  it  looks  awkward 
unless  executed  to  perfection.  The  first  requisite  in  this  Valse 
is  to  avoid  all  jumping  movements.  The  feet  must  glide 
smoothly  and  swiftly  over  the  floor,  and  be  raised  from  it  as 
little  as  possible.  Being  so  very  quick  a dance,  it  must  be 
performed  quietly,  otherwise  it  is  liable  to  become  ungraceful 
and  vulgar.  The  steps  should  be  short,  and  the  knees  slightly 
bent. 

As  the  movement  is  necessarily  very  rapid,  the  danger  of 
collision  is  proportionately  increased  ; and  gentlemen  will  do 
well  to  remember  and  act  upon  this  hint. 

They  should  also  be  scrupulous  not  to  attempt  to  conduct 
a lady  through  this  valse  until  they  have  thoroughly  mastered 
the  step  and  well  practiced  the  figure  en  toumant.  Awkward- 
ness or  inexperience  doubles  the  risks  of  a collision  ; which, 
in  this  extremely  rapid  dance,  might  be  attended  with  serious 
consequences. 

The  Deux  Temps  is  a somewhat  fatiguing  valse,  and  after 
two  or  three  turns  around  the  room,  the  gentleman  should 
pause  to  allow  his  partner  to  rest.  He  should  be  careful  to 
select  a lady  whose  height  does  not  present  too  striking  a con- 
trast to  his  own  ; for  it  looks  ridiculous  to  see  a tall  man  danc- 
ing with  a short  woman,  or  vice  versA.  This  observation  ap- 
plies to  all  round  dances,  but  especially  to  the  valse,  in  any 
of  its  forms. 

XVII.  THE  FINE  STEP  VALSE. 

The  step  is  extremely  simple. 


PARTY  AND  BALL-ROOM  ETIQUETTE. 


614 


XVIII.— THE  GALOP. 

The  Galop,  as  its  name  implies,  is  the  quintessence  of  all 
the  “ fast  ” dances.  At  the  time  of  the  Polka  mania  it  was 
very  much  in  vogue,  and  almost  as  great  a favorite  as  the 
Deux  Temps.  Although  its  popularity  has  greatly  declined  of 
late,  it  generally  occurs  twice  or  thrice  in  the  programme  of 
every  ball-room  ; and  the  music  of  the  Galop  is,  like  the  dance 
itself,  so  gay  and  spirited,  that  we  should  regret  to  see  it 
wholly  laid  aside.  The  step  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Deux 
Temps  Valse,  but  tlje  time  is  f,  and  as  quick  as  possible. 
Two  chassez  steps  are  made  in  each  bar.  The  figure  can  be 
varied  by  taking  four  or  eight  steps  in  the  same  direction,  or 
by  turning  with  every  two  steps,  as  in  the  Deux  Temps. 
Like  all  round  dances,  it  admits  of  an  unlimited  number  of 
couples.  Being,  perhaps,  the  most  easy  of  any,  every  one 
takes  part  in  it,  and  the  room  is  generally  crowded  during  its 
continuance.  A special  amount  of  care  is  therefore  necessary 
on  the  part  of  the  gentleman  to  protect  his  partner  from  acci- 
dents. 

XIX.— THE  COTILLON. 

The  Cotillon  is  never  commenced  till  toward  the  close  of 
the  ball,  at  so  advanced  an  hour  that  all  the  sober  portion  of 
the  assembly  have  retired,  and  only  the  real  lovers  of  dancing 
remain,  who  sometimes  prolong  this  their  favorite  amusement 
till  a late  hour  in  the  morning. 

It  is  customary  for  gentlemen  to  select  their  partners  for  the 
Cotillon  early  in  the  evening,  while  the  other  dances  are  in 
progress  ; for,  as  it  lasts  so  long  a time,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
beforehand  how  many  ladies  feel  inclined  to  remain  during  its 
continuance. 

A circle  of  chairs  is  arranged  round  the  room,  the  center 
being  left  clear  ; the  spectators  stand  behind  the  chairs,  so  as 
not  to  interfere  with  the  dancers.  Each  gentleman  leads  his 
partner  to  a seat,  taking  another  beside  her.  To  these  same 
seats  they  return  after  every  figure,  it  being  the  etiquette  of 
the  dance  that  no  couple  should  appropriate  any  chairs  but  their 
own,  taken  at  the  commencement.  When  the  dancers  are 
arranged  round  the  room,  the  orchestra  strikes  up  the  spirited 
music  of  the  Cotillon,  which  consists  of  a long  series  of  valse 
movements  at  the  usual  tempo  of  the  Deux  Temps.  There  are 
generally  several  leaders  of  the  Cotillon,  who  decide  upon  the 
succession  of  the  figures.  If  there  are  many  couples  dancing, 
one  leader  attends  upon  a group  of  six  or  eight  couples,  to  in- 
sure that  all  shall  take  part.  We  are  aware  of  no  fixed  rule 
for  the  succession  of  the  figures,  which  depends  upon  the  ca- 
price of  the  leaders.  A good  leader  will  invent  new  combina- 
tions, or  diversify  old  figures  ; thus  securing  an  almost  endless 
variety.  One  of  the  most  popular  is  the  following : — 

Several  gentlemen  assume  the  names  of  flowers  or  plants, 
such  as  the  honeysuckle,  woodbine,  ivy,  etc.  A lady  is  then 
requested  to  name  her  favorite  flower,  and  the  fortunate  swain 
who  bears  its  name  springs  forward  and  val-ses  off  with  her 
in  triumph.  It  is  usual  to  make  one,  or  at  most  two,  turns 
round  the  room,  and  then  restore  the  lady  to  her  own  partner, 
Who  in  the  meantime  has  perhaps  been  the  chosen  one  of 
another  lady.  All  having  regained  their  places,  each  gentle- 


man valses  with  his  own  partner  once  round  the  room,  or  re 
mains  sitting  by  her  side,  as  she  may  feel  inclined. 

Baskets  filled  with  small  bouquets  are  brought  in.  Each 
gentleman  provides  himself  with  a bouquet,  and  presents  it 
to  the  lady  with  whom  he  wishes  to  valse. 

Sometimes  a light  pole  or  staff  is  introduced,  to  the  top  of 
which  are  attached  long  streamers  of  different  colored  rib- 
bons. A lady  takes  one  of  these  to  several  of  her  fair  com- 
panions in  turn,  each  of  whom  chooses  a ribbon,  and,  holding 
it  firmly  in  her  hand,  follows  the  leading  lady  to  the  center  of 
the  room.  Here  they  are  met  by  an  equal  number  of  gentle- 
men, likewise  grouped  round  a leader  who  carries  the  pole, 
while  each  holds  a streamer  of  his  favorite  color,  or  that 
which  he  imagines  would  be  selected  by  th t dame  de  ses pensees. 
The  merry  groups  compare  notes  : those  who  possess  stream- 
ers of  the  same  color  pair  off  in  couples,  and  valse  gaily  round 
the  room,  returning  to  places  as  before. 

Six  or  eight  ladies,  and  the  same  number  of  gentlemen,  form 
in  two  lines,  facing  each  other.  The  leading  lady  throws  a 
soft  worsted  ball  of  bright  colors  at  the  gentleman  with  whom 
she  wishes  to  dance.  He  catches  it,  throws  it  back  to  the  fair 
group,  and  valses  off  with  his  partner.  Whoever  catches  the 
returning  ball  has  the  right  to  throw  next  ; and  the  same 
ceremony  is  repeated  until  all  have  chosen  their  partners,  with 
whom  they  valse  round  the  room,  returning  to  places  as  usual. 
Sometimes  a handkerchief  is  substituted  for  the  ball  ; but 
the  latter  is  better,  being  more  easily  thrown  and  caught. 

Six  or  eight  chairs  are  placed  in  a circle,  the  backs  turned 
inwards.  Ladies  seat  themselves  in  the  chairs,  gentlemen 
move  slowly  round  in  front  of  them.  Each  lady  throws  her 
handkerchief  or  bouquet  at  the  gentleman  with  whom  she 
wishes  to  dance  as  he  passes  before  her  ; Valse  round  as  usual, 
and  return  to  places.  Sometimes  a gentleman  is  blindfolded 
and  placed  in  a chair.  Two  ladies  take  a seat  on  either  side 
of  him,  and  he  is  bound  to  make  his  selection  without  seeing 
the  face  of  his  partner.  Having  done  so,  he  pulls  the  cover- 
ing from  his  eyes  and  valses  off  with  her.  It  is  a curious  cir- 
cumstance that  mistakes  seldom  occur,  the  gentleman  being 
generally  sufficiently  clairvoyant  to  secure  the  partner  he 
desires. 

We  have  here  described  a few  of  the  most  striking  figures 
of  the  Cotillon.  We  might  multiply  them  to  an  extent  which 
would  equally  tax  the  patience  of  our  readers  and  our  own 
powers  of  remembrance,  but  we  forbear.  Gifts  and  souvenirs 
are  usually  freely  distributed. 

XX.— THE  SPANISH  DANCE. 

This  pretty,  though  now  somewhat  old-fashioned,  dance 
was,  before  the  introduction  of  the  Deux  Temps  and  polka,  a 
principle  feature  in  every  ball-room.  It  is  danced  with  the 
step  and  music  of  the  old  Valse  a Trois  Temps,  played  slower 
than  the  music  of  the  Deux  Temps. 

Sometimes  the  couples  stand  in  two  long  parallel  lines,  as 
in  a country  dance  ; sometimes  they  are  arranged  in  a circle. 
The  leading  gentleman  must  be  on  the  ladies’  side,  and  his 
partner  on  the  gentlemen’s  side.  Every  fourth  lady  and  gen- 
tleman change  places,  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  keeping  the 


PARTY  AND  BALL-ROOM  ETIQUETTE. 


6i5 


other  couples  waiting.  The  whole  set  can  thus  begin  at  the 
same  moment. 

Leading  gentleman  and  second  lady  advance  and  retreat 
with  valse  step  and  change  places.  Leading  iady  and  second 
gentleman  do  the  same  at  the  same  time.  Leading  gentleman 
and  his  partner  advance  and  retreat,  and  change  places.  Sec- 
ond lady  and  gentleman  do  the  same  at  the  same  time.  Lead- 
ing gentleman  and  second  lady  repeat  this  figure,  first  lady 
and  second  gentleman  likewise,  at  same  time. 

Leading  gentleman  and  first  lady  repeat  same  figure  ; sec- 
ond gentleman  and  lady  repeat  at  same  time. 

All  four,  joining  hands,  advance  to  center  and  retreat. 
Ladies  pass  to  the  left.  Repeat  three  times.  Each  gentle- 
man takes  his  partner,  and  the  two  couples  valse  round  each 
other  once  or  twice  at  pleasure,  the  second  lady  and  gentle- 
man being  left  at  the  top  of  the  figure,  as  in  a country  dance. 
Leading  gentleman  and  partner  repeat  same  figure  with  suc- 
ceeding couple  to  end  of  dance. 

It  is  obvious  that  there  must  be  an  equal  number  of  couples, 
and  that  they  must  be  arranged  in  sets  of  four,  eight,  sixteen, 
twenty,  twenty-four,  and  so  on. 

XXI.— LA  TEMPETE. 

La  Tempete  is  divided  into  parties  of  four  couples,  like  the 
quadrille,  but  their  arrangement  is  different.  Two  couples 
stand  side  by  side,  facing  their  respective  vis-h-vis  ; there  are 
not  any  side  couples.  As  many  sets  of  four  couples  can  be 
thus  arranged  as  the  room  will  accommodate.  Each  new  set 
turns  its  back  upon  the  second  line  of  the  preceding  set. 
Thus  the  dance  can  be  the  whole  length  of  the  room,  but  it  is 
only  the  breadth  of  two  couples.  The  figure  is  as  follows  : — 

Place  two  couples  side  by  side,  the  lady  standing  at  the 
right  hand  of  the  gentleman.  Place  two  other  couples  as 
their  vis-a-vis.  Next  place  two  couples  with  their  backs 
turned  to  the  first  set ; two  couples  opposite  them  for  their 
vis-h-vis , and  continue  arranging  more  sets  of  four  couples, 
according  to  the  number  of  the  dancers  and  the  size  of  the 
room. 

First  part. — All  the  couples  begin  at  the  same  moment,  by 
advancing  and  retreating  twice,  with  joined  hands.  First 
couples  (that  is  all  whose  backs  are  turned  to  the  top  of  the 
room),  cross  with  hands  joined  to  the  places  of  their  vis-h-vis. 
The  latter  cross  at  the  same  time,  but,  separating,  pass  out- 
side two  couples  at  the  top,  where  they  join  hands,  return  to 
own  places,  and  back  again  to  the  top  without  separating, 
the  top  couples  crossing  separately  at  the  same  time  outside 
the  second  couples.  Top  couples  then  join  hands,  and  all 
return  to  their  own  places,  second  couples  separating  to  allow 
the  others  to  pass  between  them. 

Ladies  and  gentlemen  in  the  center  of  each  line  join  hands, 
giving  their  disengaged  hands  to  their  two  vis-h-vis.  All  four 
half  round  to  the  left,  then  half-round  back  again  to  places. 
Meantime  the  outside  lady  and  gentleman  perform  the  same 
with  their  respective  vis-h-vis,  making  a circle  of  two  instead 
of  four.  Circle  of  four  give  hands  across  round  ; change 
hands  ; round  once  more,  and  back  to  places.  Outside  couples 
perform  same  figure  in  twos.  All  the  sets  perform  the  figure 
at  the  same  moment. 


Second  part. — All  advance,  retreat,  and  advance  again,  all 
the  top  couples  passing  the  second  couples  into  the  next  line, 
where  they  recommence  the  same  figure,  their  former  vis-h-vis 
having  passed  to  the  top,  and  turned  round  to  wait  for  a fresh 
vis-h-vis,  gentleman  always  keeping  lady  at  his  right  hand. 
An  entire  change  of  places  is  thus  effected,  which  is  continued 
throughout  this  figure,  until  all  the  top  lines  have  passed  ta 
the  bottom,  the  bottom  lines  at  the  same  time  passing  to  the 
top,  and  then  turning  round,  all  go  back  again  by  the  same 
method  reversed,  till  all  have  regained  their  original  places. 
The  dance  may  terminate  here,  or  the  last  figure  may  be  re- 
peated at  pleasure.  When  the  first  exchange  of  vis-h-vis  takes 
place  the  new  lines  at  the  top  and  bottom  find  themselves  for 
a moment  without  a vis-h-vis  ; but  at  the  next  move  forward 
they  are  provided,  and  can  continue  the  figure  as  above 
described.  We  extract  from  a contemporary  the  following 
graceful  variation  in  the  first  half  of  this  dance  : — “ All  ad, 
vance  and  retire  twice  (hands  joined).  All  vis-h-vis  couples 
chassez  croisez  en  double,  each  gentleman  retaining  his  partner’s 
left  hand  ; eight  galop  steps  (four  bars)  ; dechassez  eight  steps 
(four  bars)  ; the  couple  on  the  right  of  the  top  line  passing  in 
front  of  the  couple  on  the  left  the  first  time  ; returning 
to  place,  passing  behind.  Thus,  two  couples  are  moving  to 
the  right  and  two  to  the  left.  This  is  repeated.  The  vis- 
h-vis  couples  do  likewise  at  the  same  time.  This,  of  course, 
applies  to  all  the  couples,  as  all  commence  at  the  same 
time.” 

La  Tempete  is  danced  to  quick  music  in  f time.  The 
step  is  the  same  as  in  quadrilles,  varied  sometimes  by  the  in- 
troduction of  the  galop  step,  when  the  couples  cross  into  each 
others’  places  or  advance  into  the  lines  of  the  next  set. 

XXII.— SIR  ROGER  DE  COVERLEY  AND  A 
VIRGINNY  REEL. 

Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  or  the  Virginny  Reel  is  always  intro- 
duced at  the  end  of  the  evening,  and  no  dance  could  be  so 
well  fitted  to  send  the  guests  home  in  good  humor  with  each 
other  and  with  their  hosts.  We  describe  it  as  it  is  danced  in 
the  present  day,  slightly  modernized  to  suit  the  taste  of  out 
time.  Like  the  quadrille,  it  can  be  danced  with  equal  pro 
priety  by  old  or  young,  and  is  so  easy  that  the  most  inexperi- 
enced dancer  may  fearlessly  venture  to  take  part  in  it. 

Form  in  two  parallel  lines  ; ladies  on  the  left,  gentlemen  on 
the  right,  facing  their  partners.  All  advance  ; retreat  (which 
occupies  the  first  four  bars);  cross  to  opposite  places  (four 
bars  more)  ; advance  and  retreat  (four  bars)  ; re-cross  to  places 
(four  bars). 

The  lady  who  stands  at  the  top  and  the  gentleman  who 
stands  at  the  bottom,  of  each  line,  advance  towards  each 
other,  courtesy  and  bow,  and  retire  to  places.  The  gentleman 
at  the  top  and  the  lady  at  the  bottom  do  the  same.  Lady  at 
top  and  gentleman  at  bottom  advance  again,  give  right  hands, 
and  swing  quickly  round  each  other  back  to  places.  Gentle- 
man at  top  and  lady  at  bottom  do  the  same.  Top  lady 
advances,  gives  right  hand  to  partner  opposite,  and  passes 
behind  the  two  gentlemen  standing  next  to  him.  Then  through 
the  line  and  across  it,  giving  left  hand  to  partner,  who  meets 
her  half  way  between  the  two  lines,  having  in  the  meantime 


6i6 


PARTY  AND  BALL-ROOM  ETIQUETTE. 


passed  behind  the  two  ladies  who  stood  next  his  partner. 
Lady  then  passes  behind  the  two  ladies  next  lowest  ; gentle- 
man at  same  time  behind  the  two  gentlemen  next  lowest  4 and 
so  on  all  down  the  line.  At  the  bottom,  lady  gives  left  hand 
to  her  partner,  and  they  promenade  back  to  places  at  the  top 
of  the  line.  (This  figure  is  frequently  ommitted.)  Top 
couple  advance,  courtesy  and  bow,  then  lady  turns  off  to  the 
right,  gentleman  to  the  left,  each  followed  by  the  rest  of  her 
or  his  line.  Top  couple  meet  at  the  bottom  of  figure,  join 
hands,  and  raising  their  arms,  let  all  the  other  couples  pass 
under  them  towards  the  top  of  the  line,  till  all  reach  their  own 
places,  except  the  top,  who  have  now  become  the  bottom 
couple.  Figure  is  repeated  from  the  beginning,  until  the  top 
couple  have  once  more  worked  their  way  back  to  their  orig- 
inal places  at  the  top  »f  the  line. 

GLOSSARY. 

We  subjoin  a Glossary  of  all  the  French  words  and  expressions  that 
have  long  since  been  universally  accepted  as  the  accredited  phraseol- 
ogy of  the  Ball-room. 

A vos  places,  back  to  your  own  places. 

A la  fin,  at  the  end. 

A droite,  to  the  right. 

A gauche,  to  the  left. 

Balancez,  set  to  your  partners. 

Balancez  aux  coins,  set  to  the  corners. 

Balancez  quatre  en  ligne,  four  dancers  set  in  a line,  joining  hands , as 
in  La  Poule. 

Balancez  en  moulinet,  gent  loner,  and  their  partners  give  each  other 
right  hands  across , and  balancez  in  the  form  0/  a cross. 

Balancez  et  tour  des  mains,  all  set  to  partners , and  turn  to  places.  ( See 
Tour  des  mains.) 

Ballotez,  do  the  same  /our  times  without  changing  your  places. 

Chaine  Anglaise,  opposite  couples  right  and  left. 

Chaine  des  dames,  ladies'  chain. 

Chaine  Anglaise  double,  double  right  and  left. 

Chaine  des  dames  double,  all  the  ladies  perforin  the  ladies'  chain  at 
the  same  time. 

Chassez  croisez,  do  the  chassd  step  from  left  to  right , or  right  to  left , 
the  lady  passing  before  the  gentleman  in  the  opposite  direction , that 
is.  moving  right  if  he  moves  left,  and  vice  versa. 

Chassez  croisez  et  dechassez,  change  places  with  partners,  ladies  pass- 
ing in  front,  first  to  the  right,  then  to  the  left,  back  to  places.  It  may 
be  either  & quatre — four  couples — or  les  huit — eight  couples. 

Chassez  & droite — gauche,  move  to  the  right — to  the  left. 

Le  cavalier  seul,  gentleman  advances  alone. 

Les  cavaliers  seuls  deux  fois,  gentlemen  advance  and  retire  twice  with- 
out their  partners. 

Changez  vos  dames,  change  partners. 

Contre  partie  pour  les  autres,  the  other  dancers  do  the  same  figure. 
Demi  promenade,  half  promenade. 


Sir 


Demi  chaine  Anglaise,  half  right  and  le/t. 

Demi  moulinet,  ladies  all  advance  to  center , right  hands  across , and 
back  to  places. 

Demi  tour  k quatre,  four  hands  half  round.  , 

Dos-k-dos,  lady  and  opposite  gentleman  advance , pass  round  each  other 
back  to  back , and  return  to  places. 

Les  dames  en  moulinet,  ladies  give  right  hands  across  to  each  other , 
half  round,  and  back  again  with  left  hands. 

Les  dames  donnent  la  main  droit— gauche — k leurs  cavalier,  ladies  give 
the  right — left — hands  to  partners. 

En  avant  deux  et  en  arribre,  first  lady  and  vis-k-vis  gentleman  advance 
and  retire.  To  secure  brevity , en  avant  is  always  zmderstood  to  im- 
ply en  arrifcre  when  the  latter  is  not  expressed. 

En  avant  deux  fois,  advance  and  retreat  twice. 

En  avant  quatre,  first  couple  and  their  vis-k-vis  advance  and  retire. 

En  avant  trois,  three  advance  and  retire,  as  in  La  Pastorale. 

Figurez  devant,  dance  before. 

Figurez  k droite— k gauche,  dance  to  the  right— to  the  left. 

La  grande  tour  de  rond,  all  join  hands  and  dance  completely  round  the 
figure  in  a circle  back  to  places. 

Le  grand  rond,  all  join  hands,  and  advance  and  retreat  twice,  as  in  La 
Finale. 

Le  grand  quatre,  all  eight  couples  form  into  squares. 

La  grande  chaine,  all  Ike  couples  move  quite  round  the  figure,  giving 
alter?iately  the  right  and  left  hand  to  each  in  succession , beginning 
with  the  right,  until  all  have  regained  their  places,  as  in  last  figure 
of  the  Lancers. 

La  grande  promenade,  all  eight  (or  more)  couples  promenade  all  around 
the  figure  back  to  places. 

La  main,  the  hand. 

La  meme  pour  les  cavaliers,  gentlemen  do  the  same. 

Le  moulinet,  hand  across.  The  figure  will  explain  whether  it  is  the 
gentlemen,  or  the  ladies,  or  both,  who  are  to  perform  it. 

Pas  de  Allemande,  the  gentleman  turns  his  partner  under  each  arm  in 

succession. 

Pas  de  Basque,  a kind  of  sliding  step  forward,  performed  with  both 
feet  alternately  in  quick  succession.  Used  in  the  Redowa  and  other 
dances.  Comes  from  the  South  of  France. 

Glissade,  a sliding  step. 

Le  Tiroir , first  couple  cross  with  hands  joined  to  opposite  couple1  s place, 
opposite  couple  crossing  separately  outside  them  ; then  cross  back  to 
places,  same  figure  reversed. 

Tour  des  mains,  give  both  hands  to part7ier,  and  turn  her  round  with- 
out quitting  your  places. 

Tour  sur  place,  the  same. 

Tournez  vos  dames,  the  same. 

Tour  aux  coins,  turn  at  the  corners,  as  in  the  Caledonians,  each  gent le- 
man  turning  the  lady  who  stands  nearest  his  left  hand,  and  immed- 
iately returning  to  his  ow?i  place. 

Traversez,  cross  over  to  opposite  place. 

Retraversez,  cross  back  again. 

Traversez  deux,  en  donnant  la  main  droite,  lady  and  vis-k-vis  gentle* 
?nan  cross, giving  right  hand,  as  in  La  Poule . 

Vis-k-vis,  opposite. 

Figure  en  tournant,  circular  form. 


ETIQUETTE  OF  COURTSHIP  AND  MATRIMONY. 


FIRST  STEPS  IN  COURTSHIP. 


\mjrs  T would  be  out  of  place  in  these  pages  to  grapple 
C I S!fA  wdh  a subject  so  large  as  that  of  Love  in  its 

a I various  phases  : a theme  that  must  be  left  to 

vAUifv'  poets,  novelists,  and  moralists  to  dilate  upon. 

It  is  sufficient  for  our  purpose  to  recognize  the 
existence  of  this,  the  most  universal — the  most 
powerful — of  human  passions,  when  venturing  to 
offer  our  counsel  and  guidance  to  those  of  both  sexes 
who,  under  its  promptings,  have  resolved  to  become  votaries 
of  Hymen,  but  who,  from  imperfect  knowledge  of  conven- 
tional usages,  are  naturally  apprehensive  that  at  every  step 
they  take  they  may  render  themselves  liable  to  misconception, 
ridicule,  or  censure. 

We  will  take  it  for  granted,  then,  that  a gentleman  has  in 
one  way  or  another  become  fascinated  by  a fair  lady — possibly 
a recent  acquaintance — whom  he  is  most  anxious  to  know  more 
particularly.  His  heart  already  feels  “ the  inly  touch  of  love,” 
and  his  most  ardent  wish  is  to  have  that  love  returned. 

At  this  point  we  venture  to  give  him  a word  of  serious 
advice.  We  urge  him,  before  he  ventures  to  take  any  step 
towards  the  pursuit  of  this  object,  to  consider  well  his  position 
and  prospects  in  life,  and  reflect  whether  they  are  such  as  to 
justify  him  in  deliberately  seeking  to  win  the  young  lady’s 
affections,  with  the  view  of  making  her  his  wife  at  no  distant 
period.  Should  he,  after  such  a review  of  his  affairs,  feel 
satisfied  that  he  can  proceed  honorably,  he  may  then  use  fair 
opportunities  to  ascertain  the  estimation  in  which  the  young 
lady,  as  well  as  her  family,  is  held  by  friends.  It  is  perhaps 
needless  to  add,  that  all  possible  delicacy  and  caution  must  be 
observed  in  making  such  inquiries,  so  as  to  avoid  compromis- 
ing the  lady  herself  in  the  slightest  degree.  When  he  has 
satisfied  himself  on  this  head,  and  found  no  insurmountable 
impediment  in  his  way,  his  next  endeavor  will  be,  through  the 
mediation  of  a common  friend,  to  procure  an  introduction  to 
the  lady’s  family.  Those  who  undertake  such  an  office  incur 
no  slight  responsibility,  and  are,  of  course,  expected  to  be 


scrupulously  careful  in  performing  it,  and  to  communicate  all 
they  happen  to  know  affecting  the  character  and  circumstances 
of  the  individual  they  introduce. 

We  will  now  reverse  the  picture,  and  see  how  matters  stand 
on  the  fair  one’s  side. 

First,  let  us  hope  that  the  inclination  is  mutual  ; at  all  events 
that  the  lady  views  her  admirer  with  preference,  that  she 
deems  him  not  unworthy  of  her  favorable  regard,  and  that  his 
attentions  are  agreeable  to  her.  It  is  true  her  heart  may  not 
yet  be  won  : she  has  to  be  wooed  ; and  what  fair  daughter  of 
Eve  has  not  hailed  with  rapture  that  brightest  day  in  the 
springtide  of  her  life  ? She  has  probably  first  met  the  gentle- 
man at  a ball,  or  other  festive  occasion,  where  the  excitement 
of  the  scene  has  reflected  on  every  object  around  a roseate 
tint.  We  are  to  suppose,  of  course,  that  in  looks,  manners, 
and  address,  her  incipient  admirer  is  not  below  her  ideal 
standard  in  gentlemanly  attributes.  His  respectful  approaches 
to  her — in  soliciting  her  hand  as  a partner  in  the  dance,  etc. — 
have  first  awakened  on  her  part  a slight  feeling  of  interest 
towards  him.  This  mutual  feeling  of  interest,  once  established, 
soon  “grows  by  what  it  feeds  on.”  The  exaltation  of  the 
whole  scene  favors  its  development,  and  it  can  hardly  be  won- 
dered at  if  both  parties  leave  judgment  “out  in  the  cold” 
while  enjoying  each  other’s  society,  and  possibly  already  pleas- 
antly occupied  in  building  “ castles  in  the  air.”  Whatever 
may  eventually  come  of  it,  the  fair  one  is  conscious  for  the 
nonce  of  being  unusually  happy.  This  emotion  is  not  likely 
to  be  diminished  when  she  finds  herself  the  object  of  general 
attention — accompanied,  it  may  be,  by  the  display  of  a little 
envy  among  rival  beauties — owing  to  the  assiduous  homage  of 
her  admirer.  At  length,  prudence  whispers  that  he  is  to  her, 
as  yet,  a comparative  stranger  ; and  with  a modest  reserve  she 
endeavors  to  retire  from  his  observation,  so  as  not  to  seem  to 
encourage  his  attentions.  The  gentleman’s  ardor,  however,  is 
not  to  be  thus  checked  ; he  again  solicits  her  to  be  his  partner 
in  a dance.  She  finds  it  hard,  very  hard,  to  refuse  him  ; and 
both,  yielding  at  last  to  the  alluring  influences  by  which 
they  are  surrounded,  discover  at  the  moment  of  parting  that 


ETIQUETTE  OF  COURTSHIP  AND  MATRIMONY. 


6 1 8 


a new  and  delightful  sensation  has  been  awakened  in  their 
hearts. 

At  a juncture  so  critical  in  the  life  of  a young,  inexperi- 
enced woman  as  that  when  she  begins  to  form  an  attachment 
for  one  of  the  opposite  sex — at  a moment  when  she  needs  the 
very  best  advice,  accompanied  with  a considerate  regard  for  her 
overwrought  feelings — the  very  best  course  she  can  take  is  to 
confide  the  secret  of  her  heart  to  that  truest  and  most  loving  of 
friends — her  mother.  Fortunate  is  the  daughter  who  has  not 
been  deprived  of  that  wisest  and  tenderest  of  counselors — 
whose  experience  of  life,  whose  prudence  and  sagacity,  whose 
anxious  care  and  appreciation  of  her  child’s  sentiments,  and 
whose  awakened  recollections  of  her  own  trysting  days,  qualify 
and  entitle  her,  above  all  other  beings,  to  counsel  and  com- 
fort her  trusting  child,  and  to  claim  her  confidence.  Let  the 
timid  girl  then  pour  forth  into  her  mother’s  ear  the  flood  of 
her  pent-up  feelings.  Let  her  endeavor  to  distrust  her  own 
judgment,  and  seek  hope,  guidance,  and  support  from  one 
who,  she  well  knows,  will  not  deceive  or  mislead  her.  The 
confidence  thus  established  will  be  productive  of  the  most 
beneficial  results — by  securing  the  daughter’s  obedience  to  her 
parent’s  advice,  and  her  willing  adoption  of  the  observances 
prescribed  by  etiquette,  which,  as  the  courtship  progresses, 
that  parent  will  not  fail  to  recommend  as  strictly  essential  in 
this  phase  of  life.  Where  a young  woman  has  had  the  mis- 
fortune to  be  deprived  of  her  mother,  she  should  at  such  a 
period  endeavor  to  find  her  next  best  counselor  in  some 
female  relative,  or  other  trustworthy  friend. 

We  are  to  suppose  that  favorable  opportunities  for  meeting 
have  occurred,  until,  by  and  by,  both  the  lady  and  her  ad- 
mirer have  come  to  regard  each  other  with  such  warm  feelings 
of  inclination  as  to  have  a constant  craving  for  each  other’s 
society.  Other  eyes  have  in  the  meantime  not  failed  to  notice 
the  symptoms  of  a growing  attachment  ; and  some  “ kind 
friends  ” have,  no  doubt,  even  set  them  down  as  already 
engaged. 

The  admirer  of  the  fair  one  is,  indeed,  so  much  enamored 
as  to  be  unable  longer  to  retain  his  secret  within  his  own 
breast ; and  not  being  without  hope  that  his  attachment  is 
reciprocated,  resolves  on  seeking  an  introduction  to  the  lady’s 
family  preparatory  to  his  making  a formal  declaration  of 
love. 

It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  lover’s  endeavors  to  pro- 
cure the  desired  introduction  may  fail  of  success,  although 
where  no  material  difference  of  social  position  exists,  this 
difficulty  will  be  found  to  occur  less  frequently  than  might  at 
first  be  supposed.  He  must  then  discreetly  adopt  measures  to 
bring  himself,  in  some  degree,  under  the  fair  one’s  notice  : 
such,  for  instance,  as  attending  the  place  of  worship  which 
she  frequents,  meeting  her,  so  often  as  to  be  manifestly  for 
the  purpose,  in  the  course  of  her  promenades,  etc.  He  will 
thus  soon  be  able  to  judge — even  without  speaking  to  the 
lady — whether  his  further  attentions  will  be  distasteful  to  her. 
The  signs  of  this  on  the  lady’s  part,  though  of  the  most 
trifling  nature,  and  in  no  way  compromising  her,  will  be  un- 
mistakable : for,  as  the  poet  tells  us  in  speaking  of  the  sex  : — 

“ He  gave  them  but  one  tongue  to  say  us  ‘ Nay,’ 

And  two  fond  eyes  to  grant ! ” 


Should  her  demeanor  be  decidedly  discouraging,  any  perse- 
verance on  his  part  would  be  ungentlemanly  and  highly  inde- 
corous. But,  on  the  other  hand,  should  a timid  blush  intimate 
doubt,  or  a gentle  smile  lurking  in  the  half-dropped  eye  give 
pleasing  challenge  to  further  parley,  when  possible  he  may 
venture  to  write — not  to  the  lady — that  would  be  the  opening 
of  a clandestine  correspondence  ; an  unworthy  course,  where 
every  act  should  be  open  and  straightforward,  as  tending  to 
manly  and  honorable  ends — but  to  the  father  or  guardian, 
through  the  agency  of  a common  friend  where  feasible,  or, 
in  some  instances,  to  the  party  at  whose  residence  the  lady 
may  be  staying.  In  his  letter  he  ought  first  to  state  his  posi- 
tion in  life  and  prospects,  as  well  as  mention  his  family  con- 
nections ; and  then  request  permission  '.o  visit  the  family, 
as  a preliminary  step  to  paying  his  addresses  to  the  object  of 
his  admiration. 

By  this  course  he  in  no  wise  compromises  either  himself  or 
the  lady,  but  leaves  open  to  both,  at  any  future  period,  an 
opportunity  of  retiring  from  the  position  of  courtship  taken  up 
on  the  one  side,  and  of  receiving  addresses  on  the  other, 
without  laying  either  party  open  to  the  accusation  of  fickle- 
ness or  jilting. 

ETIQUETTE  OF  COURTSHIP. 

In  whatever  way  the  attachment  may  have  originated, 
whether  resulting  from  old  association  or  from  a recent  ac- 
quaintanceship between  the  lovers,  we  will  assume  that  the 
courtship  is  so  far  in  a favorable  train  that  the  lady’s  admirer 
has  succeeded  in  obtaining  an  introduction  to  her  family,  and 
that  he  is  about  to  be  received  in  their  domestic  circle  on  the 
footing  of  a welcome  visitor,  if  not  yet  in  the  light  of  a pro- 
bationary suitor. 

In  the  first  place,  matters  will  in  all  probability  be  found  to 
amble  on  so  calmly,  that  the  enamored  pair  may  seldom  find 
it  needful  to  consult  the  rules  of  etiquette  ; but  in  the  latter, 
its  rules  must  be  attentively  observed,  or  “ the  course  of  true 
love  ” will  assuredly  not  run  smooth. 

Young  people  are  naturally  prone  to  seek  the  company  of 
those  they  love  ; and  as  their  impulses  are  often  at  such  times 
impatient  of  control,  etiquette  prescribes  cautionary  rules 
for  the  purpose  of  averting  the  mischief  that  unchecked  inter- 
course and  incautious  familiarity  might  give  rise  to.  For 
instance,  a couple  known  to  be  attached  to  each  other  should 
never,  unless  when  old  acquaintances,  be  left  alone  for  any 
length  of  time,  nor  be  allowed  to  meet  in  any  other  place 
than  the  lady’s  home — particularly  at  balls,  concerts,  and 
other  public  places — except  in  tbe  presence  of  a third  party. 
This,  as  a general  rule,  should  be  carefully  observed,  although 
exceptions  may  occasionally  occur  under  special  circumstances. 

WHAT  THE  LADY  SHOULD  OBSERVE 
DURING  COURTSHIP. 

A lady  should  be  particular  during  the  early  days  of  court- 
ship— while  still  retaining  some  clearness  of  mental  vision — 
to  observe  the  manner  in  which  her  suitor  comports  himself 
to  other  ladies.  If  he  behave  with  ease  and  courtesy,  without 
freedom  or  the  slightest  approach  to  license  in  manner  or 
conversation  ; if  he  never  speak  slightingly  of  the  sex,  and 


LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


ETIQUETTE  OF  COURTSHIP  AND  MATRIMONY. 


is  ever  ready  to  honor  its  virtues  and  defend  its  weakness  ; 
she  may  continue  to  incline  towards  him  a willing  ear.  His 
habits  and  his  conduct  must  awaken  her  vigilant  attention 
before  it  be  too  late.  Should  he  come  to  visit  her  at  irregular 
hours  ; should  he  exhibit  a vague  or  wandering  attention — 
give  proofs  of  a want  of  punctuality — show  disrespect  for  age 
— sneer  at  things  sacred,  or  absent  himself  from  regular  at- 
tendance at  divine  service — or  evince  an  inclination  to  expen- 
sive pleasures  beyond  his  means,  or  to  low  and  vulgar  amuse- 
ments ; should  he  be  foppish,  eccentric,  or  very  slovenly  in 
his  dress  ; or  display  a frivolity  of  mind,  and  an  absence  of 
well-directed  energy  in  his  worldly  pursuits  ; let  the  young 
lady,  we  say,  while  there  is  yet  time,  eschew  that  gentleman’s 
acquaintance,  and  allow  it  gently  to  drop.  The  effort,  at 
whatever  cost  to  her  feelings,  must  be  made,  if  she  have  any 
regard  for  her  future  happiness  and  self-respect.  The  proper 
course  then  to  take  is  to  intimate  her  distate,  and  the  causes 
that  have  given  rise  to  it,  to  her  parents  or  guardian,  who  will 
be  pretty  sure  to  sympathize  with  her,  and  to  take  measures 
for  facilitating  the  retirement  of  the  gentleman  from  his  pre- 
tensions. 

WHAT  THE  GENTLEMAN  SHOULD  OBSERVE 
DURING  COURTSHIP. 


other,  and  that  the  gentleman  is  eager  to  prove  the  sincerity 
of  his  affectionate  regard  by  giving  some  substantial  token  of 
his  love  and  homage  to  the  fair  one.  This  brings  us  to  the 
question  of 

PRESENTS, 

a point  on  which  certain  observances  of  etiquette  must  not  be 
disregarded.  A lady,  for  instance,  cannot  with  propriety  ac- 
cept presents  from  a gentleman  previously  to  his  having  made 
proposals  of  marriage.  She  would  by  so  doing  incur  an  obli- 
gation at  once  embarrassing  and  unbecoming.  Should,  how- 
ever, the  gentleman  insist  on  making  her  a present — as  of 
some  trifling  object  of  jewelry,  etc. — there  must  be  no  secret 
about  it.  Let  the  young  lady  take  an  early  opportunity  of 
saying  to  her  admirer,  in  the  presence  of  her  father  or  mother, 
“ I am  much  obliged  to  you  for  that  ring  (or  other  trinket,  as 
the  case  may  be)  which  you  kindly  offered  me  the  other  day,  and 
which  I shall  be  most  happy  to  accept,  if  my  parents  do  not 
object  ; ” and  let  her  say  this  in  a manner  which,  while  it  in- 
creases the  obligation,  will  divest  it  altogether  of  impropriety, 
from  having  been  conferred  under  the  sanction  of  her  parents. 

We  have  now  reached  that  stage  in  the  progress  of  the 
Courtship,  where  budding  affection,  having  developed  into 
mature  growth,  encourages  the  lover  to  make 


It  would  be  well  also  for  the  suitor,  on  his  part,  during  thu? 
first  few  weeks  of  courtship,  carefully  to  observe  the  conduct 
of  the  young  lady  in  her  own  family,  and  the  degree  of  esti- 
mation in  which  she  is  held  by  them,  as  well  as  among  her 
intimate  friends.  If  she  be  attentive  to  her  duties ; respectful 
and  affectionate  to  her  parents  ; kind  and  forbearing  to  her 
brothers  and  sisters  ; not  easily  ruffled  in  temper  ; if  her  mind 
be  prone  to  cheerfulness  and  to  hopeful  aspiration,  instead  of 
to  the  display  of  a morbid  anxiety  and  dread  of  coming  evil  ; 
if  her  pleasures  and  enjoyments  be  those  which  chiefly  center 
in  home  ; if  her  words  be  characterized  by  benevolence,  good- 
will, and  charity : then  we  say,  let  him  not  hesitate,  but 
hasten  to  enshrine  so  precious  a gem  in  the  casket  of  his  affec- 
tions. But  if,  on  the  other  hand,  he  should  find  that  he  has 
been  attracted  by  the  tricksome  affectation  and  heartless  al- 
lurements of  a flirt,  ready  to  bestow  smiles  on  all,  but  with  a 
heart  for  none  ; if  she  who  has  succeeded  for  a time  in  fas- 
cinating him  be  of  uneven  temper,  easily  provoked,  and  slow 
to  be  appeased  ; fond  of  showy  dress,  and  eager  for  admira- 
tion ; ecstatic  about  trifles,  frivolous  in  her  tastes,  and  weak 
and  wavering  in  performing  her  duties  ; if  her  religious  ob- 
servances are  merely  the  formality  of  lip-service  ; if  she 
be  petulant  to  her  friends,  pert  and  disrespectful  to  her  par- 
ents, overbearing  to  her  inferiors  ; if  pride,  vanity,  and  affec- 
tation be  her  characteristics  ; if  she  be  inconstant  in  her 
friendships  ; gaudy  and  slovenly,  rather  than  neat  and  scru- 
pulously clean,  in  attire  and  personal  habits  ; then  we  counsel 
the  gentleman  to  retire  as  speedily,  but  as  politely,  as  possible 
from  the  pursuit  of  an  object  unworthy  of  his  admiration  and 
love ; nor  dread  that  the  lady’s  friends — who  must  know  her 
better  than  he  can  do — will  call  him  to  account  for  withdraw- 
ing from  the  field. 

But  we  will  take  it  for  granted  that  all  goes  on  well  ; that 
the  parties  are.  on  sufficient  acquaintance,  pleased  with  each 


THE  PROPOSAL. 


When  about  to  take  this  step,  the  suitor’s  first  difficulty  is 
how  to  get  a favorable  opportunity  ; and  next,  having  got  the 
chance,  how  to  screw  his  courage  up  to  give  utterance  to  the 
“declaration.”  A declaration  in  writing  should  certainly  be 
avoided  where  the  lover  can  by  any  possibility  get  at  the  lady’s 
ear.  But  there  are  cases  where  this  is  so  difficult  that  an  im- 
patient lover  cannot  be  restrained  from  adopting  the  agency 
of  a billet-doux  in  declaring  his  passion. 

The  lady,  before  proposal,  is  generally  prepared  for  it.  It 
is  seldom  that  such  an  avowal  comes  without  some  previous 
indications  of  look  and  manner  on  the  part  of  the  admirer 
which  can  hardly  fail  of  being  understood.  She  may  not,  in- 
deed, consider  herself  engaged;  and  although  nearly  certain  of 
the  conquest  she  has  made,  may  yet  have  her  misgivings. 
Some  gentlemen  dread  to  ask,  lest  they  should  be  refused. 
Many  pause  just  at  the  point,  and  refrain  from  anything  like 
ardor  in  their  professions  of  attachment  until  they  feel  confi- 
dent, that  they  may  be  spared  the  mortification  and  ridicule 
that  is  supposed  to  attach  to  being  rejected,  in  addition  to  the 
pain  of  disappointed  hope.  This  hesitation  when  the  mind  is 
made  up  is  wrong  ; but  it  does  often  occur,  and  we  suppose 
ever  will  do  so,  with  persons  of  great  timidity  of  character. 
By  it  both  parties  are  kept  needlessly  on  the  fret,  until  the 
long-looked-for  opportunity  unexpectedly  arrives,  when  the 
flood-gates  of  feeling  are  loosened,  and  the  full  tide  of  mutual 
affection  gushes  forth  uncontrolled.  It  is,  however,  at  this 
moment — the  agony-point  to  the  embarrassed  lover,  who 
“ doats  yet  doubts” — whose  suppressed  feelings  rendered  him 
morbidly  sensitive— that  a lady  should  be  especially  careful 
lest  any  show  of  either  prudery  or  coquetry  on  her  part  should 
lose  to  her  forever  the  object  of  her  choice.  True  love  is 
generally  delicate  and  timid,  and  may  easily  be  scared  by  af* 


ETIQUETTE  OF  COURTSHIP  AND  MATRIMONY. 


As 


fected  indifference,  through  feelings  of  wounded  pride.  A 
lover  needs  very  little  to  assure  him  of  the  reciprocation  of  his 
attachment  : a glance,  a single  pressure  of  the  hand,  a whis- 
pered syllable,  on  the  part  of  the  loved  one,  will  suffice  to  con- 
firm his  hopes, 

REFUSAL  BY  THE  YOUNG  LADY. 

When  a lady  rejects  the  proposal  of  a gentleman,  her 
behavior  should  be  characterized  by  the  most  delicate  feeling 
toward  sone  who,  in  offering  her  his  hand,  has  proved  his 
desire  to  confer  upon  her,  by  this  implied  preference  for  her 
above  all  other  women,  the  greatest  honor  it  is  in  his  power  to 
offer.  Therefore,  if  she  have  no  love  for  him,  she  ought  at 
least  to  evince  a tender  regard  for  his  feelings  ; and  in  the 
event  of  her  being  previously  engaged,  should  at  once  acquaint 
him  with  the  fact.  No  right-minded  man  would  desire  to 
persist  in  a suit,  when  he  well  knew  that  the  object  of  his 
admiration  had  already  disposed  of  her  heart. 

When  a gentleman  makes  an  offer  of  his  hand  by  letter,  the 
letter  must  be  answered,  and  certainly  not  returned,  should 
the  answer  be  a refusal ; unless,  indeed,  when  from  a previous 
repulse,  or  some  other  particular  and  special  circumstance, 
such  an  offer  may  be  regarded  by  the  lady  or  her  relatives  as 
presumptuous  and  intrusive.  Under  such  circumstances,  the 
letter  may  be  placed  by  the  lady  in  the  hands  of  her  parents 
or  guardian,  to  be  dealt  with  by  them  as  they  may  deem  most 
advisable. 

No  woman  of  proper  feeling  would  regard  her  rejection  of 
an  offer  of  marriage  from  a worthy  man  as  a matter  of  tri- 
umph ; her  feeling  on  such  an  occasion  should  be  one  of 
regretful  sympathy  with  him  for  the  pain  she  is  unavoidably 
compelled  to  inflict.  Nor  should  such  a rejection  be 
unaccompanied  with  some  degree  of  self-examination  on 
her  part,  to  discern  whether  any  lightness  of  demeanor  or 
tendency  to  flirtation  may  have  given  rise  to  a false  hope  of 
her  favoring  his  suit.  At  all  events,  no  lady  should  ever  treat 
the  man  who  has  so  honored  her  with  the  slightest  disrespect 
or  frivolous  disregard,  nor  ever  unfeelingly  parade  a more 
favored  suitor  before  one  whom  she  has  refused. 


CONDUCT  OF  THE  GENTLEMAN  WHEN  HIS 
ADDRESSES  ARE  REJECTED. 

The  conduct  of  the  gentleman  under  such  distressing  cir- 
cumstances should  be  characterized  by  extreme  delicacy  and  a 
chivalrous  resolve  to  avoid  occasioning  any  possible  annoyance 
or  uneasiness  to  the  fair  author  of  his  pain.  If,  however,  he 
should  have  reason  to  suppose  that  his  rejection  has  resulted 
from  mere  indifference  to  his  suit,  he  need  not  altogether 
retire  from  the  field,  but  may  endeavor  to  kindle  a feeling  of 
regard  and  sympathy  for  the  patient  endurance  of  his  disap- 
pointment, and  for  his  continued  but  respectful  endeavors  to 
please  the  lukewarm  fair  one.  But  in  case  of  avowed  or  evi- 
dent preference  for  another,  it  becomes  imperative  upon  him, 
as  a gentleman,  to  withdraw  at  once,  and  so  relieve  the  lady 
of  any  obstacle,  that  his  presence  or  pretensions  may  occasion, 
to  the  furtherance  of  her  obvious  wishes.  A pertinacious  con- 
tinuance of  his  attentions,  on  the  part  of  one  who  has  been 


%r— 


distinctly  rejected,  is  an  insult  deserving  of  the  severest  repro- 
bation. Although  the  weakness  of  her  sex,  which  ought  to 
be  her  protection,  frequently  prevents  a woman  from  forcibly 
breaking  off  an  acquaintance  thus  annoyingly  forced  upon  her, 
she  rarely  fails  to  resent  such  impertinence  by  that  sharpest  of 
woman’s  weapons,  a keen-edged  but  courteous  ridicule,  which 
few  men  can  bear  up  against. 

REFUSAL  BY  THE  LADY’S  PARENTS  OR 
GUARDIANS. 

It  may  happen  that  both  the  lady  and  her  suitor  are  willing, 
but  that  the  parents  or  guardians  of  the  former,  on  being  re- 
ferred to,  deem  the  connection  unfitting,  and  refuse  their  con- 
sent. In  this  state  of  matters,  the  first  thing  a man  of  sense, 
proper  feeling,  and  candor  should  do,  is  to  endeavor  to  learn 
the  objections  of  the  parents,  to  see  whether  they  cannot  be 
removed.  If  they  are  based  on  his  present  insufficiency  of 
means,  a lover  of  a persevering  spirit  may  effect  much  in 
removing  apprehension  on  that  score,  by  cheerfully  submit- 
ting to  a reasonable  time  of  probation,  in  the  hope  of  amelio- 
ration in  his  worldly  circumstances.  Happiness  delayed  will 
be  none  the  less  precious  when  love  has  stood  the  test  of  con- 
stancy and  the  trial  of  time.  Should  the  objection  be  founded 
on  inequality  of  social  position,  the  parties,  if  young,  may 
wait  until  matured  age  shall  ripen  their  judgment  and  place 
the  future  more  at  their  own  disposal.  A clandestine  mar. 
riage  should  be  peremptorily  declined.  In  too  many  cases  it 
is  a fraud  committed  by  an  elder  and  more  experienced  party 
upon  one  whose  ignorance  of  the  world’s  ways,  and  whose 
confiding  tenderness  appeal  to  him  for  protection  even  against 
himself.  In  nearly  all  the  instances  we  have  known  of  such 
marriages,  the  result  proved  the  step  to  have  been  ill-judged, 
imprudent,  and  highly  injurious  to  the  reputation  of  one 
party,  and  in  the  long  run  detrimental  to  the  happiness  of 
both. 

CONDUCT  OF  THE  ENGAGED  COUPLE. 

The  conduct  of  the  bridegroom-elect  should  be  marked  by  a 
gallant  and  affectionate  assiduity  towards  his  lady-love — a 
denouement  easily  felt  and  understood,  but  not  so  easy  to  de- 
fine. That  of  the  lady  towards  him  should  manifest  delicacy, 
tenderness,  and  confidence  : while  looking  for  his  thorough 
devotion  to  herself,  she  should  not  captiously  take  offense 
and  show  airs  at  his  showing  the  same  kind  of  attention  to 
other  ladies  as  she,  in  her  turn,  would  not  hesitate  to  receive 
from  the  other  sex. 

In  the  behavior  of  a gentleman  towards  his  betrothed  in 
public,  little  difference  should  be  perceptible  from  his 
demeanor  to  other  ladies,  except  in  those  minute  attentions 
which  none  but  those  who  love  can  properly  understand  or 
appreciate. 

In  private,  the  slightest  approach  to  indecorous  familiarity 
must  be  avoided  ; indeed  it  is  pretty  certain  to  be  resented  by 
every  woman  who  deserves  to  be  a bride.  The  lady’s  fionot 
is  now  in  her  lover’s  hands,  and  he  should  never  forget  in  his 
demeanor  to  and  before  her  that  that  lady  is  to  be  his  future 
wife. 

It  is  the  privilege  of  the  betrothed  lover,  as  it  is  also  his 

$ 


* 


ETIQUETTE  OF  COURTSHIP  AND  MATRIMONY. 


62 


duty,  to  give  advice  to  the  fair  one  who  now  implicitly  con- 
fides in  him.  Should  he  detect  a fault,  should  he  observe 
failings  which  he  would  wish  removed  or  amended,  let  him 
avail  himself  of  this  season,  so  favorable  for  the  frank  inter- 
change of  thought  between  the  betrothed  pair,  to  urge  their 
correction.  He  will  find  a ready  listener  ; and  any  judicious 
counsel  offered  to  her  by  him  will  now  be  gratefully  received, 
and  remembered  in  after  life.  After  marriage  it  may  be  too 
late  ; for  advice  on  trivial  points  of  conduct  may  then  not  im- 
probably be  resented  by  the  wife  as  an  unnecessary  interfer- 
ence ; now,  the  fair  and  loving  creature  is  disposed  like  pliant 
wax  in  his  hands  to  mold  herself  to  his  reasonable  wishes  in 
all  things. 

CONDUCT  OF  THE  LADY  DURING  HER 
BETROTHAL. 

A lady  is  net  expected  to  keep  aloof  from  society  on  her 
engagement,  nor  to  debar  herself  from  the  customary  atten- 
tions and  courtesies  of  her  male  acquaintances  generally  ; but 
she  should,  while  accepting  them  cheerfully,  maintain  such  a 
prudent  reserve,  as  to  intimate  that  they  are  viewed  by  her  as 
mere  acts  of  ordinary  courtesy  and  friendship.  In  all  places  of 
public  amusement — at  balls,  the  opera,  etc. — for  a lady  to  be 
seen  with  any  other  cavalier  than  her  avowed  lover,  in  close 
attendance  upon  her,  would  expose  her  to  the  imputation  of 
flirtation.  She  will  naturally  take  pains  at  such  a period  to 
observe  the  taste  of  her  lover  in  regard  to  her  costume,  and 
strive  carefully  to  follow  it,  for  all  men  desire  to  have  their  taste 
and  wishes  on  such  apparent  trifles  gratified.  She  should  at  the 
same  time  observe  much  delicacy  in  regard  to  dress,  and  be 
careful  to  avoid  any  unseemly  display  of  her  charms  ; lovers 
are  naturally  jealous  of  observation  under  such  circumstances. 
It  is  a mistake  not  seldom  made  by  women,  to  suppose  their 
Euitors  will  be  pleased  by  the  glowing  admiration  expressed  by 
other  men  for  the  object  of  their  passion.  Most  lovers,  on 
the  contrary,  we  believe,  wonld  prefer  to  withdraw  their  prize 
from  general  observation  until  the  happy  moment  for  their 
union  has  arrived. 

CONDUCT  OF  THE  GENTLEMAN  TOWARDS 
THE  FAMILY  OF  HIS  BETROTHED. 

The  lover,  having  now  secured  his  position,  should  use  dis- 
cretion and  tact  in  his  intercourse  with  the  lady’s  family,  and 
take  care  that  his  visits  be  not  deemed  too  frequent — so  as  to 
be  really  inconvenient  to  them.  He  should  accommodate 
himself  as  much  as  possible  to  their  habits  and  ways,  and  be 
ever  ready  and  attentive  to  consult  their  wishes.  Marked 
attention,  and  in  most  cases  affectionate  kindness,  to  the 
lady’s  mother  ought  to  be  shown  ; such  respectful  homage 
will  secure  for  him  many  advantages  in  his  present  position. 
He  must  not,  however,  presume  to  take  his  stand  yet  as  a 
member  of  the  family,  nor  exhibit  an  obtrusive  familiarity  in 
manner  and  conversation.  Should  a disruption  of  the  engage- 
ment from  some  unexpected  cause  ensue,  it  is  obvious  that 
any  such  premature  assumption  would  lead  to  very  embarras- 
sing results.  In  short,  his  conduct  should  be  such  as  to  win 
for  himself  the  esteem  and  affection  of  all  the  family,  and  dis- 


pose them  ever  to  welcome  and  desire  his  presence,  rather 
than  regard  him  as  an  intruder. 

CONDUCT  OF  THE  LADY  ON  RETIRING 
FROM  HER  ENGAGEMENT. 

Should  this  step  unhappily  be  found  necessary  on  the  lady’s 
part,  the  truth  should  be  spoken,  and  the  reasons  frankly 
given  ; there  must  be  no  room  left  for  the  suspicion  of  its 
having  originated  in  caprice  or  injustice.  The  case  should 
be  so  put  that  the  gentleman  himself  must  see  and  acknowl- 
edge the  justice  of  the  painful  decision  arrived  at.  Incom- 
patible habits,  ungentlemanly  actions,  anything  tending  to 
diminish  that  respect  for  the  lover  which  should  be  felt  for 
the  husband  ; inconstancy,  ill-governed  temper — all  of  which, 
not  to  mention  other  obvious  objections — are  to  be  considered 
as  sufficient  reasons  for  terminating  an  engagement.  The 
communication  should  be  made  as  tenderly  as  possible  ; room 
may  be  left  in  mere  venial  cases  for  reformation  ; but  all  that 
is  done  must  be  so  managed  that  not  the  slightest  shadow  of 
fickleness  or  want  of  faith  may  rest  upon  the  character  of  the 
lady.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  termination 
of  an  engagement  by  a lady  has  the  privilege  of  passing 
unchallenged  ; a lady  not  being  bound  to  declare  any  other 
reason  than  her  will.  Nevertheless  she  owes  it  to  her  own 
reputation  that  her  decision  should  rest  on  a sufficient  founda- 
tion, and  be  unmistakeably  pronounced. 

CONDUCT  OF  THE  GENTLEMAN  ON  RE- 
TIRING FROM  HIS  ENGAGEMENT. 

We  hardly  know  how  to  approach  this  portion  of  our  sub- 
ject. The  reasons  must  be  strong  indeed  that  can  sufficiently 
justify  a man,  placed  in  the  position  of  an  accepted  suitor,  in 
severing  the  ties  by  which  he  has  bound  himself  to  a lady  with 
the  avowed  intention  of  making  her  his  wife.  His  reasons  for 
breaking  off  his  engagement  must  be  such  as  will  not  merely 
satisfy  his  own  conscience,  but  will  justify  him  in  the  eyes  of 
the  world.  If  the  fault  be  on  the  lady’s  side,  great  reserve 
and  delicacy  will  be  observed  by  any  man  of  honor.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  imperative  force  of  circumstances,  such  as 
loss  of  fortune,  or  some  other  unexpected  calamity  to  himself, 
may  be  the  cause,  then  must  the  reason  be  clearly  and  fully 
explained,  in  such  a manner  as  to  soothe  the  painful  feelings 
which  such  a result  must  necessarily  occasion  to  the  lady  and 
her  friends.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  point  out  the  necessity 
for  observing  great  caution  in  all  that  relates  to  the  ante- 
cedents of  an  engagement  that  has  been  broken  off  ; especially 
the  return  on  either  side  of  presents  and  of  all  letters  that 
have  passed. 

This  last  allusion  brings  us  to  the  consideration  of 

CORRESPONDENCE. 

Letter-writing  is  one  great  test  of  ability  and  cultivation,  as 
respects  both  sexes.  The  imperfections  of  education  may  be 
to  some  extent  concealed  or  glossed  over  in  conversation,  but 
cannot  fail  to  stand  out  conspicuously  in  a letter.  An  ill- 
written  letter  infallibly  betrays  the  vulgarity  and  ignorance 
indicative  of  a mean  social  position. 


622 


ETIQUETTE  OF  COURTSHIP  AND  MATRIMONY. 


But  there  is  something  more  to  be  guarded  against  than 
even  bad  writing  and  worse  spelling  in  a correspondence  : 
saying  too  ?nuch — writing  that  kind  of  matter  which  will  not 
bear  to  be  read  by  other  eyes  than  those  for  which  it  was 
originally  intended.  That  this  is  too  frequently  done  is  amply 
proved  by  the  love  letters  often  read  in  a court  of  law,  the 
most  affecting  passages  from  which  occasion  “ roars  of  laugh- 
ter” and  the  derisive  comments  of  merry-making  counsel. 
Occurrences  of  this  kind  prove  how  frequently  letters  are  not 
returned  or  burned  when  an  affair  of  the  heart  is  broken  off. 
Correspondence  between  lovers  should  at  all  events  be  tem- 
pered with  discretion  ; and  on  the  lady’s  part  particularly,  her 
affectionate  expressions  should  not  degenerate  into  a silly 
style  of  fondness. 

It  is  as  well  to  remark  here,  that  in  correspondence  between 
a couple  not  actually  engaged,  the  use  of  Christian  names  in 
addressing  each  other  should  be  avoided. 

DEMEANOR  OF  THE  SUITOR  DURING 
COURTSHIP. 

The  manners  of  a gentleman  are  ever  characterized  by  ur- 
banity and  a becoming  consideration  for  the  feelings  and 
wishes  of  others,  and  by  a readiness  to  practice  self-denial.  But 
the  very  nature  of  courtship  requires  the  fullest  exercise  of  these 
excellent  qualities  on  his  part.  The  lover  should  carefully  ac- 
commodate his  tone  and  bearing,  whether  cheerful  or  serious, 
to  the  mood  for  the  time  of  his  lady-love,  whose  slightest  wish 
must  be  his  law.  In  his  assiduities  to  her  he  must  allow  of 
no  stint ; though  hindered  by  time,  distance,  or  fatigue,  he 
must  strive  to  make  his  professional  and  social  duties  bend  to 
his  homage  at  the  shrine  of  love.  All  this  can  be  done, 
moreover,  by  a man  of  excellent  sense  with  perfect  pro- 
priety. Indeed,  the  world  will  not  only  commend  him  for 
such  devoted  gallantry,  but  will  be  pretty  sure  to  censure  him 
for  any  short-coming  in  his  performance  of  such  devoirs. 

It  is,  perhaps,  needless  to  observe  that  at  such  a period  a 
gentleman  should  be  scrupulously  neat,  without  appearing  par- 
ticular, in  his  attire.  We  shall  not  attempt  to  prescribe  what 
he  should  wear,  as  that  must,  of  course,  depend  on  the  times 
of  the  day  when  his  visits  are  paid,  and  other  circumstances, 
such  as  meeting  a party  of  friends,  going  to  the  theater,  etc., 
with  the  lady. 

SHOULD  A COURTSHIP  BE  SHORT  OR  LONG? 

The  answer  to  this  question  must  depend  on  the  previous 
acquaintanceship,  connection,  or  relationship  of  the  parties, 
as  well  as  on  their  present  circumstances,  and  the  position  of 
their  parents.  In  case  of  relationship  or  old  acquaintance- 
ship subsisting  between  the  families,  when  the  courtship,  decla- 
ration, and  engagement  have  followed  each  other  rapidly,  a 
short  wooing  is  preferable  to  a long  one,  should  other  circum- 
stances not  create  an  obstacle.  Indeed,  as  a general  rule,  we 
are  disposed  strongly  to  recommend  a short  courtship.  A 
man  is  never  well  settled  in  the  saddle  of  his  fortunes  until 
he  be  married.  He  wants  spring,  purpose,  and  aim  ; and, 
above  all,  he  wants  a home  as  the  center  ef  his  efforts.  Some 
portion  of  inconvenience,  therefore,  may  be  risked  to  obtain 
this  ; in  fact,  it  often  oocurs  that  by  waiting  too  long  the 


freshness  of  life  is  worn  off,  and  that  the  generous  glow  of 
early  feelings  becomes  tamed  down  to  lukewarmness  by  a too 
prudent  delaying  ; while  a slight  sacrifice  of  ambition  or  self- 
indulgence  on  the  part  of  the  gentleman,  and  a little  descent 
from  pride  of  station  on  the  lady’s  side,  might  have  insured 
years  of  satisfied  love  and  happy  wedded  life. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  would  recommend  a long  courtship  as 
advisable  when — the  friends  on  both  sides  favoring  the  match 
— it  happens  that  the  fortune  of  neither  party  will  prudently 
allow  an  immediate  marriage.  The  gentleman,  we  will  sup- 
pose, has  his  way  to  make  in  his  profession  or  business,  and  is 
desirous  not  to  involve  the  object  of  his  affection  in  the  dis- 
tressing inconvenience,  if  not  the  misery,  of  straitened  means. 
He  reflects  that  for  a lady  it  is  an  actual  degradation,  how- 
ever love  may  ennoble  the  motive  of  her  submission,  to  de- 
scend from  her  former  footing  in  society.  He  feels,  therefore, 
that  this  risk  ought  not  to  be  incurred.  For,  although  the 
noble  and  loving  spirit  of  a wife  might  enable  her  to  bear  up 
cheerfully  against  misfortune,  and  by  her  endearments  soothe 
the  broken  spirit  of  her  husband  ; yet  the  lover  who  would 
willfully,  at  the  outset  of  wedded  life,  expose  his  devoted 
helpmate  to  the  ordeal  of  poverty,  would  be  deservedly 
scouted  as  selfish  and  unworthy.  These,  then,  are  among  the 
circumstances  which  warrant  a lengthened  engagement,  and  it 
should  be  the  endeavor  of  the  lady’s  friends  to  approve  such 
cautious  delay,  and  do  all  they  can  to  assist  the  lover  in  his 
efforts  to  abridge  it.  The  lady’s  father  should  regard  the 
lover  in  the  light  of  another  son  added  to  his  family,  and 
spare  no  pains  to  promote  his  interests  in  life,  while  the  lady’s 
mother  should  do  everything  in  her  power,  by  those  small 
attentions  which  a mother  understands  so  well,  to  make  the 
protracted  engagement  agreeable  to  him,  and  as  endurable  as 
possible  to  her  daughter. 

PRELIMINARY  ETIQUETTE  OF  A WEDDING. 

Whether  the  term  of  courtship  may  have  been  long  or  short 
— according  to  the  requirements  of  the  case — the  time  will  at 
last  arrive  for 

FIXING  THE  DAY. 

While  it  is  the  gentleman’s  province  to  press  for  the.  earliest 
possible  opportunity,  it  is  the  lady’s  privilege  to  name  the 
happy  day  ; not  but  that  the  bridegroom-elect  must,  after  all, 
issue  the  fiat,  for  he  has  much  to  consider  and  prepare  for 
beforehand  : for  instance,  to  settle  where  it  will  be  most  con- 
venient to  spend  the  honeymoon — a point  which  must  depend 
on  the  season  of  the  year,  on  his  own  vocation,  and  other 
circumstances.  At  this  advanced  state  of  affairs,  we  must  net 
overlook  the  important  question  of 

THE  BRIDAL  TROUSSEAU  AND  THE  WED- 
DING PRESENTS. 

Wedding  presents  must  be  sent  always  to  the  hide,  never 
to  the  bridegroom,  though  they  be  given  by  friends  of  the 
latter.  They  should  be  sent  during  the  week  previous  to  the 
wedding  day,  as  it  is  customary  to  display  them  before  the 
ceremony. 

Two  cards  folded  in  the  invitation  in  the  envelope  are  sent 


ETIQUETTE  OF  COURTSHIP  AND  MATRIMONY. 


023 


with  the  wedding  invitation.  The  invitation  is  in  the  name 
of  the  bride’s  mother,  or,  if  she  is  not  living,  the  relative  or 
friend  nearest  the  bride  : 

MRS.  NICHOLAS  RUTH 

AT  HOME, 

Tuesday,  November  18 th, 

FROM  II  TILL  2 O’CLOCK. 

No.  86  W.  47TH  Street. 

The  two  cards,  one  large  and  one  small,  are  folded  in  this 
invitation.  Upon  the  large  card  is  engraved  : 

MR.  and  MRS.  W.  F.  JOHNSON 

On  the  smaller  one  : 

MISS  ROSIE  RUTH. 

If  the  young  people  " receive  ” after  their  return  from  the 
bridal  tour,  and  there  is  no  wedding-day  reception,  the  follow- 
ing card  is  sent  out : 

MR.  and  MRS.  W.  F.  JOHNSON 

AT  HOME, 

Thursday,  December  2°'h, 

FROM  II  TILL  2 O’CLOCK, 

No.  50  E.  63D  Street. 

Or, 

MR.  and  MRS.  W.  F.  JOHNSON 

AT  HOME, 

Thursdays  in  December. 

FROM  II  TILL  2 O’CLOCK. 

No.  50  E.  63D  Street. 


The  bridal  calls  are  not  expected  to  be  returned  until  the 
last  day  of  reception. 

The  bridegroom  gives  to  the  first  groomsman  the  control  of 
the  ceremony  and  money  for  the  necessary  expenses.  The 
first  groomsman  presents  the  bouquet  to  the  bride,  leads  the 
visitors  up  to  the  young  couple  for  the  words  of  congratula- 
tion, gives  the  clergyman  his  fee,  engages  the  carriages,  se- 
cures tickets,  checks  baggage,  secures  pleasant  seats,  if  the 
happy  pair  start  by  rail  for  the  “ moon  ; ” and,  in  short,  makes 
all  arrangements. 

If  the  wedding  takes  place  in  church,  the  front  seats  in  the 
body  of  the  church  are  reserved  for  the  relatives  of  the  young 
couple.  The  bride  must  not  be  kept  waiting.  The  clergy- 
man should  be  within  the  rails,  the  bridegroom  and  grooms- 
men should  be  in  the  vestry-room  by  the  time  the  bride  is  due 
at  the  church.  The  bridesmaids  should  receive  the  bride  in 
the  vestibule. 

The  bridal  party  meet  in  the  vestry-room.  Then  the  bride, 
leaning  on  the  arm  of  her  father,  leads  the  procession  ; the 
bridegroom,  with  the  bride’s  mother  upon  his  arm,  follows  ; 
then  groomsmen  and  bridesmaids  in  couples  follow. 


S3& 


At  the  altar  the  bridegroom  receives  the  bride,  and  the  cere* 
mony  begins.  The  groomsmen  stand  behind  the  bridegroom, 
the  bridesmaids  behind  the  bride.  In  some  churches,  the 
bride  and  bridegroom  remove  the  right  hand  glove  ; in  others 
it  is  not  considered  essential.  The  bride  stands  on  the  left  of 
the  groom. 

When  the  wedding  takes  place  at  the  house  of  the  bride, 
the  bridal  party  is  grouped  behind  folding  doors  or  curtaini 
ere  their  friends  see  them.  If,  however,  this  is  not  convenient, 
they  enter  in  the  same  order  as  in  church. 

The  first  bridesmaid  removes  the  bride’s  left  hand  glove 
for  the  ring. 

After  the  ceremony  the  bride  and  groom  go  in  the  same 
carriage  from  the  church  to  the  house,  or  from  the  house  to 
the  railway  depot  or  boat. 

The  bride  does  not  change  her  dress  until  she  assumes  her 
traveling  dress.  Her  wedding  gown  is  worn  at  the  breakfast. 

Friends  of  the  family  should  call  upon  the  mother  of  the 
bride  during  the  two  weeks  after  the  wedding. 

Mourning  must  not  be  worn  at  a wedding.  Even  in  the 
case  of  a widowed  mother  to  either  of  the  happy  pair,  it  is 
customary  to  wear  gray,  or  some  neutral  tint. 

It  is  no  longer  the  fashion  at  a wedding  or  wedding  recep- 
tion to  congratulate  the  bride  ; it  is  the  bridegroom  who 
receives  congratulations  ; the  bride  wishes  for  her  future  hap- 
piness. The  bride  is  spoken  to  first. 

The  day  being  fixed  for  the  wedding,  the  bride’s  father  now 
presents  her  with  a sum  of  money  for  her  trousseau,  according 
to  her  rank  in  life.  A few  days  previously  to  the  wedding, 
presents  are  also  made  to  the  bride  by  relations  and  intimate 
friends,  varying  in  amount  and  value  according  to  their  de- 
grees of  relationship  and  friendship — such  as  plate,  furniture, 
jewelry,  and  articles  of  ornament,  as  well. as  of  utility,  to  the 
newly-married  lady  in  her  future  station.  These,  together 
with  her  wedding  dresses,  etc.,  it  is  customary  to  exhibit  to 
the  intimate  friends  of  the  bride  a day  or  two  before  her  mar- 
riage. 

DUTY  OF  A BRIDEGROOM-ELECT. 

The  bridegroom-elect  has,  on  the  eve  of  matrimony,  no 
little  business  to  transact.  His  first  care  is  to  look  after  a 
house  suitable  for  his  future  home,  and  then,  assisted  by  the 
taste  of  his  chosen  helpmate,  to  take  steps  to  furnish  it  in  a 
becoming  style.  He  must  also,  if  engaged  in  business,  make 
arrangements  for  a month’s  absence  ; in  fact,  bring  together 
all  matters  into  a focus,  so  as  to  be  readily  manageable  when, 
after  the  honeymoon,  he  shall  take  the  reins  himself.  He 
will  do  well  to  burn  most  of  his  bachelor  letters,  and  to  part 
with,  it  may  be,  some  few  of  his  bachelor  connections  ; and 
he  should  communicate,  in  an  easy,  informal  way,  to  his  ac- 
quaintances generally,  the  close  approach  of  so  important  a 
change  in  his  condition.  Not  to  do  this  might  hereafter  lead 
to  inconvenience  and  cause  no  little  annoyance. 

We  must  now  speak  of 

BUYING  THE  RING. 

It  is  the  gentleman’s  business  to  buy  the  ring ; and  let  him 
take  special  care  not  to  forget  it;  for  such  an  awkward  mistake 
has  frequently  happened.  The  ring  should  be,  we  need 


|C24 


ETIQUETTE  OF  COURTSHIP  AND  MATRIMONY. 


scarcely  say,  of  the  very  purest  gold,  but  substantial.  There 
are  three  reasons  for  this  : first,  that  it  may  not  break — a 
source  of  great  trouble  to  the  young  wife  ; secondly,  that  it 
may  not  slip  off  the  finger  without  being  missed — few  hus- 
bands being  pleased  to  hear  that  their  wives  have  lost  their 
wedding  rings  ; and  thirdly,  that  it  may  last  out  the  lifetime 
of  the  loving  recipient,  even  should  that  life  be  protracted  to 
the  extreme  extent.  To  get  the  right  size  required  is  not  one 
of  the  least  interesting  of  the  delicate  mysteries  of  love.  A 
not  unusual  method  is  to  get  a sister  of  the  fair  one  to  lend  one  of 
the  lady’s  rings  to  enable  the  jeweler  to  select  the  proper  size. 
Care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  it  is  not  too  large.  Some 
audacious  suitors,  rendered  bold  by  their  favored  position,  have 
been  even  known  presumptuously  to  try  the  ring  on  the 
patient  finger  of  the  bride  elect  ; and  it  has  rarely  happened  in 
such  cases  that  the  ring  has  been  refused,  or  sent  back  to  be 
changed. 

WHO  SHOULD  BE  ASKED  TO  THE  WEDDING. 

The  wedding  should  take  place  at  the  house  of  the  bride’s 
parents  or  guardians.  The  parties  who  ought  to  be  asked  are 
the  father  and  mother  of  the  gentleman,  the  brothers  and  sis- 
ters (their  wives  and  husbands  also,  if  married),  and  indeed 
the  immediate  relations  and  favored  friends  of  both  parties. 
Old  family  friends  on  the  bride’s  side  should  also  receive  invi- 
tations— the  rationale  or  original  intention  of  this  wedding 
assemblage  being  to  give  publicity  to  the  fact  that  the  bride  is 
leaving  her  paternal  home  with  the  consent  and  approbation 
of  her  parents. 

On  this  occasion  the  bridegroom  has  the  privilege  of  asking 
any  friends  he  may  choose  to  the  wedding ; but  no  friend  has 
a right  to  feel  affronted  at  not  being  invited,  since,  were  all 
the  friends  on  either  side  assembled,  the  wedding  breakfast 
would  be  an  inconveniently  crowded  reception  rather  than 
an  impressive  ceremonial.  It  is,  however,  considered  a matter 
of  friendly  attention  on  the  part  of  those  who  cannot  be  in- 
vited, to  be  present  at  the  ceremony  in  the  church. 

WHO  SHOULD  BE  BRIDESMAIDS. 

The  bridesmaids  should  include  the  unmarried  sisters  of  the 
bride  ; but  it  is  considered  an  anomaly  for  an  elder  sister  to 
perform  this  function.  The  pleasing  novelty  for  several  years 
past  of  an  addition  to  the  number  of  bridesmaids,  varying 
from  two  to  eight,  and  sometimes  more,  has  added  greatly 
to  the  interest  in  weddings,  the  bride  being  thus  enabled  to 
diffuse  a portion  of  her  own  happiness  among  the  most  inti- 
mate of  her  younger  friends.  One  lady  is  always  appointed 
principal  bridesmaid,  and  has  the  bride  in  her  charge  ; it  is 
also  her  duty  to  take  care  that  the  other  bridesmaids  have  the 
wedding  favors  in  readiness.  On  the  second  bridesmaid  de- 
volves, with  her  principal,  the  duty  of  sending  out  the  cards  ; 
and  on  the  third  bridesmaid,  in  conjunction  with  the  remain- 
ing beauties  of  her  choir,  the  onerous  office  of  attending  to 
certain  ministrations  and  mysteries  connected  with  the  wed- 
ding cake. 

OF  THE  BRIDEGROOMSMEN. 

It  behooves  a bridegroom  to  be  exceedingly  particular  in  the 


selection  of  the  friends  who,  as  groomsmen,  are  to  be  his  com. 
panions  and  assistants  on  the  occasion  of  his  wedding.  Their 
number  is  limited  to  that  of  the  bridesmaids  ; one  for  each. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  add  that  very  much  of  the  social  pleasure 
of  the  day  will  depend  on  their  proper  mating.  Young  and 
unmarried  they  must  be,  handsome  they  should  be,  good- 
humored  they  cannot  fail  to  be,  well  dressed  they  will  of 
course  take  good  care  to  be.  Let  the  bridegroom  diligently 
con  over  his  circle  of  friends,  and  select  the  comeliest  and  the 
pleasantest  fellows  for  his  own  train.  The  principal  bride- 
groomsman,  styled  his  “best  man,”  has,  for  the  day,  the 
special  charge  of  the  bridegroom  ; and  the  last  warning  we 
would  give  him  is,  to  take  care  that,  when  the  bridegroom 
puts  on  his  wedding  waistcoat,  he  does  not  omit  to  put  the 
wedding  ring  into  the  corner  of  the  left-hand  pocket.  The 
dress  of  a groomsman  should  be  light  and  elegant ; a dress 
coat,  formerly  considered  indispensable,  is  no  longer  adopted. 

ETIQUETTE  OF  A WEDDING. 

The  parties  being  assembled  on  the  wedding  morning  in  the 
drawing-room  of  the  residence  of  the  bride’s  father  (unless;  as 
sometimes  happens,  the  breakfast  is  spread  in  that  room),  the 
happy  cortege  should  proceed  to  the  church  in  the  following 
order ; — 

In  the  first  carriage,  the  bride’s  mother  and  the  parents  of 
the  bridegroom. 

In  the  second  and  third  carriages,  bridesmaids. 

Other  carriages  with  the  bride’s  friends. 

In  the  last  carriage,  the  bride  and  her  father. 

COSTUME  OF  THE  BRIDE. 

A bride’s  costume  should  be  white,  or  some  hue  as  close  as 
possible  to  it. 

COSTUME  OF  THE  BRIDEGROOM. 

Formerly  it  was  not  considered  to  be  in  good  taste  for  a 
gentleman  to  be  married  in  a black  coat.  More  latitude  is 
now  allowed  in  the  costume  of  a bridegroom,  the  style  now 
adopted  being  what  is  termed  morning  dress  : a frock  coat, 
light  trowsers,  white  waistcoat,  ornamental  tie,  and  white  or 
gray  gloves. 

THE  MARRIAGE  CEREMONY. 

The  bridegroom  stands  at  the  right  hand  of  the  bride.  The 
father  stands  just  behind  her,  so  as  to  be  in  readiness  to  give  her 
hand  at  the  proper  moment  to  the  bridegroom.  The  principal 
bridesmaid  stands  on  the  left  of  the  bride,  ready  to  take  off 
the  bride’s  glove,  which  she  keeps  as  a perquisite  and  prize  of 
her  office. 

THE  WORDS  “I  WILL” 

are  to  be  pronounced  distinctly  and  audibly  by  both  parties, 
such  being  the  all-important  part  of  the  ceremony  as  respects 
themselves  : the  public  delivery,  before  the  priest,  by  the 
father  of  his  daughter  to  the  bridegroom,  being  an  evi- 
dence of  his  assent ; the  silence  which  follows  the  inquiry  for 
“ cause  or  just  impediment  ” testifying  that  of  society  in  gen- 
eral ; and  the  “ I will  ” being  the  declaration  of  the  bride  and 


ETIQUETTE  OF  COURTSHIP  AND  MATRIMONY. 


r 


625 


bridegroom  that  they  are  voluntary  parties  to  their  holy  union 
in  marriage. 

THE  WORDS  “HONOR  AND  OBEY” 

must  also  be  distinctly  spoken  by  the  bride.  They  constitute 
an  essential  part  of  the  obligation  and  contract  of  matrimony 
on  her  part. 

AFTER  THE  CEREMONY 

the  clergyman  usually  shakes  hands  with  the  bride  and  bride- 
groom, and  the  bride’s  father  and  mother,  and  a general  con- 
gratulation ensues. 

THE  RETURN  HOME. 

The  bridegroom  now  leads  the  bride  out  of  the  church,  and 
the  happy  pair  return  homeward  in  the  first  carriage.  The 
father  and  mother  follow  in  the  next.  The  rest  “ stand  not 
on  the  order  of  their  going,”  but  start  off  in  such  wise  as  they 
can  best  contrive. 

THE  WEDDING  BREAKFAST. 

The  bride  and  bridegroom  sit  together  at  the  center  of  the 
table,  in  front  of  the  wedding  cake,  the  clergyman  who  per- 
formed the  ceremony  taking  his  place  opposite  to  them.  The 
top  and  bottom  of  the  table  are  occupied  by  the  father  and 
mother  of  the  bride.  The  principal  bridesmaid  sits  to  the  left 
of  the  bride,  and  the  principal  bridegroomsman  on  the  left  of 
the  bridegroom.  It  may  not  be  unnecessary  to  say  that  it  is 
customary  for  the  ladies  to  wear  their  bonnets  just  as  they 
came  from  the  church.  The  bridesmaids  cut  the  cake  into 
small  pieces,  which  are  not  eaten  until  the  health  of  the  bride 
is  proposed.  This  is  usually  done  by  the  officiating  clergy- 
man, or  by  an  old  and  cherished  friend  of  the  family  of  the 
bridegroom,  't'he  bridegroom  returns  thanks  for  the  bride 
and  for  himself.  The  health  of  the  bride’s  parents  is  then 
proposed,  and  is  followed  by  those  of  the  principal  personages 
present,  the  toast  of  the  bridesmaids  being  generally  one  of 
the  pleasantest  features  of  the  festal  ceremony.  After  about 
two  hours,  the  principal  bridesmaid  leads  the  bride  out  of  the 
room  as  quietly  as  possible,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  party  or 
attract  attention.  Shortly  after — it  may  be  in  about  ten  min- 
utes— the  absence  of  the  bride  being  noticed,  the  rest  of  the 
ladies  retire.  Then  it  is  that  the  bridegroom  has  a few  melan- 
choly moments  t«  bid  adieu  tohis  bachelor  friends,  and  he  then 
generally  receives  some  hints  on  the  subject  in  a short  address 
from  one  of  them,  to  which  he  is  of  course  expected  to  re- 
spond. ■ He  then  withdraws  for  a few  moments,  and  returns 
after  having  made  a slight  addition  to  his  toilet,  in  readiness 
for  traveling. 


DEPARTURE  FOR  THE  HONEYMOON. 


The  young  bride,  divested  of  her  bridal  attire,  and  quietly 
costumed  for  the  journey,  now  bids  farewell  to  her  bridesmaids 
and  lady  friends.  A few  tears  spring  to  her  gentle  eyes  as  she 
takes  a last  look  at  the  home  she  is  now  leaving.  The  ser- 
vants venture  to  crowd  about  her  with  their  humble  but  heart- 
felt congratulations  ; finally,  she  falls  weeping  on  her  mother's 
bosom.  A short  cough  is  heard,  as  of  some  one  summoning 


up  resolution  to  hide  emotion.  It  is  her  father.  He  dares 
not  trust  his  voice  ; but  holds  out  his  hand,  gives  her  an  af- 
fectionate kiss,  and  then  leads  her,  half  turning  back,  down 
the  stairs  and  through  the  hall,  to  the  door,  where  he  delivers 
her  as  a precious  charge  to  her  husband,  who  hands  her  quickly 
into  the  carriage,  springs  in  after  her,  waves  his  hand  to  the 
party  who  appear  crowding  at  the  window,  half  smiles  at  the 
throng  about  the  door,  then,  amidst  a shower  of  old  slippers — 
missiles  of  good-luck  sent  flying  after  the  happy  pair — gives 
the  word,  and  they  are  off,  and  started  on  the  long-hoped-for 
voyage  ! 

PRACTICAL  ADVICE  TO  A NEWLY-MARRIED 
COUPLE. 

Our  advice  to  the  husband  will  be  brief.  Let  him  have  no 
concealments  from  his  wife,  but  remember  that  their  interests 
are  mutual  ; that,  as  she  must  suffer  the  pains  of  every  loss,  as 
well  as  share  the  advantages  of  every  success,  in  his  career  in 
life,  she  has  therefore  a right  to  know  the  risks  she  may  be 
made  to  undergo.  We  do  not  say  that  it  is  necessary,  or  ad- 
visable, or  even  fair,  to  harass  a wife’s  mind  with  the  details 
of  business  ; but  where  a change  of  circumstances — not  for  the 
better — is  anticipated  or  risked,  let  her  by  all  means  be  made 
acquainted  with  the  fact  in  good  time.  Many  a kind  husband 
almost  breaks  his  young  wife’s  fond  heart  by  an  alteration  in 
his  manner,  which  she  cannot  but  detect,  but  from  igno- 
rance of  the  cause  very  probably  attributes  to  a wrong  motive  ; 
while  he,  poor  fellow,  all  the  while  out  of  pure  tenderness,  is 
endeavoring  to  conceal  from  her  tidings — which  must  come  out 
at  last — of  ruined  hopes  or  failure  in  speculation  ; whereas, 
had  she  but  known  the  danger  beforehand,  she  would  have 
alleviated  his  fears  on  her  account,  and  by  cheerful  resignation 
have  taken  out  half  the  sting  of  his  disappointment.  Let  no 
man  think  lightly  of  the  opinion  of  his  wife  in  times  of  diffi- 
culty. Women  have  generally  more  acuteness  of  perception 
than  men  ; and  in  moments  of  peril,  or  in  circumstances  that 
involve  a crisis  or  turning-point  in  life,  they  have  usually  more 
resolution  and  greater  inslinctive  judgment. 

We  recommend  that  every  husband  from  the  first  should 
make  his  wife  an  allowance  for  ordinary  household  expenses  — 
which  he  should  pay  weekly  or  monthly  — and  for  the  expendi- 
ture of  which  he  should  not,  unless  for  some  urgent  reason, 
call  her  to  account.  A tolerably  sure  guide  in  estimating  the 
amount  of  this  item,  which  does  not  include  rent,  taxes,  ser- 
vants’ wages,  coals,  or  candles,  etc.,  is  to  remember  that  in  a 
small  middle-class  family,  not  exceeding  four , the  expense  of 
each  person  for  ordinary  food  amounts  to  fifteen  shillings 
weekly  ; beyond  that  number  to  ten  shillings  weekly  for  each 
extra  person,  servant  or  otherwise.  This  estimate  does  not, 
of  course,  provide  for  wine  or  food  of  a luxurious  kind.  The 
largest  establishment,  indeed,  may  be  safely  calculated  on  the 
same  scale. 

A wife  should  also  receive  a stated  allowance  for  dress, 
within  which  limit  she  ought  always  to  restrict  her  expenses. 
Any  excess  of  expenditure  under  this  head  should  be  left  to  the 
considerate  kindnesc  of  her  husband  to  concede.  Nothing  is 
more  contemptible  than  for  a woman  to  have  perpetually  to 
ask  her  husband  for  small  sums  for  housekeeping  expenses-' 


ETIQUETTE  OF  COURTSHIP  AND  MATRIMONY. 


* 


626 


nothing  more  annoying  and  humiliating  than  to  have  to  apply 
to  him  always  for  money  for  her  own  private  use — nothing 
more  disgusting  than  to  see  a man  “ molly-coddling  ” about 
marketing,  and  rummaging  about  for  cheap  articles  of  all 
kinds. 

Let  the  husband  beware,  when  things  go  wrong  with  him 
in  business  affairs,  of  venting  his  bitter  feelings  of  disappoint- 
ment and  despair  in  the  presence  of  his  wife  and  family  ; feel- 
ings which,  while  abroad,  he  finds  it  practicable  to  restrain. 
It  is  as  unjust  as  it  is  impolitic  to  indulge  in  such  a habit. 

A wife  having  married  the  man  she  loves  above  all  others, 
must  be  expected  in  her  turn  to  pay  some  court  to  him.  Be- 
fore marriage  she  has,  doubtless,  been  made  his  idol.  Every 
moment  he  could  spare,  and  perhaps  many  more  than  he  could 
properly  so  appropriate,  have  been  devoted  to  her.  How  anx- 
iously has  he  not  revolved  in  his  mind  his  worldly  chances 
of  making  her  happy  ! How  often  has  he  not  had  to  reflect, 
before  he  made  the  proposal  of  marriage,  whether  he  should 
be  acting  dishonorably  towards  her  by  incurring  the  risk,  for 
the  selfish  motive  of  his  own  gratification,  of  placing  her  in  a 
worse  position  than  the  one  she  occupied  at  home  ! And  still 
more  than  this,  he  must  have  had  to  consider  with  anxiety  the 
probability  of  having  to  provide  for  an  increasing  family,  with 
all  its  concomitant  expenses. 

We  say,  then,  that  being  married,  and  the  honeymoon  over, 
the  husband  must  necessarily  return  to  his  usual  occupations, 
which  will,  in  all  probability,  engage  the  greater  part  of  his 
thoughts,  for  he  will  now  be  desirous  to  have  it  in  his  power 
to  procure  various  little  indulgences  for  his  wife’s  sake  which 
he  never  would  have  dreamed  of  for  his  own.  He  comes  to 
his  home  weary  and  fatigued  ; his  young  wife  has  had  but  her 
pleasures  to  gratify,  or  the  quiet  routine  of  her  domestic  duties 
to  attend  to,  while  he  has  been  toiling  through  the  day  to 
enable  her  to  gratify  these  pleasures  and  to  fulfill  these  duties. 
Let,  then,  the  dear,  tired  husband,  at  the  close  of  his  daily 
labors,  be  made  welcome  by  the  endearments  of  his  loving 
spouse — let  him  be  free  from  the  care  of  having  to  satisfy  the 
caprices  of  a petted  wife.  Let  her  now  take  her  turn  in  pay- 
ing those  many  little  love-begotten  attentions  which  married 
men  look  for  to  soothe  them — let  her  reciprocate  that  devo- 
tion to  herself,  which,  from  the  early  hours  of  their  love,  he 
cherished  for  her,  by  her  ever-ready  endeavors  to  make  him 
happy  and  his  home  attractive. 

In  the  presence  of  other  persons,  however,  married  people 
should  refrain  from  fulsome  expressions  of  endearment  to  each 
other,  the  use  of  which,  although  a common  practice,  is  really 
a mark  of  bad  taste.  It  is  desirable  also  to  caution  them 
against  adopting  the  too  prevalent  vulgarism  of  calling  each 
other,  or  indeed  any  person  whatever,  merely  by  the  initial 
letter  of  their  surname. 

A married  woman  should  always  be  very  careful  how  she 
receives  personal  compliments.  She  should  never  court  them, 
nor  ever  feel  flattered  by  them,  whether  in  her  husband’s 
presence  or  not.  If  in  his  presence,  they  can  hardly  fail  to  be 
distasteful  to  him  ; if  in  his  absence,  a lady,  by  a dignified 
demeanor,  may  always  convince  an  assiduous  admirer  that  his 


attentions  are  not  well  received,  and  at  once  and  for  ever  stop 
all  familiar  advances.  In  case  ot  insult,  a wife  should  imme. 
diately  make  her  husband  acquainted  therewith  ; as  the  only 
chance  of  safety  to  a villain  lies  in  the  concealment  of  such 
things  by  a lady  from  dread  of  consequences  to  her  husband. 
From  that  moment  he  has  her  at  advantage,  and  may  very 
likely  work  on  deliberately  to  the  undermining  of  her  charac- 
ter. He  is  thus  enabled  to  play  upon  her  fears,  and  taunt  her 
with  their  mutual  secret  and  its  concealment,  until  she  may  be 
involved,  guilelessly,  in  a web  of  apparent  guilt,  from  which 
she  can  never  extricate  herself  without  risking  the  happiness 
of  her  future  life. 

Not  the  least  useful  piece  of  advice — homely  though  it  be — 
that  we  can  offer  to  newly-married  ladies,  is  to  remind  them 
that  husbands  are  men,  and  that  men  must  eat.  We  can  tell 
them,  moreover,  that  men  attach  no  small  importance  to  this 
very  essential  operation,  and  that  a very  effectual  way  to  keep 
them  in  good  humor,  as  well  as  good  condition,  is  for  wives  to 
study  their  husbands’  peculiar  likes  and  dislikes  in  this  matter 
Let  the  wife  try,  therefore,  if  she  have  not  already  done  so, 
to  get  up  a little  knowledge  of  the  art  of  ordering  dinner,  to 
say  the  least  of  it.  This  task,  if  she  be  disposed  to  learn  it, 
will  in  time  be  easy  enough  ; moreover,  if  in  addition  she 
should  acquire  some  practical  knowledge  of  cookery,  she  will 
find  ample  reward  in  the  gratification  it  will  be  the  means  of 
affording  her  husband. 

Servants  are  difficult  subjects  for  a young  wife  to  handle  ; 
she  generally  either  spoils  them  by  indulgence,  or  ruins  them 
by  finding  fault  unfairly.  At  last  they  either  get  the  better  of 
her,  or  she  is  voted  too  bad  for  them.  The  art  lies  in  steady 
command  and  management  of  yourself  as  well  as  them. 

An  observance  of  the  few  following  rules  will  in  all  proba- 
bility insure  a life  of  domestic  harmony,  peace,  and  comfort : — 

To  hear  as  little  as  possible  whatever  is  to  the  prejudice  of 
others  ; to  believe  nothing  of  the  kind  until  you  are  compelled 
to  admit  the  truth  of  it  ; never  to  take  part  in  the  circulation 
of  evil  report  and  idle  gossip  ; always  to  moderate,  as  far  as 
possible,  harsh  and  unkind  expressions  reflecting  upon  others  ; 
always  to  believe  that  if  the  other  side  were  heard,  a very 
different  account  might  be  given  of  the  matter. 

In  conclusion,  we  say  emphatically  to  the  newly-wedded 
wife,  that  attention  to  these  practical  hints  will  prolong  her 
honeymoon  throughout  the  whole  period  of  wedded  life,  and 
cause  her  husband,  as  each  year  adds  to  the  sum  of  his  happi- 
ness, to  bless  the  day  when  he  first  chose  her  as  the  nucleus 
round  which  he  might  consolidate  the  inestimable  blessings 
of  HOME. 

“ How  fair  is  home,  in  fancy’s  pictured  theme, 

In  wedded  life,  in  love’s  romantic  dream  ! 

Thence  springs  each  hope,  there  every  spring  returns. 

Pure  as  the  flame  that  upward,  heavenward  burns ; 

There  sits  the  wife,  whose  radiant  smile  is  given — 

The  daily  sun  of  the  domestic  heaven  ; 

And  when  calm  evening  sheds  a secret  power, 

Her  looks  of  love  imparadise  the  hour  ; 

While  children  round,  a beauteous  train,  appear, 

Attendant  stars,  revolving  in  her  sphere.” 

— Holland’s  Hopes  0/ Matrimony 


ETIQUETTE  OF  MOURNING. 


627 


Etiquette  of  JHotmtmg. 


g^’URING  times  of  health  and  happiness,  it  is  per- 
haps rather  trying  to  be  asked  to  turn  our 
thoughts  into  doleful  channels  ; but  sooner  or 
later  in  our  lives  the  sad  time  comes,  for  “ Who 
breathes  must  suffer,  and  who  thinks  must 
mourn,”  and  we  have  perforce  to  turn  our  minds 
to  the  inevitable  and  share  “ the  common  lot  of  man.” 
In  times  of  mourning  it  seems  doubly  hard  to  arouse 
ourselves,  and  allow  the  question  of  what  to  wear? 
to  intrude  itself.  It  is,  however,  necessary.  Custom  decrees,  if 
even  inclination  does  not  prompt  us,  to  show  in  some  outward 
degree  our  respect  for  the  dead  by  wearing  the  usual  black. 

We  do  not  advise  people  to  rush  into  black  for  every  slight 
bereavement,  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  to  show  the  utter  disre- 
gard some  do  on  the  death  of  their  relations,  and  only  acknowl- 
edge the  departure  of  those  near  and  dear  to  them,  by  a band 
of  crape  round  the  arm.  This  is  the  mark  of  mourning  adopted 
by  those  in  the  services  who  have  to  wear  uniform,  but  hardly 
a fitting  way  of  outwardly  showing  respect  to  the  memory  of 
those  who  have  been  called  away  from  us,  and  whose  loss  we 
deplore.  A short  time  since,  a lady  appeared  in  a new  ruby 
satin  dress,  with  a band  of  crape  around  her  arm.  The  fact 
of  the  dress  being  new,  showed  that  poverty  did  not  cause  this 
incongruity.  It  is  hardly  ever  those  who  are  styled  “ the  poor," 
who  err  so  against  the  accepted  ideas  of  decency  and  respect. 
They  always,  however  straitened  they  may  be  in  circumstances, 
contrive  to  wear  mourning  for  their  deceased  relatives.  When 
black  is  fashionable,  no  difficulty  is  found  in  wearing  it,  and 
you  meet  all  your  friends  so  attired,  but  when  it  becomes  a 
question  of  duty,  these  objections  are  raised  as  to  the  unneces- 
sary expense,  and  the  inconvenience  of  so  dressing.  The  ma- 
jority adhere  in  this  respect  to  the  customs  their  parents  have 
followed  ; but  the  advanced  few  are  those  who  air  such  senti- 
ments, talk  of  the  “ mourning  of  the  heart,  not  mere  outward 


woe,”  and  not  wearing  what  is  really  mourning,  go  into 
society  on  the  plea,  “ Oh  ! we  know  that  those  who  are 
gone  would  not  wish  us  to  grieve  for  them.”  This  may  be 
all  very  well,  but  in  the  case  of  husbands,  wives,  parents, 
brothers,  sisters,  aunts,  uncles,  and  the  nearer-related  cousins, 
decency 

requires  some  outward  mark  of  respect  to  their  memory. 

It  will  be  as  well  to  consider  in  succession  the  different  de 
grees  of  mourning,  and  their  duration. 

The  widow’s  is  the  deepest  mourning  of  all.  That  old- 
fashioned  material,  bombazine,  is  now  no  longer  heard  of. 
Paramatta  is  in  the  most  general  use  for  widows.  Barathea  is 
also  worn,  but  the  first-named  is  the  most  frequently  used  for 
the  first  dresses  ; but,  whatever  the  material,  it  is  hidden  by 
crape.  The  skirt,  which  is  generally  cut  quite  plain,  and 
slightly  trained,  is  completely  covered  with  crape, put  on  quite 
plainly  in  one  piece  ; the  body  and  sleeves  are  also  hidden 
with  crape — the  dress,  in  fact,  presenting  the  appearance  of 
one  of  crape.  The  body  can  be  cut  either  en  p>  incesse,  or  have 
a deep  jacket  bodice  ; but  whichever  is  preferred,  crape  should 
cover  it  completely. 

The  best  and  most  economical  crape  for  all  wear  is  the 
rainproof  crape,  an  improvement  and  development  of  the  Al- 
bert crape,  which  is  now  brought  to  the  gieatest  perfection  of 
manufacture  ; it  costs  about  half  what  ordinary  crape  does,  to 
begin  with,  and  is  very  much  more  durable  ; its  impervious- 
ness to  weather  being,  of  course,  its  great  feature.  The  best 
make  of  this  is  quite  suitable  for  widows’  mourning.  Its  ap- 
pearance equals  that  of  much  more  expensive  ordinary  crape. 
We  see  no  reason  ourselves  why,  especially  if  economy  be  an 
object,  the  rainproof  crape  should  not  be  worn  for  all  degrees 
of  mourning.  We  have  no  hesitation  in  advising  it.  For  a 
second  dress  it  would  be  a good  plan  to  have  some  half-worn 
black  dress  entirely  covered  with  crape — the  rainproof  crape— 


628 


ETIQUETTE  OF  MOURNING. 


this  would  save  the  better  dress  a little ; and  as  widows’  first 
mourning  is  worn  for  a year  and  a day,  it  would  be  advisable 
to  start  with  at  least  two  dresses;  the  crape  on  them  could  be 
renewed  when  necessary. 

Widows’  mantles  are  either  made  of  silk  or  Paramatta, 
trimmed  deeply  with  crape,  or  sometimes  of  Cyprus  crape 
cloth,  or  cloth  crape  trimmed.  The  Cyprus  crape  cloth  is  a 
sort  of  crepe  material,  and  wears  well,  neither  dust  nor  wet 
affecting  it.  In  shape,  the  widow’s  mantle  is  a dolman,  or  long 
cape  of  good  size  ; this  for  elderly  widows.  For  those  younger, 
jackets  or  paletots,  crape-trimmed  of  course,  are  worn  for  win- 
ter wear,  and  for  summer  mantles  made  entirely  of  crape. 
The  bonnet  for  first  mourning  is  all  of  crape,  with  widow’s  cap 
tacked  inside  it,  the  small,  close-fitting  shape,  with  long  crape 
veil  hanging  at  the  back  ; besides  this  veil,  a shorter  one  is 
worn  over  the  face.  Hats  cannot  be  worn  by  widows,  how- 
ever young  they  might  be,  during  the  period  of  their  deepest 
mourning. 

The  following  list  would  be  ample  for  a widow’s  outfit. 
We  have  given  rather  a large  one  because,  of  course,  it  can 
be  curtailed  as  wished. 

One  best  dress  of  Paramatta  covered  entirely  with  crape. 

One  dress,  either  a costume  of  Cyprus  crape,  or  an  old 
black  dress  covered  with  rainproof  crape. 

One  Paramatta  mantle  lined  with  silk  and  deeply  trimmed 
with  crape. 

One  warmer  jacket  of  cloth  lined,  trimmed  with  crape. 

One  bonnet  of  best  silk  crape,  with  long  veil. 

One  bonnet  of  rainproof  crape,  with  crape  veil. 

Twelve  collars  and  cuffs  of  muslin  or  lawn,  with  deep  hems. 
Several  sets  must  be  provided,  say  six  of  each  kind. 

One  black  stuff  petticoat. 

Four  pairs  of  black  hose,  either  silk,  cashmere,  or  spun 
silk. 

Twelve  handkerchiefs  with  black  borders  for  ordinary  use, 
cambric. 

Twelve  of  finer  cambric  for  better  occasions. 

Caps,  either  of  lisse,  tulle,  or  tarlatan,  shape  depending  very 
much  on  the  age.  Young  widows  wear  chiefly  the  Marie 
Stuart  shape,  but  all  widows’  caps  have  long  streamers.  They 
vary,  of  course,  in  price.  Tarlatan  are  the  easiest  made  at 
home,  but  we  do  not  fancy  home-made  widows’  caps  are  an 
economy,  they  soil  so  much  more  quickly  than  bought  caps. 
It  is  a good  plan  to  buy  extra  streamers  and  bows  for  them  ; 
these  can  be  made  at  home  for  the  morning  caps,  very  fine 
thread  and  needles  being  used  for  the  work,  which  should  be 
very  fine,  neat,  and  even.  If  in  summer  a parasol  should  be 
required,  it  should  be  of  silk  deeply  trimmed  with  crape, 
almost  covered  with  it,  but  no  lace  or  fringe  for  the  first  year. 
Afterward  mourning  fringe  might  be  put  on.  A muff,  if 
required,  would  be  made  of  Paramatta,  and  trimmed  with 
crape. 

The  first  mourning  is  worn  for  twelve  months.  Second 
mourning  twelve  months  also  ; the  cap  in  second  mourning  is 
left  off,  and  the  crape  no  longer  covers  the  dresses,  but  is  put 
on  in  tucks.  Elderly  widows  frequently  remain  in  mourning 
for  long  periods,  if  not  for  the  remainder  of  their  lives,  retain- 
ing the  widow’s  cap,  collar  and  cuffs,  but  leaving  off  the  deep 


crape  the  second  year,  and  afterwards  entirely  discarding 
crape,  but  wearing  mourning  materials  such  as  Victoria  cords, 
Janus  cords,  cashmere,  and  so  on. 

No  ornaments  are  worn  in  such  deep  mourning,  except  jet, 
for  the  first  year.  Jet  is,  of  course,  allowable.  Rich  silk  is, 
of  course,  admissible  in  widows’  mourning,  especially  for 
evening  wear,  but  it  must  always  be  deeply  trimmed  with 
crape  for  the  first  year,  and  the  quantity  afterwards  gradually 
lessened.  A silk  costume  is  a very  expensive  item  in  a 
widow’s  mourning  ; therefore  we  only  allude  to  it — do  not  set 
it  down  as  a necessity.  The  best  silks  for  the  purpose  are 
rich,  heavy  silks,  such  as  grosgrain,  drap  du  nord,  satin  mer- 
veilleux.  Furs  are  not  admissible  in  widows’  first  mourning, 
though  very  dark  sealskin  and  astrachan  can  be  worn  when 
the  dress  is  changed.  In  other  mournings,  furs  are  now  very 
generally  worn— that  is,  after  the  first  few  months,  but  only 
dark  furs. 

Widows’  lingerie,  to  be  always  nice,  entails  a considerable 
amount  of  expense.  If  collars,  cuffs  and  caps  are  made  at 
home,  as  we  before  said,  they  get  soiled  directly.  As,  how- 
ever, it  is  not  always  possible  to  buy  them  when  they  require 
renewing,  the  following  directions  may  prove  of  use  : “ Wid- 
ow’s cuffs,  made  in  tarlatan,  should  be  about  nine  inches  long, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  wrist.  They  are  not  intended  to 
overlap,  but  just  to  meet,  fastened  with  two  buttons  and  loops, 
placed  near  the  upper  and  lower  edges.  The  ordinary  depth 
is  five  inches,  with  a wide  hem  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  an 
inch  and  a half  depth.  The  material  being  merely  a straight 
piece,  they  are  easy  to  make.  For  the  collar,  the  straight  all- 
round shape,  turning  down  over  the  collar  of  the  dress,  is  the 
most  usual.  If  any  other  shape  is  required,  cut  it  in  paper, 
and  make  it  accordingly  with  the  wide  hem  of  one  and  a half 
inch.  If  the  collar  is  straight,  it  will  be  merely  necessary  to 
turn  it  down;  if  rounded  at  all,  it  must  be  cut  to  the  shape, 
run  to  the  collar  at  the  edge,  and  then  turned  down.  Fine 
cotton  and  needles  and  neat  work  are  required.” 

If  an  attempt  is  made  to  make  widows’  caps  at  home,  first 
procure  a good  cap  for  a model,  and  copy  it  as  exactly  as  pos- 
sible. It  must  be  made  on  a “ dolly  ” or  wooden  block  of  a 
head,  or  it  will  never  sit  well. 

To  preserve  widows’  caps  clean,  fresh-looking,  and  of  a good 
color,  when  not  in  use  they  should  be  put  on  cap-holders  on 
a shelf  in  a cupboard,  the  long  streamers  turned  up  over  the 
cap,  and  a piece  of  blue  paper  (thin)  laid  over  them.  So 
treated,  they  will  with  care  last  a long  while,  that,  is,  if  there 
are  two  or  three  worn  in  turn,  and  they  are  put  away  in  this 
manner  when  not  in  actual  use. 

It  may  be  as  well  to  sum  up  what  we  have  said.  Duration 
of  mourning  : Widow’s  first  mourning  lasts  for  a year  and  a 
day.  Second  mourning  cap  left  off,  less  crape  and  silk  for 
nine  months  (some  curtail  it  to  six),  remaining  three  months 
of  second  year  plain  black  without  crape,  and  jet  ornaments. 
At  the  end  of  the  second  year  the  mourning  can  be  put  ofl 
entirely  ; but  it  is  better  taste  to  wear  half  mourning  for  at 
least  six  months  longer  ; and,  as  we  have  before  mentioned, 
many  widows  never  wear  colors  any  more,  unless  for  some 
solitary  event,  such  as  the  wedding  of  a child,  when  they 
would  probably  put  it  off  for  the  day.  Materials  : — 


ETIQUETTE  OF  MOURNING. 


Dresses  and  Mantles. — Paramatta,  Barathea,  silk  trimmed 
with  silk,  Albert  or  rainproof  crape. 

Bonnets  and  Veils. — Crape. 

Caps. — Lisse,  tulle,  tarlatan. 

Collars  and  Cuffs. — Lawn  and  muslin. 

Petticoats. — Black  stuff  or  silk-quilted. 

Pocket  Handkerchiefs. — Cambric,  black  borders. 

Hose. — Black  Balbriggan,  cashmere,  or  silk. 

Gloves. — Black  kid. 

The  mourning  for  parents  ranks  next  to  that  of  widows  ; for 
children  by  their  parents,  and  for  parents  by  their  children, 
these  being  of  course  identical  in  degree.  It  lasts  in  either 
case  twelve  months — six  months  in  crape  trimmings,  three  in 
plain  black,  and  three  in  half-mourning.  It  is,  however, 
better  taste  to  continue  the  plain  black  to  the  end  of  the  year, 
and  wear  half-mourning  for  three  months  longer.  Materials 
for  first  six  months,  either  Paramatta,  Barathea,  or  any  of  the 
black  corded  stuffs,  such  as  Janus  cord,  about  thirty-eight 
inches  wide  ; Henrietta  cord  about  same  price  and  width. 
Such  dresses  would  be  trimmed  with  two  deep  tucks  of  crape, 
either  Albert  or  rainproof,  would  be  made  plainly,  the  body 
trimmed  with  crape,  and  sleeves  with  deep  crape  cuffs.  Col- 
lars and  cuffs,  to  be  worn  during  the  first  mourning  would  be 
made  of  muslin  or  lawn,  with  three  or  four  tiny  tucks  in  dis- 
tinction to  widows’  with  the  wide,  deep  hem.  Pocket  hand- 
kerchiefs would  be  bordered  with  black.  Black  hose,  silk  or 
Balbriggan,  would  be  worn,  and  black  kid  gloves.  For  out- 
door wear  either  a dolman  mantle  would  be  worn  or  a paletot, 
either  of  silk  or  Paramatta,  but  in  either  case  trimmed  with 
crape.  Crape  bonnets  or  hats  ; if  for  young  children,  all 
crape  for  bonnets,  hats,  silk  and  crape  ; feathers  (black)  could 
be  worn,  and  a jet  clasp  or  arrow  in  the  bonnet,  but  no  other 
kind  of  jewelry  is  admissible  but  jet — that  is,  as  long  as  crape 
is  worn.  Black  furs,  such  as  astrachan,  may  be  worn,  or  very 
dark  sealskin,  or  black  sealskin  cloth,  now  so  fashionable,  but 
no  light  furs  of  any  sort.  Silk  dresses  can  be  worn,  crape- 
trimmed  after  the  first  three  months  if  preferred,  and  if 
expense  be  no  object  ; the  lawn-tucked  collars  and  cuffs 
would  be  worn  with  them.  At  the  end  of  the  six  months 
crape  can  be  put  aside,  and  plain  black,  such  as  cashmere, 
worn,  trimmed  with  silk  if  liked,  but  not  satin,  for  that  is  not 
a mourning  material,  and  is  therefore  never  worn  by  those 
who  strictly  attend  to  mourning  etiquette.  With  plain  black, 
black  gloves  and  hose  would  of  course  be  worn,  and  jet,  no 
gold  or  silver  jewelry  for  at  least  nine  months  after  the  com- 
mencement of  mourning  ; then,  if  the  time  expires  in  the 
twelve  months,  gray  gloves  might  be  worn,  and  gray  ribbons, 
lace  or  plain  linen  collar  and  cuffs  take  the  place  of  the  lawn 
or  muslin,  and  gray  feathers  might  lighten  the  hat  or  bonnet, 
or  reversible  black  and  gray  strings. 

Many  persons  think  it  is  in  better  taste  not  to  commence 
half-mourning  until  after  the  expiration  of  a year,  except  in 
the  case  of  young  children,  who  are  rarely  kept  in  mourning 
beyond  the  twelve  months 

A wife  would  wear  just  the  same  mourning  for  her  husband’s 
relations  as  for  her  own  ; thus,  if  her  husband’s  mother  died, 
she  would  wear  mourning  as  deep  as  if  for  her  own  mother. 

For  Grandparents , the  first  mourning  (crape)  is  worn  for  three 


months  ; second  mourning,  black,  without  crape,  also  worn  for 
three  months ; and  half-mourning  for  three  more,  or  nine 
months  in  all.  The  same  materials  are  worn,  Paramatta,  Bar- 
athea, various  cords  with  crape  and  cashmere,  and  merino  when 
the  crape  is  left  off. 

For  Sisters  or  Brothers,  six  months’  mourning  is  usually  worn. 
Crape  for  three,  plain  black  for  two,  and  half  mourning  for 
one  month  ; the  same  sort  of  stuffs,  the  crape  being  put  on  in 
one  deep  tuck  and  two  narrow  tucks  ; bodice,  crape  trimmed  ; 
mantle  or  dolman,  crape  trimmed  ; bonnet  of  crape  with  fea- 
thers or  jet,  hat  of  silk  and  crape.  Veil  of  hat  with  crape  tuck, 
hose  black  silk,  Balbriggan  or  cashmere,  handkerchiefs  black 
bordered.  Silks  can  be  worn  after  the  first  month  if  trimmed 
with  crape. 

For  Uncles,  Aunts,  Nephews,  or  Nieces,  crape  is  not  worn, 
but  plain  black,  with  jet  for  three  months. 

For  Great  Uncles  or  Aunts,  mourning  would  last  for  two 
months  without  crape. 

For  Cousins  (first),  six  weeks  are  considered  sufficient,  three 
of  which  would  be  in  half-mourning. 

For  Cousins  less  closely  related,  mourning  is  hardly  ever  put 
on  unless  they  have  been  inmates  of  the  house. 

No  invitations  would  be  accepted  before  the  funeral  of  any 
relatives  closely  enough  related  to  you  to  put  on  mourning  for. 
In  the  case  of  brothers,  sisters,  parents,  and  grandparents,  so- 
ciety would  be  given  up  for  at  least  three  months,  if  not  more, 
and  it  would  be  very  bad  taste  to  go  to  a ball  or  large  festive 
gathering  in  crape.  Widows  do  not  enter  society  for  at  least  a 
year — that  is,  during  the  period  of  their  deepest  mourning. 
With  regard  to  complimentary  mourning — as  worn  by  mothers 
for  the  mother  or  father-in-law  of  their  married  children,  black 
would  be  worn  for  six  weeks  or  so  without  crape  ; by  second 
wives  for  the  parents  of  the  first  wife,  for  about  three  weeks, 
and  in  a few  other  cases. 

It  is  better  taste  to  wear  mourning  in  making  the  first  call 
after  a bereavement  on  friends,  but  this  is  not  a decided  rule, 
only  a graceful  method  of  implying  sympathy  with  those  who 
are  suffering  affliction.  But  calls  are  not  made  until  the  cards 
with  “thanks  for  kind  inquiries”  have  been  sent  in  return  for 
the  cards  left  at  the  time  of  decease.  Letters  of  condolence 
should  always  be  written  on  slightly  black-edged  paper,  and  it 
would  be  kind  to  intimate  in  the  letter  that  no  answer  to  it 
will  be  expected.  Few  realize  the  effort  it  is  to  those  left  to 
sit  down  and  write  answers  to  inquiries  and  letters,  however 
kind  and  sympathizing  they  may  have  been. 

Servants’  Mourning. — Servants  are  not  usually  put  into 
mourning  except  for  the  members  of  the  household  in  which 
they  are  living,  not  for  the  relatives  of  their  masters  and  mis- 
tresses, and  very  frequently  only  for  the  heads  of  the  house, 
not  for  the  junior  members. 

A best  dress  of  Victoria  cord  or  alpaca,  two  cotton  dresses, 
black  for  mourning  wear  while  at  work.  A cloth  jacket,  in  case 
of  master  or  mistress,  with  a slight  crape  trimming,  a silk  and 
crape  bonnet,  pair  of  black  kid  gloves,  and  some  yards  of  black 
cap  ribbon,  would  be  the  mourning  given  to  the  servants  in 
the  house  at  the  time  of  the  death  of  one  of  the  heads  of  the 
establishment,  and  their  mourning  would  be  worn  for  at  least 
six  months,  or  even  a year  in  some  cases. 


I 630 


ETIQUETTE  OF  MOURNING. 


The  following  is  a list  of  suitable  materials  for  mourning  of 
those  relationships  we  have  named,  all  of  which  can  be  obtained 
at  any  good  mourning  establishment. 

Silk  crape,  Paramatta,  Albert  crape, Barathea,  rainproof  crape, 
silk,  Cyprus  crape.  Janus  cord,  Victoria  cord,  Balmoral 
cloth,  Cashmere  Fran$ais,  Kashgar  Cashmere  ; these  last  are 
wide  materials  from  44  to  47  inches.  Crape  cloth  looks  pre- 
cisely like  crape,  but  is  much  lighter  and  cooler. 

For  summer  wear  drap  d’ete,  a mixture  of  silk  and  wool,  is 
suitable  ; barege  for  dinner  dresses  ; nun’s  veil  cloth,  etc.,  etc. 

The  best  all-black  washing  materials  are  cotton,  satine, 
foulardine  ; black  and  white  for  slighter  mourning,  black  with 
tiny  white  spots  or  sprigs. 

Children  should  be  dressed  in  these  black  washing  materials 
— that  is,  for  summer  wear,  in  preference  to  the  thicker  mate- 
rials, as  for  young  children,  crape  is  soon  dispensed  with. 
Neither  velvet,  satin,  nor  plush  can  be  worn  in  mourning — that  is 
in  strict  mourning — for  they  are  not  mourning  materials.  At- 
tempts have  been  made  to  bring  in  some  colors,  such  as  red  or 
violet,  and  we  consider  them  suitable  to  slight  mourning  ; but 
the  only  color  really  admissible  for  half-mourning  is  gray,  or  the 
palest  lavender,  gray  gloves  sewn  with  black,  gray  and  black 
reversible  ribbons,  gray  and  black  feathers,  gray  flowers  mixed 
with  black,  and  so  on. 

In  all  cases  of  mourning  it  is  the  best  plan  to  write  to  some 
well-known  house  for  patterns;  good  mourning  establishments 


can  afford  to  sell  better  materials  at  cheaper  rates  than  small, 
inferior  houses.  Large  firms  have  always  a good  choice  of 
materials  for  mourning  on  hand  ; and  it  is  really  far  greater 
economy  to  buy  good  materials  when  going  into  mourning,  than 
cheap  flimsy  stuffs,  which  give  no  wear  at  all ; besides,  such 
houses  send  out  books  of  fashions  and  prices  for  making  up 
mourning  costumes,  which  give  a good  idea  of  the  expense  to 
be  incurred,  even  if  it  is  not  found  cheaper  to  purchase  and 
have  mourning  made  up  by  them. 

Mourning  has  generally  to  be  purchased  hurriedly,  and  too 
often  a dressmaker  gets  carte  blanche  almost  to  furnish  the 
mourning.  If  such  is  the  case,  no  wonder  mourning  is  con- 
sidered expensive  ; for  things  which  are  quite  unnecessary,  such 
as  expensive  crape  in  the  place  of  rainproof  kinds,  more  crape 
used  than  the  degre  of  mourning  lequires,  and  many  extrava- 
gancies of  a like  nature,  naturally  swell  such  a bill  into  one  of 
large  proportions,  when  by  a little  forethought  the  necessary 
black  could  have  been  purchased  at  a far  more  reasonable  rate. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  have  very  expensive  mourning  if  our 
means  will  not  allow  it  ; we  should  learn  to  suit  our  require- 
ment to  the  state  of  our  purses.  But  we  sincerely  trust  the  old 
custom  of  wearing  decent  mourning  for  those  taken  away  from 
us,  will  never  be  really  discontinued  in  America,  for  it  is  one  of 
those  proofs  of  our  home  affections  which  can  never  be  done 
away  with  without  a loss  of  national  respect. 


INTRODUCTIONS. 

HAKING  hands  after  an  introduction  has  taken 
place  is  merely  optional  not  necessary. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  introduce  people  who 
meet  at  your  house  on  morning  calls. 

It  is  optional  after  such  an  introduction,  with 
parties  introduced,  to  continue  or  drop  the  ac- 
ntance  so  formed. 

friend  visiting  at  your  house  must  be  introduced 
to  all  callers,  who  are  bound  to  continue  the  acquaintance  as 
long  as  the  friend  is  your  guest. 

A gentleman  must  always  raise  his  hat,  if  introduced  in  the 
street,  to  either  lady  or  gentleman. 

Letters  of  introduction  to  and  from  husiness  men,  for  busi- 
ness purposes,  may  be  delivered  by  the  bearers  in  person,  and 
etiquette  does  not  require  the  receiver  to  entertain  the  person 
introduced  as  the  private  friend  of  the  writer. 


she  gets  her  supper,  and  offer  to  leave  the  ball  at  any  hour  that 
she  may  be  desirous  of  so  doing. 

No  gentleman  should  wait  for  the  “ fiddles  to  strike  up”  to 
engage  a partner. 

At  a public  ball,  a lady  may  refuse  to  have  a gentleman  pre- 
sented to  her. 

Do  not  remain  too  late. 

“ May  I have  the  pleasure  of  the  waltz  or  quadrille  with 
you,”  is  all  that  a gentleman  need  say  on  introduction.  If  the 
lady  says  yes,  he  asks  permission  to  write  his  name  on  her 
card. 

Always  give  your  arm  to  a lady  in  crossing  a ball-room. 

Do  not  feel  offended  if  your  fair  partner  fails  to  bow  to  you 
when  you  meet  her  after  a ball.  It  is  optional  ; some  young 
ladies  are  very  timid,  and  fear  that  gentlemen  forget  them. 

Do  not  feel  slighted  if  your  fair  companion  does  not  invite 
you  to  enter  her  home  on  returning  from  the  ball.  If  she  does 
invite  you,  decline. 


BALL. 

A hundred  gents  or  over  that  number  constitute  a ball.  The 
lady  of  the  house  must  stand  near  the  door,  so  as  to  receive 
her  guests,  to  each  of  whom  she  must  find  something  to  say, 
no  matter  how  trifling.  The  host  must  also  be  near,  to  wel- 
come arrivals,  and  the  sons  to  introduce  people.  The  young 
ladies  and  their  very  intimate  friends  must  see  that  the 
dances  are  kept  up,  and  should  not  dance  themselves  till  they 
have  found  partners  for  all  their  friends.  They  may  with  per- 
fect propriety  ask  any  gentleman  present  to  be  introduced  to 
a partner,  and  he  is  bound  to  accept  the  invitation  ; but  the 
lady  must  be  careful  whom  she  asks.  Some  young  ladies  do 
not  dance  at  all,  preferring  to  see  their  friends  amused,  and  for 
fear  of  causing  jealousies. 

If  you  escort  a lady  to  a ball,  call  for  her  at  the  appointed 
hour,  in  a carriage,  and  send  a bouquet  early  in  the  day. 
Upon  arriving  at  the  house  where  the  ball  is  held,  escort  your 
charge  to  the  dressing-room  door.  She  may  or  may  not 
dance  the  first  dance  with  you.  Ask  her.  You  must  see  that 


AT  HOMES— RECEPTIONS— GIVING 
PARTIES. 

Parties  in  cities  consist  of — at  homes,  receptions,  conversa- 
ziones, private  concerts,  private  theatricals,  soirees,  dramatic 
tea-parties,  matinees,  or  a gathering  of  people. 

In  the  country,  the  in-door  parties  comprise  small  dancing- 
parties,  tea-parties,  and  conversaziones  ; but  the  out-door  occa- 
sions are  of  much  greater  number  and  variety  ; lawn-tennis 
parties,  croquet,  sailing,  and  boating  parties,  picnics,  private 
fetes,  berrying  parties,  nutting  parties,  May  festivals,  Fourth 
of  July  festivals,  anything  for  a day  spent  in  out-door  frolic. 

For  “ Receptions  ” and  “ At  Homes,”  and  conversaziones  in. 
vitations  should  be  sent  out  a week  beforehand. 

At  a reception  you  have  music  and  singing,  perhaps  recita- 
tions. Light  refreshments  are  served,  and  the  hostess  makes 
the  most  of  her  rooms  in  display,  etc. 

Gentlemen  should  take  elderly  ladies  into  refreshments. 

Let  amateur  performers  learn  something  off  by  heart.  Being 
provided  with  notes  is  not  stylish. 


T^»V'T'T'?'T'T'T'T'r'T'T'rT'TW'V 


GOLDEN  RULES  OF  ETIQUETTE. 


r 


632 


Let  no  person  offer  to  turn  over  the  leaves  of  a music  book 
for  a performer,  unless  he  or  she  can  read  music  rapidly. 

If  you  play  an  accompaniment  show  off  the  singer  not  your- 
self. 

If  you  get  up  private  theatricals,  secure  the  best  amateur 
talent. 

Be  punctual  at  lawn-tennis  and  croquet  parties. 

Gentlemen  at  picnics  must  turn  into  waiters  for  the  nonce , 
and  look  to  the  appetites  of  the  ladies. 

SALUTATIONS. 

Do  not  insult  by  offering  two  fingers  when  shaking  hands. 

Remove  your  right  hand  glove  in  the  street ; retain  it  in  the 
house. 

Do  not  wring  off  the  wrist  of  the  person  with  whom  you 
shake  hands. 

The  lady  recognizes  the  gentleman  first  by  bowing.  The 
gentleman  must  wait  till  he  is  bowed  to  by  the  lady. 

When  a lady  is  desirous  of  ending  a conversation  in  the 
street  she  should  bow  slightly,  and  the  gentleman  must  in- 
stantly take  his  leave. 

If  the  lady  “ proceeds  upon  her  way  ” without  breaking  up 
conversation,  then  the  gentleman  is  bound  to  join  her  in  the 
promenade. 

At  home,  the  lady  extends  her  hand  to  every  guest. 

A gentleman  is  at  liberty  to  bow  to  a lady  seated  at  a win- 
dow, but  if  he  is  in  the  window  he  is  not  to  bow  to  a lady  in 
the  street. 

The  gentleman  never  offers  to  shake  hands  with  the  lady.  It 
is  her  prerogative  to  stretch  forth  her  hand  to  his. 

A gentleman  may  at  all  times  bow  to  a lady  he  may  meet  on 
a stairway,  even  if  not  acquainted.  If  at  the  foot  of  the  stairs, 
he  must  bow,  pass  her  and  ascend  before  her.  If  at  the  head 
of  the  stairs,  he  must  bow,  and  wait  for  her  to  precede  him  in 
the  descent. 

If  a gentleman  is  walkingwith  a friend,  and  the  friend  bows 
to  a lady,  he  is  bound  to  bow  although  he  may  be  unacquainted 
with  the  lady. 

CALLS. 

If  a lady  has  a particular  day  set  aside  for  receiving  callers, 
call  on  that  day  only. 

You  can  make  a formal  call  in  the  morning,  a friendly  one 
in  the  evening. 

Gentlemen  may  call  in  the  morning  on  the  following  ex- 
cuses : — 

After  a breakfast,  luncheon,  dinner,  reception,  or  ball. 

On  the  occasion  of  any  joy  or  grief. 

After  escorting  a lady  on  the  previous  evening. 

Be  prompt  on  the  first  call. 

In  the  morning,  call  after  ten  o’clock  ; in  the  evening,  not 
later  than  eight. 

In  the  evening  informal  call  leave  hat,  coat,  umbrella,  cane, 
and  overshoes  in  the  hall. 

If  you  find  your  host  or  hostess  attired  for  going  out,  beat  a 
hasty  retreat. 

Never  put  anything  but  your  name  and  address  on  your 
card  when  making  a social  call.  Thus  : — 


gieotettant  gosspfe  fflittl 

U.  S.Jtf. 


GOLDEN  RULES  OF  ETIQUETTE. 


633 


Never  consult  your  watch  before  taking  your  departure. 

Leave  a card  before  departing  for  the  country  or  Europe 
with  the  words  P.  P.  C.  ( Pour  Pendre  Congd.  To  Take  Leave) 
on  the  left  hand  corner  in  pencil. 

Leave  a card  during  the  illness  of  your  friend. 

Leave  a card  the  day  after  a ball  or  big  dinner  party. 

After  a small  party  leave  a card  within  a week.  Wives 
leave  the  cards  of  their  husbands. 

The  first  callers  are  the  residents  in  the  place. 

Call  upon  the  gent  who  comes  to  stay  with  your  friend. 

Do  not  keep  your  callers  waiting. 

Do  not  remove  your  gloves  when  making  a formal  call. 

No  callers  should  fiddle  with  books,  pictures,  albums,  win- 
dow-blinds, etc. 

When  you  call  on  a friend  at  a hotel  or  boarding-house  write 
his  or  her  name  above  your  own  on  your  own  card. 

DINNER. 

Gentlemen  should  stand  behind  their  respective  chairs  until 
all  the  ladies  are  seated,  and  then  take  their  own  seats.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  their  chairs  do  not  stand  upon  the  dresses 
of  the  ladies  beside  them. 

Grace  is  said  by  a clergyman,  if  there  is  one  present,  if  not, 
by  the  host.  The  clergyman  should  be  invited  to  say  grace 
by  the  host.  People  usually  stand  till  grace  is  over. 

If  the  dinner  is  a la  Russe,  the  carving  will  be  done  behind 
a screen.  Keep  your  servants  from  making  a noise  behind  the 
screen. 

Always  say  “thanks,”  or  “ thank  you,”  to  the  servant  or 
waiter. 

Never  decline  wine  by  clapping  your  hand  on  top  of  your 
glass. 

Do  not  eat  ravenously. 

Do  not  smack  the  lips. 

Never  take  a long,  deep  breath  after  you  finish  eating,  as  if 
you  were  tired  eating. 

Make  no  noises  in  your  mouth  or  throat. 

Do  not  suck  your  teeth  or  roll  your  tongue  around  the  out- 
side of  your  gums. 

Never,  no  never,  NEVER,  put  your  knife  into  your  mouth. 

Do  not  pick  your  teeth,  or  plunge  your  finger  into  your 
mouth. 

Do  not  spit  out  fish-bones  upon  your  plate. 

Never  take  the  bones  of  fowl  or  birds  up  in  your  fingeis  to 
gnaw  or  suck  them.  Remove  the  meat  with  your  knife,  and 
convey  it  to  your  mouth  with  your  fork.  Do  not  polish  or 
scrape  the  bone. 

Wipe  your  finger-tips  upon  the  table  napkin. 

Do  not  use  the  tablecloth  to  wipe  your  mouth. 

Do  not  either  praisa  or  dispraise  what  is  placed  before  you. 

Do  not  drink  or  speak  when  you  have  anything  in  your 
mouth. 

When  you  are  helped  begin  to  eat. 

Never  watch  the  dishes  as  they  are  uncovered,  or  cry  out 
when  you  perceive  something  dainty. 

Do  not  attempt  to  tuck  your  napkin,  bib  fashion,  into  your 
shirt  collar.  Unfold  it  partially  and  place  it  in  your  lap,  cov- 


ering your  knees.  A lady  may  slip  a corner  under  her  belt  if 
there  is  danger  of  its  falling  upon  her  dress. 

Do  not  talk  loudly.  Do  not  whisper.  Do  not  laugh  too 
loudly, 

Use  the  table  articles,  such  as  spoon,  butter-knife,  etc.,  eta 

Never  clean  your  plate.  Leave  something  on  it. 

Never  attempt  to  propose  a toast  or  sentiment,  at  all  events 
till  the  dessert  is  well  over.  We  have  seen  men  attempt  this 
before  the  roasts  appeared. 

Take  chatlis  with  your  oysters  or  clams. 

Take  sherry  with  your  soup. 

Take  champagne  with  the  entrees. 

Take  Burgundy  with  game. 

Take  port  with  cheese. 

Take  claret  after  dessert. 

Take  a pousse  cafd,  a liqueur,  after  coffee. 

Never  spit  the  skins  of  grapes,  the  stones  or  pips  of  fruits. 
Receive  them  upon  the  prongs  of  your  fork,  laid  horizontally, 
and  place  them  as  best  you  can  upon  the  edge  of  your  plate. 

Do  not  play  with  your  fingers  upon  the  table. 

Do  not  play  with  your  knife  and  fork,  fidget  with  your  salt- 
cellar, balance  your  spoon  on  your  tumbler,  or  make  pills  of 
your  bread. 

Do  not  illustrate  your  anecdotes  by  plans  drawn  upon  the 
table  with  your  nail. 

Do  not  stretch  your  feet  out  under  the  table,  so  as  to  touch 
those  of  your  opposite  neighbor. 

Do  not  tilt  your  chair. 

Endeavor  to  take  an  easy  position  at  table,  neither  pressing 
too  closely  up  to  it,  nor  yet  so  far  away  as  to  risk  depositing 
your  food  upon  the  floor. 

Give  your  neighbor  as  much  elbow  room  as  possible. 

If  the  dinner  is  for  gentlemen  guests  alone,  and  the  lady 
of  the  house  presides,  her  duties  are  over  when  she  rises  after 
dessert.  The  gentlemen  do  not  expect  to  see  her  again.  Cigars 
may  be  served  with  the  coffee,  and  then  the  servants  may  re- 
tire. 

In  case  of  a stag  party,  like  this,  the  lady  of  the  house  is 
much  better  away.  Then  the  oldest  friend  of  the  host  takes 
her  seat. 

BAPTISM. 

Let  the  godfather  and  godmother  be  of  the  same  church  as 
the  child  that  is  to  be  baptized. 

Never  refuse  to  stand  sponsor  without  good  cause. 

The  godmother  should  select  the  godfather. 

The  godparents  should  make  the  infant  a present,  a silver 
cup,  or  a set  consisting  of  knife,  fork  and  spoon. 

Very  young  persons  should  not  be  asked  to  become  sponsors. 

The  nurse  carrying  the  child  enters  the  church  first,  then 
come  the  sponsors,  then  the  happy  father,  and  the  guests. 

The  sponsors  stand  thus  : godfather  on  the  right  of  the  child  ; 
godmother  on  the  left. 

The  sponsors  bow  when  the  clergyman  asks  who  the  spon- 
sors are. 

Do  not  offer  to  act  as  sponsors.  The  parents  make  the 
selection. 

Praise  the  baby  under  all  circumstances. 


<534 


GOLDEN  RULES  OF  ETIQUETTE. 


FUNERALS. 

Do  not  speak  loudly  in  the  house  of  mourning.  Do  not  ask 
to  see  the  members  of  the  bereaved  family.  Invitations  are 
printed,  and  in  this  form  : — 

You  are  respectfully  invited  to  attend  the  funeral  of  Mr. 
John  Smith  on  Friday,  June  28,  1882,  at  9 o’clock  a.  m., 
from  his  late  residence,  148  West  68th  Street.  To  pro- 
ceed to  Cyprus  Grove  Cemetery, 

If  the  services  are  at  church  : — 

You  are  respectfully  invited  to  attend  the  funeral  of  Mr. 
John  Smith,  from  the  Church  of  the  Nativity,  Madison 
Avenue,  on  Friday,  June  28th,  at  9 o’clock  a.  m.  To 
proceed  to  Cyprus  Grove  Cemetery. 

No  further  notice  need  be  sent,  if  the  invitation  is  given 
through  the  newspapers. 

Do  not  go  to  the  house  of  your  dead  friend  until  the  hour 
named.  The  last  moments  are,  indeed,  precious  to  the  grief- 
stricken  relatives. 

The  clergyman  leaves  the  house  first,  and  enters  the  carriage 
that  precedes  the  hearse  ; the  coffin  comes  next  ; then  come 
the  relatives. 

Do  not  salute  the  relatives. 

The  master  of  the  ceremonies  assists  at  the  carriages,  also  at 
the  church. 

Hats  must  be  removed  as  the  coffin  passes  from  the  hearse  to 
the  church,  and  from  the  church  to  the  hearse,  and  a double 
line  formed. 

Wear  black  clothes,  or  as  near  to  that  color  as  may  be. 

Send  a carriage  for  the  clergyman. 

Send  only  white  flowers,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  funeral. 

Pall-bearers  must  be  the  immediate  friends  of  the  deceased. 

Gloves  and  crape,  if  given,  must  be  presented  as  the  gentle- 
men enter  the  house. 

Leave  cards  for  the  family  of  the  deceased  during  the  week 
following  the  obsequies.  The  proper  person  to  purchase 
mourning  is  the  nearest  lady  friend  of  the  family. 

No  member  of  the  family  of  the  deceased  shall  be  seen  out- 
of-doors  till  after  the  funeral. 

HOTELS. 

Ladies  traveling  alone  will  request  the  escort  of  a waiter 
from  the  dining-room  door  to  the  table. 

Ladies  will  make  up  their  minds  quickly  as  to  what  dishes 
they  propose  to  order. 

Ladies  will  accept  table  civilities  from  gentlemen,  such  as 
passing  salt,  etc.,  etc. 

The  piano  of  the  hotel  is  public  property,  but  a lady  should 
be  careful  about  monopolizing  it. 

Ladies  will  not  linger  in  the  hall,  and  will  avoid  the  public 
entrance. 

Recognition  across  the  dining-room  is  not  required. 

AMUSEMENTS. 

Gentlemen  will  always  invite  another  lady  to  accompany  a 
young  lady  in  taking  her  for  the  first  time  to  a place  of 
amusement. 


Give  the  ladies  as  long  a notice  as  possible. 

A lady  does  not  bow  across  a theater,  a gentleman  does 

Do  not  arrive  late  at  any  entertainment. 

No  lady  stares  round  a theater  with  an  opera  glass. 

During  the  performance  speak  in  a low  tone. 

The  gentleman  walks  before  the  lady  until  he  reaches  the 
seat,  then  he  bows  her  into  her  seat. 

Never  leave  the  lady  alone. 

Never  stand  in  the  way  of  others  in  picture  galleries. 

It  is  permissible  for  a gentleman  to  join  ladies  fora  moment 
or  two  between  the  acts. 

Be  careful  to  enter  a place  of  amusement  as  quietly  and 
unostentatiously  as  possible. 

Never  laugh  loudly,  and  if  you  applaud,  do  so  earnestly,  but 
not  too  energetically. 

BY  BOAT  AND  RAIL. 

Ladies  will  not  permit  their  escorts  to  enter  any  apartment 
reserved  for  ladies  only. 

Ladies  traveling  alone  should  consult  conductors  or  captains. 
Ladies  will  thank  gentlemen  who  raise  or  lower  windows, 
coldly  but  politely. 

If  a person  crushes  or  crowds  you,  and  apologizes,  accept 
the  apology  by  a cold  bow. 

Gentlemen  escorts  must  pay  the  most  delicate  and  earnest 
care  to  the  lady  or  ladies  under  their  care.  The  attention 
must  be  unremitting. 

At  a hotel,  the  escort  must  see  to  everything,  rooms,  etc., 
etc. 

Courtesies  in  traveling  are  always  eti  rtgle,  but  there  must 
be  no  attempt  at  familiarity. 

Gentlemen  will  commence  conversations. 

Gentlemen  will  assist  ladies  to  alight  from  the  cars. 

A gentleman  may  offer  to  escort  a lady  to  the  refreshment 
saloon. 

A gentleman  may  offer  his  newspaper. 

THE  STREET. 

Ladies  bow  first  to  gentlemen.  The  gentleman  so  saluted 
lifts  his  hat  and  bows. 

Gentlemen  will  offer  to, carry  parcels  for  ladies. 

Gentlemen  will  not  smoke  when  walking  with  ladies. 

Candy  or  bananas,  or  anything  else,  should  not  be  eaten  in 
the  street. 

Ladies  and  old  gentlemen  are  given  the  portion  of  the  side- 
walk next  to  the  houses. 

Ladies  should  not  walk  too  rapidly. 

Ladies  may  accept  umbrella  assistance  from  male  friends 
and  acquaintances,  but  from  strangers  never. 

In  crossing  through  a narrow  place,  or  across  a plank,  or 
in-doors,  or  up-stairs,  the  lady  goes  first. 

A gentleman  may  assist  a lady  to  cross  a puddle  or  across  a 
crowded  street. 

A gentleman  should  never  let  a lady  stand  in  a railway  car, 
a street  car,  a stage,  or  a ferry-boat,  if  he  has  a seat  to  offer 
her.  A man  remaining  seated  while  a woman  stands,  is  abso- 
lutely hoggish. 


GOLDEN  RULES  OF  ETIQUETTE. 


635 


A gentleman  will  pass  a lady’s  fare  in  a street  car  or  stage. 

No  lady  will  salute  across  a street. 

A very  stiff  bow  gives  the  “ cut.” 

Young  people  must  wait  for  recognition  from  their  elders. 

Gentlemen  will  open  store,  and  all  other  doors  for  ladies  to 
pass,  lifting  hat  at  same  time. 

Do  not  bow  from  a store  to  a person  in  the  street. 

VISITS. 

“ You’ll  come  and  see  me  some  time,”  is  no  invitation.  Re- 
collect this! 

If  you  are  asked  by  letter  to  make  a visit,  reply  instanter. 

If  you  are  asked  to  visit  friends  for  any  period,  write  at 
once  and  name  the  time  most  convenient  to  yourself. 

Hosts  should  always  have  a guest  room,  and  special  care 
should  be  given  to  it.  It  should  be  warmed  in  winter  and 
cooled  in  summer.  Its  comforts  should  be  made  a study. 

Hosts  should  either  meet  or  send  to  the  depot  for  their 
guests.  The  baggage  should  be  looked  after,  and  any  trouble 
spared  the  person  invited. 

If  the  guest  arrives  in  the  morning,  special  breakfast 
should  be  prepared  ; if  at  night,  special  supper.  If  the  guest 
is  delicate  or  a late  riser,  special  meals  should  be  prepared. 

Guests  will  conform  as  much  as  possible  to  the  habits  of 
their  hosts. 

Hosts  will  amuse  their  guests  as  much  as  possible,  by  enter- 


tainments, by  taking  them  to  places  of  interest,  and  by  intro 
ductions  to  entertaining  people. 

The  hostess  need  not  appear  between  breakfast  and  lun- 
cheon. She  has  her  household  duties  to  attend  to. 

No  guest  will  make  an  outside  engagement  without  con 
suiting  the  host. 

Hosts  will  accept  no  invitations  that  do  not  include  theil 
guests. 

Guests  should  bring  their  own  writing  materials,  sewing 
materials,  wools,  etc.,  etc.  Ladies  should  volunteer  to  assist 
the  hostess  in  sewing,  etc. 

Guests  may  use  the  servants  as  if  they  were  their  own,  but 
always  in  reason. 

If  a guest  injures  anything  in  the  house  at  which  he  or  she 
may  be  stopping,  such  as  a glass  bowl,  a painting,  etc.,  etc., 
he  or  she  will  repair  the  loss  by  sending  an  article  similar  to 
that  which  has  been  injured. 

Gentlemen  may  send  gifts  of  flowers,  candies,  bonbons,  etc.; 
and  guests  may  always  present  the  baby  with  a gift. 

Do  not  open  any  letters  delivered  to  you  in  the  presence  of 
your  host  and  hostess  without  saying,  “ Have  I your  permis- 
sion?” Hosts  will  do  the  same  toward  their  guests. 

No  lady  guest  pays  for  anything,  carriage,  boat,  car,  etc. 

Hosts,  when  their  guests  are  about  to  leave,  will  see  that 
the  baggage  is  cared  for,  and  will  leave  the  guest  at  the  depot 
or  boat. 


6^6 


THE  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 


w’%.  *.  %' * % % < 


*%«*<»*****■«%*,  jj 


€■ * 3 * 

f*  r y, 

**  * * I * 

■*  * t * r % , 

■ft**  **• 

\f  T * f * f t 

f.f  f * * * -i  * r> 

&W  % ^ V V * * % V * % S r *L  <*._<**  * % * v * 


«**.  Is*  «%  % % « 

* * * % 


W ■ i'  ' 


OW  the  universal  heart 
of  man  blesses  flowers  ! 
>i  They  are  wreathed 
round  the  cradle,  the 
marriage-altar,  and  the 
tomb.  The  Persian  in 
the  far  East  delights  in 
their  perfume,  and  writes 
his  love  in  nosegays  ; 
while  the  Indian  child  of 
the  far  West  claps  his 
hands  with  glee  as  he 
gathers  the  abundant  blos- 
soms, — the  illuminated 
The  Cupid  of  the  ancient 
Hindoos  tipped  his  arrows  with  flowers,  and  orange- 
flowers  are  a bridal  crown  with  us,  a nation  of  yes- 
terday. Flowers  garlanded  the  Grecian  altar,  and 


0 
y 

"V  \ 

scriptures  of  the  prairies. 


hung  in  votive  wreath  before  the  Christian  shrine.  All 
these  are  appropriate  uses.  Flowers  should  deck  the 
brow  of  the  youthful  bride,  for  they  are  in  them- 
selves a lovely  type  of  marriage.  They  should  twine 
round  the  tomb,  for  their  perpetually  renewed  beauty 
is  a symbol  of  the  resurrection.  They  should  festoon 
the  altar,  for  their  fragrance  and  their  beauty  ascend 
in  perpetual  worship  before  the  Most  High. 

Flowers  have  a language  of  their  own,  and  it  is 
this  bright  particular  language  that  we  would  teach 
our  readers.  How  charmingly  a young  gentleman 
can  speak  to  a young  lady,  and  with  what  elo- 
quent silence  in  this  delightful  language.  How 
delicately  she  can  respond,  the  beautiful  little  flow- 
ers telling  her  tale  in  perfumed  words  ; what  a deli- 
cate story  the  myrtle  or  the  rose  tells  ! How  un- 
happy that  which  basil,  or  the  yellow  rose  reveals, 
while  ivy  is  the  most  faithful  of  all. 


ALMOND— HOPE. 


The  hope,  in  dreams  of  a happier  hour, 
That  alights  upon  misery’s  brow, 
Springs  out  of  the  silvery  almond  flower. 
That  blooms  on  a leafless  bough. 

Abecedary Volubility. 

Abatina Fickleness. 

Acacia Friendship. 

Acacia,  Rose  or  White  ...Elegance. 

Acacia,  Yellow Secret  love. 

Acanthus The  fine  arts.  At 

fice. 

Acalia Temperance. 

Achillea  Millefolia War. 

A.conite  (Wolfsbane) Misanthropy. 


Aconite,  Crowfoot Luster. 

Adonis,  Flos Painful  recollections 

African  Marigold Vulgar  minds. 

Agnus  Castus Coldness.  Indiffer- 

ence. 

Agrimony Thankfulness.  Grat- 

itude. 

Almond  (Common) Stupidity.  Indiscre- 

tion. 

Almond  (Flowering) Hope. 

Almond,  Laurel Perfidy. 

Allspice Compassion. 

Aloe Grief.  Religious 

superstition. 

Althtea  Frutex  (Syrian 
Mallow) Persuasion . 


Alyssum  (Sweet)  Worth  beyond 

beauty. 

Amaranth  (Globe) Immortality.  Un- 

fading love. 

Amaranth  (Cockscomb). .Foppery.  Affecta 
tion. 

Amaryllis Pride.  Timidity. 

Splendid  beauty. 

Ambrosia Love  returned. 

American  Cowslip Divine  beauty. 

American  Elm Patriotism. 

American  Linden Matrimony. 

American  Starwort Welcome  to  a stran- 

ger. Cheerfulness 
in  old  age. 

Amethyst Admxation. 




THE  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 


637 


Anemone  (Garden) 

tion. 

.Forsaken. 

Angelica 

.Inspiration. 

Angrec 

. Royalty. 

Apple 

.Temptation. 

Apple  (Blossom) 

. Preference.  Fame 

Apple,  Thorn 

speaks  him  great 
and  good. 
.Deceitful  charms. 

Apocynum  (Dog’s  Vane). Deceit. 

Arbor  Vitae 

.Unchanging  friend- 

Arum  (Wake  Robin). . . . 

ship.  Live  for  me. 
. Ardor. 

Ash-1  eaved  Trumpet 

Flower 

.Separation. 

Ash  Tree 

.Grandeur. 

Aspen  Tree 

.Lamentation. 

Aster  (China) 

.Variety.  After- 

Asphodel 

thought. 

.My  regrets  follow 

Auricula 

you  to  the  grave. 
.Painting. 

Auricula,  Scarlet 

. Avarice. 

Austurtium  

.Splendor. 

Azalea 

Temperance. 

Bachelor’s  Buttons 

. Celibacy. 

Balm 

.Sympathy. 

Balm,  Gentle 

. Pleasantry. 

Balm  of  Gilead 

. Cure.  Relief. 

Balsam,  Red  

.Touch  me  not.  Im- 

Balsam,  Yellow 

patient  resolves. 
. Impatience. 

Barberry 

.Sourness  of  temper. 

Barberry  Tree 

.Sharpness. 

Basil 

.Hatred. 

Bay  Leaf.  

,1  change  but  in 

Bay  (Rose)  Rhododen 

death. 

dron  

Danger.  Beware. 

Bay  Tree  ...  

.Glory. 

Bay  Wreath 

. Reward  of  merit. 

Bearded  Crepis 

Protection. 

Beech  Tree 

.Prosperity. 

Bee  Orchis 

. Industry. 

Bee  Ophrys 

. Error. 

Belladonna 

.Silence. 

Bell  Flower,  Pyramidal. 

.Constancy. 

Bell  Flower  (small  white)  Gratitude. 

Belvedere 

I declare  against  you 

Betony 

Surprise. 

Bilberry 

. T reachery. 

Bindweed,  Great 

. Insinuation. 

Bindweed,  Small . 

. Humility. 

Birch 

. Meekness. 

Birdsfoot,  Trefoil 

Revenge. 

Bittersweet;  Nightshade. Truth. 

Black  Poplar 

. Courage. 

Blackthorn 

. Difficulty. 

Bladder  Nut  Tree 

.Frivolity.  Amuse- 

Bluebottle  (Century) 

ment. 

Delicacy. 

Bluebell 

.Constancy. 

Blue-flowered  Greek  Va 

lerian 

. Rupture. 

Bonus  Hcnricus 

.Goodness. 

Borage 

. Bluntncss. 

Box  Tree 

.Stoicism. 

Bramble 

.Lowliness.  Envy. 

Branch  of  Currants 

Remorse. 
You  please  all. 

Branch  of  Thorns Severity.  Rigor. 

Bridal  Rose Happy  love. 

Broom Humility.  Neatness 

Buckbean Calm  repose. 

Bud  of  White  Rose Heart  ignorant  of 

love. 

Bugloss Falsehood. 

Bulrush Indiscretion.  Do- 

cility. 

Bundle  of  Reeds,  with 

their  Panicles Music. 

Burdock Importunity.  Touch 

me  not. 

Buttercup  (Kingcup). . ..Ingratitude.  Child- 
ishness. 

Butterfly  Orchis Gaiety. 

Butterfly  Weed Let  me  go. 

Cabbage Profit. 

Cacalia Adulation. 

Cactus Warmth. 

Calla  zEthiopica Magnificent  Beauty. 

Calycanthus Benevolence. 

Camellia  Japonica,  Red  ..Unpretending excel- 
lence. 

Camellia  Japonica,  White. Perfected  1 o ve 1 i - 
ness. 

Camomile Energy  in  adversity. 

Canary  Grass Perseverance. 

Candytuft Indifference. 

Canterbury  Bell Acknowledgme  it. 

Cape  Jasmine  I'm  too  happy. 

Cardamine Paternal  error. 

Carnation,  Deep  Red Alas!  for  my  poor 

heart. 

Carnation,  Striped Refusal. 

Carnation,  Yellow Disdain. 

Cardinal  Flower Distinction. 

Catchfly Snare. 

Catchfly,  Red Youthful  love. 

Catchfly,  White Betrayed. 

Cedar Strength. 

Cedar  of  Lebanon Incorruptible. 

Cedar  Leaf 1 live  for  thee. 

Celandine  (Lesser) Joys  to  come. 

Century Del  icacy . 

Cereus  (Creeping) Modest  genius. 

Champignon  Suspicion. 

Chequered  Fritillary Persecution. 

Cherry  T ree Good  education. 

Cherry  Tree,  White Deception. 

ChestnutTree Do  me  justice.  Lux- 

ury. 

Chickweed Rendezvous. 

Chicory Frugality. 

China  Aster Variety. 

China  Aster,  Double.  I partake  yoursenti- 

ments. 

China  Aster,  Single I will  think  of  it. 

China  or  Indian  Pink.  . . .Aversion. 

China  Rose Beauty  always  new. 

Chinese  Chrysanthemum. Cheerfulness  under 
adversity. 

Christmas  Rose Relieve  my  anxiety. 

Chrysanthemum,  Red I love. 

Chrysanthemum,  White. .Truth. 
Chrysanthemum,  Yellow. Slighted  love. 

Cinquefoil Maternal  affection. 

Circaea Spell. 

Cistus,  or  Rock  Rose Popular  favor. 

Cistus,  Gum  I shall  die  tomorrow. 

Citron Ill-natured  beauty. 


Clematis Mental  beauty. 

Clematis,  Evergreen Poverty.  [acity. 

Clotbur  Rudeness.  Pertin- 

Cloves Dignity. 

Clover,  Four-leaved Be  mine. 

Clover,  Red Industry. 

Clover,  White Think  of  me. 

Cobaea Gossip. 

Cockscomb  Amaranth Foppery.  Affecta- 

tion. Singularity. 
Colchicum,  or  Meadow  My  best  days  are 

Saffron past. 

Coltsfoot Justice  shall  be  done 

Columbine Folly. 

Columbine,  Purple .Resolved  to  win. 

Columbine,  Red Anxious  and  trem- 

bling. 

Convolvulus Bonds. 

Convolvulus,  Blue(Minor>Repose.  Night. 

Convolvulus,  Major Extinguished  hopes. 

Convolvulus,  Pink Worth  sustained  by 

judicious  and  ten- 
der affection. 

Corchorus Impatient  of  ab 

sence. 

Coreopsis Always  cheerful. 

Coreopsis  Arkansa Love  at  first  sight. 

Coriander Hidden  worth. 

Corn Riches. 

Corn,  Broken Quarrel. 

Corn  Straw Agreement. 

Corn  Bottle Delicacy. 

Corn  Cockle Gentility. 

Cornel  Tree Duration. 

Coronella Success  crown  your 

wishes. 

Cowslip Pensiveness.  Win- 

ning grace. 

Cowslip,  American Divine  beauty.  You 

are  my  divinity. 

Cranberry Cure  for  heartache. 

Creeping  Cereus Horror. 

Cress Stability.  Power. 

Crocus Abuse  not. 

Crocus,  Spring Youthful  gladness- 

Crocus,  Saffron Mirth. 

Crown  Imperial Majesty.  Power. 

Crowsbill Envy. 

Crowfoot Ingratitude. 

Crowfoot  (Aconiteleaved)  Luster. 

Cocoa  Plant Ardor. 

Cudweed,  American Unceasing  rememb- 

rance. 

Currant Thy  frown  will  kill 

me. 

Cuscuta Meanness. 

Cyclamen Diffidence. 

Cypress Death.  Mourning 

DAFFODIL— REGARD. 


Fair  Daffodils,  we  weep  to  see 
You  haste  away  so  soon  ; 

As  yet  the  early-rising  sun 
Has  not  attained  his  noon  ; 
Stay,  stay, 

Until  the  hastening  day 
Has  run 

But  to  the  even  song, 

And,  having  prayed  together,  we 
Will  go  with  you  along. 


638 


THE  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 


ii- 

We  have  short  time  to  stay  as  ye, 

We  have  as  fleet  a spring. 

As  quick  a growth  to  meet  decay 
As  you  or  anything  ; 

We  die 

As  your  hours  do,  and  dry 
Away, 

Like  to  the  summer’s  rain, 

Or  as  the  pearls  of  morning’s  dew, 

Ne’er  to  be  found  again. 

Daffodil Regard. 

Dahlia Instability. 

Daisy Innocence. 

Daisy,  Garden I share  your  senti- 

ments. 

Daisy,  Michaelmas Farewell. 

Daisy,  Party-colored Beauty. 

Daisy,  Wild I will  think  of  it. 

Damask  Rose Brilliant  complexion 

Dandelion Rustic  oracle. 

Daphne,  Odora Painting  the  lily. 

Darnel  (Ray  grass) Vice. 

Dead  Leaves Sadness. 

Dew  Plant A serenade. 

Dittany  of  Crete Birth. 

Dittany  of  Crete,  White. .Passion. 

Dock Patience. 

Dodder  of  Thyme Baseness. 

Dogsbane Deceit.  Falsehood. 

Dogwood Durability. 

Dragon  Plant Snare. 

Dragonwort Horror. 

Dried  Flax Utility. 


Ebony  Tree Blackness. 

Eglantine  (Sweetbrier) Poetry.  I wound  to 

heal. 

Elder . .Zealousness. 

Elm Dignity. 

Enchanter’s  Nightshade.  .Witchcraft.  Sorcery. 

Endive  Frugality. 

Eupatorium  Delay. 

Everflowering  Candytuft.  Indifference. 

Evergreen  Clematis Poverty. 

Evergreen  Thorn Solace  in  adversity. 

Everlasting Never-ceasing  r e- 

membrance. 

Everlasting  Pea Lasting  pleasure. 


Fennel Worthy  of  all  praise. 

Strength. 

Fern  Fascination. 

Ficoides,  Ice  Plant Your  looks  freeze 


Fig Argument. 

Fig  Marigold Idleness. 

Fig  Tree Prolific. 

Filbert Reconciliation. 

Fir Time. 

Fir  Tree Elevation . 

Flax Domestic  industry. 

Fate.  I feel  your 
kindness. 

Flax-leaved  Goldy-locks  Tard i ness. 

Fleur-de-Lis Flame.  I burn. 

Fleur-de-Luce Fire. 

Flowering  Fern Reverie. 

Flowering  Reed Confidence  in  Heav- 

en. 

Flower-of-an-Hour Delicate  beauty. 


Fly  Orchis Error. 

Flytrap Deceit. 

Fool’s  Parsley Silliness. 

Forget  Me  Not True  love.  Forget 

me  not. 

Foxglove Insincerity. 

Foxtail  Grass Sporting. 

French  Honeysuckle Rustic  beauty. 

French  Marigold Jealousy. 

French  Willow Bravery  and  human- 

ity. 

Frog  Ophrys Disgust. 

Fuller’s  Teasel Misanthropy. 

Fumitory ....Spleen. 

Fuschia,  Scarlet Taste. 


Garden  Anemone Forsaken. 

Garden  Chervil Sincerity. 

Garden  Daisy I partake  your  senti- 

ments. 

Garden  Marigold Uneasiness. 

Garden  Ranunculus You  are  rich  in  at- 

tractions. 

Garden  Sage Esteem. 

Garland  of  Roses Reward  of  virtue. 

Germander  Speedwell Facility. 

Geranium,  Dark Melancholy. 

Geranium,  Ivy Bridal  favor. 

Geranium,  Lemon Unexpected  meet- 

ing. 

Geranium,  Nutmeg Expected  meeting. 

Geranium,  Oak-leaved...  True  friendship 

Geranium,  Penciled Ingenuity. 

Geranium,  Rose-scented. .Preference. 
Geranium,  Scarlet Comforting.  Stupid- 

ity. 

Geranium,  Silver-leaved.. Recall. 

Geranium,  Wild Steadfast  piety. 

Gilliflower Bonds  of  affection. 

Glory  Flower Glorious  beauty. 

Goat’s  Rue Reason. 

Golden  Rod Precaution. 

Gooseberry Anticipation. 

Gourd Extent.  Bulk. 

Grape,  Wild Charity. 

Grass Submission.  Utility. 

Guelder  Rose Winter.  Age. 


Hand  Flower  Tree Warning. 

Harebell Submission.  Grief. 

Hawk  weed Qu  icksightedness. 

Hawthorn Hope. 

Hazel Reconciliation. 

Heath Solitude. 

Helenium Tears. 

Heliotrope Demotion.  Faithful- 

ness. 

Hellebore Scandal.  Calumny. 

Helmet  Flower  (Monks- 
hood)  Knight-errantry. 

Hemlock You  will  be  my 

death. 

Hemp Fate. 

Henbane Imperfection. 

Hepatica Confidence. 

Hibiscus Delicate  beauty. 

Holly Foresight. 

Holly  Herb Enchantment. 

Hollyhock  Ambition.  Fecun- 

dity. 

Honesty Honesty.  Fascina- 

tion. 


Honey  Flower Love,  sweet  and 

secret. 

Honeysuckle Generous  and  de. 


voted  affection. 

Honeysuckle  (Coral) The  color  of  my  fate 

Honeysuckle  (French) Rustic  beauty. 

Hop Injustice. 

Hornbean Ornament. 

Horse  Chestnut Luxury. 

Hortensia You  are  cold. 

Houseleek Vivacity.  Domestic 

industry. 

Houstonia Content. 

Hoya Sculpture. 

Humble  Plant Despondency. 

Hundred-leaved  Rose Dignity  of  mind. 

Hyacinth Sport.  Game.  Play. 

Hyacinth,  White Unobtrusive  loveli- 

ness. 

Hydrangea A boaster.  Heart' 

lessness. 

Hyssop Cleanliness. 


Iceland  Moss Health. 

Ice  Plant Your  looks  freeze 


Imperial  Montague Power. 

Indian  Cress... Warlike  trophy. 

Indian  Jasmine  (Ipomoea).Attachment. 

Indian  Pink  (Double) Always  lovely. 

Indian  Plum Privation. 

Iris Message. 

Iris  German Flame. 

Ivy Fidelity.  Marriage. 

Ivy,  Sprig  of,  with  ten- 
drils  Assiduous  to  please. 

Jacob’s  Ladder Come  down. 

Japan  Rose Beauty  is  your  only 

attraction. 

Jasmine Amiability. 

Jasmine,  Cape Transport  of  joy. 

Jasmine,  Carolina Separation. 

Jasmine,  Indian I attach  myself  to 

you. 

Jasmine,  Spanish Sensuality. 

Jasmine,  Yellow Grace  and  elegance. 

Jonquil I desire  a return  of 

affection. 

Judas  Tree Unbelief.  Betrayal 

Juniper Succor.  Protection 

Justicia The  perfection  of 

female  loveliness. 


Kennedia Mental  beauty. 

King-cups Desire  of  riches. 

Laburnum Forsaken.  Pensive 

beauty. 

Lady’s  Slipper Capricious  beauty. 

Win  me  and  wear 
me. 

Lagerstraemia,  Indiar Eloquence. 

Lantana Rigor. 

Larch Audacity.  Boldness. 

Larkspur Lightness.  Levity 

Larkspur,  Pink Fickleness. 

Larkspur,  Purple Haughtiness. 

Laurel Glory. 

Laurel,  Common,  in 

flower Perfidy. 

Laurel,  Ground Perseverance. 


THE  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 


Laurel,  Mountain Ambition. 

Laurel-leaved  Magnolia.. Dignity. 

Laurestina A token.  I die  if 

neglected. 

Lavender Distrust. 

Leaves  (dead] Melancholy. 

Lemon Zest. 

Lemon  Blossoms Fidelity  in  love. 

Lettuce Cold-heartedncss. 

Lichen  Dejection.  Solitude. 

Lilac,  Field Humility. 

Lilac,  Purple First  emotions  of 

love. 

Lilac,  White Youthful  innocence. 

Lily,  Day Coquetry. 

Lily,  Imperial ..Majesty. 

Lily,  White Purity.  Sweetness. 

Lily,  Yellow Falsehood.  Gaiety. 

Lily  of  the  Valley Return  of  happiness 

Linden  or  Lime  Trees Conjugal  love. 

Lint I feel  my  obligation. 

Live  Oak Liberty. 

Liverwort Confidence. 

Licorice,  Wild I declare  against 

you. 

Lobelia Malevolence. 

Locust  Tree Elegance. 

Locust  Tree  (green) Affection  beyond 

the  grave. 

London  Pride Frivolity. 

Lote  Tree Concord. 

Lotus Eloquence. 

Lotus  Flower Estranged  love. 

Lotus  Leaf Recantation. 

Love  in  a Mist Perplexity. 

Love  lies  Bleeding. Hopeless,  not  heart- 

. less. 

Lucern Life. 

Lupine Voraciousness. 

Imagination. 


Madder Calumny. 

Magnolia Love  of  nature. 

Magnolia,  Swamp Perseverance. 

Mallow Mildness. 

Mallow,  Marsh Beneficence. 

Mallow,  Syrian Consumed  by  love. 

Mallow,  Venetian Delicate  beauty. 

Manchineal  Tree Falsehood. 

Mandrake Horror. 

Maple Reserve. 

Marigold Grief. 

Marigold,  African Vulgar  minds. 

Marigold,  French Jealousy. 

Marigold,  Prophetic Prediction. 

Marigold  and  Cypress Despair. 

Marjoram Elushes. 

Marvel  of  Peru Timidity. 

Meadow  Lychnis Wit. 

Meadow  Saffron My  best  days  are 

past. 

Meadowsweet Uselessness. 

Mercury  Goodness. 

Mesembryanthemum Idleness. 

Mezereon Desire  to  please. 

Michaelmas  Daisy Afterthought. 

Mignionette Your  qualities  sur- 

pass your  charms. 

Milfoil War. 

Milkvetch Your  presence  soft- 

ens my  pains. 

Milkwort Hermitage. 


Mimosa  (Sensitive  Plant). Sensitiveness. 

Mint Virtue. 

Mistletoe I surmount  difficul- 

ties. 

Mock  Orange Counterfeit. 

Monkshood  (Helmet  Chivalry.  Knight- 

Flower)  errantry. 

Moonwort Forgetfulness. 

Morning  Glory Affectation. 

Moschatel Weakness . 

Moss Maternal  love. 

Mosses Ennui. 

Mossy  Saxifrage Affection. 

Motherwort Concealed  love. 

Mountain  Ash Prudence. 

Mourning  Bride Unfortunate  attach- 

ment. I have  lost 
all. 

Mouse-eared  Chickweed.. Ingenuous  simplici- 
ty. 

Mouse-eared  Scorpion 

Grass Forget  me  not. 

Moving  Plant Agitation. 

Mudwort T ranquillity . 

Mugwort Happiness. 

Mulberry  Tree  (Black) I shall  not  survive 

you. 

Mulberry  Tree  (White). . .Wisdom. 

Mushroom  Suspicion. 

Musk  Plant Weakness. 

Mustard  Seed Indifference. 

Myrobalan Privation. 

M y rrh Gladness. 

Myrtle Love. 

Narcissus Egotism. 

Nasturtium Patriotism. 

Nettle  Burning Slander. 

Nettle  Tree Concert. 

Night-blooming  Cereus. . .Transient  beauty. 

Night  Convolvulus Night. 

Nightshade Truth. 


Oak  Leaves 

Oak  Tree 

Oak  (White) 

Oats 

Oleander 

Olive 

Orange  Blossoms. 

Orange  Flowers.. 

Orange  Tree 

Orchis 

Osier 

Osmunda 

Ox  Eye 


Bravery. 

Hospitality. 

. Independence. 

The  witching  soul 
of  music. 

Beware. 

Peace. 

Your  purity  equals 
your  loveliness. 
Chastity.  Bridal  fes- 
tivities. 
.Generosity. 

A Belle. 

Frankness. 

Dreams. 

, Patience. 


Palm Victory. 

Pansy Thoughts . 

Parsley Festivity. 

Pasque  Flower You  have  no  claims. 

Passion  Flower Religious  supersti- 

tion. 

Patience  Dock Patience. 

Pea,  Everlasting An  appointed  meet- 

ing. Lasting 
pleasure. 

Pea,  Sweet Departure. 


Peach  

your  charms,  are 
unequaled. 

Peach  Blossom 

...I  am  your  captive. 

Pear 

Pear  Tree 

Pennyroyal 

. . .Flee  away. 

Peony 

, . . Shame.  Bashfulness. 

Peppermint 

Periwinkle,  Elue 

Periwinkle,  White 

ory. 

Persicaria 

. .Restoration. 

Persimon 

...Bury  me  amid  Na- 
ture’s  beauties. 

Peruvian  Heliotrope... 

Pheasant’s  Eye 

. . .Remembrance. 

Phlox 

Pigeon  Berry 

. . .Indifference. 

Pimpernel 

tion. 

Pine 

Pine-apple 

Pine,  Pitch 

Pine,  Spruce 

. . . Hope  in  adversity. 

Pink.  

. . Boldness. 

Pink,  Carnation 

..  .Woman’s  love. 

Pink,  Indian,  Double... 

. Always  lovely. 

Pink,  Indian,  Single 

...Aversion. 

Pink,  Mountain 

Pink,  Red,  Double 

, . . Pure  and  ardent  love 

Pink,  Single 

Pink,  Variegated 

. . . Refusal. 

Pink,  White 

...Ingeniousness.  Tal- 
ent. 

Plane  T ree 

, . .Genius. 

Plum,  Indian 

. . .Privation. 

Plum  Tree 

. .Fidelity. 

Plum,  Wild 

. . .Independence. 

Polyanthus 

Polyanthus,  Crimson . . , 

. . .The  heart’s  mystery 

Polyanthus,  Lilac 

Pomegranate 

, . . Foolishness. 

Pomegranate  Flower. . , 

. . . Mature  elegance. 

Poplar,  Black 

. . . Courage. 

Poplar,  White 

. .Time. 

Poppy,  Red 

. .Consolation. 

Poppy,  Scarlet 

. . . Fantastic  extrava- 
gance. 

Poppy,  White 

...Sleep.  My  bane. 
My  antidote. 

Potato 

...Benevolence. 

Prickly  Pear 

Pride  of  China 

, . .Dissension. 

Primrose 

...Early  youth. 

Primrose,  Evening 

..Inconstancy. 

Primrose,  Red 

. . . Unpatronized  merit 

Privet 

. . .Prohibition. 

Purple,  Clover 

. . . Provided 

Pyrus  Japonica 

..Fairies’  fire. 

Quaking-Grass 

. . .Agitation. 

Quamoclit 

. ..Busybody. 

Queen’s  Rocket 

. . You  are  the  queen  of 
coquettes.  Fash- 
ion. 

Quince 

..Temptation. 

Ragged  Robin 

..Wit. 

Ranunculus 

. . You  are  radiant  with 
charms. 

640 


THE  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 


Ranunculus,  Garden You  are  rich  in  at- 

tractions. 

Ranunculus,  Wild Ingratitude. 

Raspberry Remorse. 

Ray  Grass Vice. 

Red  Catchfly Youthful  love. 

Reed  Complaisance. 

Music. 

Reed,  Split Indiscretion. 

Rhododendron  (Rosebay)  Danger.  Beware. 

Rhubarb Advice. 

Rocket ....Rivalry. 

Rose Love. 

Rose,  Austrian Thou  art  all  that  is 

lovely. 

Rose,  Bridal Happy  love. 

Rose,  Burgundy Unconscious  beauty 

Rose,  Cabbage Ambassador  of  love. 

Rose,  Campion Only  deserve  my 

love. 

Rose,  Carolina Love  is  dangerous. 

Rose,  China Beauty  always  new. 

Rose,  Christmas Tranquilize  my  anx- 

iety. 

Rose,  Daily Thy  smile  I aspire  to 

Rose,  Damask Brilliant  complexion 

Rose,  Deep  Red Bashful  shame. 

Rose,  Dog Pleasure  and  pain. 

Rose,  Guelder Winter.  Age. 

Rose,  Hundred-leaved.. . .Pride. 

Rose,  Japan Beauty  is  your  only 

attraction. 

Rose,  Maiden  Blush If  you  love  me,  you 

will  find  it  out. 

Rose,  Multiflora Grace. 

Rose,  Mundi Variety. 

Rose.  Musk Capricious  beauty. 

Rose,  Musk,  Cluster Charming. 

Rose,  Single Simplicity. 

Rose,  Thornless Early  attachment. 

Rose,  Unique Call  me  notbeautiful 

Rose,  White I am  worthy  of  you. 

Rose,  White  (withered)..  .Transient  impres- 
sions. 

Rose,  Yellow Decrease  of  love. 

Jealousy. 

Rose,  York  and  Lancaster  War. 

Rose,  Full-blown, placed 

over  two  Buds Secrecy. 

Rose,  White  and  Red 

together Unity. 

Roses,  Crown  of Reward  of  virtue. 

Rosebud,  Red Pure  and  lovely. 

Rosebud,  White Girlhood. 

Rosebud,  Moss Confession  of  love. 

Rosebay  (Rhododendron)  Beware.  Danger. 

Rosemary Remembrance. 

Rudbeckia Justice. 

Rue  Disdain. 

Rush Docility. 

Rye  Grass Changeable  disposi- 

tion. 

Saff'.on  Beware  of  excess. 

Saffron  Crocus Mirth. 

Saffron,  Meadow My  happiest  days 

are  past. 

Sage Domestic  virtue. 

Sage,  Garden Esteem. 

Sainfoin Agitation. 

St.  John’s  Wort Animosity.  Super- 

stition. 


Sardony Irony. 

Saxifrage,  Mossy Affection. 

Scabious Unfortunate  love. 

Scabious.  Sweet Widowhood. 

Scarlet  Lychnis Sunbeaming  eyes. 

Schinus Religious  enthusi- 

asm. 

Scotch  Fir Elevation. 

Sensitive  Plant Sensibility.  Deli- 

cate feelings. 

Senvy Indifference. 

Shamrock  Light-heartedness. 

Snakesfoot Horror. 

Snapdragon Presumption. 

Snowball Bound. 

Snowdrop Hope. 

Sorrel Affection. 

Sorrel,  Wild Wit  ill-timed. 

Sorrel,  Wood Joy. 

Southernwood Jest.  Bantering. 

Spanish  Jasmine Sensuality,  [merit- 

Spearmint Warmth  of  senti- 

Speedwell Female  fidelity. 

Speedwell,  Germander... . Facility. 

Speedwell,  Spiked Semblance. 

Spider  Ophrys Adroitness. 

Spiderwort Esteem,  not  love. 

Spiked  Willow  Herb Pretension. 

Spindle  Tree Your  charms  are  en- 

graven on  my  heart. 

Star  of  Bethlehem  Purity. 

Starwort Afterthought,  [age. 

Starwort,  American Cheerfulness  in  old 

Stock  Lasting  beauty. 

Stock,  Ten  Week Promptness. 

Stonecrop Tranquillity. 

Straw,  Broken Rupture  of  a con- 

tract. 

Straw,  Whole Union. 

Strawberry  Tree Esteem  and  love. 

Sumach,  Venice Splendor.  Intellec- 

tual excellence. 

Sunflower,  Dwarf Adoration. 

Sunflower,  Tall Haughtiness. 

Swallow-wort Cure  for  heartache. 

Sweet  Basil Good  wishes. 

Sweetbrier,  American Simplicity. 

Sweetbrier,  European I wound  to  heal. 

Sweetbrier,  Yellow Decrease  of  love. 

Sweet  Pea Delicate  pleasures. 

Sweet  Sultan Felicity. 

Sweet  William Gallantry. 

Sycamore Curiosity. 

Syringa Memory. 

Syringa,  Carolina Disappointment. 

Tamarisk Crime. 

Tansy  (Wild) I declare  war 

against  you. 

Teasel Misanthropy. 

Tendrils  of  Climbing 

Plants  Ties. 

Thistle,  Common Austerity. 

Thistle,  Fuller’s Misanthropy. 

Thistle,  Scotch Retaliation. 

Thorn,  Apple Deceitful  charms. 

Thorn,  Branch  of Severity. 

Thrift Sympathy. 

Throatwort Neglected  beauty. 

Thyme Activity. 

Tiger  Flower For  once  may  pride 

befriend  me. 


Traveler’s  Joy Safety. 

Tree  of  Life Old  age. 

Trefoil Revenge. 

Tremella  Nestoc Resistance. 

Trillium  Pictum Modest  beauty. 

Truffle Surprise. 

Trumpet  Flower Fame.  [ures 

Tuberose Dangerous  pleas 

Tulip Fame. 

Tulip,  Red Declaration  of  love. 

Tiriip,  Variegated Beautiful  eyes. 

Tulip,  Yellow Hopeless  love. 

Turnip Charity.  [you, 

Tussilage  (Sweet-scented)Justice  shall  be  done 

Valerian ;...An  accommodating 

disposition. 

Valerian,  Greek Rupture. 

Venice  Sumach Intellectual  excel- 

lence. Splendor. 

Venus’s  Car Fly  with  me. 

Venus's  Looking-glass  ...Flattery. 

Venus’s  Trap. Deceit. 

Vernal  Grass Poor,  but  happy. 

Veronica Fidelity. 

Vervain Enchantment. 

Vine Intoxication . 

Violet,  Blue Faithfulness. 

Violet,  Dane Watchfulness. 

Violet,  Sweet Modesty. 

Violet,  Yellow Rural  happiness. 

Virginian  Spiderwort Momentary  happi 

ness. 

Virgin’s  Bower Filial  love. 

Volkamenia May  you  be  happy. 

Walnut Intellect.  Stratagem 

Wall-flower Fidelity  in  adversity 

Water  Lily Purity  of  heart. 

Water  Melon Bulkiness. 

Wax  Plant Susceptibility. 

Wheat  Stalk Riches. 

Whin Anger. 

White  Jasmine Amiableness. 

White  Lily Purity  and  modesty. 

White  Mullein Good  nature. 

White  Oak Independence. 

White  Pink Talent. 

White  Poplar Time. 

White  Rose  (dried) Death  preferable  to 

loss  of  innocence. 

Wortleberry T reason. 

Willow,  Creeping Love  forsaken. 

Willow,  Water Freedom. 

Willow,  Weeping Mourning. 

Willow-Herb Pretension.  [ity. 

Willow,  French Bravery  and  human 

Winter  Cherry Deception. 

Witch  Hazel A spell. 

Woodbine Fraternal  love. 

Wood  Sorrel Joy.  Maternal  ten 

derness. 

Wormwood Absence. 

Xanthium Rudeness.  Pertin- 

acity. 

Xeranthemum Cheerfulness  under 

adversity. 

Yew Sorrow. 

Zephyr  Flower Expectation. 

Zinnia Thoughts  of  absent 

friends. 


THE  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 


641 


^lie  l(oyal  l|oktl  to  tl|C  Laiigtiage  of  Flowers. 


Absence Worm  wood . 

Abuse  not Crocus. 

Acknowledgment Canterbury  Bell. 

Activity Thyme. 

Admiration Amethyst. 

Adoration Dwarf  Sunflower. 

Adroitness Spider  Ophrys. 

Adulation Cacalia. 

Ad  vice Rhubarb. 

Affection Mossy  Saxifrage. 

Affection Pear. 

Affection Sorrel. 

Affection  beyond  the 
grave.  Green  Locust. 

Affection,  maternal Cinquefoil. 

Affectation Cockscomb  Ana- 

ranth. 

Affectation Morning  Glory. 

Afterthought Michaelmas  Daisy. 

Afterthought Starwort. 

Afterthought China  Aster. 

Agreement Straw. 

Age Guelder  Rose. 

Agitation Moving  Plant. 

Agitation Sainfoin. 

Alas  ! for  my  poor  heart. Deep  Red  Carnation 

Always  cheerful Coreopsis. 

Always  lovely Indian  Pink  (double) 

Ambassador  of  love Cabbage  Rose. 

Amiability Jasmine. 

Anger Whin. 

Animosity St.  John’s  Wort. 

Anticipation Gooseberry. 

Anxious  and  trembling..  Red  Columbine. 

Ardor Cuckoo  Plan;. 

Argument Fig. 

Arts  or  artifice Acanthus. 

Assiduous  to  please Sprig  of  Ivy  with 

tendrils. 

Assignation ..Pimpernel. 

Attachment Indian  Jasmine. 

Audacity Larch. 

Avarice Scarlet  Auricula. 

Aversion China  or  Indian 

Pink. 


B. 


Bantering 

..  Southernwood. 

Baseness 

Bashfulness 

Bashful  shame 

Beautiful  eyes 

Beauty  

Beauty  always  new — 

Beauty,  capricious 

Beauty*  capricious  . . . . 

Beauty,  delicate 

Beauty,  delicate 

Beauty,  divine 

Beauty,  glorious 

Beauty,  lasting 

Beauty,  magnificent. . . 

Beauty,  mental 

Beauty,  modest  

Beautv,  neglected 

Beauty,  pensive Laburnum. 

Beauty,  rustic French  Honeysuckle 

Beauty,  unconscious Burgundy  Rose. 

Beauty  is  your  only  attrac- 
tion  Japan  Rose. 

Belle Orchis. 

Be  mine Four-leaved  Clover. 

Beneficence Marshmallow. 

Benevolence Potato. 

Betrayed White  Catchfly. 

Beware Oleander. 

Beware Rosebay. 

Blackness Ebony  Tree. 

Bluntness Borage. 

Blushes Marjoram. 

Boaster Hydrangea. 

Boldness Pink. 

Bonds Convolvulus. 

Bonds  of  affection  . Gillyflower. 

Bravery Oak  Leaves. 

Bravery  and  humanity  ...French  Willow. 

Bridal  favor Ivy  Geranium. 

Brilliant  complexion Damask  Rose. 

Bulk ..Water  Melon. 

Bulk Gourd. 

Busybody Quamoclit. 

Bury  me  amid  Nature’s 
beauties Persimon. 

C. 

Call  me  not  beautiful Rose  Unique. 

Calm  repose Buckbean. 

Calumny Hellebore. 

Calumny Madder. 

Change Pimpernel. 

Changeable  disposition. . .Rye  Grass. 

Charity Turnip. 

Charming Cluster  of  Musk 

Roses. 

Charms,  deceitful Thorn  Apple. 

Cheerfulness  in  old  age. . .American  Starwort. 
Cheerfulness  under  adver- 
sity   Chinese  Chrysan- 

themum. 

Chivalry Monkshood  (Helmet 

Flower). 

Cleanliness Hyssop. 

Coldheartedncss Lettuce. 

Coldness Agnus  Castus. 

Color  of  my  life. ...  Coral  Honeysuckle. 

Come  down Jacob’s  Ladder. 

Comfort Pear  Tree. 

Comforting Scarlet  Geranium. 

Compassion Allspice. 

Concealed  love Motherwort. 

Concert Nettle  Tree. 

Concord .LotcTree. 

Confession  of  love Moss  Rosebud. 

Confidence Hepatica. 

Confidence Lilac  Polyanthus. 

Confidence Liverwort. 

Confidence  in  Heaven  ..  Flowering  Reed. 

Conjugal  love Lime,  or  Linden 

Tree. 

Consolation Red  Poppy. 

Constancy Bluebell. 

Consumed  by  love Syrian  Mallow. 


Counterfeit Mock  Orange. 

Courage Black  Poplar. 

Crime Tamarisk. 

Cure Balm  of  Gilead. 

Cure  for  heartache Swallow  Wort. 

Curiosity Sycamore. 

D. 

Danger Rhododendron. 

Rosebay. 

Dangerous  pleasures Tuberose. 

Death Cypress. 

Death  preferable  to  loss  of 

innocence White  Rose  (dried). 

Deceit Apocynum. 

Deceit Flytrap. 

Deceit Dogsbane. 

Deceitful  charms Apple,  Thom. 

Deception White  Cherry  Tree. 

Declaration  of  love Red  Tulip. 

Decrease  of  love Yellow  Rose. 

Delay Eupatorium. 

Delicacy Bluebottle.  Century 

Dejection Lichen. 

Desire  to  please Mezereon. 

Despair Cypress. 

Despondency Humble  Plant. 

Devotion Peruvian  Heliotrope 

Difficulty . .Blackthorn. 

Dignity Cloves. 

Dignity Laurel-leaved  Mag 

noli  a. 

Disappointment Syringa,  Carolina. 

Disdain Yellow  Carnation. 

Disdain Rue. 

Disgust Frog  Ophrys. 

Dissension Pride  of  China. 

Distinction . . .Cardinal  Flower. 

Distrust Lavender. 

Divine  beauty American  Cowslip. 

Docility Rush. 

Domestic  industry Flax. 

Domestic  virtue Sage. 

Durability Dogwood. 

Duration Cornel  Tree. 

E. 

Early  attachment Thornless  Rose. 

Early  friendship Blue  Periwinkle. 

Early  youth Primrose. 

Elegance Locust  Tree. 

Elegance  and  grace Yellow  Jasmine. 

Elevation Scotch  Fir. 

Eloquence Lagerstrmmia,  In- 

dian. 

Enchantment Holly  Herb. 

Enchantment Vervain. 

Energy  in  adversity Camomile. 

Envy Bramble. 

Error Bee  Ophrys. 

Error Fly  Orchis. 

Esteem Garden  Sage. 

Esteem,  not  love Spiderwort. 

Esteem  and  love  Strawberry  Tree. 

Estranged  love Lotus  Flower. 

Excellence Camellia  Japonica 

Expectation Anemone. 


642 


THE  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 


Expectation 

Expected  meeting... 

Nutmeg  Geranium. 

Extent  

Extinguished  hopes.. 

F. 

Facility 

well. 

Fairies’  fire 

Pyrus  Japonica. 

Faithfulness 

Faithfulness  

Heliotrope. 

Falsehood 

Bugloss. 

Falsehood 

Falsehood 

Manchineal  Tree. 

Fame 

Tulip.  Trumpet 

Flower. 


Fame  speaks  him  great  Apple  blossom. 

and  good  

Fantastic  extravagance. . .Scarlet  Poppy. 


Farewell 

.Michaelmas  Daisy. 

Fascination 

.Fern. 

Fascination 

.Honesty. 

Fashion 

.Queen’s  Rocket. 

Fecundity 

. Hollyhock. 

Felicity 

.Sweet  Sultan. 

Female  fidelity 

.Speedwell. 

Festivity 

.Parsley. 

Fickleness 

. Abatina. 

Fickleness 

.Pink  Larkspur. 

Filial  love 

. Virgin’s  bower. 

Fidelity  

Veronica.  Ivy. 

Fidelity 

. Plum  Tree. 

Fidelity  in  adversity 

.Wall-flower. 

Fidelity  in  love 

. Lemon  Blossoms. 

Fire 

. Fleur-de-Luce. 

First  emotions  of  love... 

.Purple  Lilac. 

Flame 

.Fleur-de-lis.  Iris. 

Flattery 

.Venus’s  Looking- 
glass. 

Flee  away 

. Pennyroyal. 

Fly  with  me 

.Venus’s  Car. 

Folly 

.Columbine. 

Foppery 

.Cockscomb  Amar- 
anth. 

Foolishness 

.Pomegranate. 

Foresight 

. Holly. 

Forgetfulness 

. Moonwort. 

Forget  me  not 

.Forget  me  not. 

For  once  may  pride  be 

- 

friend  me 

.Tiger  Flower. 

Forsaken  

.Garden  Anemone. 

Forsaken 

. Laburnum. 

Frankness 

.Osier. 

Fraternal  love 

.Woodbine. 

Freedom 

.Water  Willow. 

Freshness  

.Damask  Rose. 

Friendship 

Acacia. 

Friendship,  early 

Blue  Periwinkle. 

Friendship,  true 

Oak-leaved  Geran- 
ium. 

Friendship,  unchanging.. 

Arbor  Vitae. 

Frivolity 

London  Pride. 

Frugality 

Chicory.  Endive. 

G. 

Gaiety 

. Butterfly  Orchis. 

Gaiety 

Yellow  Lily. 

Gallantry 

Sweet  William. 

Generosity 

Orange  Tree. 

Generous  and  devotedFrench  Honey- 

affection 

suckle. 

Genius Plane  Tree. 


Gentility 

..Corn  Cockle. 

Girlhood 

. White  Rosebud. 

Gladness 

..Myrrh. 

Glory  

. .Bay  Tree. 

Glory 

. . Laurel . 

Glorious  beauty 

. .Glory  Flower. 

Goodness 

..Bonus  Henricus. 

Goodness 

..Mercury. 

Good  education 

..Cherry  Tree. 

Good  wishes 

..Sweet  Basil. 

Good  nature 

..White  Mullein. 

Gossip 

, .Cobcea. 

Grace 

.Multiflora  Rose. 

Grace  and  elegance 

.Yellow  Jasmine. 

Grandeur 

. Ash  Tree. 

Gratitude 

..Small  White  Bell- 
flower. 

Grief 

. Harebell. 

Grief 

. Marigold. 

H. 

Happy  love 

.Bridal  Rose 

Hatred 

.Basil. 

Haughtiness 

.Purple  Larkspur. 

Haughtiness 

.Tall  Sunflower. 

Health 

.Iceland  Moss. 

Hermitage 

.Milkwort. 

Hidden  worth 

.Coriander. 

Honesty 

.Honesty. 

Hope 

.Flowering  Almond. 

Hope 

. Hawthorn. 

Hope 

.Snowdrop. 

Hope  in  adversity 

.Spruce  Pine. 

Hopeless  love 

. Yellow  Tulip. 

Hopeless,  not  heartless.. 

.Love  Lies  Bleeding. 

Horror 

. Mandrake. 

Horror 

. Dragonswort. 

Horror 

Snakesfoot. 

Hospitality 

Oak  Tree. 

Humility 

. Broom. 

Humility 

.Bindweed,  Small. 

Humility 

.Field  Lilac. 

X. 


I am  too  happy 

. Cape  Jasmine. 

I am  your  captive 

.Peach  Blossom. 

I am  worthy  of  you 

. White  Rose. 

I change  but  in  death . . . 

. Bay  leaf. 

I declare  against  you... 

. Belvedere. 

I declare  against  you 

. Licorice. 

I declare  war  against  you. Wild  Tansy. 

I die  if  neglected 

. Laurestina. 

I desire  a return  of  affec 

tion 

Jonquil. 

I feel  my  obligations. . . . 

.Lint. 

I feel  your  kindness 

.Flax. 

I have  lost  all 

.Mourning  Bride. 

I live  for  thee 

Cedar  Leaf. 

I love 

Red  Chrysanthe- 

mum. 

I partake  of  your  sent! 

ments 

Double  China  Aster 

I partake  your  sentiments. Garden  Daisy. 

I shall  die  to-morrow 

Gum  Cistus. 

I shall  not  survive  you. . 

. Black  Mulberry. 

I surmount  difficulties  — 

. Mistletoe. 

I will  think  of  it 

Single  China  Aster. 

I will  think  of  it 

.Wild  Daisy. 

I wound  to  heal 

.Eglantine  (Sweet- 

brier). 

If  you  love  me,  you  will 

find  it  out 

Maiden  Blush  Rose. 

Idleness Mesembryan 

themum. 

Ill-natured  beauty Citron. 

Imagination Lupine. 

Immortality Amaranth  (Globe). 

Impatience Yellow  Balsam. 

Impatient  of  absence Corchorus. 

Impatient  resolves Red  Balsam. 

Imperfection Henbane. 

Importunity Burdock. 

Inconstancy Evening  Primrose. 

Incorruptible Cedar  of  Lebanon. 

Independence Wild  Plum  Tree. 

Independence White  Oak. 

Indifference Candytuft,  Eve* 

flowering. 

Indifference Mustard  Seed. 

Indifference Pigeon  Berry. 

Indifference Senvy. 

Indiscretion Split  Reed. 

Industry Red  Clover. 

Industry  Domestic Flax. 

Ingeniousness White  Pink. 

Ingenuity Penciled  Geranium 

Ingenuous  Simplicity Mouse-eared  Chick 

weed. 

Ingratitude Crowfoot. 

Innocence Daisy. 

Insincerity Foxglove. 

Insinuation Great  Bindweed. 

Inspiration Angelica. 

Instability Dahlia. 

Intellect Walnut. 

Intoxication Vine. 

Irony Sardony. 

J. 

Jealousy French  Marigold 

Jealousy Yellow  Rose. 

Jest Southernwood . 

Joy Wood  Sorrel. 

Joys  to  come Lesser  Celandine. 

Justice Rudbeckia. 

Justice  shall  be  done  to 

you Coltsfoot. 

Justice  shall  be  done  to 

you Sweet-scented  Tus 

silage. 


K. 


Knight-errantry  . . . 

(Monks  hood). 
L. 

Lamentation 

Lasting  beauty 

Lasting  pleasures. . . 

Let  me  go 

Levity 

Liberty 

Life 

Lightheartedness — 

Lightness 

Live  for  me 

Love 

...  . Myrtle. 

Love 

Love,  forsaken 

Love  returned 

Ambrosia. 

Love  is  dangerous. . . 

Carolina  Rose. 

Luster 

Crowfoot,  or  Fair 
Maid  of  France. 

Luxury 

r 


THE  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 


M. 


Magnificent  beauty. . . . 

Calla  --F.thiopica. 

Majesty 

Crown  Imperial. 

Malevolence 

Lobelia. 

Marriage  

...Ivy. 

Maternal  affection 

. . .Cinauefoil. 

Maternal  love 

Moss. 

Maternal  tenderness. . . 

Wood  Sorrel 

Matrimony 

. . .American  Linden. 

May  you  be  happy  . . . 

. . . Volkamenia. 

Meanness 

Meekness 

Birch. 

Melancholy 

..  Dark  Geranium. 

Melancholy 

. . . . Dead  Leaves. 

Mental  beauty 

Clematis. 

Mental  beauty 

Kennedia. 

Message 

Mildness 

Mirth 

Saffron  Crocus. 

Misanthropy 

. . . Aconite  (Wolfsbane) 

Misanthropy 

Fuller’s  Teasel. 

Modest  beauty 

Trillium  Pictum. 

Modest  genius 

. . . Creeping  Cereus. 

Modesty , 

. . .Violet. 

Modesty  and  purity  . . . 

. . .White  Lily. 

Momentary  happiness. 

. . .Virginian  Spider- 
wort. 

Mourning 

Music 

. . .Bundles  of  reed  , 
with  their  panicles 

My  best  days  are  past. . 

. . .Colchicum,or  Mead- 
ow  Saffron. 

My  regrets  follow  you  to 

the  grave 

Asphodel. 

N. 

Neatness 

Neglected  beauty 

Never-ceasing  r e m e m - 

brance 

O. 

Old  age  Tree  of  Life. 

Only  deserve  my  love.... Champion  Rose. 


P. 

Painful  recollections Flos  Adonis. 

Painting Auricula. 

Painting  the  lily Daphne  Odora. 

Passion White  Dittany. 

Paternal  error Cardamine. 

Patience Dock.  Ox-eye. 

Patriotism American  Elm. 

Patriotism  Nasturtium. 

Peace Olive. 

Perfected  loveliness...  . Camellia  Japonica, 
White. 

Perfidy Common  Laurel,  in 

flower. 

Pensive  beauty Laburnum. 

Perplexity Love  in  a mist. 

Persecution Checkered  F r i t i 1- 

lary. 

Perseverance  Swamp  Magnolia. 

Persuasion Althea  Frutex. 

Persuasion Syrian  Mallow. 

Pertinacity Clotbur. 

Pity Pine. 

Pleasure  and  pain Dog  Rose. 

Pleasure,  Lasting Everlasting  Pea. 

Pleasures  of  memory White  Periwinkle. 


Popular  favor 

Poverty 

Power 

Power 

Precaution 

Prediction 

Pretension 

Pride 
Pride 

Privation.. . 
Privation. . . 

Profit 

Prohibition . 

Prolific 

Promptness 
Prosperity. . 
Protection. . 
Prudence 
Pure  love 
Pure  and  ardent  love 
Pure  and  lovely 
Purity 


.Cistusc  or  Rock 
Rose. 

Evergreen  Clematis 
Imperial  Montague. 
Cress. 

Golden  Rod. 
Prophetic  Marigold. 
Spiked  Willow  Herb 
Amaryllis. 

Hundr  e d -1  ea  v ed 
Rose. 

Indian  Plum. 

Myrobalan. 

Cabbage. 

Privet. 

Fig  Tree. 

Ten-week  Stock. 
Beech  Tree. 

Bearded  Crepis. 
Mountain  Ash. 
Single  Red  Pink. 
Double  Red  Pink. 
Red  Rosebud. 

Star  of  Bethlehem. 


Q 

Quarrel Broken  Corn-straw. 

Quicksightedness Hawkweed. 


R. 


Reason 

..Goat’s  Rue. 

Recantation 

. . Lotus  Leaf. 

Recall 

..Silver-leaved  Ger- 

anium. 

Reconciliation 

..Filbert. 

Reconciliation 

. . Hazel. 

Refusal 

..Striped  Carnation. 

Regard 

. .Daffodil. 

Relief 

. .Balm  of  Gilead. 

Relieve  my  anxiety 

. .Christmas  Rose. 

Religious  superstition  . . 

. .Aloe. 

Religious  superstition.. 

. . Passion  Flower. 

Religious  enthusiasm . . . 

..Schinus. 

Remembrance 

. . Rosemary. 

Remorse 

..Bramble. 

Remorse 

. . Raspberry. 

Rendezvous 

. .Chickwced. 

Reserve 

. .Maple. 

Resistance 

..Tremella  Nestoc. 

Restoration 

. .Persicaria. 

Retaliation 

Return  of  happiness. , . . 

. .Lily  of  the  Valley. 

Revenge  

. .Birdsfoot  Trefoil. 

Reverie 

. .Flowering  Fern. 

Reward  of  merit 

. . . Bay  Wreath. 

Reward  of  virtue  

. . . Garland  of  Roses. 

Riches 

, . .Corn. 

Rigor 

. . .Lantana. 

Rivalry 

. ..Rocket. 

Rudeness 

. .Clotbur. 

Rudeness 

. .Xanthium. 

Rural  happiness 

. .Yellow  Violet. 

Rustic  beauty 

. .French  Honeysuckle 

Rustic  oracle 

..Dandelion. 

S. 


Sadness Dead  Leaves. 

Safety Traveler’s  Joy. 

Satire Prickly  Pear. 

Sculpture Hoya. 

Secret  love Yellow  Acacia. 

Semblance Spiked  Speedwell. 


643 


Sensitiveness 

Sensuality 

Separation 

Severity 

Shame 

Sharpness 

Sickness 

Silliness 

Simplicity 

Sincerity 

Slighted  love 

Snare 

Solitude 

Sorrow 

Sourness  of  temper. 

Spell 

Spleen 

Splendid  beauty.... 

Splendor 

Sporting 

Steadfast  piety 

Stoicism  . v 

Strength 

Submission 

Submission 

Success  crown 

wishes 

Succor  

Sunbeaming  eyes. . . 

Surprise 

Susceptibility 

Suspicion 

Sympathy 

Sympathy 


Mimosa. 

Spanish  Jasmine. 

Carolina  Jasmine. 

Branch  of  Thorns. 

Peony. 

Barberry  Tree. 

Anemone  (Zephyr 

Flower). 

Fool’s  Parsley. 

American  Sweet- 

brier. 

Garden  Chervil. 

Yellow  Chrysanthe- 
mum. 

Catchfly.  Dragon 

Plant. 

Heath . 

Yew. 

Barberry. 

Circaea. 

Fumitory. 

Amaryllis. 

Austurtium. 

Fox-tail  Grass. 

Wild  Geranium. 

Box  Tree. 

Cedar.  Fenner- 

Grass. 

Harebeii. 

your 

Coronella. 

Juniper. 

Scarlet  Lychnis. 

Truffle. 

Wax  Plant. 

Champignon. 

Balm. 

Thrift. 


T. 

Talent White  Pink. 

Tardiness Flax-leaved  Goldy 

locks. 

Taste Scarlet  Fuschia. 

Tears Helenium. 

Temperance Azalea. 

Temptation  Apple. 

Thankfulness Agrimony. 

The  color  of  my  fate Coral  Honeysuckle. 

The  heart’s  mystery Crimson  Polyanthus 

The  perfection  of  female 

loveliness Justicia. 

The  witching  soul  of 

music Oats. 

Thoughts Pansy. 

Thoughts  of  absent 

friends Zinnia. 

Thy  frown  will  kill  me. ..Currant. 

Thy  smile  I aspire  to Daily  Rose. 

Tics Tendrils  of  Climb- 

ing Plants. 

Timidity Amaryllis. 

Timidity Marvel  of  Peru 

Time White  Poplar 

Tranquillity Mud  wort. 

Tranquillity Stonecrop. 

Tranquilize  my  anxiety... Christmas  Rose. 

Transient  beauty Night-b  looming 

Cereus. 

Transient  impressions Withered  White 

Rose. 

Transport  of  iov Cape  Jasmine. 


THE  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 


044 


Treachery B'lberry. 

True  love Forget  me  not. 

True  lriendship Oak-leaved  Geran- 

ium. 

Truth Bitter  sweet  Night- 

shade. 

Truth  White  Chrysanthe. 

mum. 

U. 

Unanimity  Phlox. 

Unbelief Judas  Tree. 

Unceasing  remembrance.  American  Cudweed 
Unchanging  friendship. . .Arbor  Vita;. 

Unconscious  beauty Burgundy  Rose. 

Unexpected  meeting Lemon  Geranium. 

Unfortunate  attachment. . Mourning  Bride. 

Unfortunate  love Scabious. 

Union... Whole  Straw. 

Unity White  and  Red  Rose 

together. 

Unpatronized  merit. Red  Primrose. 

Uselessness  Meadowsweet. 

Utility Grass. 

V. 

Variety China  Aster. 

Varie'v Mundi  Rose. 

Vice Darnel  (Ray  Grass). 

Victory Palm. 


Virtue Mint. 

Virtue,  Domestic Sage. 

Volubility Abecedary. 

Voraciousness Lupine. 

Vulgar  minds African  Marigold. 

W. 

War York  and  Lancaster 

Rose. 

War Achillea  Millefolia. 

Warlike  trophy Indian  Cress. 

Warmth  of  feeling Peppermint. 

Watchfulness Dame  Violet. 

Weakness Moschatel. 

Weakness Musk  Plant. 

Welcome  to  a stranger  ..American  Starwort 

Widowhood Sweet  Scabious. 

Win  me  and  wear  me Lady’s  Slipper. 

Winning  grace Cowslip. 

Winter Guelder  Rose. 

Wit Meadow  Lychnis. 

Wit  ill-timed ...  Wild  Sorrel. 

Witchcraft Enchanter’s  Night- 

shade. 

Worth  beyond  beauty. .. .Sweet  Alyssum. 
Worth  sustained  by  judi- 
cious and  tender  affec- 
tion.   Pink  Convolvulus. 

Worthy  all  praise Fennel. 


Y. 

You  are  cold Hortensia. 

You  are  my  divinity American  Cowslip. 

You  are  perfect Pine  Apple. 

You  are  radiant  with 
charms Ranunculus. 

You  are  rich  in  attractionsGarden  Ranunculus 

You  are  the  queen  of  co- 
quettes   Queen’s  Rocket. 

You  have  no  claims Pasque  Flower. 

You  please  all Branch  of  Currants 

You  will  be  my  death Hemlock. 

Your  charms  are  en- 
graven on  my  heart Spindle  Tree. 

Your  looks  freeze  me Ice  Plant. 

Your  presence  softens  my 
pains Milkvetch. 

Your  purity  equals  your 
loveliness Orange  Blossoms. 

Your  qualities,  like  your 
charms,  are  unequaled . . Peach. 

Your  qualities  surpass 
your  charms Mignionette. 

Youthful  innocence White  Lilac. 

Youthful  love Red  Catchfly 

Z. 

Zealousness Elder. 

Zest Lemon 


HOW  TO  PRESERVE  YOUR  HEALTH. 


645 


rHE  leading  conditions  essential  to  health 
may  be  thus  enumerated  : — 1.  A con- 
stant supply  of  pure  air  ; 2.  A suffi- 
ciency of  nourishing  food,  rightly  taken  ; 
3.  Cleanliness  ; 4.  A sufficiency  of  ex- 
ercise to  the  various  organs  of  the  system  ; 
5.  A right  temperature  ; 6.  A sufficiency  of 
cheerful  and  innocent  enjoyments  ; and,  7.  Exemp- 
tion from  harassing  cares. 


AIR. 

The  common  air  is  a fluid  composed  mainly  of  two  gases, 
in  certain  proportions  ; namely,  oxygen  as  twenty  and  nitrogen 
as  eighty  parts  in  a hundred,  with  a very  minute  addition  of 
carbonic  acid  gas.  Such  is  air  in  its  pure  and  right  state,  and 
such  is  the  state  in  which  we  require  it  for  respiration.  When 
it  is  loaded  with  any  admixture  of  a different  kind,  or  its  natural 
proportions  are  in  any  way  deranged,  it  cannot  be  breathed 
without  producing  injurious  results.  We  also  require  what  is 
apt  to  appear  a large  quantity  of  this  element  of  healthy  ex- 
istence. The  lungs  of  a healthy  full-grown  man  will  inhale 
the  bulk  of  twenty  cubic  inches  at  every  inspiration,  and  he 
will  use  no  less  than  fifty-seven  hogsheads  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Now,  there  are  various  circumstances  which  tend  to  sur- 
round us  at  times  with  vitiated  air,  and  which  must  accordingly 
be  guarded  against.  That  first  calling  for  attention  is  the 
miasma  or  noxious  quality  imparted  to  the  air  in  certain  dis- 
tricts by  stagnant  water  and  decaying  vegetable  matter.  It  is 
now  generally  acknowledged  that  this  noxious  quality  is  in 
reality  a subtle  poison,  which  acts  on  the  human  system 
through  the  medium  of  the  lungs,  producing  fevers  and  other 
epidemics. 

Putrid  matter  of  all  kinds  is  another  conspicuous  source  of 
noxious  effluvia.  The  filth  collected  in  ill-regulated  towns — 
ill  managed  drains — collections  of  decaying  animal  substances, 
placed  too  near  or  within  private  dwellings — are  notable  for 
their  effects  in  vitiating  the  atmosphere,  and  generating  dis- 
ease in  those  exposed  to  them.  In  this  case  also,  it  is  a poison 
diffused  abroad  through  the  air  which  acts  so  injuriously  on 
the  human  frame. 

The  human  subject  tends  to  vitiate  the  atmosphere  for  itself, 
by  the  effect  which  it  produces  on  the  air  which  it  breathes. 


Our  breath,  when  we  draw  it  in,  consists  of  the  ingredients 
formerly  mentioned  ; but  it  is  in  a very  different  state  when  we 
part  with  it.  On  passing  into  our  lungs  the  oxygen,  forming- 
the  lesser  ingredient,  enters  into  combination  with  the  carbon 
of  the  venous  blood  (or  blood  which  has  already  performed  its 
round  through  the  body) ; in  this  process  about  two-fifths  of 
the  oxygen  is  abstracted  and  sent  into  the  blood,  only  the  re- 
maining three-fifths  being  expired,  along  with  the  nitrogen 
nearly  as  it  was  before.  In  place  of  the  oxygen  consumed, 
there  is  expired  an  equal  volume  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  such, 
gas  being  a result  of  the  process  of  combination  just  alluded 
to.  Now,  carbonic  acid  gas,  in  a larger  proportion  than  that 
in  which  it  is  found  in  the  atmosphere,  is  noxious.  The  vol- 
ume of  it  expired  by  the  lungs,  if  free  to  mingle  with  the  air 
at  large,  will  do  no  harm  ; but,  if  breathed  out  into  a close 
room,  it  will  render  the  air  unfit  for  being  again  breathed. 
Suppose  an  individual  to  be  shut  up  in  an  air-tight  box  : each- 
breath  he  emits  throws  a certain  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 
into  the  air  filling  the  box;  the  air  is  thus  vitiated,  and  every 
successive  inspiration  is  composed  of  worse  and  worse  materi- 
als, till  at  length  the  oxygen  is  so  much  exhausted  that  it  is 
insufficient  for  the  support  of  life.  He  would  then  be  sensible 
of  a great  difficulty  in  breathing,  and  in  a little  time  longer  he 
would  die. 

Most  rooms  in  which  human  beings  live  are  not  strictly 
close.  The  chimney  and  the  chinks  of  the  doors  and  windows 
generally  allow  of  a communication  to  a certain  extent  with 
the  outer  air,  so  that  it  rarely  happens  that  great  immediate 
inconvenience  is  experienced  in  ordinary  apartments  from  want 
of  fresh  air.  But  it  is  at  the  same  time  quite  certain  that,  ini 
all  ordinary  apartments  where  human  beings  are  assembled, 
the  air  unavoidably  becomes  considerably  vitiated , for  in  such  a 
situation  there  cannot  be  a sufficiently  ready  or  copious  supply 
of  oxygen  to  make  up  for  that  which  has  been  consumed,  and' 
the  carbonic  acid  gas  will  be  constantly  accumulating.  This 
is  particularly  the  case  in  bedrooms,  and  in  theaters,  churches, 
and  schools. 

Perhaps  it  is  in  bedrooms  that  most  harm  is  done.  These 
are  generally  smaller  than  other  rooms,  and  they  are  usually- 
kept  close  during  the  whole  night.  The  result  of  sleeping  in 
such  a room  is  very  injurious.  A common  fire,  from  the 
draught  which  it  produces,  is  very  serviceable  in  ventilating 
rooms,  but  it  is  at  best  a defective  means  of  doing  so.  The 
draught  which  it  creates  generally  sweeps  along  near  the  floot 


646 


HOW  TO  PRESERVE  YOUR  HEALTH. 


between  the  door  and  the  fire,  leaving  all  above  the  level  of 
the  chimney-piece  unpurified.  Y et  scarcely  any  other  arrange- 
ment is  anywhere  made  for  the  purpose  of  changing  the  air  in 
ordinary  rooms. 

FOOD. 

The  second  requisite  for  the  preservation  of  health  is  a suffi- 
ciency of  nutritious  food. 

Organic  bodies,  in  which  are  included  vegetables  as  well  as 
animals,  are  constituted  upon  the  principle  of  a continual 
•waste  of  substance  stipplied  by  continual  nutrition. 

The  Nutritive  System  of  animals,  from  apparently  the 
humblest  of  these  to  the  highest,  comprehends  an  alimentary 
tube  or  cavity,  into  which  food  is  received,  and  from  which, 
after  undergoing  certain  changes,  it  is  diffused  by  means  of 
smaller  vessels  throughout  the  whole  structure.  In  the  form 
of  this  tube,  and  in  the  other  apparatus  connected  with  the 
taking  of  food,  there  are,  in  different  animals,  varieties  of 
structure,  all  of  which  are  respectively  in  conformity  with  pecu- 
liarities in  the  quality  and  amount  of  food  which  the  particular 
animals  are  designed  to  take.  The  .armony  to  be  observed 
in  these  arrangements  is  remarkably  significant  of  that  Creative 
design  to  be  traced  in  all  things. 

Man  Designed  to  Live  on  a Mixed  Diet. — Some  ani- 
mals are  formed  to  live  upon  vegetable  substances  alone; 
others  are  calculated  to  live  upon  the  flesh  of  other  animals. 
Herbivorous  animals,  as  the  former  are  called,  have  generally 
a long  and  complicated  alimentary  tube,  because  the  nutritious 
part  of  such  food,  being  comparatively  small  in  proportion  to 
the  whole  bulk,  requires  a greater  space  in  which  to  be  ex- 
tracted and  absorbed  into  the  system.  The  sheep,  for  example, 
has  a series  of  intestines  twenty-seven  times  the  length  of  its 
body.  For  the  opposite  reasons  carnivorous  or  flesh-devouring 
animals,  as  the  feline  tribe  of  quadrupeds,  and  the  rapacious 
birds,  have  generally  a short  intestinal  canal.  The  former 
class  of  animals  are  furnished  with  teeth  calculated  by  their 
broad  and  flat  surfaces,  as  well  as  by  the  lateral  movement  of 
the  jaws  in  which  they  are  set,  to  mince  down  the  herbage  and 
grain  eaten  by  them.  But  the  carnivorous  animals,  with  wide- 
opening  jaws,  have  long  and  sharp  fangs  to  seize  and  tear 
their  prey.  These  peculiarities  of  structure  mark  sufficiently 
the  designs  of  nature  with  respect  to  the  kinds  of  food  required 
by  the  two  different  classes  of  animals  for  their  support. 

The  human  intestinal  canal  being  of  medium  length,  and  the 
human  teeth  being  a mixture  of  the  two  kinds,  it  necessarily 
follows  that  man  was  designed  to  eat  both  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal food.  As  no  animal  can  live  agreeably  or  healthy  except 
in  conformity  with  the  laws  of  its  constitution,  it  follows  that 
man  will  not  thrive  unless  with  a mixture  of  animal  and  vege- 
table food.  The  followers  of  Pythagoras  argued,  from  the 
cruelty  of  putting  animals  to  death,  that  it  was  proper  to  live 
on  vegetables  alone,  and  many  eccentric  persons  of  modern 
times  have  acted  upon  this  rule.  But  the  ordinances  of  Nature 
speak  a different  language  ; and,  if  we  have  any  faith  in  these, 
we  cannot  for  a moment  doubt  that  a mixture  of  animal  food 
is  necessary  for  our  well-being.  On  the  other  hand,  we  cannot 
dispense  with  vegetable  food,  without  injurious  consequences. 
In  that  case  we  place  in  a medium  alimentary  canal  a kind  of 
food  which  is  calculated  for  a short  one,  thus  violating  an 


arrangement  of  the  most  important  nature.  A balance  between 
the  two  kinds  of  food  is  what  we  should  observe,  if  we  would 
desire  to  live  a natural  and  consequently  healthy  life. 

Rules  Connected  with  Eating. — In  order  fully  to  un- 
derstand how  to  eat,  what  to  eat,  and  how  to  conduct  ourselves 
after  eating,  it.  is  necessary  that  we  should  be  acquainted  in 
some  measure  with  the  process  of  nutrition — that  curious  series 
of  operations  by  which  food  is  received  and  assimilated  by  our 
system  in  order  to  make  good  the  deficiency  produced  by 
waste. 

Food  is  first  received  into  the  mouth,  and  there  the  oper- 
ations in  question  may  be  said  to  commence.  It  is  there  to 
be  chewed  (or  masticated),  and  mixed  with  saliva,  preparatory 
to  its  being  swallowed  or  sent  into  the  stomach.  Even  in  this 
introductory  stage,  there  are  certain  rules  to  be  observed. 
Strange  as  it  may  appear,  to  know  how  to  eat  is  a matter  of 
very  considerable  importance. 

Many  persons,  thinking  it  all  a matter  of  indifference,  or 
perhaps  unduly  anxious  to  dispatch  their  meals,  eat  very  fast. 
They  tumble  their  meat  precipitately  into  their  mouths,  and 
swallow  it  almost  without  mastication.  This  is  contrary  to  an 
express  law  of  nature,  as  may  be  easily  shown. 

Food,  on  being  received  into  the  mouth,  has  two  processes 
to  undergo,  both  very  necessary  to  digestion.  It  has  to  be 
masticated,  or  chewed  down,  and  also  to  receive  an  admixture 
of  saliva.  The  saliva  is  a fluid  arising  from  certain  glands  in 
and  near  the  mouth,  and  approaching  in  character  to  the  gas- 
tric juice  afterward  to  be  described.  Unless  food  be  well 
broken  down  or  masticated,  and  also  well  mixed  up  with  the 
salivary  fluid,  it  will  be  difficult  of  digestion.  The  stomach  is 
then  called  upon  to  do,  beside  its  own  proper  duty,  that  which 
properly  belongs  to  the  teeth  and  saliva,  and  it  is  thus  over- 
burdened and  embarrassed,  often  in  a very  serious  manner. 
The  pains  of  indigestion  are  the  immediate  consequence,  and 
more  remote  injuries  follow. 

It  is  therefore  to  be  concluded  that  a deliberate  mastication 
of  our  food  is  conducive  to  health , and  that  fast  eating  is  inju- 
rious, and  sometimes  even  dangerous. 

The  food,  having  been  properly  masticated,  is,  by  the  action 
of  the  tongue,  thrown  into  the  gullet.  It  then  descends  into 
the  stomach,  not  so  much  by  its  own  gravity,  as  by  its  being 
urged  along  by  the  contractions  and  motions  of  the  gullet  it- 
self. The  stomach  may  be  considered  as  an  expansion  of  the 
gullet,  and  the  chief  part  of  the  alimentary  canal.  It  is,  in 
fact,  a membranous  pouch  or  bag,  very  similar  in  shape  to  a 
bagpipe,  having  two  openings,  the  one  by  which  the  food  en- 
ters, the  other  that  by  which  it  passes  out.  It  is  into  the  greater 
curvature  of  the  bag  that  the  gullet  enters  ; it  is  at  its  lesser 
that  it  opens  into  that  adjoining  portion  of  the  canal  into 
which  the  half-digested  mass  is  next  propelled. 

When  food  has  been  introduced,  the  two  orifices  close,  and 
that  which  we  may  term  the  second  stage  in  the  process  of  di- 
gestion commences.  The  mass,  already  saturated  with  saliva, 
and  so  broken  down  as  to  expose  all  its  particles  to  the  action 
of  the  gastric  juice,  is  now  submitted  to  the  action  of  that 
fluid,  which,  during  digestion,  is  freely  secreted  by  the  vessels 
of  the  stomach.  The  most  remarkable  quality  of  this  juice  is 
its  solvent  power,  which  is  prodigious. 


HOW  TO  PRESERVE  YOUR  HEALTH. 


647 


The  food  exposed  to  this  dissolving  agency  is  converted  into 
a soft,  gray,  pulpy  mass,  called  chyme,  which,  by  the  muscular 
contraction  of  the  stomach,  is  urged  on  into  the'adjoining  part 
of  the  alimentary  canal,  called  the  duodenum.  This  is  gener- 
ally completed  in  the  space  of  from  half  an  hour  to  two  or 
three  hours  ; the  period  varying  according  to  the  nature  and 
volume  of  the  food  taken,  and  the  mastication  and  insaliva- 
tion it  has  undergone. 

In  the  duodenum,  the  chyme  becomes  intimately  mixed  and 
incorporated  with  the  bile  and  pancreatic  juice  ; also  with  a 
fluid  secreted  by  the  mucous  follicles  of  the  intestine  itself. 
The  bile  is  a greenish,  bitter,  and  somewhat  viscid  fluid,  se- 
creted by  the  liver,  which  occupies  a considerable  space  on 
the  right  side  of  the  body,  immediately  under  the  ribs.  From 
this  organ  the  bile,  after  a portion  of  it  has  passed  up  into  the 
adjacent  gall-bladder,  descends  through  a small  duct,  about 
the  size  of  a goose-quill,  into  the  duodenum.  The  chyme, 
when  mixed  with  these  fluids,  undergoes  a change  in  its  ap- 
pearance ; it  assumes  a yellow  color  and  bitter  taste,  owing  to 
the  predominance  of  the  bile  in  the  mass  ; but  its  character 
varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  food  that  has  been  taken. 
Fatty  matters,  tendons,  cartilages,  white  of  eggs,  etc.,  are  not 
so  readily  converted  into  chyme  as  fibrous  or  fleshy,  cheesy, 
and  glutinous  substances.  The  chyme,  having  undergone  the 
changes  adverted  to,  is  urged  by  the  peristaltic  motion  of  the 
intestines  onward  through  the  alimentary  canal.  This  curious 
motion  of  the  intestines  is  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the 
muscular  coat  which  enters  into  their  structure,  and  one  of  the 
principal  uses  ascribed  to  the  bile  is  that  of  stimulating  them 
to  this  motion.  If  the  peristaltic  motion  be  diminished,  ow- 
ing to  a deficiency  of  bile,  then  the  progress  of  digestion  is 
retarded,  and  the  body  becomes  constipated.  In  such  cases, 
calomel,  the  blue  pill,  and  other  medicines,  are  administered 
for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  the  liver  to  secrete  the  biliary 
fluid  that  it  may  quicken  by  its  stimulating  properties  the 
peristaltic  action.  But  this  is  not  the  only  use  of  the  bile : it 
also  assists  in  separating  the  nutritious  from  the  non-nutritious 
portion  of  the  alimentary  mass,  for  the  chyme  now  presents  a 
mixture  of  a fluid  termed  chyle , which  is  in  reality  the  nu- 
tritious portion  eliminated  from  the  food.  The  chyme  thus 
mixed  with  chyle  arrives  in  the  small  intestines,  on  the  walls 
of  which  a series  of  exquisitely  delicate  vessels  ramify  in  every 
direction.  These  vessels  absorb  or  take  up  the  chyle,  leaving 
the  rest  of  the  mass  to  be  ejected  from  the  body.  The  chyle, 
thus  taken  up,  is  carried  into  little  bodies  of  glands,  where  it 
is  still  further  elaborated,  acquiring  additional  nutritious  prop- 
erties ; after  which,  corresponding  vessels,  emerging  from  these 
glands,  carry  along  the  fluid  to  a comparatively  large  vessel, 
called  the  thoracic  duct,  which  ascends  in  the  abdomen  along 
the  side  of  the  back-bone,  and  pours  it  into  that  side  of  the 
heart  to  which  the  blood  that  has  already  circulated  through 
the  body  returns.  Here  the  chyle  is  intimately  mixed  with 
the  blood,  which  fluid  is  now  propelled  into  the  lungs,  where 
it  undergoes,  from  being  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  we 
breathe,  the  changes  necessary  to  render  it  again  fit  for  circu- 
lation. It  is  in  the  lungs,  therefore,  that  the  process  of  diges- 
tion is  completed;  the  blood  has  now  acquired  those  nutrient 
properties  from  which  it  secretes  the  new  particles  of  matter 


adapted  to  supply  the  waste  of  the  different  textures  of  the 
body. 

When  food  is  received  into  the  stomach,  the  secretion  of 
the  gastric  juice  immediately  commences;  and  when  a full 
meal  has  been  taken,  this  secretion  generally  lasts  for  about  an 
hour.  It  is  a law  of  vital  action,  that  when  any  living  organ 
is  called  into  play,  there  is  immediately  an  increased  flow  of 
blood  and  nervous  energy  toward  it.  The  stomach,  while  se- 
creting its  fluid,  displays  this  phenomenon,  and  the  conse- 
quence is,  that  the  blood  and  nervous  energy  are  called  away 
from  other  organs.  This  is  the  cause  of  that  chilliness  at  the 
extremities  which  we  often  feel  after  eating  heartily.  So  great 
is  the  demand  which  the  stomach  thus  makes  upon  the  rest  of 
the  system,  that,  during  and  for  some  time  after  a meal,  we  are 
not  in  a condition  to  take  strong  exercise  of  any  kind.  Both 
body  and  mind  are  inactive  and  languid.  They  are  so,  simply 
because  that  which  supports  muscular  and  mental  activity  is 
concentrated  for  the  time  upon  the  organs  of  digestion.  This 
is  an  arrangement  of  nature  which  a regard  to  health  requires 
that  we  should  not  interfere  with.  We  should  indulge  in  the 
muscular  and  mental  repose  -which  is  demanded  : and  this  should 
last  for  not  much  less  than  an  hour  after  every  meal.  In  that 
time  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice  is  nearly  finished  ; the  new 
nutriment  begins  to  tell  upon  the  general  circulation  ; and  we 
are  again  fit  for  active  exertion . The  consequence  of  not  observ- 
ing this  rule  is  very  hurtful.  Strong  exercise,  or  mental  appli- 
cation during  or  immediately  after  a meal,  diverts  the  flow  of 
nervous  energy  and  of  blood  to  the  stomach,  and  the  proc- 
ess of  digestion  is  necessarily  retarded  or  stopped.  Confu- 
sion is  thus  introduced  into  the  system,  and  a tendency  to  the 
terrible  calamity  of  dyspepsia  is  perhaps  established. 

For  the  same  reason  that  repose  is  required  after  a meal,  it 
is  necessary,  in  some  measure,  for  a little  while  before.  At 
the  moment  when  we  have  concluded  a severe  muscular  task, 
such,  for  example,  as  a long  walk,  the  flow  of  nervous  en- 
ergy and  of  circulation  is  strongly  directed  to  the  muscular 
system.  It  requires  some  time  to  allow  this  flow  to  stop  and 
subside  ; and,  till  this  takes  place,  it  is  not  proper  to  bring 
the  stomach  into  exercise,  as  the  demand  it  makes  when 
filled  would  not  in  that  case  be  answered.  Just  so  if  we  be 
engaged  in  close  mental  application,  the  nervous  energy  and 
circulation  being  in  that  case  directed  to  the  brain,  it  is  not 
right  all  at  once  to  call  another  and  distant  organ  into  play  ; 
some  time  is  required  to  allow  of  the  energy  and  circulation 
being  prepared  to  take  the  new  direction.  It  may,  there- 
fore, be  laid  down  as  a maxim,  that,  a short  period  of  repose 
or  at  least  of  very  light  occupation , should  be  allowed  before 
every  meal. 

Kinds  of  Food. — It  has  been  shown  by  a reference  to  the 
structure  of  the  human  intestinal  canal,  that  our  food  is 
designed  to  be  a mixture  of  animal  and  vegetable  substances. 

Inquiries  with  respect  to  the  comparative  digestibility  of 
different  kinds  of  food,  are  perhaps  chiefly  of  consequence  to 
those  in  whom  health  has  already  been  lost.  To  the  sound 
and  healthy  it  is  comparatively  of  little  consequence  what 
kind  of  food  is  taken,  provided  that  some  variation  is  observed, 
and  no  excess  committed  as  to  quantity.  Within  the  range  of 
fish,  flesh,  and  fowl,  there  is  ample  scope  for  a safe  choice* 


HOW  TO  PRESERVE  YOUR  HEALTH. 


There  is  scarcely  any  of  the  familiar  aliments  of  these  kinds, 
but,  if  plainly  dressed,  will  digest  in  from  two  to  four  hours, 
and  prove  perfectly  healthy.  One  rule  alone  has  been  pretty 
well  ascertained,  with  respect  to  animal  foods,  that  they  are  the 
more  digestible  the  more  minute  and  tender  the  fiber  may  be. 
They  contain  more  nutriment  in  a given  bulk  than  vegetable 
matters,  and  hence  their  less  need  for  length  of  intestine  to 
digest  them.  Yet  it  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  between  the 
chyle  produced  from  animal  and  that  from  vegetable  food,  no 
essential  distinction  can  be  observed. 

Tendon,  suet,  and  oily  matters  in  general,  are  considerably 
less  digestible  than  the  ordinary  fiber  ; and  these  are  aliments 
which  should  be  taken  sparingly.  Pickling,  from  its  effects  in 
hardening  the  fiber,  diminishes  the  digestibility  of  meat. 
Dressed  shell-fish,  cheese  and  some  other  animal  foods,  are 
avoided  by  many  as  not  sufficiently  digestible. 

Farinaceous  foods  of  all  kinds — wheat,  oaten,  and  barley 
bread,  oaten  porridge,  sago,  arrow-root,  tapioca,  and  potatoes 
— are  highly  suitable  to  the  human  constitution.  They  gener- 
ally require  under  two  hours  for  digestion,  or  about  half  the 
time  of  a full  mixed  meal.  The  cottage  children  of  Scotland, 
reared  exclusively  upon  oaten  porridge  and  bread,  with 
potatoes  and  milk,  may  be  cited  as  a remarkable  example  of  a 
class  of  human  beings  possessing  in  an  uncommon  degree  the 
blessing  of  health.  Green  vegetables  and  fruit,  however 
softened  by  dressing,  are  less  digestible,  and  less  healthy  as  a 
diet.  One  important  consideration  here  occurs.  There  is 
need  for  a certain  bulk  in  our  ordinary  food.  Receiving  nutri- 
ment in  a condensed  form  and  in  a small  space  will  not  serve 
the  purpose.  This  is  because  the  organs  of  digestion  are  cal- 
culated for  receiving  our  food  nearly  in  the  condition  in  which 
nature  presents  it,  namely  in  a considerable  bulk  with  regard 
to  its  nutritious  properties. 

Quantity  of  Food. — Number  and  Times  of  Meals. — 

With  respect  to  the  amount  of  food  necessary  for  health,  it  is 
difficult  to  lay  down  any  rule,  as  different  quantities  are  safe 
with  different  individuals,  according  to  their  sex,  age,  activity 
of  life,  and  some  other  conditions. 

The  number  and  times  of  meals  are  other  questions  as  yet 
undetermined.  As  the  digestion  of  a meal  rarely  requires 
more  than  four  hours,  and  the  waking  part  of  a day  is  about 
sixteen,  it  seems  unavoidable  that  at  least  three  meals  be  taken, 
though  it  may  be  proper  that  one,  if  not  two  of  these,  be  com- 
paratively of  a light  nature.  Breakfast,  dinner,  and  tea  as  a 
light  meal,  may  be  considered  as  a safe,  if  not  a very  accurate, 
prescription  for  the  daily  food  of  a healthy  person.  Certainly 
four  good  meals  a day  is  too  much. 

The  interval  between  rising  and  breakfast  ought  not  to  be 
great,  and  no  severe  exercise  or  task-work  of  any  kind  should 
be  undergone  during  this  interval.  There  is  a general  pre- 
possession to  the  contrary,  arising  probably  from  the  feeling 
of  freedom  and  lightness  which  most  people  feel  at  that  period 
of  the  day,  and  which  seems  to  them  as  indicating  a prepared- 
ness for  exertion.  But  this  feeling,  perhaps,  only  arises  from 
a sense  of  relief  from  that  oppression  of  food  under  which 
much  of  the  rest  of  the  day  is  spent.  It  is  quite  inconsistent 
with  all  we  know  of  the  physiology  of  aliment,  to  suppose  that 
the  body  is  capable  of  much  exertion  when  the  stomach  has 


been  for  several  hours  quite  empty.  We  have  known  many 
persons  take  long  walks  before  breakfast,  under  an  impression 
that  they  were  doing  something  extremely  favorable  to  health. 
Others  we  have  known  go  through  three  hours  of  mental  task- 
work at  the  same  period,  believing  that  they  were  gaining  so 
much  time.  But  the  only  observable  result  was  to  subtract 
from  the  powers  of  exertion  in  the  middle  and  latter  part  of 
the  day.  In  so  far  as  the  practice  was  contrary  to  nature,  it 
would  likewise  of  course  produce  permanent  injury.  Only  a 
short  saunter  in  the  open  air,  or  a very  brief  application  to  busi- 
ness or  task-work,  can  be  safely  indulged  in  before  breakfast. 

With  regard  to  the  time  for  either  breakfast  or  dinner, 
nothing  can  be  said  with  scientific  authority. 

Variety  of  Food. — A judicious  variation  of  food  is  not  only 
useful,  but  important.  There  are,  it  is  true,  some  aliments, 
such  as  bread,  which  cannot  be  varied,  and  which  no  one  ever 
wishes  to  be  so.  But  apart  from  one  or  two  articles,  a certain 
variation  of  rotation  is  much  to  be  desired,  and  will  prove 
favorable  to  health.  There  is  a common  prepossession  respect- 
ing one  dish,  which  is  more  spoken  of  than  acted  upon.  In 
reality,  there  is  no  virtue  in  this  practice,  excepting  that,  if 
rigidly  adhered  to,  it  makes  excess  nearly  impossible,  no  one 
being  able  to  eat  to  satiety  of  one  kind  of  food.  There  would 
be  a benefit  from  both  a daily  variation  of  food  and  eating  of 
more  than  one  dish  at  a meal,  if  moderation  were  in  both  cases 
to  be  strictly  observed,  for  the  relish  to  be  thus  obtained  is  use- 
ful as  promotive  of  the  flow  of  nervous  energy  to  the  stomach, 
exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  cheerfulness  is  useful.  The 
policy  which  would  make  food  in  any  way  unpleasant  to  the 
taste,  is  a most  mistaken  one  ; for  to  eat  with  languor,  or 
against  inclination,  or  with  any  degree  of  disgust,  is  to  lose 
much  of  the  benefit  of  eating.  On  the  other  hand,  to  cook 
dishes  highly,  and  provoke  appetite  by  artificial  means,  are 
equally  reprehensible.  Propriety  lies  in  the  mean  between  the 
two  extremes. 

Beverages. — The  body  containing  a vast  amount  of  fluids, 
which  are  undergoing  a perpetual  waste,  there  is  a necessity 
for  an  occasional  supply  of  liquor  of  some  kind,  as  well  as  of 
solid  food.  It  remains  to  be  considered  what  is  required  in 
the  character  or  nature  of  this  liquor,  to  make  it  serve  the  end 
consistently  with  the  preservation  of  health. 

When  the  digestion  is  good  and  the  system  in  full  vigor,  the 
bodily  energy  is  easily  sustained  by  nutritious  food,  and 
“artificial  stimulant  only  increases  the  wasting  of  the  natural 
strength."  Nearly  all  physicians,  indeed,  concur  in  represent- 
ing ardent  liquors  as  unfavorable  to  the  health  of  the  healthy, 
and  as  being  in  their  excess  highly  injurious.  Even  the 
specious  defense  which  has  been  set  up  for  their  use,  on  the 
ground  that  they  would  not  have  been  given  to  man  if  they 
had  not  been  designed  for  general  use,  has  been  shown  to  be 
ill-founded,  seeing  that  vinous  fermentation,  from  which  they 
are  derived,  is  not  a healthy  condition  of  vegetable  matter,  but 
a stage  in  its  progress  to  decay.  Upon  the  whole,  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  these  liquors  are  deleterious  in  our  ordinary 
healthy  condition  ; and  that  simple  water,  toast  water,  whey, 
ginger  beer,  or  lemonade,  would  be  preferable  (the  first  being 
the  most  natural  and  the  best  of  all),  if  we  could  only  consent 
to  deny  ourselves  further  indulgence. 


HOW  TO  PRESERVE  YOUR  HEALTH. 


649 


CLEANLINESS. 

To  keep  the  body  in  a cleanly  condition  is  the  third  impor- 
tant requisite  for  health.  This  becomes  necessary  in  conse- 
quence of  a very  important  process  which  is  constantly  going 
on  near  and  upon  the  surface  of  the  body. 

The  process  in  question  is  that  of  perspiration.  The  matter 
here  concerned  is  a watery  secretion  produced  by  glands  near 
the  surface  of  the  body,  and  sent  up  through  the  skin  by  chan- 
nels imperceptibly  minute  and  wonderfully  numerous.  From 
one  to  two  pounds  of  this  secretiqn  is  believed  to  exude  through 
these  channels  or  pores  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours, 
being  in  fact  the  chief  form  taken  by  what  is  called  the  waste 
of  the  system,  the  remainder  passing  off  by  the  bowels,  kidneys, 
and  lungs.  To  promote  the  egress  of  this  fluid  is  of  great 
consequence  to  health  ; for  when  it  is  suppressed,  disease  is 
apt  to  fall  upon  some  of  the  other  organs  concerned  in  the 
discharge  of  waste. 

One  of  the  most  notable  checks  which  perspiration  experi- 
ences is  that  produced  by  a current  of  cold  air  upon  the  skin, 
in  which  case  the  pores  instantly  contract  and  close,  and  the 
individual  is  seized  with  some  ailment  either  in  one  of  the 
other  organs  of  waste,  whichever  is  in  him  the  weakest,  or  in 
the  internal  lining  of  some  part  of  the  body,  all  of  which  is 
sympathetic  with  the  condition  of  the  skin.  A result  of  the 
nature  of  that  last  described  is  usually  recognized  as  a cold  or 
catarrh.  We  are  not  at  present  called  on  particularly  to  notice 
such  effects  of  checked  perspiration,  but  others  of  a less  imme- 
diately hurtful  or  dangerous  nature. 

The  fluid  alluded  to  is  composed,  besides  water,  of  certain 
salts  and  animal  matters,  which,  being  solid,  do  not  pass  away 
in  vapor,  as  does  the  watery  pail  of  the  compound,  but  rest 
on  the  surface  where  they  have  been  discharged.  There,  if 
not  removed  by  some  artificial  means,  they  form  a layer  of 
hard  stuff,  and  unavoidably  impede  the  egress  of  the  current 
perspiration.  By  cleanliness  is  merely  meant  the  taking 
proper  means  to  prevent  this  or  any  other  matter  accumulating 
on  the  surface,  to  the  production  of  certain  hurtful  conse- 
quences. 

Ablution  or  washing  is  the  best  means  of  attaining  this  end  ; 
and  accordingly  it  is  well  for  us  to  wash  or  bathe  the  body 
very  frequently.  Many  leave  by  far  the  greater  part  of  their 
bodies  unwashed,  except,  perhaps,  on  rare  occasions,  thinking 
it  enough  if  the  parts  exposed  to  common  view  be  in  decent 
trim.  If  the  object  of  cleaning  were  solely  to  preserve  fair 
appearances,  this  might  be  sufficient  ; but  the  great  end,  it 
must  be  clearly  seen,  is  to  keep  the  skin  in  a fit  state  for  its 
peculiar  and  very  important  functions.  Frequent  change  of 
the  clothing  next  to  the  skin  is  of  course  a great  aid  to  clean- 
liness, and  may  partly  be  esteemed  as  a substitute  for  bathing, 
seeing  that  the  clothes  absorb  much  of  the  impurities,  and, 
when  changed,  may  be  said  to  carry  these  off.  But  still  this  will 
not  serve  the  end  nearly  so  well  as  frequent  ablution  of  the 
whole  person.  Any  one  will  be  convinced  of  this,  who  goes 
into  a bath,  and  uses  the  flesh-brush  in  cleansing  his  body. 
The  quantity  of  scurf  and  impurity  which  he  will  then  remove, 
from  even  a body  which  has  changes  of  linen  once  a day,  will 
surprise  him. 


EXERCISE. 

The  constitution  of  external  nature  shows  that  man  was 
destined  for  an  active  existence,  as,  without  labor,  scarcfly 
any  of  the  gifts  of  providence  are  to  be  made  available.  In 
perfect  harmony  with  this  character  of  the  material  world,  he 
has  been  furnished  with  a muscular  and  mental  system,  con- 
structed on  the  principle  of  being  fitted  for  exertion,  and  re- 
quiring exertion  for  a healthy  existence.  Formed  as  he  is,  it 
is  not  possible  for  him  to  abstain  from  exertion  without  very 
hurtful  consequences. 

Muscular  Exercise. — With  regard  to  merely  bodily  exer- 
cise, it  is  to  be  observed,  in  the  first  place,  that  we  have  no 
fewer  than  four  hundred  muscles,  each  designed  to  serve  some 
particular  end  in  locomotion  or  in  operating  upon  external 
objects.  A sound  state  of  body  depends  very  much  upon 
each  of  these  muscles  being  brought  into  action  in  proper  cir- 
cumstances and  to  a suitable  extent.  There  is  even  a law 
operating  within  a certain  range,  by  which  each  muscle  will 
gain  in  strength  and  soundness  by  being  brought  into  a proper 
degree  of  activity. 

The  process  of  waste  and  renovation  may  be  said  to  be 
always  going  on  in  the  body,  but  it  does  not  go  on  with  per- 
manent steadiness  unless  the  muscular  system  be  exercised. 
Whenever  one  of  the  organs  is  put  into  exertion,  this  process 
becomes  active,  and  the  two  operations  of  which  it  consists 
maintain  a due  proportion  to  each  other.  A greater  flow  of 
blood  and  of  nervous  energy  is  sent  to  the  organ,  and  this 
continues  as  long  as  it  is  kept  in  activity.  When  one  state  of 
action  follows  close  upon  another,  the  renovating  part  of  the 
process  rather  exceeds  the  waste,  and  an  accretion  of  new 
substance,  as  well  as  an  addition  of  fresh  power  takes  place. 
On  the  contrary,  when  an  organ  is  little  exercised,  the  process 
of  renovation  goes  on  languidly,  and  to  a less  extent  than  that 
of  waste,  and  the  parts  consequently  become  flabby,  shrunken, 
and  weak.  Even  the  bones  are  subject  to  the  same  laws.  If 
these  be  duly  exercised  in  their  business  of  administering  to 
motion,  the  vessels  which  pervade  them  are  fed  more  actively 
with  blood,  and  they  increase  in  dimensions,  solidity,  and 
strength.  If  they  be  little  exercised,  the  stimulus  required 
for  the  supply  of  blood  to  them  becomes  insufficient ; imper- 
fect nutrition  takes  place  ; and  the  consequences  are  debility, 
softness,  and  unfitness  for  their  office.  Bones  may  be  so 
much  softened  by  inaction,  as  to  become  susceptible  of  being 
cut  by  a knife.  In  a less  degree,  the  same  cause  will  produce 
languor  and  bad  health. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  observe,  that  the  exercise 
of  any  particular  limb  does  little  besides  improving  the 
strength  of  that  limb  ; and  that,  in  order  to  increase  our  gen- 
eral strength,  the  whole  frame  must  be  brought  into  exer- 
cise. 

In  order,  then,  to  maintain  in  a sound  state  the  energies 
which  nature  has  given  us,  and  still  more  particularly,  to  in 
crease  their  amount,  sue  must  exercise  them.  If  we  desire  to 
have  a strong  limb,  we  must  exercise  that  limb  ; if  we  desire 
that  the  whole  of  our  frame  should  be  sound  and  strong,  we 
must  exercise  the  whole  of  our  frame.  It  is  mainly  by  these 
means  that  health  and  strength  are  to  be  preserved  and  im- 


650 


HOW  TO  PRESERVE  YOUR  HEALTH. 


proved.  There  are  rules,  however,  for  the  application  of  these 
laws  of  our  being. 

1.  In  order  that  exercise  may  be  truly  advantageous,  the 
parts  must  be  in  a state  of  sufficient  health  to  endure  the  ex- 
ertion. In  no  case  must  exercise  be  carried  beyond  what  the 
parts  are  capable  of  bearing  with  ease  ; otherwise  a loss  of 
energy,  instead  of  a gain,  will  be  the  consequence. 

2.  Exercise,  to  be  efficacious  even  in  a healthy  subject, 
must  be  excited,  sustained,  and  directed  by  that  nervous  stim- 
ulus which  gives  the  muscles  the  principal  part  of  their 
strength,  and  contributes  so  much  to  the  nutrition  of  parts  in 
a state  of  activity. 

3.  The  waste  occasioned  by  exercise  must  be  duly  replaced 
by  food ; as,  if  there  be  any  deficiency  in  that  important 
requisite,  the  blood  will  soon  cease  to  give  that  invigoration 
to  the  parts  upon  which  increased  health  and  strength  depend. 

Kinds  of  Bodily  Exercise. — Exercise  is  usually  consid- 
ered as  of  two  kinds — active  and  passive.  The  active  consists 
in  walking,  running,  leaping,  riding,  fencing,  rowing,  skating, 
swimming,  dancing,  and  various  exercises,  such  as  those  with 
the  poles,  ropes,  &c.,  prescribed  in  gymnastic  institutions. 
The  passive  consists  in  carriage-riding,  sailing,  friction,  swing- 
ing, &c. 

Walking  is  perhaps  the  readiest  mode  of  taking  exercise, 
and  the  one  most  extensively  resorted  to.  If  it  brought  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  as  thoroughly  into  exertion  as  the 
lower,  it  would  be  perfect,  for  it  is  gentle  and  safe  with  nearly 
all  except  the  much  debilitated.  To  render  it  the  more 
effectual  in  the  upper  part  of  the  body  it  were  well  to  walk  at 
all  times,  when  convenient,  singly  and  allow  the  arms  and 
trunk  free  play.  It  is  best  to  walk  with  a companion,  or  for 
some  definite  object,  as  the  flow  of  nervous  energy  will  be  by 
these  means  promoted,  and  the  exercise  be  rendered,  as  has 
been  already  explained,  the  more  serviceable. 

Very  long  or  rapid  walks  should  not  be  attempted  by 
individuals  of  sedentary  habits,  nor  by  weakly  persons.  Their 
frames  are  totally  unprepared  for  such  violent  exertion. 

Running  is  an  exercise  which  is  intermediate  between 
walking  and  leaping ; it  consists,  in  fact,  of  a series  of  leaps 
performed  in  progression  from  one  foot  to  another,  and  the 
degree  of  its  rapidity  bears  a constant  proportion  to  the  length 
of  the  individual  and  successive  leaps.  Although  this  and 
other  gymnastic  exercises,  such  as  leaping,  wrestling,  throwing 
heavy  weights,  etc.,  may,  when  judiciously  had  recourse  to, 
invigorate  the  body,  yet,  from  apprehension  of  the  evils  and 
accidents  which  may  be  so  occasioned,  young  persons  ought 
not  to  be  permitted  to  engage  extensively  in  such  exercises, 
except  under  the  care  of  some  one  well  acquainted  with  gym- 
nastics. 

Fencing  is  of  all  active  exercises  that  which  is  the  most 
commendable,  inasmuch  as  it  throws  open  the  chest,  and  at 
the  same  time  calls  into  action  the  muscles  both  of  the  upper 
and  lower  extremities.  Add  to  this,  that  it  improves  very 
much  the  carriage  of  the  body  ; for  which  reason  it  may  be 
reckoned  a branch  of  polite  education. 

Dancing  is  exhilarating  and  healthful,  and  seems  to  be 
almost  the  only  active  exercise  which  the  despotic  laws  of 
fashion  permit  young  ladies  to  enjoy. 


Riding  is  generally  classed  among  the  passive  exercises,  but 
in  reality  it  is  one  which  involves  much  action  of  the  whole 
frame,  and  as  such  is  very  useful  for  health.  Pursued  solita- 
rily, it  has  the  drawback  of  being  somewhat  dull  ; but,  when 
two  or  three  ride  in  company,  a sufficient  flow  of  the  nervous 
energy  may  be  obtained. 

The  amount  of  bodily  exercise  which  should  be  taken  must 
vary  according  to  the  habits,  strength,  and  general  health  of 
the  individual.  It  was  an  aphorism  of  Boerhaave,  that  every 
person  should  take  at  least  two  hours’  exercise  in  the  day,  and 
this  may  be  regarded  as  a good  general  rule. 

Mental  Exercise. — Having  thus  explained  the  laws  and 
regulations  by  which  exercise  may  be  serviceable  to  the  phy- 
sical system,  we  shall  proceed  to  show  that  the  same  rules 
hold  good  respecting  the  mental  faculties.  These,  as  is  gen- 
erally allowed,  however  immaterial  in  one  sense,  are  connected 
organically  with  the  brain — a portion  of  the  animal  system 
nourished  by  the  same  blood,  and  regulated  by  the  same  vital 
laws,  as  the  muscles,  bones,  and  nerves.  As,  by  disuse,  mus- 
cle becomes  emaciated,  bone  softens,  blood-vessels  are  obliter- 
ated, and  nerves  lose  their  natural  structure,  so,  by  disuse, 
does  the  brain  fall  out  of  its  proper  state,  and  create  misery 
to  its  possessor ; and  as,  by  over-exertion,  the  waste  of  the 
animal  system  exceeds  the  supply,  and  debility  and  unsound- 
ness are  produced,  so,  by  over-exertion,  are  the  functions  of 
the  brain  liable  to  be  deranged  and  destroyed.  The  processes 
are  physiologically  the  same,  and  the  effects  bear  an  exact  re- 
lation to  each  other.  As  with  the  bodily  powers,  the  mental 
are  to  be  increased  in  magnitude  and  energy  by  a degree  of 
exercise  measured  with  a just  regard  to  their  ordinary  health 
and  native  or  habitual  energies.  Corresponding,  moreover,  to 
the  influence  which  the  mind  has  in  giving  the  nervous  stimu- 
lus so  useful  in  bodily  exercise,  is  the  dependence  of  the 
mind  upon  the  body  for  supplies  of  healthy  nutriment.  And, 
in  like  manner  with  the  bodily  functions,  each  mental  faculty 
is  only  to  be  strengthened  by  the  exercise  of  itself  in  particular. 

It  ought  to  be  universally  known,  that  the  uses  of  our  in- 
tellectual nature  are  not  to  be  properly  realized  without  a just 
regard  to  the  laws  of  that  perishable  frame  with  which  it  is 
connected  ; that,  in  cultivatirtg  the  mind,  we  must  neither 
overtask  nor  undertask  the  body,  neither  push  it  to  too  great 
a speed,  nor  leave  it  neglected  ; and  that,  notwithstanding 
this  intimate  connection  and  mutual  dependence,  the  highest 
merits  on  the  part  of  the  mind  will  not  compensate  for  mus- 
cles mistreated,  or  soothe  a nervous  system  which  severe  study 
has  tortured  into  insanity.  To  come  to  detail,  it  ought  to  be 
impressed  on  all,  that  to  spend  more  than  a moderate  number 
of  hours  in  mental  exercise  diminishes  insensibly  the  powers 
of  future  application,  and  tends  to  abbreviate  life  ; that  no 
mental  exercise  should  be  attempted  immediately  after  meals, 
as  the  processes  of  thought  and  of  digestion  cannot  be  safely 
prosecuted  together  ; and  that,  without  a due  share  of  exercise 
to  the  whole  of  the  mental  faculties,  there  can  be  no  soundness 
in  any,  while  the  whole  corporeal  system  will  give  way  be- 
neath a severe  pressure  upon  any  one  in  particular.  These 
are  truths  completely  established  with  physiologists,  and  upon 
which  it  is  undeniable  that  a great  portion  of  human  happi. 
ness  depends. 


HOW  TO  PRESERVE  YOUR  HEALTH. 


Repose  a Condition  Demanded  by  Exercise. — Exer- 
cise demands  occasional  periods  of  repose,  and,  in  particular, 
that  a certain  part  of  every  twenty-four  hours  be  spent  in  sleep. 
After  having  been  engaged  in  daily  occupations  for  fourteen  or 
sixteen  hours,  a general  feeling  of  fatigue  and  weakness  is  in- 
duced ; tbe  motions  of  the  body  become  difficult,  the  senses 
confused,  the  power  of  volition  or  will  suspended,  and  the  rest 
of  the  mental  faculties,  becoming  more  and  more  inactive,  sink 
at  length  into  a state  of  unconsciousness.  The  sense  of  sight 
first  ceases  to  act  by  the  closing  of  the  eyelids ; then  the  senses 
of  taste  and  smell  become  dormant ; and  then  those  of  hearing 
and  touch.  The  muscles,  also,  dispose  themselves  with  a cer- 
tain reference  to  ease  of  position,  those  of  the  limbs  having 
grown  indolent  before  those  that  support  the  head,  and  those 
that  support  the  head  before  those  of  the  trunk.  In  propor- 
tion as  these  phenomena  proceed,  the  respiration  becomes 
slower  and  more  deep,  the  circulation  diminishes  in  impetus, 
the  blood  proceeds  in  great  quantity  toward  the  head,  and  all 
the  functions  of  the  internal  organs  become  retarded.  In  this 
state,  shut  out  as  it  were  from  the  external  world,  the  mind 
still  retains  its  wonted  activity,  deprived,  however,  of  the  guid- 
ance of  judgment  and  the  power  of  distinct  recollection  ; in 
consequence  of  which,  it  does  not  perceive  the  monstrous  in- 
congruities of  the  imagery  which  sweeps  before  it,  and  takes  but 
faint  cognizance  of  the  time  which  elapses. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  an  axiom,  that  the  more  uninterrupted 
sleep  is,  the  more  refreshing  and  salutary  will  be  its  effects  ; for 
during  this  period,  the  body  undoubtedly  acquires  an  accession 
of  nervous  energy,  which  restlessness,  however  induced,  must 
disturb  ; and  therefore  the  state  of  the  body  before  going  to 
sleep,  the  kind  of  bed,  and  the  manner  of  clothing,  require  es- 
pecial attention.  As  the  functions  of  the  body  are  performed 
more  slowly  during  our  sleeping  than  our  waking  hours,  a full 
meal  or  supper,  taken  immediately  before  going  to  bed,  imposes 
a load  on  the  stomach  which  it  is  not  in  a condition  to  digest, 
and  the  unpleasant  consequence  of  oppressive  and  harassing 
dreams  is  almost  certain  to  ensue.  When  the  sleeper  lies  on  his 
back,  the  heart  pressing,  while  pulsating,  on  the  lungs,  gives 
rise  to  a sense  of  intolerable  oppression  on  the  chest,  which 
seems  to  bear  down  upon  the  whole  body,  so  that  in  this  pain- 
ful state  not  a muscle  will  obey  the  impulse  of  the  will,  and 
every  effort  to  move  appears  to  be  altogether  unavailing.  This 
constitutes  incubus  or  nightmare ; and  it  maybe  observed,  that, 
as  acidity  on  the  stomach,  or  indigestion,  gives  rise  to  such 
dreams,  so  all  dreams  of  this  disturbed  character  are  converse 
indications  of  indigestion  ; for  which  reason  the  great  physiolo- 
gist Haller  considered  dreaming  to  be  a symptom  of  disease. 

The  kind  of  bed  on  which  we  repose  requires  attention. 
Some  are  advocates  for  soft,  others  for  hard  beds  ; hence  some 
accustom  themselves  to  feather-beds,  others  to  mattresses.  The 
only  difference  between  a soft  and  a hard  bed  is  this — that  the 
weight  of  the  body  in  a soft  bed  presses  on  a larger  surface  than 
on  a hard  bed,  and  thereby  a greater  degree  of  comfort  is  en- 
joyed. Parents  err  in  fancying  that  a very  hard  bed  contrib- 
utes to  harden  the  constitution  of  their  children  ; for  which 
reason  they  lay  them  down  on  mattresses,  or  beds  with  board- 
ed bottoms.  A bed  for  young  children  cannot  be  too  soft, 
provided  the  child  does  not  sink  into  it  in  such  a manner  that 


65’ 


the  surrounding  parts  of  the  bed  bend  over  and  cover  the 
body.  The  too  great  hardness  of  beds,  says  Dr.  Darwin,  fre- 
quently proves  injurious  to  the  shape  of  infants,  by  causing 
them  to  rest  on  too  few  parts  at  a time  ; it  also  causes  their 
sleep  to  be  uneasy  and  unrefreshing.  Whatever  be  the  time 
chosen  for  sleep,  it  is  evident  that  no  person  can  with  im- 
punity convert  day  into  night.  Eight  o’clock  for  children, 
and  eleven  for  adults,  may  be  recommended  as  good  hours 
for  retiring  to  rest.  It  is  well  known  that  children  require 
more  sleep  than  adults  ; and  more  sleep  is  requisite  in  win- 
ter than  in  summer.  The  average  duration  of  sleep  which 
may  be  [recommended  for  adults  is  eight  hours ; but  much 
depends  upon  habit,  and  many  persons  require  only  six.  It 
is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe,  that,  on  rising  in  the  morn- 
ing, the  strictest  attention  should  be  paid  to  washing  the 
face,  neck  and  hands  ; the  mouth  and  teeth  should  also  be 
well  cleansed.  The  most  simple  powder  for  the  teeth  is  finely 
brayed  charcoal,  a little  of  which  will  clear  away  all  impu- 
rities, and  preserve  the  teeth.  On  leaving  the  bedroom,  the 
windows  should  be  opened,  and  the  clothes  of  the  bed  turned 
down,  in  order  that  the  exhalations  of  the  body  during  sleep 
may  be  dissipated.  If,  instead  of  this,  the  bed  be  made  im- 
mediately after  we  have  risen,  these  exhalations  are  again 
folded  up  with  the  clothes — a practice  which  is  not  conson- 
ant either  with  cleanliness  or  health. 

TEMPERATURE. 

The  fifth  important  requisite  for  health  is  that  the  body  be 
kept  in  a temperature  suitable  to  it. 

The  degree  of  heat  indicated  by  sixty  degrees  of  Fahren- 
heit’s thermometer,  or  that  of  a temperate  summer  day,  is  what 
the  human  body  finds  it  agreeable  to  be  exposed  to  when  in  a 
state  of  inactivity. 

There  is  no  period  of  life  at  which  warmth  is  of  more  conse- 
quence than  in  infancy.  In  a very  young  babe,  the  circulation 
is  almost  altogether  confined  to  the  surface,  the  internal  or- 
gans being  as  yet  in  a very  weak  state.  In  such  circumstances, 
to  plunge  the  child  into  cold  water,  from  an  idea  of  making  it 
hardy,  as  is  customary  in  some  countries,  and  among  ignorant 
persons  in  our  own,  is  the  height  of  cruelty  and  folly;  for  the 
unavoidable  consequence  is,  that  the  blood  is  thrown  in  upon 
the  internal  organs,  and  inflammation,  bowel-complaints,  croup, 
or  convulsions,  are  very  apt  to  ensue.  A baby  requires  to  be 
kept  at  a temperature  above  what  is  suitable  to  a grown  per- 
son ; it  should  be  warmly,  but  not  heavily  clothed  ; the  room 
where  it  is  kept  should  be  maintained  at  a good,  but  not  op- 
pressive heat ; and  it  should  never  be  put  into  other  than  tepid 
water.  It  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  open  air  for  some  days 
after  its  birth. 

At  all  periods  of  life,  it  is  most  desirable  to  avoid  exposure 
to  very  low  temperatures,  especially  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time.  To  sit  long  in  cold  school-rooms,  or  work- 
rooms, with  the  whole  body,  and  especially  the  feet,  in  a chilled 
condition,  is  very  unfavorable  to  the  health  of  young  people. 

Clothing  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  temperature  of  the 
climate  and  the  season  of  the  year  ; and  where  there  are  such 
abrupt  transitions  from  heat  to  cold  as  in  our  country,  it  is  not 
safe  ever  to  go  very  thinly  clad,  as  we  may  in  that  case  be  ex- 


652 


HOW  TO  PRESERVE  YOUR  HEALTH. 


posed  to  a sudden  chill  before  we  can  effect  the  proper  change 
of  dress.  Very  fatal  effects  often  result  to  ladies  from  incau- 
tiously stepping  out  of  heated  rooms  in  the  imperfect  clothing 
which  they  ludicrously  style  full-dress  ; all  such  injuries  might 
be  avoided  by  putting  on  a sufficiency  of  shawls,  and  allowing 
themselves  a little  time  in  the  lobby  to  cool.  The  under- 
clothing in  this  country  should  be  invariably  of  flannel,  which 
is  remarkably  well  calculated  to  preserve  uniformity  of  tem- 
perature, as  well  as  to  produce  a healthy  irritation  in  the  skin. 

Wet  clothes  applied  to  any  part  of  the  body,  when  it  is  in  an 
inactive  state,  have  an  instantaneous  effect  in  reducing  the 
temperature,  this  being  an  unavoidable  effect  of  the  process  of 
evaporation  which  then  takes  place.  Hence  it  is  extremely 
dangerous  to  sit  upon  damp  ground,  or  to  remain  at  rest  for  a 
single  minute  with  wetted  feet,  or  any  other  part  of  the  body 
invested  in  damp  garments.  Dampness  in  the  house  in 
which  we  live  has  the  same  effect,  and  is  equally  dangerous. 
The  chill  produced  by  the  evaporation  from  the  wetted  surface 
checks  the  perspiration,  and  sends  the  blood  inward  to  the 
vital  parts,  where  it  tends  to  produce  inflammatory  disease. 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  all  efforts  to  improve  and 
preserve  health  has  been  thus  stated  : “ Man,  as  an  organized 
being,  is  subject  to  organic  laws,  as  much  as  the  inanimate 
bodies  which  surround  him  are  to  laws  mechanical  and 
chemical  ; and  we  can  as  little  escape  the  consequences  of  neg- 
lect or  violation  of  those  natural  laws,  which  affect  organic 
life  through  the  air  we  breathe,  the  food  we  eat,  and  the  exer- 
cise we  take,  as  a stone  projected  from  the  hand,  or  a shot 
from  the  mouth  of  a cannon,  can  place  itself  beyond  the 
bounds  of  gravitation.”  It  maybe  added,  that  ‘'all  human 
science,  all  the  arts  of  civilized  man,  consist  of  discoveries 
made  by  us  of  the  laws  impressed  upon  nature  by  the  Author 
of  the  universe,  and  the  applications  of  those,  laws  to  the  con- 
ditions— which  are  laws  also — in  which  man  and  the  particular 
bodies  and  substances  around  him  are  placed  ; nor,  it  is  mani- 
fest, should  any  science  concern  us  more  than  that  which  re- 
lates to  the  conditions  on  which  organic  life  is  held  by  each  in- 
dividual.” 


THE  NURSERY. 


653 


T is  a well-known  fact  that  some  of  the  greatest 
blessings  we  enjoy  are  the  least  appreciated,  and 
this  may  be  truly  said  of  light.  We  are  so  accus- 
tomed to  it,  that  we  fail  to  remember  its  impor- 
tance, though  did  we  but  recollect  that  it  is  syn- 
onymous with  life  we  could  not  fail  to  be  sensi- 
of  the  inestimable  value  of  this  essential  of  our 
being. 

Deprived  of  its  wholesome  and  enlivening  stimulus 
children  become  pale  and  sickly  in  appearance,  the  blood  is 
imperfectly  oxygenated,  and  a proneness  to  disease  or  debility 
arises. 

A dark,  dull  room,  or  one  from  which  light  is  more  or  less 
excluded,  should  by  all  means  be  avoided,  for  it  is  injurious 
alike  to  the  eyes,  health  and  spirits  of  children.  But  neces- 
sary as  light  is  (it  is  the  natural  food  of  the  eye),  it  requires 
regulating  according  to  the  age.  During  early  infancy  the 
eyes  should  not  be  exposed  to  a concentrated  or  strong 
light ; the  sun’s  light  should  be  softened  by  window  blinds, 
and  an  infant  ought  never  to  be  held  too  near  a lamp  or 
candle. 

The  best  arguments  in  favor  of  the  beneficial  effects  of 
light  are  found  in  the  facts  that  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom  will  cease  to  flourish  if  deprived  of  it, 
and  that  those  children  brought  up  in  the  dreary  dark  slums 
of  cities,  although  quite  as  well  fed  as  those  of  an  agricul- 
tural laborer,  are  invariably  puny,  sickly  creatures,  without  a 
vestige  of  color  in  their  cheeks. 

The  pernicious  custom  which  obtains  so  much  amongst 
the  lower  middle  classes  in  the  suburbs  of  living  almost  entire- 
ly in  the  basement  breakfast-room  cannot  be  too  strongly  con- 
demned,  where,  as  is  invariably  the  case,  it  is  dark.  The 
room  that  is  most  in  use  should  be  “ the  best  room,”  not  on 
account  of  the  amount  of  furniture  it  contains  but  owing  to  its 
being  the  lightest,  and  into  this  room  the  sun  should  be  al- 
lowed to  freely  enter,  all  ideas  of  excluding  it  on  account  of 
the  carpet  being  but  false  economy. 

Notwithstanding,  however,  that  a proper  amount  of  light  is 
necessary  for  a child  when  awake,  equal  care  should  be 
exercised  in  darkening  the  room  when  it  (the  child)  is  asleep, 
as  too  much  light  then  will  not  merely  prevent  or  interrupt 
sleep,  but  may  act  as  a very  injurious  stimulus  to  the  eyes  and 
brain.  It  goes  without  saying  that  the  nursery  must,  of  course, 
have  plenty  of  sunlight,  and  with  this  view  should  face  the 


south,  east  or  west,  but  there  is  another  place  about  which 
great  care  should  be  taken — the  school-room.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  influence  of  a sunless  schoolroom  is  most  bane- 
ful to  a young  mind,  and  the  want  of  interest  in  their  study 
often  displayed  by  children  might  in  many  instances  be  traced 
to  this  cause. 

BATHING. 

Macbeth’s  maxim,  “ If  it  were  done,  when  ’tis  dotie,  then 
’twere  well  it  were  done  quickly,”  is  especially  applicable  to 
the  bathing  of  children.  There  should  be  no  nonsense  about 
it.  The  object  of  bathing  is  not  only  for  the  purpose  of 
cleanliness  but  as  a means  of  invigorating  the  capillary  circu- 
lation, and  so  fortifying  the  system  as  to  enable  it  to  resist  at 
mospheric  vicissitudes. 

To  do  this,  however,  it  is  imperative  that  the  child  should 
not  remain  in  the  bath  (presuming  it  is  not  warm)  more  than  a 
minute  or  two,  as  when  the  body  is  immersed  in  water  below 
ninety  degrees  there  is  a sensation  of  cold,  a shrinking  of  the 
skin,  and  a rush  of  blood  from  the  small  capillary  vessels  of 
the  surface  to  the  internal  vessels,  which  state  of  things  should 
be  speedily  followed  by  a reaction  by  the  heart  and  large  ves- 
sels forcing  the  blood  back  again  to  the  surface,  and  indeed  to 
all  the  outlets  ; so  that  the  skin  glows  and  perhaps  perspires, 
the  secretory  organs  act  more  strongly,  the  liver  and  other  or- 
gans show  an  increased  activity,  and  there  is  a general  feeling 
of  liveliness  and  vigor. 

But  this  will  not  be  the  case  if  there  is  any  dawdling  or  de- 
lay, not  only  while  in  the  water  but  during  the  process  of  rub- 
bing  and  drying,  which  must  be  performed  with  the  greatest 
briskness  in  order  that  the  proper  reaction,  upon  which  the 
virtue  of  the  bath  depends,  should  take  place  ; otherwise  the 
child  will  get  a chill,  which  will,  in  addition  to  nullifying  the 
good,  do  it  absolute  harm. 

Up  to  the  age  of  three  months  infants  should  in  all 
weathers  be  bathed  in  warm  water,  but  after  that  age  at  (he 
warm  seasons  and  during  Summer  cold  may  be  used,  provided 
the  child  be  strong  enough,  and  is  not  frightened,  but  if  the 
experiment  is  attended  with  convulsive  screaming  and  great 
distress,  discontinue  it  and  substitute  a warmer  temperature. 
In  washing  a very  young  child  the  head  should  always  be  the 
first  part  damped,  and  a flannel  is  preferable  for  that  purpose 
rather  than  a sponge. 

With  regard  to  all  children  there  are  not  two  opinions  on 
the  subject  of  a daily  bath  given  immediately  on  risine  beina 


THE  NURSERY. 


SR 


654 


*ss 


beneficial,  in  fact  it  is  a sine  qua  non  of  perfect  health,  pro- 
vided, of  course,  the  child  is  not  too  delicate,  and  for  the  elder 
ones  a large  sponge  is  a necessity,  as  by  its  use  a much  larger 
quantity  of  oxygen  can  be  introduced  into  the  skin  than  by  any 
other  means. 

The  addition  of  sea-salt  is  a most  desirable  adjunct,  es- 
pecially when  the  hips  are  weak,  but  even  when  in  good 
health  its  occasional  use  will  add  greatly  to  the  tonic  proper- 
ties of  the  bath.  It  should  be  added  in  such  quantity  to  a bath 
that  the  mineral  ingredient  is  equal  to  that  contained  in  salt 
water ; it  will  be  far  more  efficacious  than  a simple  fresh  water 
bath,  as  it  combines  the  advantages  of  temperature  with  the 
stimulating  action  of  the  salt  upon  the  skin. 

The  advantages  of  such  a bath  taken  at  the  time  mentioned 
are  twofold.  It  inures  the  body  to  a greater  degree  of  cold 
than  it  is  likely  to  be  exposed  to  during  the  rest  of  the  day, 
and  so  proves  most  serviceable  in  protecting  it  from  atmos- 
pheric influences  ; and  it  tends  to  remove  irregularities  in  the 
circulation,  and,  by  exciting  the  healthy  action  of  the  skin,  may 
aid  that  organ  in  removing  disease. 

All,  however,  are  not  strong  enough  to  stand  the  shock  to 
the  system,  and  not  only  those  who  are  extremely  weak,  or 
who  have  any  organic  disease,  especially  the  heart  or  lungs, 
but  there  may  be  some  idiosyncrasy  or  condition  of  the  consti- 
tution peculiar  to  the  individual  which  would  render  it  impos- 
sible. The  invariable  test  is  that  if  after  a bath  the  child  re- 
mains chilly,  languid  and  dejected,  or  suffers  from  headache, 
then  it  is  not  beneficial,  but  if  the  sense  of  cold  rapidly  passes 
off  and  a glow  of  warmth  and  animation  of  spirits  succeeds  and 
continues  for  some  time,  the  cold  bath  cannot  fail  to  be  pro- 
ductive of  good. 

SLEEP. 

Although  much  has  been  written,  and  rightly  so,  on  the 
subject  of  laziness,  there  is  as  much,  if  not  more,  to  be  said 
on  the  necessity  of  enough  sleep,  for  it  is  as  great  a necessity 
as  eating  and  drinking. 

Infants  sleep  almost  continually,  and  (in  this  we  know  most 
mothers  will  heartily  concur)  they  cannot  sleep  too  much, 
owing  to  the  necessity  for  providing  the  materials  for  growth. 
When  they  are  unable  to  sleep  for  any  length  of  time  their 
condition  is  unnatural,  and  shows  us  that  they  are  suffering  in 
some  way  or  other,  the  cause  of  which  should  be  ascertained 
and  removed  ; but  not  by  the  use  of  sirups,  elixirs,  etc.,  which, 
though  they  produce  slumber,  do  not  produce  sleep. 

For  young  children  from  twelve  to  fourteen  hours’  sleep  is 
necessary,  and  this  must  be  regular,  the  proper  time  for  bed 
during  the  Winter  months  being  about  six  o’clock,  and  in  the 
Summer  months  about  seven. 

A proper  desire  for  sleep  is  only  obtained  by  a due  amount 
of  exercise,  both  mental  and  physical,  which  must  not  have 
continued  sufficiently  long  to  produce  prostration.  Exercise 
in  moderation  is  most  necessary  before  going  to  bed,  but  any. 
thing  of  a violent  nature,  like  romping,  should  be  avoided  for 
at  least  half  an  hour  before. 

With  regard  to  the  hour  at  which  children  and  others 
should  rise,  that  must  be  determined  by  the  time  of  their 
waking,  and  in  order  to  wake  at  a proper  time  all  that  is 
recessary  is  that  you  go  to  bed  at  some  regular  early  hour. 


and  then,  says  an  authority,  “within  a fortnight  nature,  with 
almost  the  regularity  of  the  rising  sun,  will  unloosen  the  bonds 
of  sleep  the  moment  enough  repose  has  been  secured  for  the 
wants  of  the  system.”  To  remain  in  bed  after  this,  to  indulge 
in  that  short  morning  doze  into  which  so  many  allow  them- 
selves to  fall  because  it  is  not,  they  think,  quite  time  to  get 
up,  is  a baneful  practice. 

Care  should  also  be  taken  with  regard  to  the  quantity  of 
bed-clothes  indulged  in,  too  much  clothing  having  the  effect 
of  relaxing  the  body,  and  it  is  right  therefore  to  have  only  suf- 
ficient to  enable  the  individual  to  sleep,  for  it  is  better  to 
wake  with  an  inclination  to  draw  the  clothes  round  you  than 
to  feel  oppressed  by  their  weight  and  heat  and  a desire  to 
throw  them  off. 

With  regard  to  the  proper  position  of  a sleeper  all  are 

agreed  that  it  should  be  on  the  right  or  left  side,  because  if 
you  sleep  on  your  back,  especially  soon  after  a hearty  meal, 
the  weight  of  the  digestive  organs  and  that  of  the  food,  resting 
upon  the  great  vein  of  the  body,  near  the  backbone,  com- 
presses it,  and  arrests  the  flow  of  the  blood  more  or  less.  If 
the  arrest  is  partial,  the  sleep  is  disturbed,  and  there  are  un- 
pleasant dreams,  a state  of  things  carefully  to  be  avoided 
when  we  remember  that  “ the  man  who  dreams  does  but  half 
sleep.  The  child  who  dreams  scarcely  sleeps  at  all.” 

Too  much  attention  cannot  be  paid  to  the  proper  ventila- 
tion of  sleeping-rooms.  In  too  many  cases  this  important 
subject  is  entirely  neglected.  The  sleeper  retires  to  rest  in  an 
apartment  from  which  every  effort  has  been  made  to  exclude 
the  outer  air — until  it  seems  almost  hermetically  sealed — and 
rises  with  a dull  headache  and  a feverish,  unrefreshed  sensa- 
tion to  go  about  the  duties  of  the  day. 

ON  CATCHING  COLD. 

It  is  a very  common,  but  a very  great,  mistake  to  attach  little 
importance  to  catching  cold.  How  frequently  we  hear  the  re- 
mark in  reference  to  some  one  being  indisposed,  “ Oh,  it’s 
nothing  ; only  a severe  cold.”  Considering  that  in  adults 
severe  cold  is  the  cause  of  one-half  “ the  ills  that  flesh  is  heir 
to,”  it  will  readily  be  understood  that  colds  with  children  are 
of  the  greatest  consequence,  for,  in  the  language  of  one  whose 
revered  name  is  the  synonym  for  nursing,  “ It  is  as  easy  to  put 
out  a sick  baby’s  life  as  it  is  to  put  out  the  flame  of  a candle.” 

The  most  common  kind  of  cold  is  that  in  the  head,  profes- 
sionally described  as  catarrh , which  consists  of  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  air  passages,  and  is  ordinarily 
caused  by  the  child  having  been  exposed  to  a draught,  having 
got  its  clothes  wet  and  not  been  able  to  have  them  changed, 
or  by  not  being  sufficiently  warmly  clad  when  the  body  is  get- 
ting cool  after  being  heated.  The  latter  is  the  most  to  be 
feared,  as  in  this  condition  the  body  is  incapable,  from  ex- 
haustion, of  reaction,  and  the  exposure  intensifies  the  depres- 
sion. 

Wet  clothing  does  not  frequently  produce  “a  cold”  if 
the  child  is  walking  or  running  about,  and  is  able  to  get  the 
things  changed  when  the  active  exercise  ceases,  and  avoids  all 
exposure  for  some  little  time  ; but  where  exertion  has  been  in- 
dulged in,  and  the  body  is  in  a state  of  perspiration,  then,  if 
the  child  receives  a chill  from  wet  feet  or  any  other  cause,  and 


THE  NURSERY. 


does  not  continue  its  play  or  its  active  exercise,  catarrh  is  almost 
inevitable.  » 

When  it  is  remembered  that  a neglected  cold  sometimes  pro- 
duces bronchitis,  pneumonia,  quinsy,  rheumatism,  erysipelas, 
toothache,  neuralgia,  inflammatory  fever,  consumption,  etc., 
it  is  scarcely  possible  to  impress  upon  mothers  too  strongly  the 
great  necessity  for  extreme  care  in  this  matter  ; and  as  preven- 
tion should  be  much  more  easy  when  the  cause  of  a complaint 
is  understood,  I propose  to  try  and  explain  in  as  simple  lan- 
guage as  possible  the  why  and  wherefore. 

The  action  of  cold  is  to  partially  close  the  pores  of  the  skin, 
check  the  natural  perspiration  by  constricting  and  obstructing 
the  vessels  of  the  skin,  and  so  throw  more  blood  inwardly, 
producing  internal  congestions  ; for  the  outer  skin  being  in- 
capable of  performing  its  functions,  and  perspiration  being  an 
absolute  necessity,  the  inner  skin,  or  mucous  membrane,  has 
to  do  the  work,  and  hence  the  inflammation. 

The  effect  of  cold  is  felt  in  a greater  or  less  degree  ac- 
cording to  the  capillary  circulation.  If  this  be  weak,  or  be 
rendered  so  by  excitement,  exercise,  or  by  sleep,  the  danger  is 
increased  ; consequently  children — and  any  one  else,  for  mat- 
ter of  that — are  most  susceptible  to  cold  when  coming  out  of 
a hot  room,  after  being  unduly  heated  by  running,  or  when 
sleeping. 

From  this  it  will  be  understood  that  the  chilling  influences 
enumerated  derange  the  balance  of  the  circulation,  and  by  de- 
termining a corresponding  amount  of  congestion  inwardly,  fix 
it  in  some  part  previously  weakened  and  made  susceptible  to 
disease ; or,  in  still  plainer  language,  the  cold  flies  to  the 
weakest  part,  which  accounts  for  one  person  getting  rheu- 
matism, another  congestion  of  the  lungs,  a third  a sore 
throat,  and  a fourth,  perhaps,  merely  a cold  in  the  head  or 
chest. 

To  cure  a cold  is  to  restore  the  action  of  the  skin  and 
induce  perspiration,  and  this,  if  done  at  the  proper  time,  when 
the  symptoms  are  first  observed,  is  exceedingly  simple.  People 
may  sneer  as  they  will  at  the  mention  of  the  word  gruel,  but  a 
basin-full  of  hot  gruel,  made  thin,  and  taken  when  in  bed,  will 
invariably  arrest  an  ordinary  catarrh.  If  the  chill  be  severe, 
the  child’s  feet  should  be  placed  in  warm  water,  a little  extra 
clothing  be  placed  on  the  bed,  and  the  patient  allowed  to  lie 
in  bed  a little  longer  than  usual  the  next  morning  ; but  the 
apartment  must  not  be  too  warm  or  close,  or  the  additional 
clothing  be  too  great,  as,  though  the  cure  may  be  accelerated 
thereby,  the  susceptibility  is  increased,  and  the  child  rendered 
more  liable  to  a recurrence  of  the  attack. 

To  those  who  will  not  believe  in  anything  old-fashioned  or 
simple,  the  plan  of  a “ wet  sheet  pack  ” will  be  found  equally 
efficacious.  This  is  managed  by  spreading  three  blankets  on 
the  bed  and  putting  on  the  top  a sheet,  which  has  been  satur- 
ated in  hot  water  and  wrung  out.  The  child  is  then  placed 
upon  the  sheet,  enveloped  in  it,  and  the  blankets  wrapped 
tightly  round  the  whole  body  excepting  the  head,  and  allowed 
to  remain  in  this  situation  for  about  an  hour,  when  a quick 
sponging  of  cold  water  should  be  given,  followed  by  a brisk 
ynd  thorough  rubbing  with  dry  towels. 

Another  remedy  believed  in  by  many  of  our  medical  breth- 
ren is  the  “ dry  ” plan,  which,  at  any  rate,  has  the  merit  of 


simplicity,  for  it  consists  in  merely  abstaining  from  every  kind 
of  liquid  until  the  disorder  is  gone. 

Although  opinions  may  differ,  however,  as  to  the  precise 
method  of  cure,  and  any  of  those  given  will  be  found  equally 
efficient,  there  is  no  difference  of  opinion  a-s  to  the  cause  and 
prevention.  The  too  frequent  cause  is  simply  the  result  of 
carelessness  or  imprudence  in  not  protecting  the  body  against 
the  variation  of  temperature,  an  insufficient  use  of  cold  or 
warm  water  to  the  body,  or,  plainly,  uncleanliness,  sleeping 
under  too  much  clothing,  or  by  sleeping  in  badly-ventilated 
rooms  ; but  the  first  mentioned,  the  passing  from  a hot  room 
out  into  the  open  air,  or  into  a room  where  the  temperature  is 
less,  without  being  suitably  attired,  is  the  most  frequent  and 
the  most  to  be  guarded  against  with  children. 

The  prevention  of  cold  is  best  achieved  by  diminishing  the 
susceptibility  of  the  system  by  abstemious  living,  taking  regu- 
lar and  daily  exercise  in  the  open  air,  and  a morning  bath  of 
cold  water  if  the  child  be  strong  enough,  and  if  not,  a tepid 
one  ; but  the  best  prevention  and  cure  for  colds  is  “ the  cold 
water  cure.” 

TEETHING 

is  one  of  the  most  distressing  of  the  ordinary  ailments  of 
children,  for  it  comes  to  them  at  an  age  when  they  are  incapa- 
ble of  making  the  nature  of  their  sufferings  known,  and  as 
they  do  suffer  most  acutely  sometimes  during  the  process  of 
dentition,  it  is  very  trying  to  mothers  and  nurses  to  have  to 
witness  their  torture  and  be  unable  to  alleviate  it  because  the 
poor  little  mites  cannot  explain  their  symptoms. 

Being  one  of  the  very  common  ills  that  flesh  is  heir  to,  it  is 
a time  frequently  regarded  by  some  as  more  troublesome  than 
important — a great  mistake,  to  prevent  which  a simple  state- 
ment showing  the  action  of  one  of  the  phases  of  the  disease 
may  be  advisable.  The  chief  disorders  of  the  first  set  of 
teeth  are  caries  and  inflammation  in  the  periosteal  mem- 
branes, terminating  in  abcess,  or  what  is  commonly  called 
gumboil.  The  first  effect  of  inflammation  in  the  periosteum  is 
to  create  pain,  tenderness  and  swelling  in  that  part  of  the  gum 
in  close  proximity  to  the  tooth,  and  an  effusion  of  fluid  be- 
tween the  fang  and  its  investing  membrane,  which  is  thus 
converted  into  a sort  of  cyst  or  tiny  sack  of  skin.  Repeated 
attacks  of  inflammation  at  length  end  in  the  formation  of  pus, 
which  either  bursts  through  the  tumor  in  the  gum  or  may  be 
removed  by  lancing.  Sometimes  after  the  abscess  has  burst 
or  been  opened,  a fungus  springs  up  from  the  diseased  mem- 
brane lining  the  cavity.  With  some  children  the  presence  of 
the  abscess  having  produced  absorption  of  a portion  of  the 
alveolar  process  at  its  lower  part,  it  effuses  its  contents  through 
the  aperture  thus  formed,  and  matter  forces  itself  along  the 
surface  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  forms  an  external  tumor  near 
its  base. 

With  regard  to  the  process  of  dentition  in  actual  in- 
fants, the  time  at  which  it  takes  place  is  naturally  subject  to 
slight  variation,  when  it  is  stated  that  many  medical  men  give 
instances  in  their  experience  of  children  being  born  with 
teeth,  or  having  cut  them  almost  immediately  after  birth — 
Louis  XIV.,  of  France,  and  Richard  III.,  of  England,  being 
historic  cases  in  point  ; the  usual  time,  however,  when  babies 
begin  to  be  troubled  with  the  advent  of  teeth  is  at  the  seventh 


I 656 


THE  NURSERY. 


month,  the  period  of  the  first  dentition  lasting  up  to  the  age 
of  two  years  or  two  and  a half  years. 

The  symptoms  of  teething  in  a healthy  child  are  that  for 
some  time  before  the  gums  are  much  swollen,  there  is  an  ex- 
cessive flow  of  saliva  from  the  mouth,  and  the  child  indulges 
in  what  is  known  to  most  as  “ dribbling,”  at  the  same  time 
evincing  a very  strong  desire  to  drag  anything  upon  which  it 
can  fix  its  tiny  little  clutch  into  its  mouth,  while,  if  we  place 
our  finger  into  its  mouth  we  perceive  at  once  a decided 
attempt  to  bite,  which  affords  a relief  to  the  irritation  of  the 
gums.  Where  the  child  is  inconvenienced  only  to  the  extent 
described  there  is  no  remedy  required  provided  there  is  no 
constipation,  but  where  this  is  the  case  small  doses  of  castor 
oil  are  the  safest.  As  to  the  article  it  should  be  given  to  suck, 
I personally  prefer  an  ivory  ring  or  a “finger”  of  crust  of 
bread,  great  care  being  observed  in  the  latter  case  that  it  is 
taken  away  before  there  is  a possibility  of  its  being  broken  or 
bitten  off. 

When  the  child  is  extremely  restless,  cross  and  uneasy, 
crying  bitterly  without  any  apparent  cause,  and  refuses  all 
ordinary  attempts  at  pacification,  its  suffering  is  very  consid- 
erable, which  is  increased  by  its  ineffectual  efforts  to  sleep  for 
any  length  of  time.  The  cheeks  become  flushed  at  this  time, 
and  if  the  local  inflammation  continue  to  increase  the  gums 
may  ulcerate  ; in  this  case  apply  a little  borax  and  honey  to 
them,  but  where  the  irritation  continues  and  the  pain  is  ob- 
viously great  it  will  be  necessary  to  lance  the  gums,  for  which 
purpose  it  is  almost  unnecessary  to  add  the  services  of  a sur- 
geon should  be  secured  at  once.  At  this  time  it  is  more  than 
ever  necessary  to  keep  the  bowels  well  open,  a mild  attack  of 
diarrhea  being  far  more  preferable  under  the  existing  circum- 
stances than  the  reverse  state  of  things. 

All  food  requires  to  be  carefully  chewed  in  order  that 
the  various  organs  may  perfectly  perform  their  proper  func- 
tions, and  this  can  only  be  the  case  when  the  meat,  or  what- 
ever it  may  be,  is  broken  into  minute  portions  and  duly  mixed 
with  saliva,  without  which  it  will  not  be  properly  digested. 
The  horrors  and  evils  of  indigestion  are  too  well  known  to 
need  commenting  upon  here,  but  the  necessity  for  a due  at- 
tention to  the  mastication  of  food  by  children  will  be  seen 
when  it  is  stated  that  a weak  stomach  acts  tardily  and  imper- 
fectly upon  anything  introduced  into  it  not  properly  chewed  ; 
and  the  consequences  are,  the  warmth  and  moisture  of  the 
stomach  evolve  gases,  acids  are  formed,  and  then  follow  those 
distressing  symptoms  such  as  loss  of  appetite,  flatulence, 
furred  tongue,  etc. 

The  period  of  “teething”  is  more  than  interesting,  from 
the  fact  that,  at  this  stage  of  child -life,  the  whole  organization 
seems  to  undergo  a transition.  The  features,  hitherto  more 
or  less  expressionless,  become  decided  and  distinct  ; the  eye 
becomes  endued  with  expression,  through  which  the  mind 
seems  to  speak,  as  it  were  ; the  round  appearance  of  the  facial 
outline  appears  elongated,  the  result  of  the  teeth  expanding 
the  jaws  ; the  forehead  is  perceptibly  developed,  and,  in  short, 
the  entire  face  assumes  an  animation  previously  unknown,  but 
most  precious  to  mothers,  on  account  of  its  being  the  ordinary 
time  when  “baby  is  beginning  to  notice.” 

The  order  in  which  teeth  usually  make  their  appearance 

#Ssr 


is,  first,  the  two  central  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw  appear  ; then 
shortly  after  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  followed  by  the  lower 
lateral  incisors,  and  then  by  the  upper  lateral  incisors.  At  the 
age  of  a year  or  fourteen  months  the  four  first  molar  teeth 
should  begin  to  show,  and  at  the  sixteenth  to  the  twentieth 
month  the  lower  and  upper  canine  teeth,  followed  by  the  four 
last  molars. 

Although  the  suffering  of  infants  from  the  process  of  denti- 
tion arises  mainly  from  irritation  of  the  gums,  owing  to  the 
teeth  working  their  way  through,  it  is  not  in  the  mouth  alone 
that  pain  is  caused  ; and  where  this  is  excessive,  or  in  children 
whose  constitutions  are  naturally  irritable,  the  irritation  is 
reflected  by  the  nervous  system  to  some  other  organ  or  system 
of  organs. 

The  most  ordinary  effect  of  this  is  stomach-ache,  or 
diarrhea,  with  griping  pain,  which,  if  in  a mild  form,  is  the 
least  to  be  feared  of  all  the  unpleasantnesses  arising  from 
teething  ; and  though  its  violence  may  be  moderated,  it  should 
not  be  entirely  arrested.  Under  these  circumstances,  a child 
soon  gets  weak  and  thin,  and  its  flesh  soft  and  flabby  ; but, 
generally  speaking,  this  need  not  (except,  of  course,  in  an  ex- 
treme case)  be  viewed  with  alarm  ; for,  as  soon  as  the  teeth 
are  through,  nature  soon  rights  itself,  and  the  little  one  will 
resume  its  wonted  good  looks.  When,  however,  the  symp- 
toms are  very  distressing,  by  the  quantity  and  frequency  of 
the  discharge,  a chalk  mixture,  with  a drop  or  two  of  laudanum 
to  the  ounce,  according  to  the  age  of  the  child,  may  be  given, 
in  the  event  of  a medical  man  not  being  procurable.  Where 
there  is  a great  pain  and  flatulence,  an  occasional  warm  bath, 
and  the  use  of  liniment,  composed  of  half  a drachm  of  lauda- 
num to  two  ounces  of  compound  camphor  liniment,  or  a mus- 
tard or  linseed-meal  poultice,  composed  of  one-third  of  the 
former  to  two-thirds  of  the  latter.  When  the  foregoing  symp- 
toms are  accompanied  by  vomiting,  it  is  exceedingly  trouble- 
some, and,  if  the  sickness  is  not  relieved  by  the  division  of 
the  gums,  it  should  be  checked  by  administering  a half-drop 
or  a drop  of  laudanum. 

Besides  the  maladies  mentioned  that  are  the  outcome  of 
teething,  there  are  many  others,  such  as  eruptions  of  the  skin, 
spasm  of  the  glottis,  and  affections  of  the  nervous  system 
generally,  of  too  complicated  a nature  to  treat  in  this  article, 
as  the  remedies  necessitated  are  as  complex  as  the  diseases  ; 
but  there  is  one  serious  disorder  connected  with  dentition  un- 
fortunately too  common.  I allude  to  convulsions,  the  treat- 
ment of  which  should  be  known  to  all. 

Convulsions  in  their  mild  form  consist  of  muscular  twitch- 
ings  of  the  face,  accompanied  by  an  obvious  difficulty  in 
breathing  and  a rolling  of  the  eyes.  When  severe,  the  child 
becomes  insensible,  and  the  muscles  of  the  head,  neck,  and 
extremities  are  convulsed  in  various  directions.  The  eyes  are 
insensible  to  light,  and  turned  rigidly  up  to  one  side.  The 
appearance  and  symptoms  vary,  of  course,  for,  in  addition  to 
those  named,  with  some  children  the  face  is  congested,  but 
sometimes  pale,  the  lips  livid,  and  there  is  frothing  at  the 
mouth.  The  hands  are  usually  tightly  clinched,  and  the 
thumbs  turned  inward,  with  the  fingers  on  them,  and  in  some 
cases  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  turned  together,  with  the  great 
toe  bent  into  the  sole. 


4t 


THE  NURSERY 


657 


The  treatment  for  convulsions  is,  as  a rule,  a warm  bath, 
and,  in  the  absence  of  a doctor,  the  best  thing  to  be  done  is 
to  immerse  the  child  in  warm  water  of  about  ninety  degrees 
temperature  for  about  ten  minutes  or  a quarter  of  an  hour, 
applying  at  the  same  time  a cold,  wet  towel  for  two  or  three 
minutes  to  the  little  sufferer’s  head.  Previous  to  the  bath, 
which  will  take  a few  minutes  at  least  to  get  ready,  loosen  all 
the  clothing  about  the  neck,  chest  and  body,  raise  the  head, 
sprinkle  the  face  with  water,  and  admit  plenty  of  fresh  air. 

With  regard  to  the  general  treatment  of  children  during 
teething,  their  heads  should  be  kept  cool  and  their  feet  warm, 
and,  if  the  weather  will  admit,  they  should  be  bathed  in  cold 
water,  especially  about  the  head,  and  taken  out  daily  in  the 
open  air.  At  night  it  is  equally  essential  that  their  heads  be 
kept  cool,  and  therefore  no  caps  or  coverings  should  be  used. 

As  before  stated,  diarrhea  during  dentition,  unless  very 
severe,  should  not  be  stopped,  but  regarded  as  an  effort  of 
nature  to  relieve  congestion  to  the  head  ; and  where  the  oppo- 
site effect  is  the  case,  purgatives  should  be  avoided,  and  the 
bowels  regulated  by  suitable  diet  ; in  obstinate  cases  by  injec- 
tions. Constipation  in  infants  may  be  almost  entirely  at- 
tributed to  defective  diet,  and  if,  while  nursing,  mothers  and 
nurses  would  carefully  avoid  any  article  of  food  or  drink  of 
an  indigestible  or  stimulating  character,  this  ailment  would  be 
comparatively  unknown. 

HOOPING-COUGH. 

This  disease,  almost  absolutely  confined  to  infants  and 
children,  is,  luckily  for  them,  more  distressing  in  its  symptoms 
than  dangerous  in  its  effects,  a case  of  hooping-cough,  pur  et 
simple , being  rarely  fatal.  Like  croup,  it  is  more  common 
with  very  young  children,  the  usual  age  when  they  are  more 
subject  to  it  being  from  two  to  ten  years  ; but,  unlike  croup, 
it  is  more  common  to  girls  than  to  boys,  and  appears  but  once 
in  a lifetime,  though  cases  have  been  known  where  the  cough 
continued  daily  at  a certain  hour  for  several  months,  and, 
after  ceasing  for  some  time,  returned  for  two  successive 
seasons. 

The  symptoms  which  usually  precede  this  malady  are  those 
of  ordinary  influenza.  First  and  foremost  there  is  a languor, 
restlessness,  feverishness  and  unaccountable  irritation,  except 
that  the  little  one  is  thought  “to  have  caught  a slight  cold,” 
then  loss  of  appetite,  sneezing,  coughing,  follows,  with  a run- 
ning at  the  nose  ; this  is  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary  and  not 
severe  attack.  Where  the  disease  is  in  an  aggravated  form 
the  fever  is  more  intense,  the  thirst  greater,  the  pulse  quicker, 
and  the  oppression  and  distress  in  proportion,  the  cough  very 
frequent  and  painful,  dry  at  first,  but  with  excessive  expectora- 
tion afterward.  This  may  be  called  the  first  stage  of  the 
disease,  and  is  the  customary  prelude  to  hooping,  but  it  is 
perfectly  possible  to  dispense  with  these  preliminaries,  and 
for  a child  to  be  suddenly  seized  with  the  too  well-known 
cough.  These  symptoms  ordinarily  continue  from  ten  days 
to  a fortnight. 

The  second  stage  is  marked  by  the  dying-out  of  the 
symptoms  of  cold  and  the  commencement  of  the  fits  of  cough- 
ing, which  are  best  described  as  a number  of  expirations  made 
with  such  violence,  and  repeated  in  such  quick  succession,  that 


the  child  seems  almost  in  danger  of  suffocation.  The  face 
and  neck  are  swollen  and  livid,  the  eyes  protruded  and  full  of 
tears  ; at  length,  one  or  two  inspirations  are  made  with  similar 
violence,  and  by  them  the  peculiar  hooping  sound  is  produced  ; 
a little  rest  probably  follows,  and  is  succeeded  by  another  fit 
of  coughing,  and  another  hoop,  until  after  a succession  of 
these  actions,  the  paroxysm  is  terminated  by  vomiting,  or  a 
discharge  of  mucus  from  the  lungs,  or  perhaps  both.  The 
duration  of  this  stage  is  usually  from  six  weeks  to  a couple 
of  months,  but  sometimes  continues  fora  much  longer  period, 
the  disease,  in  some  cases,  lasting  from  the  beginning  of 
Winter  until  the  end  of  Spring. 

The  debilitating  results  of  the  disease  depend  to  a great 
extent  upon  the  violence  and  duration  of  the  attack,  and  the 
strength  or  weakness  of  the  constitution,  but  as  a rule,  if  there 
are  no  complications,  these  are  of  no  great  moment.  The 
frequent  vomiting  decreases  the  appetite,  and  disturbs  diges- 
tion, which  interferes  with  nutrition,  and  the  child  naturally 
loses  flesh,  which  is  more  or  less  flabby,  and  the  skin  is  unu- 
sually dark,  especially  underneath  the  eyes. 

The  subsiding  of  the  attack  is  marked  by  the  fits  of  cough- 
ing becoming  less  frequent,  though  possibly  they  may  be  as 
fierce  as  ever,  the  paroxysms  lasting  from  a minute  to  a quar- 
ter of  an  nour.  In  proportion  to  their  violence  and  duration 
will  be  the  child’s  breathlessness  and  fright  and  its  efforts  to 
respire.  If  in  a recumbent  position  it  will  suddenly  jump  up 
and  seize  hold  of  whatever  or  whoever  is  nearest,  in  order  to 
be  assisted  in  overcoming  the  spasm.  When  the  fit  is  over 
the  child  appears  exhausted,  and  requires  a short  rest  to 
recover  itself  ; but  then  and  during  the  interval  to  the  next 
cough,  it  is  comparatively  easy  and  cheerful,  often  playing 
about  as  usual,  and  not  averse  to  food,  except  where  the  case 
is  a severe  one,  when  extreme  languor  supervenes. 

The  period  at  which  these  paroxysms  recur  varies  consider- 
ably ; during  the  early  part  of  the  attack  they  are  very  fre- 
quent— about  every  half-hour,  and  in  some  extremely  severe 
cases  as  often  as  every  ten  minutes— the  chief  cause  of  their 
return  being  the  accumulation  of  mucus.  Consequently,  if 
this  be  got  rid  of  by  the  coughing,  the  fit  will  be  light  ; but  if 
it  is  expelled  with  difficulty  the  efforts  will  be  greater,  and  the 
cough  renewed  almost  immediately.  These  fits  are  produced 
by  many  things — a hearty  meal,  a fit  of  passion,  crying,  fright 
or  laughter,  will  either  of  them  be  sufficient  to  bring  on  an 
attack. 

Although  we  have  stated  that  this  disease  is  rarely  attended 
with  fatal  results,  it  must  be  distinctly  understood  that  this 
statement  applies  to  hooping-cough  per  se  ; it  is  perfectly  cor- 
rect, but  for  fear  any  one  should  not  be  sufficiently  careful,  it 
is  a disorder  which,  if  improperly  treated,  or  if  the  case  be 
one  of  an  extremely  acute  character,  may  lead  to  something 
of  a complicated  and  highly  dangerous  nature. 

It  is  a complaint  which  lends  itself  a great  deal  more  to 
careful  nursing  than  to  an  elaborate  course  of  medicine,  for  it 
will  run  its  course,  and  requires  guiding  and  watching  more 
than  checking,  great  care  being  necessary  to  note  the  symp- 
toms, lest  they  assume  a conspicuous  or  alarming  character, 
and  by  appropriate  treatment  prevent  the  affection  having 
those  complications  alluded  to  which  constitute  it  a disease 


658 


THE  NURSERY. 


of  danger.  On  the  slightest  appearance  either  of  inflamma- 
tory affection  of  the  lungs  or  of  a tendency  to  convulsion  a 
medical  man  should  be  sent  for  immediately. 

During  the  first  stage  an  emetic  of  ipecacuanha,  followed 
by  an  expectorant  ever)'  four  hours,  should  be  given,  the  latter 
consisting  of  ipecacuanha  wine,  sirup  of  squills,  a little  sirup 
of  white  poppies  and  almond  milk,  and  some  mild  aperient, 
such  as  castor  oil  or  salts  and  senna,  the  emetic  only  to  be  re- 
peated occasionally.  The  rooms  to  which  the  child  should 
be  confined  should  be  of  an  equable  temperature,  about  sixty- 
five  degrees,  the  bedroom  being  ventilated  during  the  day  and 
the  sitting-room  during  the  night  ; but  the  windows  of  the 
apartment  must  on  no  account  be  opened  while  the  patient  is 
in  them. 

When  the  second  stage  arrives,  while  proper  attention  is 
paid  to  temperature,  the  cough  will  be  found  much 
slighter  and  the  expectoration  much  less  than  if  the  child  were 
permitted  to  be  exposed  to  the  external  air,  the  emetic  being 
continued  occasionally,  and  also  the  mixture,  with  a few  drops 
of  laudanum  added  to  it. 

With  regard  to  change  of  air,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
while  the  attack  is  unsubdued,  no  matter  what  the  weather 
may  be,  the  patient  should  be  confined  not  only  to  the  house 
but  to  rooms,  as  already  stated,  but  when  the  disease  is  on 
the  wane  the  change  from  a cold  situation  to  one  of  warm 
temperature  is  most  beneficial  in  accelerating  a return  to  con- 
valescence, though  the  greatest  caution  is  needed  in  this 
matter. 

The  diet  of  the  child  during  the  entire  illness  is  a most  im- 
portant feature  in  connection  with  the  treatment,  and  should 
consist  chiefly  of  milk  and  farinaceous  foods,  meat  being  of 
too  heating  a nature,  unless  the  child  is  very  weak  and  low, 
in  which  case  tolerably  good  broth  will  be  the  best  mode  of 
giving  animal  food. 

VACCINATION. 

Unfortunately  that  dangerous  and  much  dreaded  malady — 
smallpox — is  prevalent,  and  it  would  be  well  for  parents  and 
others  to  be  reminded  of  the  necessity  of  revaccination  every 
seven  years. 

It  is  astonishing  that  though  this  discovery  is  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  very  greatest  blessings  to  poor  humanity  it  should 
now  be  thought  so  little  of,  and  that  there  should  be  some 
who  actually  decry  and  refuse  to  accept  it  as  such,  when  there 
is  no  doubt  that  if  every  one  had  followed  the  instructions  as 
to  revaccination,  by  this  time  smallpox  would  have  ceased 
altogether. 

No  language  can  be  too  strong  to  depict  the  horrors  of  this 
disease,  or  to  denounce  the  culpable  ignorance  of  those  who, 
blinding  themselves  to  the  blessings  of  vaccination,  set  the 
law  at  defiance  and  thus  endanger  the  lives  of  their  fel- 
low-creatures. Supposing  it  could  be  proved  (which  it  can- 
not) that  in  some  cases  it  has  been  the  means  of  imparting 
disease,  the  overwhelming  number  of  cases  where  it  has  not, 
but  has  been  a preventive  of  this  terrible  malady,  ought  to 
show  its  necessity  on  the  beneficent  principle  of  studying  the 
greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number. 

To  children  smallpox  has  ever  been  distressingly  fatal,  and 


though  it  is  impossible  to  give  any  course  of  treatment  for  its 
cure  in  an  article  of  this  character,  as  so  much  depends  upon 
the  violence  of  the  case,  the  state  of  the  patient’s  constitution, 
and  the  stage  of  the  complaint,  it  may  be  said  that  the  old 
practice  of  close,  hot  rooms,  warm  clothing,  and  hot  drinks 
are  proved  mistakes  ; cool,  well-ventilated  apartments,  com- 
fortably cool  bedclothes  and  cooling  drinks  having  been  found 
to  be  not  only  more  pleasant  but  more  successful  in  their  re- 
sults. When  the  disease  first  makes  its  appearance,  if  the 
fever  be  moderate  and  no  professional  advice  be  procurable, 
the  patient  should  be  confined  to  bed,  and  cool  drinks  and  a 
dose  or  two  of  purgative  medicine  administered. 

FEVERS. 

Measles. — An  acute  specific  disease — febrile  and  infec- 
tious, ushered  in  with  catarrhal  symptoms  and  characterized 
by  an  eruption  on  the  skin,  which  appears  usually  on  the 
fourth  day. 

Usual  Symptoms. — After  a period  of  incubation  varying 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  days  (the  period  of  incubation  in  cases 
produced  by  inoculation  is  seven  days),  there  is  manifested 
alternate  chilliness  and  heat,  a quickened  pulse,  aching  in  the 
limbs,  slight  headache,  soon  followed  by  redness  of  the  eyes, 
coryza,  huskiness  and  hoarse  cough.  On  the  fourth  day  there 
is  an  eruption  of  soft,  circular,  very  slightly  elevated  dusky 
red  spots,  which  appear  first  on  the  forehead,  and  extend  over 
the  face,  neck  and  whole  body.  The  spots  gradually  coalesce 
and  present  a peculiar  crescentic  or  horseshoe  shape.  The 
spots  disappear  on  pressure.  They  attain  their  greatest  in- 
tensity on  the  fourth  day  from  their  invasion,  and  by  the 
seventh  day  they  fade  away  with  a slight  desquamation  of  the 
cuticle.  As  a rule  the  fever  does  not  abate  on  the  appearance 
of  the  eruption. 

The  contagion  of  measles  is  active  during  the  prodromic 
stage.  Red  spots  are  visible  on  the  velum  palati  four,  five, 
or  six  days  before  the  eruption  appears  on  the  skin. 

Occasional  Symptoms. — There  may  be  no  prodromata 
whatever,  or  the  attack  may  be  ushered  in  with  convulsions 
(especially  in  children),  or  there  may  be  delirium,  or  there 
may  be  a great  amount  of  fever,  or  there  may  be  and  often 
is  sore  throat  ; more  rarely  severe  headache,  and  sometimes 
absence  of  the  coryza. 

The  eruption  may  be  scanty,  or  most  abundant  and  con- 
fluent, but  the  quantity  of  the  eruption  per  se  does  not  affect 
the  gravity  of  the  attack  ; the  color  of  the  eruption  may  be 
dark,  constituting  so  called  “ black  measles  ” ; there  may  be 
petechias,  which  do  not  fade  on  pressure  and  resemble  pur- 
pura ; these  do  not  per  se  affect  the  prognosis.  Miliary  vesi- 
cles are  often  present,  and  when  abundant  the  amount  of  des- 
quamation will  be  greater. 

Average  Mortality. — One  in  fifteen. 

Prognosis. — If  uncomplicated,  favorable.  Unfavorable 
signs  are  great  fever,  great  dyspnoea,  sudden  vanishing  of 
the  rash,  together  with  an  access  of  delirium  ; brown  dry 
tongue,  with  special  severity  of  some  two  or  three  symptoms  ; 
petechise,  with  a typhoid  form  of  fever.  Capillary  bronchit-is 
and  pneumonia  are  the  most  frequent  proximate  causes  of 
death. 


THE  NURSERY. 


659 


Treatment. — The  child  must  be  kept  in  bed  in  a large, 
well-ventilated  room,  free  from  drafts — a point  of  vital  im- 
portance, looking  to  the  frequency  and  danger  of  chest  com- 
plications. The  diet  must  be  low.  Tepid  drinks  may  be 
freely  given.  It  is  very  important  in  measles,  as  in  all  infec- 
tious fevers,  to  remove  all  discharge  and  soiled  linen  instantly  ; 
the  motions  should  be  passed  into  vessels  containing  chloride 
of  lime,  carbolic  acid,  or  Condy’s  fluid  ; this  with  ventilation 
will  go  far  to  prevent  infection.  There  is  no  objection,  if  it 
be  grateful  to  the  patient,  to  have  the  body  gently  sponged 
with  warm  water  ; and  if  itching  be  much  complained  of,  in- 
unction with  unsalted  lard  is  useful.  Cough  is  often  the  first 
troublesome  symptom  which  requires  special  treatment.  A 
mixture  containing  citrate  of  potash  and  ipecacuanha  wine 
with  a few  drops  of  nepenthe  or  Tinct.  Camph.  Co.,  will 
usually  quiet  this.  If  the  fever  runs  high,  the  weak  mineral 
acids  sweetened  and  largely  diluted  will  be  very  grateful.  Or 
a mixture  of  citrate  of  potash  and  Rochelle  salt  may  be  given 
in  an  effervescing  form.  If  the  fever  be  of  low  type,  with 
brown  tongue  and  failing  powers,  large  doses  of  chlorate  of 
potash  will  be  useful,  and  stimulants  will  be  required.  Yelk 
of  egg  beaten  up  with  wine  is  excellent  in  such  cases.  Pur- 
gatives, as  a rule,  are  not  required  ; if  employed  they  should 
be  mere  laxatives,  remembering  the  diarrhea  which  usually 
sets  in  toward  the  close  of  the  disease.  In  cases  attended  with 
much  nervous  excitability  and  convulsions  or  delirium,  bro- 
mide of  potassium  in  full  doses  will  be  useful.  This  drug  will 
also  procure  sleep,  and  is  better  for  the  purpose  than  any 
opiate.  Sudden  recession  of  the  rash  attended  with  an  onset 
of  delirium  should  be  met  by  plunging  the  child  into  a bath 
containing  mustard,  and  leaving  it  in  until  the  surface  becomes 
red,  which  usually  occurs  in  a few  minutes.  The  child  should 
then  be  rolled  in  a blanket,  and  the  strength  supported  by 
nutritious  diet,  and  stimulants  are  needed.  For  laryngitis,  a 
sponge  wrung  out  of  very  hot  water  should  be  applied  over 
the  larynx,  and  inhalation  of  steam  encouraged.  Pneumonia 
will  call  for  a stimulating  embrocation  over  its  site,  and  the 
administration  of  stimulants,  expectorants — carbonate  of  am- 
monia with  senega  is  the  best. 

Lung  and  indeed  all  complications  occurring  during  the 
early  stages  are  best  treated  by  endeavoring,  with  external 
stimulants,  e.g.,  the  mustard  bath,  and  internal  gentle 
diaphoretics,  to  get  the  rash  thrown  out  freely.  Later  on  this 
is,  of  course,  inadmissible,  and  the  strength  must  be  supported 
in  every  way. 

As  the  disease  declines  the  diet  may  be  more  solid,  and 
tonics  will  be  of  service.  Convalescence  from  measles  is  often 
slow,  and  as  discharges  from  the  ears,  eyes,  and  nose  are  not 
uncommon,  sea-air  is  very  beneficial  in  re-establishing  the 
health.  Such  discharges  will  require  astringent  lotions  and 
the  use  of  cod-liver  oil  and  steel. 

SCARLATINA. 

An  acute  specific  disease — febrile,  contagious,  and  infectious, 
and  accompanied  by  a peculiar  eruption  of  the  skin.  After  a 
period  of  incubation  varying  according  to  different  authors  at 
from  four  to  forty  days,  and  probably  averaging  from  four  to 
six  days,  there  appears  in  children  vomiting  ; in  older  persons 


sore  throat,  and  the  onset  is  usually  sudden.  It  is  common 
for  adults  to  be  able  to  fix  the  hour  in  which  the  sore  throat 
began.  In  children  severe  vomiting  often  prognosticates 
severe  throat  affection.  Next  there  is  noticed  fever,  a fre- 
quent pulse,  commonly  130 — 170,  a flushed  face,  a high 
temperature  (103  or  104  degrees  F.,  even  on  the  first  day), 
hurried  breathing,  furred  tongue,  hot  skin  and  thirst.  At  the 
same  time  there  is  lassitude  and  restlessness,  headache,  and  at 
night  delirium.  On  the  second  day,  usually  about  the  root  of 
the  neck  and  upper  part  of  the  chest,  appears  the  eruption, 
which  is  a scarlet  efflorescence  consisting  of  innumerable  red 
spots  at  first  separated  by  natural  skin,  but  soon  coalescing 
and  producing  a general  redness;  the  skin  is  rendered  pale  by 
pressure,  but  the  redness  immediately  returns — the  rash  is  not 
elevated  to  the  touch.  It  is  most  abundant  about  the  hips  and 
loins,  and  the  flexures  of  the  joints — in  fact  where  the  papillae 
of  the  skin  are  largest.  The  eruption  reaches  its  maximum 
intensity  on  the  third  or  fourth  day  ; by  the  fifth  it  has  begun 
to  fade,  and  by  the  eighth  it  disappears.  It  goes  off  in  an 
order  corresponding  with  its  invasion.  Miliaria  are  often 
present,  perhaps  more  commonly  in  adults  than  in  children  ; 
they  in  nowise  affect  the  prognosis.  The  sore  throat  is  very 
important,  especially  in  children.  A child  may  die  from 
throat  disease  without  any  complaint  about  its  throat  having 
been  made.  The  throat  should  therefore  always  be  carefully 
examined.  The  tonsils  will  usually  be  found  enlarged  and  in- 
flamed, and  often  coated  with  a thick  white  tenacious  mucus. 

CROUP. 

This  disease  is  characterized  by  difficulty  of  breathing ; 
hoarseness  ; a ringing  cough,  which,  when  once  heard,  will  be 
distinctly  remembered  ; the  cough  is  followed  by  a “ crowing 
inspiration.” 

There  is  inflammatory  fever ; frequent  and  hard  pulse  ; 
thirst. 

The  attack  is  most  liable  to  come  on  in  the  night — either 
altogether  unexpected,  or  preceded  by  a cold,  sore  throat,  or 
catarrh. 

T reatment. — Apply  to  the  throat  very  cold  wet  cloths  well 
covered  with  dry.  Keep  the  child  in  bed.  Rub  with  the  dry 
hand  the  back  and  limbs,  and  continue  this  until  a hot  bath  is 
made  ready  ; renewing  the  cold  cloths  to  the  throat  every  few 
moments.  When  the  room  is  made  very  warm  and  the  bath 
at  hand,  place  the  child  in  the  hot  water,  as  hot  as  can  be 
borne,  and  rub  the  chest  and  abdomen  and  the  whole  body 
very  briskly.  Add  more  hot  water,  and  keep  the  body  (even 
to  the  neck)  immersed. 

Have  a dry  hot  sheet  ready  in  which  to  wrap  and  rub  dry  the 
little  patient.  If  fever  is  high,  now  put  on  the  abdominal 
bandage  wrung  from  warm  water.  Cover  well  with  dry  flannel 
— a small  blanket  or  even  a good-sized  one  is  none  too  much. 
Apply  again  the  cold  wet  cloth  to  the  throat.  Keep  the  feet 
warm  ; and,  if  the  breathing  is  not  easier  now,  foment  the 
throat  and  upper  part  of  the  chest  for  twenty  minutes  alter- 
nately with  the  cold  compress. 

Put  and  rub  the  back  and  chest.  Manipulate  the  arms  ana 
legs.  Give  drinks  of  hot  water  and  of  cold.  Follow  the 
symptoms  with  “ all  diligence.”  Do  not  relax  effort  until  the 


66o 


THE  NURSERY. 


breathing  is  liberated.  If  the  bowels  are  not  free,  give  full 
warm  enema. 

If  there  is  tendency  to  coldness  of  extremities,  give  hot  foot 
bath  occasionally  ; also  apply  dry  flannels  heated  very  hot  to 
the  throat,  if  they  seem  more  agreeable  than  the  hot  fomenta- 
tion. 

Keep  the  patient  in  a warm,  well-ventilated  room.  Give 
only  baked  apple,  or  toast  water,  or  gruel  as  food,  until  the 
symptoms  yield  positively. 

I have  been  told  by  my  patrons  that  it  often  occurs  in  their 
domestic  practice  with  children,  that,  by  the  time  the  patient 
is  rubbed  with  the  dry  hand,  having  the  cold  compress  on  the 
throat  until  the  hot  bath  is  made  ready,  there  is  no  need  of 
the  bath  ; the  breathing  is  relieved.  But  it  is  not  always  so. 
I have  treated  cases  of  what  is  called  “membranous  croup," 
and  it  lasted  persistently  for  days.  I never  lost  a case  of 
croup.  But  it  is  a dreaded  disease,  and  justly  so. 

MUMPS  (PAROTITIS). 

This  disease  often  prevails  epidemically. 

It  usually  affects  children  and  young  persons,  and  is  con- 
tagious. 

The  parotid  gland  swells  ; swelling  beneath  the  ear,  the 
chin,  and  all  around  the  neck,  deforming  the  countenance  cu- 
riously. 

It  affects  one  side  only  sometimes,  but  usually  both. 

The  swelling  is  hot,  tender,  and  painful ; the  lower  jaw  can 
scarcely  be  moved.  In  about  four  days  the  disease  begins  to 
decline,  and  usually  lasts  in  all  about  ten  days. 

Sometimes  the  swelling  suddenly  becomes  transferred  to  the 
mammas  in  the  female  and  to  the  testicle  in  the  male,  and 
may  oscillate  between  the  throat  and  the  mammm  or  testicle. 
Metastasis  to  the  brain  is  known  to  take  place  also,  but  this  is 
rare. 

Treatment.— Very  little  treatment  is  necessary.  Apply 
warm  cloths  to  the  swelling  ; let  them  be  kept  on  constantly. 

If  there  is  general  feverishness,  a tepid  sponge  bath  and 
enema  of  tepid  water.  A little  gruel  or  bran  tea  as  food. 

Keep  the  patient  comfortably  warm  and  quiet.  If  metas- 
tasis to  the  parts  named  occur,  a warm  sitz  bath  or  fomenta- 
tion to  the  affected  region  will  give  relief.  Keep  the  feet 
warm. 

Should  the  brain  become  affected,  give  very  hot  sitz  and  foot 
bath  ten  minutes.  Follow  this  with  enema  of  hot  water.  Ap- 
ply cool  cloths  to  the  head,  or,  if  more  agreeable  to  the  pa- 
tient, warm  spongings.  Let  the  patient  be  kept  in  bed  and 
seek  to  induce  perspiration  by  applying  bottles  of  hot  water 
to  the  back  and  feet  and  drinking  of  hot  water. 

In  fact,  the  treatment  now  should  be  the  same  as  for  inflam- 
mation of  the  brain. 

DIPHTHERIA. 

In  this  to  be  dreaded  and  terrible  disease,  a false  membrane 
forms  in  the  throat,  and  if  the  larynx  becomes  affected  the 
chances  of  recovery  are  very  few  indeed.  Frequent  vomiting, 
diarrhea,  hemorrhage  from  the  nostrils  or  elsewhere,  fre- 
quency and  fullness  of  the  pulse,  convulsions,  delirium,  and 
coma,  are  symptoms  which  denote  great  danger.  Occasionally 
the  muscles  of  both  the  upper  and  lower  limbs  are  affected. 


The  chief  objects  in  the  treatment  are  to  palliate  symptoms, 
and  support  the  powers  of  life  by  the  judicious  employment 
of  tonic  remedies,  conjoined  with  alimentation  and  alcholic 
stimulants.  The  latter  are  given  in  large  quantities.  The 
best  advice  to  give  to  mothers  in  regard  to  diphtheria  is, 
send  instantly  for  the  doctor.  Do  not  delay  one  moment  1 

ACCIDENTS.. 

It  is  an  accepted  axiom  that  accidents  will  happen,  no 
matter  how  well  regulated  the  household  ; and  though  much 
has  been  written  with  a view  to  avert  the  more  serious  calami- 
ties supposed  to  be  the  outcome  of  accident,  but  which  are 
invariably  the  result  of  carelessness,  children  still  manage  to 
burn  themselves  at  fires,  to  scald  themselves  with  hot  water, 
to  cut  their  fingers,  to  break  their  heads,  etc. 

As  a rule,  the  remedies  required  to  be  of  any  service  should 
be  applied  at  once  ; and  it  is,  therefore,  no  earthly  use  sug- 
gesting antidotes  or  appliances  only  to  be  met  with  in  a 
doctor’s  surgery.  I shall,  therefore,  in  the  few  suggestions  I 
make,  more  particularly  dwell  upon  those  simple  remedies 
which  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  be  found  in  every  home. 

In  the  Summer  months,  when  the  weather  is  seasonable, 
the  heat  is  oftentimes  sufficient  to  cause  children  to  bleed  at 
the  nose.  In  such  cases,  if  the  bleeding  be  not  excessive  or 
too  frequent,  it  is  not  desirable  to  stop  it,  as,  when  caused  by 
an  undue  fullness  of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  head,  it  affords 
great  relief.  When,  however,  the  bleeding  is  the  result  of  a 
knock  or  blow,  cold  applications  should  be  applied  to  the  nose 
or  forehead,  and  the  child  kept  standing  in  the  open  air. 

Another  excellent  way  of  arresting  the  bleeding  is  to  cause 
the  arms  to  be  raised  above  the  head,  and  kept  so  for  a few 
minutes,  which  will  usually  have  the  desired  effect.  In  the 
event  of  these  remedies  proving  ineffectual,  and  it  being  evi- 
dent that  the  bleeding  is  dangerous,  the  nostrils  must  be  plug- 
ged with  pieces  of  linen  rag  made  into  stoppers  of  oval  shape, 
about  one  inch  in  the  long  diameter  and  half  an  inch  in  the 
transverse,  sufficient  linen  being  left  hanging  in  order  to  with- 
draw them  when  necessary.  The  greats  thing  to  determine  in 
cases  where  the  bleeding  is  not  the  result  of  accident  is 
whether  it  be  a disease,  or  Nature’s  mode  of  assisting  the  re- 
moval of  one  ; and  this,  of  course,  can  only  be  arrived  at  by  a 
knowledge  of  the  child’s  state  of  health  at  the  time. 

CUTS. 

With  regard  to  the  bleeding  caused  by  a cut  from  a knife, 
or  something  similarly  sharp,  if  it  be  only  slight,  after  being 
bathed  with  cold  water,  the  edges  or  sides  of  the  wound  should 
be  brought  together  and  bound  with  narrow  strips  of  arnica 
plaster,  if  this  is  to  be  had  ; but  if  not,  a simple  band  of 
linen,  smeared  with  the  white  of  an  egg,  will  be  the  best  sub- 
stitute. If  the  band  becomes  tight,  and  causes  pain  owing  to 
the  swelling,  don’t  remove  the  bandage,  but  insert  the  blade 
of  a pair  of  scissors  underneath  the  binding  on  the  opposite  side 
to  the  wound,  and  cut  the  linen  across.  Where  it  is  necessary 
to  remove  the  strapping  on  account  of  there  being  pain  and 
throbbing,  the  part  affected  should  be  soaked  in  warm  water, 
and  a soft,  warm  poultice  applied.  When  the  wound  does 
not  show  signs  of  inflammation,  and  the  discharge  is  good,  that 


THE  NURSERY. 


66) 


is  to  say,  resembling  cream  in  consistence  and  custard  in 
color,  the  bandage  may  be  put  on  again  ; but  when  the  edges 
are  inflamed,  or  pale  and  flabby,  and  the  discharge  thin  and 
objectionable  in  its  odor,  a single  strap  of  adhesive  plaster 
should  be  used  to  keep  the  edges  together,  and  this  should  be 
covered  with  a warm  poultice. 

When  a mishap  of  this  kind  occurs,  it  is  either  a vein  or  an 
artery  that  is  cut.  In  the  former  case  the  blood  is  dark-colored, 
and  will  flow  in  a steady  stream,  which  can  usually  be  stopped 
by  the  application  of  cold  water  or  ice,  and  by  exposing  the 
wound  to  the  open  air.  In  the  latter  the  blood  is  "bright-red,  and 
flows  in  jets,  when,  if  the  bleeding  is  excessive,  a strong 
bandage  should  be  tied  around  the  limb,  just  above  the  wound, 
and  between  it  and  the  heart,  and  compressed  sufficiently 
tight  (by  means  of  a stick  inserted  underneath  and  twisted) 
until  the  circulation  be  stopped. 

When  the  wound  is  not  a clean  cut,  and  there  is  any  foreign 
substance,  such  as  dirt,  hair,  etc.,  it  must  be  carefully  removed 
by  sponging  with  cold  water. 

BURNS. 

Accidents  caused  by  burning  demand  immediate  attention, 
and  can  only  be  cured  in  one  way — by  excluding  the  air  from 
the  part  affected.  Where  it  is  a case  of  the  clothes  having  caught 
fire,  envelop  the  child  in  the  heavest  article  available,  such  as 
a blanket,  tablecloth,  curtain,  etc.,  and  roll  it  over  and  over 
on  the  ground  until  the  flames  are  extinguished,  in  the  event 
of  there  not  being  sufficient  water  at  hand  for  that  purpose. 

This  done,  the  charred  garments  should  be  quickly  but  most 
gently  removed,  and  cut  away,  instead  of  being  torn,  from 
the  body,  in  order  that  the  damaged  skin  should  not  be  un- 
necessarily irritated  ; but  where  a piece  of  the  underlinen 
happens  to  be  burnt  into  the  wound,  or  is  not  easily  detached, 
cut  away  all  round  it,  and  leave  it  to  come  away  afterward. 
Then  immediately  cover  the  injured  surface  with  something 
that  will  exclude  the  air,  either  with  flour  sprinkled  thickly 
over  the  wound,  with  cotton-wool  steeped  in  oil,  or  with  a 
piece  of  linen  on  which  is  spread  a layer  of  soap  about  the 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  thick.  When  procurable,  a better  remedy 
than  either  of  those  mentioned  is  to  apply  strips  of  lint 
saturated  in  carron  oil,  which  dressing  should  be  left  on  as 
long  as  possible  until  they  become  loosened  or  objectionable 
from  the  discharges,  it  being  most  desirable  that  these  band- 
ages be  changed  as  seldom  as  possible,  as  their  removal  is  apt 
to  cause  detachment  of  portions  of  the  new  skin,  which  is 
most  painful  and  undesirable.  Where  there  is  much  discharge 
it  must  be  removed,  and  the  place  kept  as  clean  as  possible. 

When  the  injury  is  of  an  extensive  character,  and  a shock 
ensues,  the  shivering  is  best  checked  by  the  application  of  hot 
bottles  to  the  hands  and  feet,  and  the  administering  of  hot 
drinks — either  warm  sherry  or  warm  brandy  and  water.  To 
prevent  disfigurement  from  accidents  of  this  nature,  the  child 
must  be  carefully  watched  until  the  part  is  completely  healed, 
and  must  be  prevented  from  sitting  or  lying  in  anything  but  a 
straight  posture,  to  avoid  contraction  of  the  skin. 

The  danger  attending  bums  depends  more  upon  their  super- 
ficial extent  than  the  depth  of  the  injury — those  to  the  body, 


head  or  neck  being  much  more  dangerous  than  those  to  the 
hands  or  feet,  the  neck  being  the  most  risky  portion  of  all. 

Where  the  part  is  simply  blistered,  though  these  be  exten- 
sive in  character  and  large  in  number,  it  is  compa~atively  of 
little  moment  as  long  as  they  are  whole.  They  must  con- 
sequently not  be  broken,  but  allowed  to  remain,  arid  the  fluid 
to  accumulate  till  the  new  skin  forms  underneath.  When  this 
formation  takes  place,  the  part  becomes  distended  and  pain 
ful,  there  is  a red  line  round  the  edge  of  the  blister,  and  the 
contained  fluid  looks  milky.  It  may  then  be  let  out  by  punc 
turing  with  a needle,  so  that  it  all  escapes. 

SCALDS. 

Scalds  from  hot  water,  as  a rule,  are  not  so  severe,  as,  ex- 
cepting in  extreme  cases,  the  scurf  skin  is  only  raised  like  an 
ordinary  blister,  and  the  dressing  being  wet,  can  be  removed 
without  difficulty.  Any  of  the  remedies  prescribed  for  burns 
are  equally  efficacious  for  scalds,  but  if  the  scalded  surface  be 
instantly  covered  with  cotton-wool,  it  is,  if  the  accident  be  of 
a slight  character,  sufficient.  Another  admirable  remedy, 
more  particularly  on  account  of  its  usually  being  “ in  the 
house,”  is  lard.  That  specially  prepared  by  chemists  is,  of 
course,  the  best  ; but  this  only  means  the  ordinary  kind 
divested  of  the  salt  by  washing.  It  should  be  thickly  spread 
on  pieces  of  old,  soft  linen,  and  when  placed  on  the  scald  or 
burn  be  kept  in  its  place  by  bandages  of  lint,  or,  better  still, 
by  strips  of  calico  torn  from  an  old  garment,  always  bearing 
in  mind  that  the  great  thing  is  to  protect  the  damaged  part 
from  the  air,  and  remembering  on  no  account  to  apply  cold 
water  or  similar  cold  bandages. 

BRUISES. 

Bruises  from  knocks  and  tumbles  are  by  far  the  most  fre- 
quent of  the  numerous  accidents  of  the  nursery,  and  where  the 
injury  is  slight  and  the  skin  not  lacerated,  a warm  application 
of  arnica  (which  should  always  be  kept  where  there  are  chil- 
dren) and  water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  arnica  to  ten 
of  water,  is  advisable  ; but  in  the  absence  of  this,  the  old- 
fashioned  remedy  of  covering  the  bruise  with  fresh  butter 
should  be  resorted  to. 

Jammed  fingers,  through  the  unexpected  shutting  of  a 
drawer  or  door,  though  not  usually  looked  upon  as  at  all 
serious  casualties,  may  sometimes  be  attended  by  the  most 
serious  consequences,  for  if  all  the  parts  of  the  end  of  the 
fingers  be  injured,  the  whole  (bone  and  flesh)  may  mortify. 
In  ordinary  cases  of  this  kind  the  best  and  quickest  way  of 
obtaining  relief  is  to  plunge  the  finger  or  fingers  into  warm 
water  as  hot  as  the  child  can  bear  it.  By  this  means  the  nail 
is  softened,  and  yields  so  as  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  blood 
poured  out  beneath  it,  and  the  pain  is  speedily  lessened  ; the 
finger  should  then  be  covered  with  a bread  and  water  poultice 
pending  the  surgical  treatment  necessary  where  the  fingers 
are  badly  crushed. 

Instant  care  and  attention  in  such  cases  will  often  prevent 
the  loss  of  the  nail,  a result  to  be  avoided  if  possible,  since  the 
formation  and  growth  of  the  new  nail  are  necessarily  slow, 
and  changes  of  shape  frequently  occur,  sometimes  result- 
ing in  permanent  disfigurement. 


662 


HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


CHOICE  OF  ARTICLES  OF  FOOD. 

OTHING  is  more  important  in  the  affairs  of 
housekeeping  than  the  choice  of  wholesome 
food. 

Mackerel  must  be  perfectly  fresh.  The 
firmness  of  the  flesh  and  the  clearness  of  the 
eyes  must  be  the  criterion  of  fresh  mackerel,  as  they 
are  of  all  other  fish. 

os  Flounders,  and  all  flat  white  fish,  are  rigid  and 

firm  when  fresh  ; the  under  side  should  be  of  a rich  cream 
color. 

Cod  is  known  to  be  fresh  by  the  rigidity  of  the  muscles  (or 
flesh)  ; the  redness  of  the  gills,  and  clearness  of  the  eyes. 

Salmon. — The  flavor  and  excellence  of  this  fish  depend 
upon  its  freshness,  and  the  shortness  of  time  since  it  was 
caught. 

Herrings  can  only  be  eaten  when  very  fresh. 

Fresh  Water  Fish. — The  remarks  as  to  firmness  and 
clear,  fresh  eyes,  apply  to  this  variety  of  fish,  of  which  there 
are  pike,  perch,  etc. 

Lobsters  recently  caught  have  always  some  remains  of 
muscular  action  in  the  claws,  which  may  be  excited  by  pressing 
the  eyes  with  the  finger  ; when  this  cannot  be  produced,  the 
lobster  must  have  been  too  long  kept.  When  boiled,  the  tail 
preserves  its  elasticity  if  fresh,  but  loses  it  as  soon  as  it  be- 
comes stale. 

Crabs  have  an  agreeable  smell  when  fresh. 

Prawns  and  Shrimps,  when  fresh,  are  firm  and  crisp. 

Oysters. — If  fresh,  the  shell  is  firmly  closed;  when  the 
shells  of  oysters  are  opened,  they  are  dead  and  unfit  for 
food.  The  small-shelled  oysters  are  the  finest  in  flavor. 
Larger  kinds  are  generally  considered  only  fit  for  stewing  and 
sauces,  though  some  persons  prefer  them. 

Beef. — The  grain  of  ox  beef,  when  good,  is  loose,  the  meat 
red,  and  the  fat  inclining  to  yellow.  When  meat  pressed  by 
the  finger  rises  up  quickly,  it  may  be  considered  as  that  of  an 
animal  which  was  in  its  prime  ; when  the  dent  made  by  pres- 
sure returns  slowly,  or  remains  visible,  the  animal  had  prob- 
ably past  its  prime,  and  the  meat  consequently  must  be  of  infe- 
rior quality. 

Veal  should  be  delicately  white,  though  it  is  often  juicy 
and  well  flavored  when  rather  dark  in  color.  On  examining 
the  loin,  if  the  fat  enveloping  the  kidney  be  white  and  firm 
looking,  the  meat  will  probably  be  prime,  and  recently  killed. 


Mutton. — The  meat  should  be  firm  and  close  in  grain,  and 
red  in  color,  the  fat  white  and  firm.  Mutton  is  in  its  prime 
when  the  sheep  is  about  five  years  old,  though  it  is  often 
killed  much  younger.  If  too  young,  the  flesh  feels  tender 
when  pinched,  if  too  old  on  being  pinched  it  wrinkles  up,  and 
so  remains.  In  young  mutton,  the  fat  readily  separates  ; in 
old,  it  is  held  together  by  strings  of  skin. 

Lamb. — This  meat  will  not  keep  long  after  it  is  killed. 
The  large  vein  in  the  neck  is  bluish  in  color  when  the  fore- 
quarter is  fresh,  green  when  becoming  stale.  In  the  hind- 
quarter,  if  not  recently  killed,  the  fat  of  the  kidney  will  have  a 
slight  smell,  and  the  knuckle  will  have  lost  its  firmness. 

Pork. — When  good,  the  rind  is  thin,  smooth,  and  cool  to 
the  touch  ; when  changing,  from  being  too  long  killed,  it  be- 
comes flaccid  and  clammy. 

Bacon  should  have  a thin  rind,  and  the  fat  should  be  firm 
and  tinged  with  red  by  the  curing;  the  flesh  should  be  of  a 
clear  red,  without  intermixture  of  yellow,  and  it  should  firmly 
adhere  to  the  bone.  To  judge  the  state  of  a ham,  plunge  a 
knife  into  it  to  the  bone  ; on  drawing  it  back,  if  particles  of 
meat  adhere  to  it,  or  if  the  smell  is  disagreeable,  the  curing 
has  not  been  effectual,  and  the  ham  is  not  good  ; it  should,  in 
such  a state,  be  immediately  cooked. 

Venison. — When  good,  the  fat  is  clear,  bright,  and  of  con- 
siderable thickness. 

Turkeys.— In  choosing  poultry,  the  age  of  the  bird  is  the 
chief  point  to  be  attended  to.  An  old  turkey  has  rough  and 
reddish  legs  ; a young  one,  smooth  and  black.  Fresh  killed, 
the  eyes  are  full  and  clear,  and  the  feet  moist.  When  it  has 
been  kept  too  long,  the  parts  about  the  vent  begin  to  wear  a 
greenish,  discolored  appearance. 

Common  Domestic  Fowls,  when  young,  have  the  legs  and 
combs  smooth  ; when  old,  they  are  rough,  and  on  the  breast 
long  hairs  are  found  instead  of  feathers.  Fowls  and  chickens 
should  be  plump  on  the  breast,  fat  on  the  back,  and  white 
legged. 

Geese. — The  bills  and  feet  are  red  when  old,  yellow  when 
young.  Fresh  killed,  the  feet  are  pliable,  stiff  when  too  long 
kept.  Geese  are  called  green  while  they  are  only  two  or  three 
months  old. 

Ducks. — Choose  them  with  supple  feet  and  hard,  plump 
breasts.  Tame  ducks  have  yellow  feet,  wild  ones  red. 

Pigeons  are  very  indifferent  food  when  they  are  too  long 
kept.  Suppleness  of  the  feet  shows  them  to  be  young  ; the 


HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


663 


state  of  the  flesh  is  flaccid  when  they  are  getting  bad  from 
keeping.  Tame  pigeons  are  larger  than  the  wild. 

Partridges,  when  young,  have  yellow  legs  and  dark-col- 
ored bills.  Old  partridges  are  very  indifferent  eating. 

Woodcock  and  Snipe,  when  old,  have  the  feet  thick 
and  hard  ; when  these  are  soft  and  tender,  they  are  both 
young  and  fresh  killed.  When  their  bills  become  moist,  and 
their  throats  muddy,  they  have  been  too  long  killed. 

SEASONABLE  FOOD. 

There  is  an  old  maxim,  “ a place  for  everything,  and  every- 
thing in  its  place.”  To  which  we  beg  to  add  another,  “ A sea- 
son for  everything,  and  everything  in  season.” 

January. 

[Fish,  poultry,  etc.,  distinguished  by  italics  are  to  be  had  in  the  high- 
est perfection.] 

Fish. — Cod,  crabs,  eels,  flounders,  herrings,  lobsters,  oys- 
ters, perch,  pike,  sturgeon,  porgies. 

Meat. — Beef,  house-lamb,  mutton,  pork,  veal,  and  doe 
venison. 

Poultry  and  Game. — Capons,  chickens,  ducks,  wild-ducks, 
fowls,  geese,  partridges,  pheasants,  pigeons  (tame),  pullets, 
rabbits,  snipes,  turkeys  (hen),  woodcock. 

Vegetables. — Beets,  sprouts,  cabbage,  cardoons,  carrots, 
celery,  onions,  parsnips,  potatoes,  turnips. 

Fruit. — Almonds,  apples. 

February. 

Fish. — Cod,  crabs,  flounders,  herrings,  oysters,  perch,  pike, 
sturgeon,  porgies. 

Meat. — Beef,  house-lamb,  mutton,  pork,  veal. 

Poultry  and  Game. — Capons,  chickens,  ducklings,  fowl 
(wild),  green  geese,  partridges,  pheasants,  pigeons  (tame  and 
wild),  pullets,  rabbits,  snipes,  turkeys,  woodcock. 

Vegetables. — Beets,  cabbage,  carrots,  celery,  mushrooms, 
onions,  parsnips,  potatoes,  turnips. 

Fruit. — Apples,  chestnuts,,  oranges. 

March. 

Fish. — Eels,  crabs,  flounders,  lobsters,  mackerel,  oysters, 
perch,  pike,  shrimp,  smelts,  sturgeon,  porgies. 

Meat. — Beef,  house-lamb,  mutton,  pork,  veal. 

Poultry  and  Game. — Capons,  chickens,  ducklings,  fowls, 
gTeen  geese,  pigeons,  rabbits,  snipes,  turkeys,  woodcock. 

Vegetables. — Beets,  carrots,  celery,  cresses,  onions,  pars- 
nips, potatoes,  turnip  tops. 

Fruit. — Apples,  chestnuts,  oranges. 

April. 

Fish. — Shad,  cod,  crabs,  eels,  flounders,  halibut,  herrings, 
lobsters,  mackerel,  oysters,  perch,  pike,  salmon,  shrimps,  smelts, 
sturgeon,  trout,  porgies. 

Meat. — Beef,  house-lamb,  mutton,  pork,  veal. 

Poultry  and  Game. — Chickens,  ducklings,  fowls,  green 
geese,  leverets,  pigeons,  pullets,  rabbits,  turkey-poults,  wood- 
pigeons. 

Vegetables. — Onions,  parsnips,  spinach,  small  salad,  tur- 
nip tops,  and  rhubarb. 

Fruit. — Apples,  nuts,  oranges,  pears. 


May. 

Fish. — Shad,  cod,  crabs,  eels,  flounders,  halibut,  herring, 
lobsters,  mackerel,  mullet,  perch,  pike,  salmon,  shrimps, 
smelts,  sturgeon,  trout,  clams. 

Meat. — Beef,  grass-lamb,  house-lamb,  mutton,  pork,  veal. 

Poultry  and  Game. — Chickens,  fowls,  green  geese,  pig- 
eons, pullets,  rabbits. 

Vegetables. — Artichokes,  green  peas,  asparagus,  kidney- 
beans,  cabbage,  carrots,  onions,  peas,  potatoes,  radishes,  rhu 
barb,  salad,  spinach,  turnips. 

Fruit. — Apples,  pears. 

June. 

Fish. — Cod,  shad,  crabs,  eels,  flounders,  herrings,  lobsters , 
mackerel,  perch,  pike,  salmon , clams,  smelts,  sturgeon,  trout, 
cat-fish,  black-fish. 

Meat. — Beef,  grass-lamb,  mutton,  pork,  veal. 

Poultry  and  Game. — Chickens,  ducklings,  fowls,  green 
geese,  pigeons,  pullets,  rabbits. 

Vegetables. — Asparagus,  beans,  white  beet,  cabbage,  car- 
rots, cucumbers,  leeks,  lettuce,  onions,  parsley,  peas,  potatoes, 
radishes,  salad  of  all  sorts,  spinach,  turnips. 

Fruit. — Apples,  apricots,  cherries,  currants,  gooseberries, 
melons,  pears,  strawberries. 

July. 

Fish. — Cod,  crabs,  flounders,  herrings,  lobsters,  mackerel, 
perch,  pike,  salmon,  trout,  blue- fish,  black-Jish,  bass , pickerel, 
cat-Jish,  eels,  clams,  porgies. 

Meat. — Beef,  grass-lamb,  mutton,  veal,  buck-venison. 

Poultry  and  Game. — Chickens,  ducks,  fowls,  green  geese, 
leverets,  pigeons,  plovers,  rabbits,  wild-pigeons. 

Vegetables. — Artichokes,  asparagus,  balm,  beans,  carrots, 
cauliflowers,  celery,  cucumbers,  herbs  of  all  sorts,  lettuce, 
mint,  mushrooms,  peas,  potatoes,  radishes,  salads  of  all  sorts, 
spinach,  turnips,  tomatoes,  Carolina  potatoes. 

For  Drying. — Mushrooms. 

For  Pickling. — French  beans,  red  cabbige,  cauliflowers, 
garlic,  gherkins,  onions. 

Fruit. — Apples,  apricots,  cherries,  currants,  damsons,  goose- 
berries, melons,  nectarines,  peaches,  pears,  oranges,  pine- 
apples, plums,  raspberries,  strawberries. 

August. 

Fish. — Cod,  eels,  crabs,  flounders,  herrings,  lobsters,  mack- 
erel, perch,  pike,  salmon,  blue-fish,  black-fish,  weak-fish,  sheep's 
head,  trout,  porgies,  clams. 

Meat. — Be^f,  grass-lamb,  mutton,  veal,  buck -venison. 

Poultry  and  Game. — Chickens,  ducks,  fowls,  gieen  geese 
pigeons,  plovers,  rabbits,  wild  ducks,  wild  pigeons,  red-bird, 
curlew. 

Vegetables. — Artichokes,  beans,  white-beet,  carrots,  cauli- 
flowers, cucumbers,  pot-herbs  of  all  sorts,  leeks,  lettuce, 
mushrooms,  onions,  peas,  potatoes,  radishes,  salad  of  all  sorts, 
spinach,  turnips,  tomatoes. 

For  Drying. — Basil,  sage,  thyme. 

For  Pickling. — Red  cabbage,  tomatoes,  walnuts. 

Fruit. — Apples  (summer  pippin),  cherries,  currants,  dam- 
sons, gooseberries,  grapes,  melons,  mulberries,  nectarines, 
peaches,  pears,  plums  (greengages),  raspberries. 


664 


HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


September. 

Fish.— Cockles,  cod,  crabs,  eels,  flounders,  lobsters,  oysters, 
perch, pike,  shrimps,  porgies,  black-fish,  weak-fish. 

Meat. — Beef,  mutton,  pork,  veal,  buck-venison. 

Poultry  and  Game. — Chickens,  ducks,  fowls,  green  geese, 
partridges,  pigeons,  plovers,  rabbits,  turkeys,  wild  ducks,  wild 
pigeons,  wild  rabbits,  quail. 

Vegetables. — Artichokes,  beans,  cabbages,  carrots,  cauli- 
flowers, celery,  cucumbers,  herbs  of  all  sorts,  leeks,  lettuce, 
mushrooms,  onions,  parsnips,  peas,  potatoes,  radishes,  salad  of 
all  sorts,  turnips,  tomatoes,  Carolina  potatoes. 

Fruit. — Apples,  damsons,  grapes,  hazel-nuts,  medlars, 
peaches,  pears,  pine-apples,  plums,  quinces,  strawberries, 
walnuts. 

October. 

Fish. — Cockles,  cod,  crabs,  eels,  gudgeons,  halibut,  lobsters, 
mussels,  oysters,  perch,  pike,  salmon-trout,  shrimps,  smelts, 
porgies. 

Meat. — Beef,  mutton,  pork,  veal,  doe-venison. 

Poultry  and  Game. — Chickens,  ducks,  fowls,  green  geese, 
larks,  partridges,  pheasants,  pigeons,  red-bird,  black-bird, 
robins,  snipes,  turkey,  wild  ducks,  wild  pigeons,  wild  rab- 
bits, woodcock,  teal. 

Vegetables. — Artichokes,  cabbages,  cauliflowers,  celery, 
herbs  of  all  sorts,  onions,  parsnips,  peas,  potatoes,  radishes, 
salad,  spinach  (winter),  tomatoes,  turnips,  Carolina  potatoes. 

Fruit. — Almonds,  apples,  black  and  white  damsons,  hazel- 
nuts, grapes,  peaches,  pears,  quinces,  walnuts. 

November. 

Fish. — Cockles,  cod,  crabs,  eels,  gudgeons,  halibut,  lob- 
sters, mussels,  oysters,  perch,  pike,  salmon,  shrimps,  smelts, 
porgies,  flounders. 

Meat. — Beef,  house-lamb,  mutton,  pork,  veal,  doe-venison. 

Poultry  and  Game. — Chickens,  ducks,  fowls,  geese,  larks, 
partridges,  pheasants,  pigeons,  rabbits,  snipes,  turkey,  wild 
ducks,  woodcock , robins. 

Vegetables. — Beets,  cabbages,  carrots,  celery,  herbs  of  all 
sorts,  lettuce,  onions,  parsnips,  potatoes,  salad,  spinach,  to- 
matoes, turnips. 

Fruit. — Almonds,  apples,  chestnuts,  hazel  nuts,  grapes, 
pears. 

December. 

Fish. — Cod,  crabs,  eels,  gudgeons,  halibut,  lobsters,  oysters, 
perch,  pike,  salmon,  shrimps,  smelts,  sturgeon. 

Meat. — Beef,  house-lamb,  mutton,  pork,  veal,  doe-venison. 

Poultry  and  Game. — Capons,  chickens,  ducks,  fowls, 
geese,  guinea-fowl,  hares,  larks,  partridges,  pea-fowl,  pheas- 
ants, pigeons,  rabbits,  snipes,  turkey,  wild  ducks,  woodcock. 

Vegetables. — Beets,  cabbages,  carrots,  celery,  herbs  of  all 
sorts,  lettuce,  onions,  parsnips,  potatoes,  salad,  spinach,  tur- 
nips. 

Fruit. — Apples,  chestnuts,  hazel-nuts. 


NAMES  AND  SITUATIONS  OF  THE  JOINTS. 

The  method  of  cutting  up  the  carcases  varies.  That  which 
we  describe  below  is  the  most  general. 

Beef — Fore  Quarter. — Fore  rib  (five  ribs)  ; middle  rib 
(four  ribs)  ; chuck  (three  ribs).  Shoulder  piece  (top  of  fore 
leg)  ; brisket  (lower  or  belly  part  of  the  ribs)  ; clod  (fore 
shoulder  blade)  ; neck  ; shin  (below  the  shoulder)  ; cheek. 

Hind  Quarter. — Sirloin  ; rump  ; aitchbone — these  are  the 
three  divisions  of  the  upper  part  of  the  quarter  ; buttock  and 
mouse-buttock,  which  divide  the  thigh  ; veiny  piece,  joining 
buttock  ; thick  flank  and  thin  flank  (belly  pieces)  and  leg. 
The  sirloin  and  rump  of  both  sides  form  a baron.  Beef  is  in 
season  all  the  year ; best  in  the  winter. 

Mutton. — Shoulder  ; breast  (the  belly);  over  which  are  the 
loin  (chump,  or  tail  end).  Loin  (best  end)  ; and  neck  (best 
end)  ; neck  (scrag  end).  A chine  is  two  necks  ; a saddle,  two 
loins  ; then  there  are  the  leg  and  head.  Mutton  is  the  best  in 
winter,  spring,  and  autumn. 

Lamb  is  cut  into  fore  quarter  and  hind  quarter  ; a saddle,  or 
loin  ; neck,  breast,  leg,  and  shoulder.  Grass-lamb  is  in  season 
from  June  to  A ugust. 

Pork  is  cut  into  leg,  hand,  or  shoulder;  hind-loin  ; fore 
loin  ; belly  part  ; spare  rib  (or  neck)  ; and  head.  Pork  is  in 
season  7iearly  all  the  year. 

Veal  is  cut  into  neck  (scrag  end);  neck  (best  end);  loin 
(best  end)  ; loin  (chump,  or  tail  end)  ; fillet  (upper  part  of  the 
hind  leg)  ; hind  knuckle  (which  joins  the  fillet  knuckle  of  fore 
leg ; blade  (bone  of  shoulder)  ; breast  (best  end) ; breast 
(brisket  end)  ; and  hand.  Veal  is  always  in  season,  but  dear 
in  the  winter  and  spring. 

Venison  is  cut  into  haunch  (or  back)  ; neck,  shoulder,  and 
breast.  Doe-venison  is  best  in  January,  October,  November, 
and  December,  and  buck-venison  in  June , July,  August,  and 
September. 

Ox-tail  is  much  esteemed  for  purposes  of  soup  ; so  also  is 
the  cheek.  The  tongue  is  highly  esteemed. 

Calves’  Heads  are  very  useful  for  various  dishes  ; so  also 
their  knuckles,  feet,  heart,  etc. 

Cooking. — Ten  pounds  of  beef  require  from  two  hours  to 
two  hours  and  a half  roasting,  eighteen  inches  from  a good 
fire. 

Six  pounds  require  one  hour  and  a quarter  to  one  hour 
and  a half,  fourteen  inches  from  a good  clear  fire. 

Three  ribs  of  beef,  boned  and  rolled,  tied  round  with  paper, 
will  require  two  hours  and  a half,  eighteen  inches  from  the 
fire  ; baste  once  only. 

The  first  three  ribs  of  fifteen  or  twenty  pounds,  will  take 
three  hours  or  three  and  a half ; the  fourth  and  fifth  ribs  will 
take  as  long,  managed  in  the  same  way  as  the  sirloin.  Paper 
the  fat  and  the  thin  part,  or  it  will  be  done  too  much,  before 
the  thick  part  is  done  enough. 

When  beef  is  very  fat,  it  does  not  require  basting  ; if  very 
lean,  tie  it  up  in  greasy  paper,  and  baste  frequently  and  well. 

Common  cooks  are  generally  fond  of  too  fierce  a fire,  and  of 
putting  things  too  near  to  it. 

Slow  roasting  is  as  advantageous  to  the  tenderness  and  fla- 
vor of  meat  as  slow  boiling. 


HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


665 


The  warmer  the  weather,  and  the  staler  killed  the  meat  is, 
the  less  time  it  will  require  to  roast  it. 

Meat  that  is  very  fat  requires  more  time  than  other  meat. 

In  the  hands  of  an  expert  cook,  “ alimentary  substances  are 
made  almost  entirely  to  change  their  nature,  their  form,  con- 
sistence, odor,  savor,  color,  chemical  composition,  etc. ; every- 
thing is  so  modified,  that  it  is  often  impossible  for  the  most 
exquisite  sense  of  taste  to  recognize  the  substance  which  makes 
up  the  basis  of  certain  dishes.  The  greatest  utility  of  the 
kitchen  consists  in  making  the  food  agreeable  to  the  senses, 
and  rendering  it  easy  of  digestion.” 

Boiling  extracts  a portion  of  the  juice  of  meat,  which  mixes 
with  the  water,  and  also  dissolves  some  of  its  solids  ; the  more 
fusible  parts  of  the  fat  melt  out,  combine  with  the  water,  and 
form  soup  or  broth.  The  meat  loses  its  red  color,  becomes 
more  savory  in  taste  and  smell,  and  more  firm  and  digestible. 
If  the  process  is  continued  too  long,  the  meat  becomes  indigest- 
ible, less  succulent,  and  tough. 

To  boil  meat  to  perfection,  it  should  be  done  slowly,  in 
plenty  of  water,  replaced  by  other  hot  water,  as  evaporation 
takes  place  ; for,  if  boiled  too  quickly,  the  outside  becomes 
tough  ; and  not  allowing  the  ready  transmission  of  heat,  the  in- 
ferior remains  rare. 

The  loss  by  boiling  varies  from  6J  to  16  per  cent.  The 
average  loss  on  boiling  butcher’s  meat,  pork,  hams,  and  bacon, 
is  12;  and  on  domestic  poultry,  is  iqj. 

The  loss  per  cent,  on  boiling  salt  beef  is  15  ; on  legs  of  mut- 
ton, 10;  hams,  12  j;  salt  pork,  I3J-;  knuckles  of  veal,  8$;  ba- 
con, 64  ; turkeys,  16 ; chickens,  13J. 

The  established  rule  as  regards  time,  is  to  allow  a quarter  of 
an  hour  for  each  pound  of  meat  if  the  boiling  is  rapid,  and 
twenty  minutes  if  slow.  There  are  exceptions  to  this  ; for  in- 
stance, ham  and  pork,  which  require  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  minutes  per  pound,  and  bacon  nearly  half  an  hour.  For 
solid  joints  allow  fifteen  minutes  for  every  pound,  and  from  ten 
to  twenty  minutes  over;  though,  of  course,  the  length  of  time 
will  depend  much  on  the  strength  of  the  fire,  regularity  in  the 
boiling  and  size  of  the  joint.  The  following  table  will  be  use- 
ful as  an  average  of  the  time  required  to  boil  the  various 


articles. 

H.  M. 

A ham,  20  lbs.  weight,  requires 6 30 

A tongue  (if  dry),  after  soaking 4 00 

A tongue,  out  of  pickle 2 J to  3 00 

A neck  of  mutton 1 30 

A chicken o 20 

A large  fowl O 45 

A capon o 35 

A pigeon o 15 


The  loss  by  roasting  varies,  according  to  Professor  Dono- 
van, from  14  3-5ths  to  nearly  double  that  rate,  per  cent.  The 
average  loss  on  roasting  butcher’s  meat  is  22  per  cent.;  and  on 
domestic  poultry  is  20.1. 

The  loss  per  cent,  on  roasting  beef,  viz.,  on  sirloins  and  ribs 
together,  is  19  i-6th  ; on  mutton,  viz.,  legs  and  shoulders  to- 
gether, 24  4-5ths  ; on  fore  quarters  of  lamb,  22^ ; on  ducks, 
27  i-5th ; on  turkeys,  20.I  ; on  geese,  19J  ; on  chickens, 
14  3-sths. 


Broiling  requires  a brisk,  rapid  heat,  which,  by  producing 
a greater  degree  of  change  in  the  affinities  of  the  raw  meat 
than  roasting,  generates  a higher  flavor,  so  that  broiled  meat  is 
more  savory  than  roast.  The  surface  becoming  charred,  a 
dark-colored  crust  is  formed,  which  retards  the  evaporation  of 
the  juices ; and  therefore,  if  properly  done,  broiled  may  be  as 
tender  and  juicy  as  roasted  meat. 

Baking  does  not  admit  of  the  evaporation  of  the  vapors  se 
rapidly  as  by  the  processes  of  broiling  and  roasting ; the  fat  is 
also  retained  more,  and  becomes  converted  by  the  agency  of 
the  heat  into  an  empyreumatic  oil,  so  as  to  render  the  meat 
less  fitted  for  delicate  stomachs,  and  more  difficult  to  digest. 
The  meat  is,  in  fact,  partly  boiled  in  its  own  confined  water, 
and  partly  roasted  by  the  dry  hot  air  of  the  oven. 

The  loss  by  baking  has  not  been  estimated  ; and,  as  the 
time  required  to  cook  many  articles  must  vary  with  their  size, 
nature,  etc.,  we  have  considered  it  better  to  leave  that  until 
giving  the  receipts  for  them. 

Frying  is  of  all  methods  the  most  objectionable,  from  the 
foods  being  less  digestible  when  thus  prepared,  as  the  fat  em- 
ployed undergoes  chemical  changes.  Olive  oil  in  this  respect 
is  preferable  to  lard  or  butter. 

Roast  Beef. — The  tender-loin  and  first  and  second  cuts 
off  the  rack  are  the  best  roasting  pieces — the  third  and  fourth 
cuts  are  good.  When  the  meat  is  put  to  the  fire,  a little  salt 
should  be  sprinkled  on  it,  and  the  bony  side  turned  toward 
the  fire  first.  When  the  bones  get  well  heated  through,  turn 
the  meat,  and  keep  a brisk  fire — baste  it  frequently  while 
roasting.  There  should  be  a little  water  put  into  the  dripping 
pan  when  the  meat  is  put  down  to  roast.  If  it  is  a thick 
piece,  allow  fifteen  minutes  to  each  pound  to  roast  it  in — if 
thin,  less  time  will  be  required. 

Beef  Steak. — The  tender-loin  is  the  best  piece  for  broil- 
ing— a steak  from  the  round  or  shoulder  clod  is  good  and 
comes  cheaper.  If  the  beef  is  not  very  tender,  it  should  be 
laid  on  a board  and  pounded,  before  broiling  or  frying  it. 
Wash  it  in  cold  water,  then  lay  it  on  a gridiron,  place  it  on  a 
hot  bed  of  coals,  and  broil  it  as  quick  as  possible  without 
burning  it.  If  broiled  slow,  it  will  not  be  good.  It  takes 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  to  broil  a steak.  For  seven  or 
eight  pounds  of  beef,  cut  up  about  a quarter  of  a pound  of 
butter.  Heat  the  platter  very  hot  that  the  steak  is  to  be  put 
on,  lay  the  butter  on  it,  take  up  the  steak,  salt  and  pepper  it 
cn  both  sides.  Beef  steak  to  be  good,  should  be  eaten  as 
soon  as  cooked.  A few  slices  of  salt  pork  broiled  with  the 
steak  makes  a rich  gravy  with  a very  little  butter.  There  should 
always  be  a trough  to  catch  the  juices  of  the  meat  when 
broiled.  The  same  pieces  that  are  good  broiled  are  good  for 
frying.  Fry  a few  slices  of  salt  pork  brown,  then  take  them 
up  and  put  in  the  beef.  When  brown  on  both  sides,  take  it 
up,  take  the  pan  off  from  the  fire,  to  let  the  fat  cool ; when 
coo],  turn  in  half  a teacup  of  water,  mix  a couple  of  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  flour  with  a little  water,  stir  it  into  the  fat,  put 
the  pan  back  on  the  fire,  stir  it  till  it  boils  up,  then  turn  it 
over  the  beef. 

Alamode  Beef. — The  round  of  beef  is  the  best  piece  to 
alamode — the  shoulder  clod  is  good,  and  comes  lower;  it  is 
also  good  stewed,  without  any  spices.  For  five  pounds  of 


666 


HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


beef,  soak  about  a pound  of  bread  in  cold  water  till  soft,  then 
drain  off  the  water,  mash  the  bread  fine,  put  in  a piece  of 
butter, of  the  size  of  a hen’s  egg,  half  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  the 
same  quantity  of  ground  cloves,  allspice,  and  pepper,  half  a 
nutmeg,  a couple  of  eggs,  and  a tablespoonful  of  flour — mix 
the  whole  well  together  ; then  cut  gashes  in  the  beef,  and  fill 
them  with  about  half  of  the  dressing,  put  the  meat  in  a bake- 
pan,  with  lukewarm  water  enough  to  cover  it  ; set  it  where  it 
will  stew  gently  for  a couple  of  hours  ; cover  it  with  a heated 
bake-pan  lid.  When  it  has  stewed  a couple  of  hours,  turn 
the  reserved  dressing  on  top  of  the  meat,  heat  the  bake-pan 
lid  hot  enough  to  brown  the  dressing,  stew  it  an  hour  and  a 
half  longer.  After  the  meat  is  taken  up,  if  the  gravy  is  not 
thick  enough,  mix  a teaspoonful  or  two  of  flour  with  a little 
water,  and  stir  it  into  the  gravy  ; put  in  a little  butter,  a 
wineglass  of  wine,  and  turn  it  over  the  meat. 

Beef  Liver. — Liver  is  very  good  fried,  but  the  best  way 
to  cook  it,  is  to  broil  it  ten  minutes  with  four  or  five  slices  of 
salt  pork.  Then  take  it  out,  cut  it  into  small  strips  together 
with  the  pork,  put  it  in  a stew-pan,  with  a little  water,  butter 
and  pepper.  Stew  it  four  or  five  minutes. 

To  Corn  Beef. — To  every  gallon  of  cold  water,  put  a 
quart  of  rock  salt,  an  ounce  of  saltpetre,  quarter  of  a pound  of 
brown  sugar  (some  people  use  molasses,  but  it  is  not  as  good)  ; 
no  boiling  is  necessary.  Put  the  beef  in  the  brine.  As 
long  as  any  salt  remains  at  the  bottom  of  the  cask  it  is  strong 
enough.  Whenever  any  scum  rises,  the  brine  should  be 
scalded,  skimmed,  and  more  sugar,  salt,  and  saltpetre  added. 
When  a piece  of  beef  is  put  in  the  brine,  rub  a little  salt  over 
it.  If  the  weather  is  hot,  cut  a gash  to  the  bone  of  the  meat, 
and  fill  it  with  salt.  Put  a heavy  weight  on  the  beef  in  order 
to  keep  it  under  the  brine.  In  very  hot  weather,  it  is  difficult 
to  corn  beef  in  cold  brine  before  it  spoils.  On  this  account  it 
is  good  to  corn  it  in  the  pot  when  boiled.  It  is  done  in  the 
following  manner : to  six  or  eight  pounds  of  beef,  put  a teacup 
of  salt;  sprinkle  flour  on  the  side  that  is  to  go  up  on  the  table, 
and  put  it  down  in  the  pot,  turn  the  water  into  the  pot  after 
the  beef  is  put  in,  boil  it  a couple  of  hours,  then  turn  in  more 
cold  water,  and  boil  it  an  hour  and  a half  longer. 

Mutton. — The  saddle  is  the  best  part  to  roast — the  shoulder 
and  leg  are  good  roasted  ; but  the  best  mode  to  cook  the  latter 
is  to  boil  it  with  a piece  of  salt  pork.  A little  rice  boiled  with 
it,  improves  the  look  of  it.  Mutton  for  roasting  should  have 
a little  butter  rubbed  on  it,  and  a little  salt  and  pepper 
sprinkled  on  it — some  people  like  cloves  and  allspice.  Put  a 
small  piece  of  butter  in  the  dripping-pan,  and  baste  it  fre- 
quently. The  bony  side  should  be  turned  towards  the  fire 
first,  and  roasted.  For  boiling  or  roasting  mutton,  allow  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  to  each  pound  of  meat.  The  leg  is  good 
cut  in  gashes,  and  filled  with  a dressing,  and  baked.  The 
dressing  is  made  of  soaked  bread,  a little  butter,  salt,  and 
pepper,  and  a couple  of  eggs.  A pint  of  water  with  a little 
butter  should  be  put  in  the  pan.  The  leg  is  also  good,  cut 
into  slices  and  broiled.  It  is  good  corned  a few  days,  and 
then  boiled.  The  rack  is  good  for  broiling — it  should  be 
divided,  each  bone  by  itself,  broiled  quick,  and  buttered, 
salted  and  peppered.  The  breast  of  mutton  is  nice  baked. 
The  joints  of  the  brisket  should  be  separated,  the  sharp  ends 


of  the  ribs  sawed  off,  the  outside  rubbed  over  with  a littl<s 
piece  of  butter — salt  it,  and  put  it  in  a bake-pan,  with  a pint 
of  water.  When  done,  take  it  up,  and  thicken  the  gravy  with 
a little  flour  and  water,  and  put  in  a small  piece  of  butter. 
A tablespoonful  of  catsup,  cloves  and  allspice,  improve  it,  but 
are  not  essential.  The  neck  of  mutton  makes  a good  soup. 
Parsley  or  celery-heads  are  a pretty  garnish  for  mutton. 

Veal. — The  loin  of  veal  is  the  best  piece  for  roasting.  The- 
breast  and  rack  are  good  roasted.  The  breast  also  is  good 
made  into  a pot-pie,  and  the  rack  cut  into  small  pieces  and 
broiled.  The  leg  is  nice  for  frying,  and  when  several  slices 
have  been  cut  off  for  cutlets,  the  remainder  is  nice  boiled  with 
a small  piece  of  salt  pork.  Veal  for  roasting  should  be  salted, 
peppered,  and  a little  butter  rubbed  on  it,  and  basted  fre- 
quently. Put  a little  water  in  the  dripping-pan,  and  unless 
the  meat  is  quite  fat,  a little  butter  should  be  put  in.  The 
fillet  is  good  baked,  the  bone  should  be  cut  out,  and  the  place 
filled  with  a dressing,  made  of  bread  soaked  soft  in  cold  water, 
a little  salt,  pepper,  a couple  of  eggs,  and  a tablespoonful  of 
melted  butter  put  in — then  sew  it  up,  put  it  in  your  bake-pan, 
with  about  a pint  of  water,  cover  the  top  of  the  meat  with 
some  of  the  dressing.  When  baked  sufficiently,  take  it  up. 
thicken  the  gravy  with  a little  flour  and  water  well  mixed,  put 
in  a small  piece  of  butter  and  a little  wine  and  catsup,  if  you 
like  the  gravy  rich. 

Veal  Cutlets. — Fry  three  or  four  slices  of  pork  until 
brown — take  them  up,  then  put  in  slices  of  veal,  about  an  inch 
thick,  cut  from  the  leg.  When  brown  on  both  sides,  take 
them  up  ; stir  half  a pint  of  water  into  the  gravy,  then  mix 
two  or  three  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  with  a little  water,  and  stir 
it  in  ; soak  a couple  of  slices  of  toasted  bread  in  the  gravy, 
lay  them  on  the  bottom  of  the  platter,  place  the  meat  and 
pork  ever  it,  then  turn  on  the  gravy.  A very  nice  way  tc 
cook  the  cutlets,  is  to  make  a batter  with  half  a pint  of  milk, 
an  egg  beaten  to  a froth,  and  flour  enough  to  render  it  thick. 
When  the  veal  is  fried  brown,  dip  it  into  the  batter,  then  put 
it  back  into  the  fat,  and  fry  it  until  brown  again.  If  you  have 
any  batter  left,  it  is  nice  dropped  by  the  large  spoonful  into 
the  fat,  and  fried  till  brown,  then  laid  over  the  veal.  Thicken 
the  gravy  and  turn  it  over  the  whole.  It  takes  about  an  hour 
to  cook  this  dish.  If  the  meat  is  tough,  it  will  be  better  to 
stew  it  half  an  hour  before  frying  it. 

Calfs  Head. — Boil  the  head  two  hours,  together  with  the 
lights  and  feet.  Put  in  the  liver  when  it  has  boiled  an  hour 
and  twenty  minutes.  Before  the  head  is  done,  tie  the  brains 
in  a bag,  and  boil  them  with  it  ; when  the  brains  are  done, 
take  them  up,  season  them  with  salt,  pepper,  butter,  and 
sweet  herbs,  or  spices  if  you  like — use  this  as  a dressing  for 
the  head.  Some  people  prefer  part  of  the  liver  and  feet  for 
dressing  ; they  are  prepared  like  the  brains.  The  liquor  that 
the  calfs  head  is  boiled  in,  makes  a good  soup,  seasoned  in  a 
plain  way  like  any  other  veal  soup,  or  seasoned  turtle  fashion. 
The  liquor  should  stand  until  the  next  day  after  the  head  is 
boiled,  in  order  to  have  the  fat  rise,  and  skimmed  off.  If  you 
wish  to  have  your  calf’s  head  look  brown,  take  it  up  when 
tender,  rub  a little  butter  over  it,  sprinkle  on  salt,  pepper,  and 
allspice — sprinkle  flour  over  it,  and  put  before  the  fire,  with  a 
Dutch  oven  over  it,  or  in  a brick  oven  where  it  will  brown 


HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


667 


quick.  Warm  up  the  brains  with  a little  water,  butter,  salt, 
and  pepper.  Add  wine  and  spices  if  you  like.  Serve  it  up 
as  a dressing  for  the  head.  Calf’s  head  is  also  good  baked. 
Halve  it,  rub  butter  over  it,  put  it  in  a pan,  with  about  a quart 
of  water  ; then  cover  it  with  a dressing  made  of  bread  soaked 
soft,  a little  butter,  an  egg,  and  season  it  with  salt,  pepper, 
and  powdered  mace.  Slice  up  the  brains,  and  lay  them  in  the 
pan  with  the  head.  Bake  it  in  a quick  oven,  and  garnish  it 
with  slices  of  lemon,  or  force-meat  balls. 

Force-Meat  Balls. — Chop  a pound  or  two  of  veal  fine  ; 
mix  it  with  one  or  two  eggs,  a little  butter,  or  raw  pork 
chopped  fine  ; season  it  with  salt  and  pepper,  or  curry  powder. 
Do  it  up  into  balls  about  the  size  of  half  an  egg,  and  fry  them 
brown. 

Calf’s  Feet. — Boil  them  with  the  head,  until  tender,  then 
split  and  lay  them  round  the  head,  or  dredge  them  with  flour 
after  they  have  been  boiled  tender,  and  fry  them  brown.  If 
you  wish  for  gravy  for  them,  when  you  have  taken  them  up, 
stir  a little  flour  into  the  fat  they  were  fried  in  ; season  it  with 
salt,  pepper,  and  mace.  Add  a little  butter  and  wine  if  you 
like,  then  turn  it  over  the  feet. 

Calf’s  Liver  and  Heart — Are  good  broiled  or  fried. 
Some  people  like  the  liver  stuffed  and  baked. 

A Fillet  of  Veal. — Cut  off  the  shank  of  a leg  of  veal,  and 
cut  gashes  in  the  remainder.  Make  a dressing  of  bread,  soaked 
soft  in  cold  water,  and  mashed  ; season  it  with  salt,  pepper, 
and  sweet  herbs  ; chop  a little  raw  pork  fine,  put  it  in  the 
dressing,  and  if  you  have  not  pork,  use  a little  butter  instead. 
Fill  the  gashes  in  the  meat  with  part  of  the  dressing,  put  it  in 
a bake-pan,  with  just  water  enough  to  cover  it  ; put  the  re- 
mainder of  the  dressing  on  top  of  the  meat,  and  cover  it  with 
a heated  bake-pan  lid.  For  six  pounds  of  veal,  allow  two 
hours  steady  baking.  A leg  of  veal  is  nice  prepared  in  this 
manner,  and  roasted. 

Lamb. — The  fore  a ,d  hind  quarters  are  good  roasting 
pieces.  Sprinkle  salt  and  pepper  on  the  lamb,  turn  the  bony 
side  toward  the  fire  first  ; fif  not  fat,  rub  a little  butter  on  it, 
and  put  a little  in  the  dripping-pan  ; baste  it  frequently. 
These  pieces  are  good  stuffed  like  a fillet  of  veal,  and  roasted. 
The  leg  is  also  good,  cooked  in  the  same  manner ; but  it  is 
better  boiled  with  a pound  of  salt  pork.  Allow  fifteen  min- 
utes boiling  to  each  pound  of  meat.  The  breast  of  lamb  is 
good  roasted,  broiled,  or  corned  and  boiled ; it  is  also  good 
made  into  a pot-pie.  The  fore  quarter,  with  the  ribs  divided, 
is  good  broiled.  The  bones  of  this,  as  well  as  all  kinds  of 
meat,  when  put  down  to  broil,  should  first  be  put  toward  the 
fire,  and  browned  before  the  other  side  is  broiled.  A little 
salt,  pepper,  and  butter,  should  be  put  on  it  when  you  take  it 
up.  Lamb  is  very  apt  to  spoil  in  warm  weather.  If  you  wish 
to  keep  a leg  several  days,  put  it  in  brine.  It  should  not  be 
put  with  pork,  as  fresh  meat  is  apt  to  injure  it.  Lamb’s  head, 
feet,  and  heart,  ara  good,  boiled  till  tender,  then  cut  off  the 
flesh  from  the  head,  cut  up  the  heart,  and  split  the  feet  in  two ; 
put  the  whole  into  a pan,  with  a pint  of  the  liquor  they  were 
boiled  in,  together  with  a little  butter,  pepper,  salt,  and  half  a 
teacup  of  tomato  catsup  ; thicken  the  gravy  with  a little  flour  ; 
stew  the  whole  for  a#few  moments.  Pepper-grass  or  parsley 
k a pretty  garnish  for  this  dish. 


Lamb’s  Fry.  — The  heart  and  sweetbread  are  nice  fried 
plainly,  or  dipped  into  a beaten  egg  and  fine  bread  crumbs. 
They  should  be  fried  in  lard. 

Turkey. — Take  out  the  inwards,  wash  both  the  inside  and 
outside  of  the  turkey.  Prepare  a dressing  made  of  bread 
soaked  soft  in  cold  water  (the  water  should  be  drained  from 
the  bread,  and  the  bread  mashed  fine).  Melt  a small  piece  of 
butter,  and  mix  it  with  the  dressing,  or  else  put  in  salt  pork 
chopped  fine  ; season  it  with  salt  and  pepper  ; add  sweet  herbs 
if  you  like.  An  egg  in  the  dressing  makes  it  cut  smoother. 
Any  kind  of  cooked  meat  is  nice  minced  fine,  and  mixed  with 
the  dressing.  If  the  inwards  are  used,  they  ought  to  be  boiled 
very  tender,  as  it  is  very  difficult  to  cook  them  through  while 
the  turkey  is  roasting.  Fill  the  crop  and  body  of  the  turkey 
with  the  dressing,  sew  it  up,  tie  up  the  legs  and  wings,  rub  on 
a little  salt  and  butter.  Roast  it  from  two  to  three  hours, 
according  to  its  size  ; twenty-five  minutes  to  every  pound  is 
a good  rule.  The  turkey  should  be  roasted  slowly  at  first, 
and  basted  frequently.  A little  water  should  be  put  into  the 
dripping-pan,  when  the  meat  is  put  down  to  roast.  For  a 
gravy  to  the  turkey,  take  the  liquor  that  the  inwards  are  boiled 
in,  put  into  it  a little  of  the  turkey  drippings,  set  it  where  it 
will  boil,  thicken  it  with  a little  flour  and  water  previously 
mixed  smooth.  Season  it  with  salt,  pepper,  and  sweet  herbs 
if  you  like.  Drawn  butter  is  used  for  boiled  turkey.  A 
turkey  for  boiling  should  be  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as 
one  for  roasting.  If  you  wish  to  have  it  look  white,  tie  it  up 
in  a cloth,  unless  you  boil  rice  in  the  pot.  If  rice  is  used, 
put  in  two-thirds  of  a teacup.  A pound  or  two  of  salt  pork, 
boiled  with  the  turkey,  improves  it.  If  you  wish  to  make  a 
soup  of  the  liquor  in  which  the  turkey  is  boiled,  let  it  re- 
main until  the  next  day,  then  skim  off  the  fat.  Heat  and 
season  it. 

Goose. — If  a goose  is  tender  under  the  wing,  and  you  can 
break  the  skin  easily  by  running  the  head  of  a pin  across  the 
breast,  there  is  no  danger  of  its  being  tough.  A goose  should 
be  dressed  in  the  same  manner,  and  roasted  the  same  length 
of  time  as  a turkey. 

Chickens. — Chickens  for  roasting  or  boiling  should  have  a 
dressing  prepared  like  that  for  turkeys.  Half  a teacup  of  rice 
boiled  with  the  chickens  makes  them  look  white.  They  will 
be  less  liable  to  break  if  the  water  is  cold  when  they  are  put 
in.  A little  salt  pork  boiled  with  the  chickens  improves  them. 
If  you  do  not  boil  pork  with  them  they  will  need  salt.  Chick- 
ens for  broiling  should  be  split,  the  inwards  taken  out,  and 
the  chicken  washed  inside  and  out.  Put  the  bony  side  down 
on  the  gridiron,  and  broil  it  very  slowly  until  brown,  then 
turn  it,  and  brown  it  on  the  other  side.  About  forty  minutes 
is  required  to  broil  a common-sized  chicken.  For  roast 
chicken,  boil  the  liver  and  gizzards  by  themselves,  and  use  the 
water  for  gravy  to  the  chickens  ; cut  the  inwards  in  slices, 
and  put  them  in  the  gravy. 

Fricassee. — The  chickens  should  be  jointed,  the  inwards 
taken  out,  and  the  chickens  washed.  Put  them  in  a stew-pan 
with  the  skin  side  down  ; on  each  layer  sprinkle  salt  and  pep- 
per ; put  in  three  or  four  slices  of  pork,  just  cover  them  with 
water,  and  let  them  stew  till  tender.  Then  take  them  up,  mix 
a little  flour  and  water  together,  and  thicken  the  liquor  they 


o68 


HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


were  stewed  in,  add  a piece  of  butter  of  the  size  of  a hen’s 
egg,  then  put  the  chickens  back  in  the  stew-pan,  and  let  them 
stew  four  or  five  minutes  longer.  When  you  have  taken  up 
the  chickens,  soak  two  or  three  slices  of  toast  in  the  gravy, 
then  put  them  in  your  platter,  lay  the  chickens  over  the  toast, 
and  turn  the  oravy  on  them.  If  you  wish  to  brown  the  chick- 
ens, stew  the*/,  without  the  pork  till  tender,  then  fry  the  pork 
brown,  take  it  up,  put  in  the  chickens,  and  then  fry  until  a 
light  brown. 

Pigeons.-  Take  out  the  inwards,  and  stuff  the  pigeons 
with  a dressing  prepared  like  that  for  turkeys,  lay  them  in  a 
pot  with  the  breast  side  down.  Turn  in  more  than  enough 
water  .o  cover  them.  When  stewed  nearly  tender,  put  in  a 
quarter  of  a pound  of  butter  to  every  dozen  of  pigeons — mix 
two  or  three  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  with  a little  water,  and  stir 
into  the  gravy.  If  you  wish  to  brown  them,  put  on  a heated 
bake-pan  lid,  an  hour  before  they  are  done,  or  else  take  them 
up  when  tender,  and  fry  them  in  pork  fat.  They  are  very 
good  split  open  and  stewed,  with  a dressing  made  and  warmed 
up  separately  with  a little  of  the  gravy.  Tender  pigeons  are 
good  stuffed  and  roasted.  It  takes  about  two  hours  to  cook 
tender  pigeons,  and  three  hours  tough  ones.  Roast  pigeons 
should  be  buttered  when  put  to  the  fire. 

Ducks — Are  good  stewed  like  pigeons,  or  roasted.  Two 
or  three  onions  in  the  dressing  of  wild  ducks  takes  out  the 
fishy  taste  they  are  apt  to  have.  If  ducks  or  any  other  fowls 
are  slightly  injured  by  being  kept  long,  dip  them  in  weak  sale- 
ratus  water  before  cooking  them. 

Baked  or  Roast  Pig.— A pig  for  roasting  or  baking  should 
be  small  and  fat.  Take  out  the  inwards,  and  cut  off  the  first 
joint  of  the  feet,  and  boil  them  till  tender,  then  chop  them. 
Prepare  a dressing  of  bread  soaked  soft,  the  water  squeezed 
out  and  the  bread  mashed  fine  ; season  it  with  salt,  pepper, 
and  sweet  herbs,  add  a little  butter,  and  fill  the  pig  with  the 
dressing.  Rub  a little  butter  on  the  outside  of  the  pig,  to  pre- 
vent its  blistering.  Bake  or  roast  it  from  two  hours  and  a 
half  to  three  hours.  The  pan  that  the  pig  is  baked  in  should 
have  a little  water  put  in  it.  When  cooked,  take  out  a little 
of  the  dressing  and  gravy  from  the  pan,  mix  it  with  the  chop- 
ped inwards  and  feet,  put  in  a little  butter,  pepper,  and  salt, 
and  use  this  for  a sauce  to  the  pig.  Expose  the  pig  to  the 
open  air  two  or  three  minutes  before  it  is  put  on  the  table,  to 
make  it  crispy. 

Sweetbread,  Liver,  and  Heart. — A very  good  way  to 
cook  the  sweetbread,  is  to  fry  three  or  four  slices  of  pork  till 
brown,  then  take  them  up  and  put  in  the  sweetbread,  and  fry 
it  over  a moderate  fire.  When  you  have  taken  up  the  sweet 
bread,  mix  a couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  with  a little  water, 
and  stir  it  into  the  fat — let  it  boil,  then  turn  it  over  the  sweet- 
bread. Another  way  is  to  parboil  them,  and  let  them  get  cold, 
then  cut  them  in  pieces  about  an  inch  thick,  dip  them  in 
the  yolk  of  an  egg  and  fine  bread  crumbs,  sprinkle  salt,  pep- 
per, and  sage  on  them  before  dipping  them  in  the  egg ; fry 
them  a light  brown.  Make  a gravy  after  you  have  taken  them 
up,  by  stirring  a little  flour  and  water  mixed  smooth  into  the 
fat,  and  spices  and  wine  if  you  like.  The  liver  and  heart  are 
good  cooked  in  the  same  manner,  or  broiled. 

Tripe  — After  being  scoured,  should  be  soaked  in  salt  and 


water  seven  or  eight  days,  changing  the  water  every  other  day, 
then  boil  it  till  tender,  which  will  take  eight  or  ten  hours.  It 
is  then  fit  for  broiling,  frying  or  pickling.  It  is  pickled  in  the 
same  manner  as  souse. 

Sausages. — Chop  fresh  pork  very  fine,  the  lean  and  fat  to- 
gether  (there  should  be  rather  more  of  the  lean  than  the  fat), 
season  it  highly  with  salt,  pepper,  sage,  and  other  sweet  herbs, 
if  you  like  them — a little  saltpetre  tends  to  preserve  them. 
To  tell  whether  they  are  seasoned  enough,  do  up  a little  into 
a cake,  and  fry  it.  If  not  seasoned  enough,  add  more  season- 
ing, and  fill  your  skins,  which  should  be  previously  cleaned 
thoroughly.  A little  flour  mixed  in  with  the  meat  tends  to 
prevent  the  fat  from  running  out  when  cooked.  Sausage-meat 
is  good  done  up  in  small  cakes  and  fried.  In  summer,  when 
fresh  pork  cannot  be  procured,  very  good  sausage-cakes  may 
be  made  of  raw  beef,  chopped  fine  with  salt  pork,  and  seasoned 
with  pepper  and  sage.  When  sausages  are  fried,  they  should 
not  be  pricked,  and  they  will  cook  nicer  to  have  a little  fat  put 
in  the  frying-pan  with  them.  They  should  be  cooked  slowly. 
If  you  do  not  like  them  very  fat,  take  them  out  of  the  pan 
when  nearly  done,  and  finish  cooking  them  on  a gridiron. 
Bologna  sausages  are  made  of  equal  weight  each  of  ham,  veal, 
and  pork,  chopped  very  fine,  seasoned  high,  and  boiled  in 
casings  till  tender,  then  dried. 

Ham. — A ham  that  weighs  ten  pounds  should  be  boiled 
four  or  five  hours  ; if  very  salt,  the  water  should  be  changed. 
Before  it  is  put  on  the  table,  take  off  the  rind.  If  you  wish  to 
ornament  it,  put  whole  cloves,  or  pepper,  in  the  form  of 
diamonds,  over  it.  The  Virginia  method  of  curing  hams 
(which  is  considered  very  superior),  is  to  dissolve  two  ounces 
of  saltpetre,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  saleratus,  in  a salt  pickle,  as 
strong  as  possible,  for  every  sixteen  pounds  of  ham.  Add 
molasses  in  the  proportion  of  a gallon  to  a hogshead  of  brine, 
then  put  in  the  hams,  and  let  them  remain  three  or  four  weeks. 
Then  take  them  out  of  the  brine,  and  smoke  them  with  the 
hocks  downward,  to  preserve  the  juices.  They  will  smoke 
tolerably  well  in  the  course  of  a month,  but  they  will  be  much 
better  to  remain  in  the  smoke-house  two  or  three  months. 
Hams  cured  in  this  manner  are  very  fine  flavored,  and  will 
keep  good  a long  time. 

Tongues. — Cut  off  the  roots  of  the  tongues;  they  are  not 
good  smoked,  but  they  make  nice  pies.  Take  out  the  pipes 
and  veins,  boil  them  till  tender,  mince  them  fine,  season  the 
meat  with  salt,  cloves,  mace,  and  cinnamon,  put  in  a little 
sugar  and  molasses,  moisten  the  whole  with  brandy,  put  it  in 
a cool  place,  and  it  will  keep  good  several  months  in  cold 
weather,  and  is  good  to  make  pies  of  at  any  time,  with  the 
addition  of  apples  chopped  fine,  and  a little  butter  melted. 
For  the  remainder  of  the  tongues,  make  a brine  in  the  follow- 
ing manner — to  a gallon  of  cold  water  put  a quart  of  rock 
salt,  an  ounce  of  saltpetre,  quarter  of  a pound  of  sugar,  and 
couple  of  tablespoonfuls  of  blown  salt.  Put  in  the  tongues, 
let  them  remain  in  it  a week,  and  then  smoke  them  eight  or 
ten  days. 

Chicken  Pie. — Joint  the  chickens,  which  should  be  young 
and  tender.  Boil  them  in  just  sufficient  water  to  cover  them. 
When  nearly  tender  take  them  out  of  the  liquor,  and  lay  them 
in  a deep  pudding-dish,  lined  with  pie  crust.  To  each  laye* 


HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


669 


of  chicken,  put  three  or  four  slices  of  pork,  add  a little  of  the 
liquor  in  which  they  were  boiled,  and  a couple  of  ounces  of 
butter  cut  into  small  pieces — sprinkle  a little  flour  over  the 
whole,  cover  it  with  nice  pie  crust,  and  ornament  the  top  with 
some  of  your  pastry.  Bake  it  in  a quick  oven  one  hour. 

Beef  and  Mutton  Pie. — Take  tender  meat,  pound  it  out 
thin,  and  broil  it  ten  minutes — then  cut  off  the  bony  and  gristly 
parts,  season  it  highly  with  salt  and  pepper,  butter  it,  and  cut 
it  into  small  pieces.  Line  a pudding  dish  with  pastry,  put  in 
the  meat,  and  to  each  layer  add  a teaspoonful  of  tomato  catsup, 
together  with  a tablespoonful  of  water — sprinkle  over  flour, 
and  cover  it  with  pie  crust,  and  ornament  as  you  please  with 
pastry.  Cold  roast  or  boiled  beef  and  mutton  make  a good 
pie,  by  cutting  them  into  bits,  and  seasoning  them  highly  with 
salt  and  pepper.  Put  them  into  a pie  dish,  turn  a little  melted 
butter  over  them,  or  gravy,  and  pour  in  water  till  you  can  just 
see  it  at  the  top. 

Chicken  and  Veal  Pot  Pie. — If  the  pie  is  to  be  made  of 
chickens,  joint  them — boil  the  meat  until  about  half  done. 
Take  the  meat  out  of  the  liquor  in  which  it  was  boiled,  and 
put  it  in  a pot,  with  a layer  of  crust  to  each  layer  of  meat, 
having  a layer  of  crust  on  the  lop.  The  meat  should  be  sea- 
soned with  salt  and  pepper — cover  the  whole  with  the  boiled 
meat  liquor.  If  you  wish  to  have  the  crust  brown,  keep  the 
pot  covered  with  a heated  bake  pan  lid.  Keep  a tea  kettle 
of  boiling  water  to  turn  in  as  the  water  boils  away — cold  wa- 
ter makes  the  crust  heavy.  The  crust  for  the  pie  is  good  like 
that  made  for  fruit  pies,  with  less  shortening,  but  raised  pie 
crust  is  generally  preferred  to  any  other.  It  is  made  in  the 
following  manner — mix  together  three  pints  of  flour,  a teacup 
of  melted  butter,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  then  turn  in  half  a tea- 
cup of  yeast — add  cold  water  to  make  it  sufficiently  stiff  to  roll 
out.  Set  it  in  a warm  place  to  rise,  which  will  take  seven  or 
eight  hours,  unless  brewers’  yeast  is  used.  When  risen,  roll  it 
out  and  cut  it  into  small  cakes.  Potato  pie  crust  is  very  nice. 
To  make  it,  boil  eight  or  nine  small  potatoes,  peel  and  mash 
them  fine,  mix  with  them  a piece  of  butter,  of  the  size  of  a 
hen’s  egg,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  a tumbler  full  of  milk,  and 
flour  to  render  it  of  the  right  consistency  to  roll  out.  When 
rolled  out,  cut  them  into  cakes,  and  put  them  with  the  meat. 
If  you  happen  to  have  unbaked  wheat  dough,  very  good  crust 
may  be  made  of  it,  by  working  into  it  a little  lukewarm  melted 
butter.  Let  it  remain,  after  you  have  rolled  and  cut  it  into 
cakes,  about  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  before  putting  it  with  the 
meat. 

Warmed-over  Meats. — Boiled  or  roasted  veal  makes  a 
nice  dish,  chopped  fine,  and  warmed  up,  with  just  sufficient 
water  to  moisten  it,  and  a little  butter,  salt,  and  pepper  added. 
A little  nutmeg  and  the  grated  rind  of  a lemon  improve  it — 
none  of  the  white  part  of  the  lemon  should  be  used.  When 
well  heated  through,  take  it  up  on  a platter,  and  garnish  it 
with  a couple  of  lemons  cut  in  slices.  Fresh  or  corned  beef  is 
good  minced  fine,  with  boiled  potatoes,  and  warmed  up  with 
salt,  pepper,  and  a little  water — add  butter,  just  before  you 
cake  it  up.  Some  people  use  the  gravy  that  they  have  left  the 
day  before,  for  the  meat,  but  it  is  not  as  good  when  warmed 
over,  and  there  is  no  need  of  its  being  wasted,  as  it  can  be 
clarified,  and  used  for  other  purposes.  Boiled  onions,  or  tur- 


nips, are  good  mixed  with  mince-meat,  instead  of  potatoes. 
Veal,  lamb,  and  mutton,  are  good  cut  into  small  strips,  and 
warmed  with  boiled  potatoes  cut  in  slices,  pepper,  salt,  a lit- 
tle water — add  butter  just  before  you  take  it  up.  Roast  beef 
and  mutton,  if  not  previously  cooked  too  much,  are  nice  cut 
in  slices,  and  just  scorched  on  a gridiron.  Meat,  when 
warmed  over,  should  be  on  the  fire  just  long  enough  to  get 
well  heated  through — if  on  the  fire  long,  most  of  the  juices  of 
the  meat  will  be  extracted,  and  render  it  very  indigestible. 
Cold  fowls  are  nice  jointed,  and  warmed  with  a little  water, 
then  taken  up  and  fried  in  butter  till  brown.  A little  flour 
should  be  sprinkled  on  them  before  frying.  Thicken  the  wa- 
ter that  the  fowls  were  warmed  in — add  a little  salt,  pepper, 
and  butter,  and  turn  it  over  the  fowls. 

Drawn  Butter.— Mix  two  or  three  teaspoonfuls  of  flour 
with  a little  cold  water — stir  it  till  free  from  lumps,  thin  it, 
and  stir  it  into  half  a pint  of  boiling  water — let  it  boil  two  or 
three  minutes,  then  cut  up  about  a quarter  of  a pound  of  but- 
ter into  small  pieces,  and  put  it  with  the  flour  and  water — 
set  it  where  it  will  melt  gradually.  If  carefully  mixed,  it  will 
be  free  from  lumps — if  not,  strain  it  before  it  is  put  on  the  ta- 
ble. If  the  butter  is  to  be  eaten  on  fish,  cut  up  several  soft 
boiled  eggs  into  it.  A little  curry  powder  sprinkled  into  it, 
will  convert  it  into  curry  sauce. 

Burnt  Butter. — Put  a couple  of  ounces  of  butter  into  a 
frying  pan — set  it  on  the  fire — when  of  a dark  brown  color, 
put  in  half  a teacupful  of  vinegar,  a little  pepper  and  salt. 
This  is  nice  for  fish,  salad,  or  eggs. 

Roast  Meat  Gravy, — Meat,  when  put  down  to  roast, 
should  have  about  a pint  of  water  in  the  dripping  pan,  A lit- 
tie  while  before  the  meat  is  done,  stir  rp  the  drippings,  put  it 
in  a skillet,  and  set  it  where  it  will  boil.  Mix  two  or  three 
teaspoonfuls  of  flour  smoothly  with  a little  water,  and  stir  it 
in  the  gravy  when  it  boils.  Lamb  and  veal  require  a little 
butter  in  the  gravy.  The  gravy  for  pork  and  geese  should 
have  a little  of  the  dressing  and  sage  mixed  with  it.  If  you 
wish  to  have  your  gravies  look  dark,  scorch  the  flour  that  you 
thicken  them  with,  which  is  easily  done  by  putting  it  in  a 
pan,  setting  it  on  a few  coals,  and  stirring  it  constantly  till  it 
is  a dark  brown  color,  taking  care  that  it  does  not  burn. 
Enough  can  be  burnt  at  once  to  last  a long  time. 

Sauce  for  Cold  Meat,  Fish,  or  Salad. — Boil  a couple  of 
eggs  three  minutes  ; then  mix  it  with  a mustard-spoonful  of 
made  mustard,  a little  salt,  pepper,  half  a tea-cup  of  salad  oil 
or  melted  butter,  and  half  a tea-cup  of  vinegar.  A table- 
spoonful of  catsup  improves  it. 

Wine  Sauce  for  Venison  or  Mutton. — Warm  half  a pint 
of  the  drippings  or  liquor  the  meat  was  boiled  in  , mix  a 
couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  scorched  flour  with  a little  water,  and 
stir  it  in  when  the  gravy  boils.  Season  it  with  salt,  pepper, 
and  cloves  ; stir  a tablespoonful  of  currant  jelly  in,  and,  just 
before  you  take  it  from  the  fire,  half  a tumbler  of  wine. 
Many  people  prefer  melted  currant  jelly  to  any  other  sauce  for 
venison  or  mutton. 

Oyster  Sauce. — Take  the  juice  of  the  oysters,  and  to  a 
pint  put  a couple  of  sticks  of  mace,  a little  salt  and  pepper. 
Set  it  on  the  fire  ; whe  ■ it  boils,  stir  in  a couple  o(  teaspoon- 
fuls of  flour,  mixed  wi  h milk.  When  it  has  boiled  several 


I 


070 


HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


minutes,  stir  in  half  a pint  of  oysters,  a piece  of  butter  of  the 
size  of  a hen’s  egg.  Let  them  scald  through,  then  take 
them  up. 

White  Celery  Sauce  for  Boiled  Poultry. — Take  five  or 
six  heads  of  celery,  cut  off  the  green  tops,  cut  up  the  re- 
mainder into  small  bits,  and  boil  it  tender  in  half  a pint  of 
water  ; mix  two  or  three  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  smoothly  with 
a little  milk  ; then  add  half  a teacup  more  of  milk,  stir  it  in, 
add  a small  lump  of  butter  and  a little  salt.  When  it  boils, 
take  it  up. 

Brown  Sauce  for  Poultry. — Peel  two  or  three  onions, 
cut  them  in  slices,  flour  and  fry  them  brown  in  a little  but- 
ter ; then  sprinkle  in  a little  flour,  pepper,  salt,  and  sage ; 
add  half  a pint  of  the  liquor  the  poultry  was  boiled  in,  and  a 
tablespoonful  of  catsup.  Let  it  boil  up  ; then  stir  in  half  a 
wineglass  of  wine  if  you  like. 

Savory  Jelly  for  Cold  Meat. — Boil  lean  beef  or  veal  till 
tender.  If  you  have  any  beef  or  veal  bones,  crack  and  boil 
them  with  the  meat  (they  should  be  boiled  longer  than  the 
meat),  together  with  a little  salt  pork,  sweet  herbs,  and  pepper 
and  salt.  When  boiled  sufficiently,  take  it  off,  strain  it,  and 
let  remain  till  the  next  day  ; then  skim  off  the  fat,  take  up  the 
jelly,  and  scrape  off  the  dregs  that  adhere  to  the  bottom  of  it  ; 
put  in  the  whites  and  shells  of  several  eggs,  several  blades  of 
mace,  a little  wine  and  lemon  juice  ; set  it  on  the  fire,  stir  it 
well  till  it  boils,  then  strain  it  till  clear  through  a jelly  bag. 

Chicken  Salad. — Boil  a chicken  that  weighs  not  more 
than  a pound  and  a half.  When  very  tender  take  it  up,  cut 
it  in  small  strips,  and  make  the  following  sauce,  and  turn  over 
it : Boil  four  eggs  three  minutes  ; then  take  them  out  of  the 
shells,  mash  and  mix  them  with  a couple  of  tablespoonfuls  of 
olive  oil  or  melted  butter,  two-thirds  of  a tumbler  of  vinegar, 
a teaspoonful  of  mixed  mustard,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  a lit- 
tle pepper,  and  essence  of  celery  if  you  have  it — if  not,  it  can 
be  dispensed  with. 

Apple  and  Cranberry  Sauce. — Pare  and  quarter  the  ap- 
ples— if  not  tart,  stew  them  in  cider — if  tart  enough,  stew 
them  in  water.  When  stewed  soft,  put  in  a small  piece  of 
butter,  and  sweeten  it  to  the  taste  with  sugar.  Another  way, 
which  is  very  good,  is  to  boil  the  apples,  without  paring  them, 
with  a few  quinces  and  molasses,  in  new  cider,  till  reduced  to 
half  the  quantity.  When  cool,  strain  the  sauce.  This  kind 
of  sauce  will  keep  good  several  months.  It  makes  very  good 
plain  pies,  with  the  addition  of  a little  cinnamon  or  cloves. 
To  make  cranberry  sauce,  nothing  more  is  necessary  than  to 
stew  the  cranberries  till  soft,  then  stir  in  sugar  and  molasses 
to  sweeten  it.  Let  the  sugar  scald  in  it  a few  minutes.  Strain 
it  if  you  like — it  is  very  good  without  straining. 

Pudding  Sauce. — Stir  to  a cream  a teacup  of  butter,  with 
two  of  brown  sugar,  then  add  a wineglass  of  wine  or  cider  ; 
flavor  it  with  nutmeg,  rose-water,  or  essence  of  lemon.  If 
you  wish  to  have  it  liquid,  heat  two-thirds  of  a pint  of  water 
boiling  hot,  mix  two  or  three  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  with  a little 
water  and  stir  it  into  the  boiling  water.  As  soon  as  it  boils 
up  well,  stir  it  into  the  butter  and  sugar. 

Mushroom  Catsup. — Put  a layer  of  fresh  mushrooms  in  a 
deep  dish,  sprinkle  a little  salt  over  them,  then  put  in  another 
layer  of  fresh  mushrooms  and  salt,  and  so  on  till  you  get  in  all 


the  mushrooms.  Let  them  remain  several  days  ; then  mash 
them  fine,  and  to  each  quart  put  a tablespoouful  of  vinegar, 
half  a teaspoonful  of  black  pepper,  and  a quarter  of  a tea- 
spoonful of  cloves  ; turn  it  into  a stone  jar,  set  the  jar  in  a pot 
of  boiling  water  and  let  it  boil  two  hours,  then  strain  it  with- 
out squeezing  the  mushrooms.  Boil  the  juice  a quarter  of  an 
hour,  skim  it  well,  let  it  stand  a few  hours  to  settle,  then  strain 
it  off  carefully  through  a sieve,  bottle  and  cork  it  tight.  Keep 
it  in  a cool  place. 

Walnut  Catsup. — Procure  the  walnuts  by  the  last  of  June  ; 
keep  them  in  salt  and  water  for  a week,  then  bruise  them, 
and  turn  boiling  vinegar  on  them.  Let  them  remain  covered 
with  vinegar  for  several  days,  stirring  them  up  each  day ; then 
boil  them  a quarter  of  an  hour  with  a little  more  vinegar, 
strain  them  through  a thick  cloth,  so  that  none  of  the  coarse 
particles  of  the  walnuts  will  go  through  ; season  the  vinegar 
highly  with  cloves,  allspice,  pepper  and  salt.  Boil  the  whole  a 
few  minutes,  then  bottle  and  cork  it  tight.  Keep  it  in  a cool 
place. 

Plain  Veal  Soup. — A leg  of  veal,  after  enough  has  been 
cut  off  for  cutlets,  makes  a soup  nearly  as  good  as  calPs  head. 
Boil  it  with  a cup  two-thirds  full  of  rice,  and  a pound  and  a 
half  of  pork  ; season  it  with  salt,  pepper,  and  sweet  herbs,  if 
you  like.  A little  celery  boiled  in  it  gives  the  soup  a fine  fla- 
vor. Some  people  like  onions,  carrots,  and  parsley  boiled  in 
it.  If  you  wish  for  balls  in  the  soup,  chop  veal  and  a little 
raw  salt  pork  fine  ; mix  it  with  a few  bread  crumbs  and  a 
couple  of  eggs.  Season  it  with  salt  and  pepper  ; add  a little 
curry  powder  if  you  like — do  it  up  into  small  balls  and  boil 
them  in  the  soup.  The  veal  should  be  taken  up  before  the 
soup  is  seasoned.  Just  before  the  soup  is  taken  up,  put  in  a 
couple  of  slices  of  toast,  cut  into  small  pieces.  If  you  do  not 
like  your  soup  fat,  let  the  liquor  remain  till  the  day  after  you 
have  boiled  the  meat,  and  skim  off  the  fat  before  heating  the 
liquor.  The  shoulder  of  veal  makes  a good  soup. 

Mock  Turtle,  or  Calf’s  Head  Soup. — Boil  the  head  until 
perfectly  tender,  then  take  it  out,  strain  the  liquor,  and  set  it 
away  until  the  next  day,  then  skim  off  the  fat,  cut  up  the 
meat,  together  with  the  lights,  and  put  it  into  the  liquor,  put 
it  on  the  fire,  and  season  it  with  salt,  pepper,  cloves,  and 
mace,  add  onions  and  sweet  herbs  if  you  like  ; stew  it  gently 
for  half  an  hour.  Just  before  you  take  it  up,  add  half  a pint 
of  white  wine.  For  the  balls,  chop  lean  veal  fine,  with  a little 
salt  pork,  add  the  brains,  and  season  it  with  salt,  pepper, 
cloves,  mace,  sweet  herbs  or  curry  powder,  make  it  up  into 
balls  about  the  size  of  half  an  egg,  boil  part  in  the  soup,  and 
fry  the  remainder,  and  put  them  in  a dish  by  themselves. 

Beef  or  Black  Soup. — The  shank  of  beef  is  the  best  part 
for  soup— cold  roast  beef  bones  and  beef  steak  make  very 
good  soup.  Boil  the  shank  four  or  five  hours  in  water 
enough  to  cover  it.  Half  an  hour  before  the  soup  is  put  on 
the  table,  take  up  the  meat,  thicken  the  soup  with  scorched 
flour  mixed  with  cold  water,  season  it  with  salt,  pepper, 
cloves,  mace,  a little  walnut  or  tomato  catsup  improves  it,  put 
in  sweet  herbs  or  herb  spirit  if  you  like.  Some  cooks  boil 
onions  in  the  soup,  but  as  they  are  very  disagreeable  to  many 
persons,  it  is  better  to  boil  and  serve  them  up  in  a dish  by 
themselves.  Make  force-meat  balls  of  part  of  the  beef  and 


HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


671 


pork,  season  them  with  mace,  cloves,  pepper  and  salt,  and 
boil  them  in  the  soup  fifteen  minutes. 

Chicken  or  Turkey  Soup.— The  liquor  that  a turkey  or 
chicken  is  boiled  in  makes  a good  soup.  If  you  do  not  like 
your  soup  fat,  let  the  liquor  remain  till  the  day  after  the  poul- 
try has  been  boiled  in  it,  then  skim  off  the  fat,  set  it  where  it 
will  boil.  If  there  was  not  any  rice  boiled  with  the  meat,  put 
in  half  a teacupful  when  the  liquor  boils,  or  slice  up  a few 
potatoes  and  put  in — season  it  with  salt  and  pepper,  and 
sweet  herbs,  a little  celery  boiled  in  it  improves  it.  Toast 
bread  or  crackers,  and  put  them  in  the  soup  when  you  take  it 
up. 

Oyster  Soup. — Separate  the  oysters  from  the  liquor,  to  each 
quart  of  the  liquor  put  a pint  of  milk  or  water,  set  it  on  the 
fire  with  the  oysters.  Mix  a heaping  tablespoonful  of  flour 
with  a little  water,  and  stir  it  into  the  liquor  as  soon  as  it 
boils.  Season  it  with  salt,  pepper,  and  a litile  walnut  or 
butternut  vinegar,  if  you  have  it,  if  not,  common  vinegar  may 
be  substituted.  Put  in  a small  lump  of  butter,  and  turn  it  as 
soon  as  it  boils  up  again  on  to  buttered  toast  cut  into  small 
pieces. 

Pea  Soup. — If  you  make  your  soup  of  dry  peas,  soak  them 
over  night,  in  a warm  place,  using  a quart  of  water  to  each 
quart  of  the  peas.  Early  the  next  morning  boil  them  an  hour. 
Boil  with  them  a teaspoonful  of  saleratus  eight  or  ten  minutes, 
then  take  them  out  of  the  water  they  were  soaking  in,  put  them 
into  fresh  water,  with  a pound  of  salt  pork,  and  boil  it  till  the 
peas  are  soft,  which  will  be  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  hours. 
Green  peas  for  soup  require  no  soaking,  and  boiling  only  long 
enough  to  have  the  pork  get  thoroughly  cooked,  which  will  be 
in  the  course  of  an  hour. , 

Omelet.  — Beat  the  eggs  to  a froth,  and  to  a dozen  of  eggs 
put  three  ounces  of  finely  minced  boiled  ham,  beef,  or  veal ; 
if  the  latter  meat  is  used  add  a little  salt.  Melt  a quarter  of 
a pound  of  butter,  mix  a little  of  it  with  the  eggs — it  should 
be  just  lukewarm.  Set  the  remainder  of  the  butter  on  the 
fire,  in  a frying  or  tin  pan,  when  quite  hot,  turn  in  the  eggs 
beaten  to  a froth,  stir  them  until  they  begin  to  set.  When 
brown  on  the  under  side,  it  is  sufficiently  cooked.  The  ome- 
let should  be  cooked  on  a moderate  fire,  and  in  a pan  small 
enough  to  have  the  omelet  an  inch  thick.  When  you  take 
them  up,  lay  a flat  dish  on  them,  then  turn  the  pan  upside 
down. 

Poached  Eggs. — Break  the  eggs  into  a pan,  beat  them  to 
a froth,  then  put  them  into  a buttered  tin  pan,  set  the  pan  on 
a few  coals,  put  in  a small  lump  of  butter,  a little  salt,  let 
them  cook  very  slowly,  stirring  them  constantly  till  they  be- 
come quite  thick,  then  turn  them  on  to  buttered  toast. 

Broiling,  Boiling  and  Frying  Fish. — Fish  for  boiling  or 
broiling  are  the  best  the  day  after  they  are  caught.  They 
should  be  cleaned  when  first  caught,  washed  in  cold  water, 
and  half  a teacup  of  salt  sprinkled  on  the  inside  of  them.  If 
they  are  to  be  broiled,  sprinkle  pepper  on  the  inside  of  them 
— keep  them  in  a cool  place.  When  fish  is  broiled,  the  bars 
of  the  gridiron  should  be  rubbed  over  with  a little  butter,  and 
the  inside  of  the  fish  put  toward  the  fire,  and  not  turned  till 
the  fish  is  nearly  cooked  through,  then  butter  the  skin  side 
and  turn  it  over  ; fish  should  be  broiled  slowly  When  fresh 


fish  is  to  be  boiled,  it  should  either  be  laid  on  a fish  strainer, 
or  jewed  up  in  a cloth,  if  not,  it  is  very  difficult  to  take  it  out 
of  the  pot  without  breaking.  Put  the  fish  into  cold  water  with 
the  back  bone  down.  To  eight  or  ten  pounds  of  fish,  put  half 
of  a small  teacup  of  salt.  Boil  the  fish  until  you  can  draw 
out  one  of  the  fins  easily— most  kinds  of  fish  will  boil  suffi- 
ciently in  the  course  of  twenty  or  thirty  minutes  ; some  kinds 
will  boil  in  less  time.  Some  cooks  do  not  put  their  fish  into 
water  till  it  boils,  but  it  is  not  a good  plan,  as  the  outside  gets 
cooked  too  much,  and  breaks  to  pieces  before  the  inside  is 
sufficiently  done.  Fish  for  frying,  after  being  cleaned  and 
washed,  should  be  put  into  a cloth  to  have  it  absorb  the  mois- 
ture. They  should  be  dried  perfectly  and  a little  flour  rubbed 
over  them.  No  salt  should  be  put  on  them,  if  you  wish  to 
have  them  brown  well.  For  five  or  six  pounds  of  fish,  fry 
three  or  four  slices  of  salt  pork  ; when  brown,  take  them  up 
and  if  they  do  not  make  fat  sufficient  to  fry  the  fish  in,  add  a 
little  lard.  When  the  fish  are  fried  enough,  take  them  up  ; 
for  good  plain  gravy,  mix  two  or  three  teaspoonfuls  of  flour 
with  a little  water,  and  stir  it  into  the  fat  the  fish  was  fried  in, 
put  in  a little  butter,  pepper,  and  salt,  if  you  wish  to  have 
the  gravy  rich  add  spices,  catsup,  and  wine,  turn  the  gravy 
over  the  fish.  Boiled  fish  should  be  served  up  with  drawn 
butter,  or  liver  sauce.  Fish,  when  put  on  the  platter,  should 
not  be  laid  over  each  other  if  it  can  be  avoided,  as  the  steam 
from  the  under  ones  makes  those  on  the  top  so  moist  that  they 
will  break  to  pieces  when  served  out. 

Great  care  and  punctuality  are  necessary  in  cooking  fish.  If 
not  done  sufficiently,  or  if  done  too  much,  they  are  not  good. 
They  should  be  eaten  as  soon  as  cooked.  For  a garnish  to  the 
fish,  use  parsley,  a lemon,  or  eggs  boiled  hard,  and  cut  in  slices. 

Chowder. — Fry  three  or  four  slices  of  pork  till  brown, 
cut  each  of  your  fish  into  five  or  six  slices,  flour,  and  put  a 
layer  of  them  into  your  pork  fat,  sprinkle  on  pepper  and  a lit- 
tle salt — add  cloves,  mace,  and  sliced  onions  if  you  like — lay 
on  several  bits  of  your  fried  pork,  and  crackers  previously 
soaked  soft  in  cold  water.  This  process  repeat  till  you  get  in 
all  the  fish,  then  turn  on  water  enough  to  just  cover  them — 
put  on  a heated  bake  pan  lid.  When  the  fish  have  stewed 
about  twenty  minutes,  take  them  up  and  mix  a couple  of  tea- 
spoonfuls of  flour  with  a little  water,  and  stir  it  into  the  gravy, 
also  a little  butter  and  pepper.  Flalf  a pint  of  white  wine, 
spices,  and  catsup,  will  improve  it.  Bass  and  cod  make  the 
best  chowder,  black  fish  and  clams  make  tolerably  good 
ones.  The  hard  part  of  the  clams  should  be  cut  of!  and 
thrown  away. 

Stuffed  and  Baked  Fish. — Soak  bread  in  cold  water  till 
soft,  drain  off  the  water,  mash  the  bread  fine,  mix  it  with  a 
tablespoonful  of  melted  butter,  a little  pepper  and  salt — a 
couple  of  raw  eggs  makes  the  dressing  cut  smoother — add 
spices  if  you  like.  Fill  the  fish  with  the  dressing,  sew  it  up, 
put  a teacup  of  water  in  your  bake  pan,  and  a small  piece  of 
butter,  lay  in  the  fish,  bake  it  from  forty  to  fifty  minutes. 
Fresh  cod,  bass,  and  shad,  are  suitable  fish  for  baking. 

Fish  Cakes. — Cold  boiled  fresh  fish,  or  salt  codfish,  is 
nice  minced  fine,  with  potatoes,  moistened  with  a little  water, 
and  a little  butter  put  in,  done  up  into  cakes  the  size  of  com* 
mon  biscuit,  and  fried  brown  in  pork  fat  or  butter. 


672 


HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


Fish  Force-Meat  Balls. — Take  a little  uncooked  fish, 
chop  it  fine,  together  with  a little  raw  salt  pork  ; mix  it  with 
one  or  two  raw  eggs,  a few  bread  crumbs  and  season  the 
whole  with  pepper  and  spices.  Add  a little  catsup  if  you  like, 
do  them  up  into  small  balls,  and  fry  them  till  brown. 

Clams. — Wash  and  put  them  in  a pot,  with  just  water 
enough  to  prevent  the  shells  burning  at  the  bottom  of  the  pot. 
Heat  them  till  the  shells  open — take  the  crams  out  of  them, 
and  warm  them  with  a little  of  the  clam  liquor,  a little  salt, 
butter,  and  pepper.  Toast  a slice  or  two  of  bread,  soak  it  in 
the  clam  liquor,  lay  it  in  a deep  dish,  and  turn  the  clams  on 
to  it.  For  clam  pancakes,  mix  flour  and  milk  together  to  form 
a thick  batter — some  cooks  use  the  clam  liquor,  but  it  does 
not  make  the  pancakes  as  light  as  the  milk.  To  each  pint  of 
the  milk  put  a couple  of  eggs  and  a few  clams — they  are 
good  taken  out  of  the  shells  without  stewing,  and  chopped  fine, 
or  stewed,  and  put  into  the  cakes  whole.  Very  large  long  clams 
are  good  taken  out  of  the  shells  without  stewing,  and  broiled. 

Stewed  Oysters. — Strain  the  oyster  liquor,  rinse  the  bits 
of  shells  off  the  oysters,  then  turn  the  liquor  back  on  to  the 
oysters,  and  put  them  in  a stew-pan — set  them  where  they  will 
boil  up,  then  turn  them  on  to  buttered  toast — salt,  pepper, 
and  butter  them  to  your  taste.  Some  cooks  add  a little  wal- 
nut catsup,  or  vinegar.  The  oysters  should  not  be  cooked 
until  just  before  they  are  to  be  eaten. 

To  Fry  Oysters. — Take  those  that  are  large,  dip  them  in 
beaten  eggs,  and  then  in  flour  or  fine  bread  crumbs — fry  them 
in  lard,  till  of  a light  brown.  They  are  a nice  garnish  f6r 
fish.  They  will  keep  good  for  several  months  if  fried  when 
first  caught,  salted  and  peppered,  then  put  into  a bottle,  and 
corked  tight.  Whenever  they  are  to  be  eaten,  warm  them  in 
a little  water. 

Oyster  Pancakes.— Mix  equal  quantities  of  milk  and  oys- 
ter juice  together.  To  a pint  of  the  liquor  when  mixed,  put 
a pint  of  wheat  flour,  a few  oysters,  a couple  of  eggs,  and  a 
little  salt.  Drop  by  the  large  spoonful  into  hot  lard. 

Oyster  Pie. — Line  a deep  pie-plate  with  pie  crust  ; fill  it 
with  dry  pieces  of  bread,  cover  it  over  with  puff  paste  ; bake 
it  till  a light  brown,  either  in  a quick  oven  or  bake  pan.  Have 
the  oysters  just  stewed  by  the  time  the  crust  is  done  ; take  off 
the  upper  crust,  remove  the  pieces  of  bread,  put  in  the  oysters, 
season  them  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter.  A little  walnut 
catsup  improves  the  pie,  but  is  not  essential — cover  it  with  the 
crust. 

Scalloped  Oysters. — Pound  rusked  bread  or  crackers 
fine ; butter  scallop  shells  or  tins,  sprinkle  on  the  bread 
crumbs,  then  put  in  a layer  of  oysters,  a small  lump  of  butter* 
pepper,  salt,  and  a little  of  the  oyster  juice  ; then  put  on 
another  layer  of  crumbs  and  oysters,  and  so  on  till  the  shells 
are  filled,  having  a layer  of  crumbs  at  the  top.  Bake  them 
till  a light  brown. 

Directions  for  Pickling. — Vinegar  for  pickling  should  be 
good,  but  not  of  the  sharpest  kind.  Brass  utensils  should  be 
used  for  pickling.  They  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  before 
using,  and  no  vinegar  should  be  allowed  to  cool  in  them,  as 
the  rust  formed  by  so  doing  is  very  poisonous.  Boil  alum 
and  salt  in  the  vinegar,  in  the  proportion  of  half  a teacup  of 
salt,  and  a tablespoonful  of  alum,  to  three  gallons  of  vinegar. 


Stone  and  wooden  vessels  are  the  only  kind  of  utensils  that 
are  good  to  keep  pickles  in.  Vessels  that  have  had  any 
grease  in  will  not  do  for  pickles,  as  no  washing  will  kill  the 
grease  that  the  pot  has  absorbed.  All  kinds  of  pickles 
should  be  stirred  up  occasionally.  If  there  are  any  soft  ones 
among  them,  they  should  be  taken  out,  the  vinegar  scalded, 
and  turned  back  while  hot — if  very  weak,  throw  it  away 
and  use  fresh  vinegar.  Whenever  any  scum  rises,  the 
vinegar  needs  scalding.  If  you  do  not  wish  to  have  all 
your  pickles  spiced,  it  is  a good  plan  to  keep  a stone  pot 
of  spiced  vinegar  by  itself,  and  put  in  a few  of  your  pickles 
a short  time  before  they  are  to  be  eaten. 

Wheat  Bread.— For  six  common  sized  loaves  of  bread, 
take  three  pints  of  boiling  water,  and  mix  it  with  five  01 
six  quarts  of  flour.  When  thoroughly  mixed,  add  three 
pints  of  cold  water.  Stir  it  till  the  whole  of  the  dough  is 
of  the  same  temperature.  When  lukewarm,  stir  in  half  a 
pint  of  family  yeast  (if  brewer’s  yeast  is  used,  a less  quantity 
will  answer),  a tablespoonful  of  salt,  knead  in  flour  till  stiff 
enough  to  mould  up,  and  free  from  lumps.  The  more  the 
bread  is  kneaded,  the  better  it  will  be.  Cover  it  over  with 
a thick  cloth,  and  if  the  weather  is  cold,  set  it  near  a fire. 
To  ascertain  when  it  has  risen,  cut  it  through  the  middle 
with  a knife — if  full  of  small  holes  like  a sponge,  it  is  suf- 
ficiently light  for  baking.  It  should  be  baked  as  soon  as 
light.  If  your  bread  should  get  sour  before  you  are  ready 
to  bake  it,  dissolve  two  or  more  teaspoonfuls  of  saleratus  (ac- 
cording to  the  acidity  of  it)  in  a teacup  of  milk  or  water, 
strain  it  on  to  the  dough,  work  in  well — then  cut  off  enough 
for  a loaf  of  bread,  mould  it  up  well,  slash  it  on  both  sides 
to  prevent  its  cracking  when  baked,  put  it  in  a buttered 
tin  pan.  The  bread  should  stand  ten  or  twelve  minutes  in 
the  pan  before  baking  it.  If  you  like  your  bread  baked  a 
good  deal,  let  it  stand  in  the  oven  an  hour  and  a half. 
When  the  wheat  is  grown,  it  makes  better  bread  to  wet  the 
flour  entirely  with  boiling  water.  It  should  remain  till  cool 
before  working  in  the  yeast.  Some  cooks  have  an  idea  that 
it  kills  the  life  of  the  flour  to  scald  it,  but  it  is  a mistaken  idea 
— it  is  sweeter  for  it,  and  will  keep  good  much  longer.  Bread 
made  in  this  way  is  nearly  as  good  as  that  which  is  wet  with  milk. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  put  the  yeast  in  when  the  dough 
is  hot,  as  it  will  scald  it,  and  prevent  its  rising.  Most  ovens 
require  heating  an  hour  and  a half  for  bread.  A brisk  fire 
should  be  kept  up,  and  the  doors  of  the  room  should  be  kept 
shut  if  the  weather  is  cold.  Pine  and  ash,  mixed  together,  or 
birch  wood,  is  the  best  for  heating  an  oven.  To  ascertain  if 
your  oven  is  of  the  right  temperature,  when  cleaned,  throw  in 
a little  flour  ; if  it  browns  in  the  course  of  a minute,  it  is  suf- 
ficiently hot  ; if  it  turns  black  directly,  wait  several  minutes 
before  putting  in  the  things  that  are  to  be  baked.  If  the  oven 
does  not  bake  well,  set  in  a furnace  of  live  coals. 

Sponge  Bread. — For  four  loaves  of  bread,  take  three 
quarts  of  wheat  flour  and  the  same  quantity  of  boiling  water  ; 
mix  them  well  together.  Let  it  remain  till  lukewarm,  then 
add  a teacupful  of  family,  or  half  a teacup  of  distillery  yeast. 
Set  it  in  a warm  place  to  rise.  When  light,  knead  in  flour 
till  stiff  enough  to  mould  up,  then  let  it  stand  till  risen  again, 
before  moulding  it  up. 


HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


673 


Rye  Bread. — Wet  up  rye  flour  with  lukewarm  milk  (water 
will  do  to  wet  it  up  with,  but  it  will  not  make  the  bread  so 
good).  Put  in  the  same  proportion  of  yeast  as  for  wheat 
bread.  For  four  or  five  loaves  of  bread,  put  in  a couple  of 
teaspoonfuls  of  salt.  A couple  of  tablespoonfuls  of  melted 
butter  makes  the  crust  more  tender.  It  should  not  be  kneaded 
as  stiff  as  wheat  bread,  or  it  will  be  hard  when  baked.  When 
light,  take  it  out  into  pans  without  moulding  it  up  ; let  it  re- 
main in  them  about  twenty  minutes  before  baking. 

Brown  Bread. — Brown  bread  is  made  by  scalding  Indian 
meal,  and  stirring  into  it,  when  lukewarm,  about  the  same 
quantity  of  rye  flour  as  Indian  meal ; add  yeast  and  salt  in 
the  same  proportion  as  for  other  kinds  of  bread.  Bake  it  be- 
tween two  and  three  hours. 

Indian  Bread. — Mix  Indian  meal  with  cold  water,  stir  it 
into  boiling  water,  let  it  boil  half  an  hour  ; stir  in  a little 
salt,  take  it  from  the  fire,  let  it  remain  till  lukewarm,  then 
stir  in  yeast  and  Indian  meal  to  render  it  of  the  consistency  of 
unbaked  rye  dough.  When  light,  take  it  out  into  buttered 
pans,  let  it  remain  a few  minutes,  then  bake  it  two  hours  and 
a half. 

Potato  Bread. — Boil  the  potatoes  very  soft,  then  peel  and 
mash  them  fine.  Put  in  salt  and  a very  little  butter  ; then  rub 
them  with  the  flour  ; wet  the  flour  with  lukewarm  water,  then 
work  in  the  yeast  and  flour  till  stiff  to  mould  up.  It  will  rise 
quicker  than  common  wheat  bread,  and  should  be  baked  as 
soon  as  risen,  as  it  turns  sour  very  soon.  The  potatoes  that 
the  bread  is  made  of  should  be  mealy,  and  mixed  with  the 
flour  in  the  proportion  of  one-third  of  potatoes  to  two-thirds 
of  flour. 

Rice  Bread. — Boil  a pint  of  rice  till  soft ; then  mix  it 
with  a couple  of  quarts  of  rice  or  wheat  flour.  When  cool, 
add  half  a teacup  of  yeast,  a little  salt,  and  milk  to  render  it 
of  the  consistency  of  rye  bread.  When  light,  bake  it  in  small 
buttered  pans. 

French  Rolls. — Turn  a quart  of  lukewarm  milk  on  to  a 
quart  of  flour.  Melt  a couple  of  ounces  of  butter,  and  put 
to  the  milk  and  flour,  together  with  a couple  of  eggs,  and  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt.  When  cool,  stir  in  half  a teacup  of 
yeast,  and  flour  to  make  it  stiff  enough  to  mould  up.  Put 
it  in  a warm  place.  When  light,  do  it  up  into  small  rolls  ; 
lay  the  rolls  on  flat  buttered  tins  ; let  them  remain  twenty 
minutes  before  baking. 

Butter  Biscuit. — Melt  a teacup  of  butter,  mix  it  with 
two-thirds  of  a pint  of  milk  (if  you  have  not  any  milk,  water 
may  be  substituted,  but  the  biscuit  will  not  be  as  nice).  Put 
in  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  half  a teacup  of  yeast  (milk  yeast  is 
the  best,  see  directions  for  making  it) — stir  in  flour  till  it  is 
stiff  enough  to  mould  up.  A couple  of  eggs  improve  the  bis- 
cuit, but  are  not  essential.  Set  the  dough  in  a warm  place  ; 
when  risen,  mould  the  dough  with  the  hand  into  small  cakes, 
lay  them  on  flat  tins  that  have"  been  buttered.  Let  them 
remain  half  an  hour  before  they  are  baked. 

Buttermilk  Biscuit. — Dissolve  a couple  of  teaspoonfuls 
of  saleratus  in  a teacup  of  sour  milk — mix  it  with  a pint  of 
buttermilk,  and  a couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  salt.  Stir  in 
flour  until  stiff  enough  to  mould  up.  Mould  it  up  into  small 
cakes  and  bake  them  immediately. 

jfcy 


Hard  Biscuit. — Weigh  out  four  pounds  of  flour,  and  rub 
three  pounds  and  a half  of  it  with  four  ounces  of  butter,  four 
beaten  eggs,  and  a couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  salt.  Moisten  it 
with  milk,  pound  it  out  thin  with  a rolling-pin,  sprinkle  a little 
of  the  reserved  flour  over  it  lightly,  roll  it  up  and  pound  it 
out  again,  sprinkle  on  more  of  the  flour — this  operation  con- 
tinue to  repeat  till  you  get  in  all  the  reserved  flour ; then  roll 
it  out  thin,  cut  it  into  cakes  with  a tumbler,  lay  them  on  flat 
buttered  tins,  cover  them  with  a damp  cloth  to  prevent  their 
drying.  Bake  them  in  a quick  oven. 

Potato  Biscuit. — Boil  mealy  potatoes  very  soft,  peel  and 
mash  them.  To  four  good-sized  potatoes  put  a piece  of  but- 
ter of  the  size  of  a hen’s  egg,  and  a teaspoonful  of  salt.  When 
the  butter  has  melted,  put  in  half  a pint  of  cold  milk.  If  the 
milk  cools  the  potatoes,  put  in  a quarter  of  a pint  of  yeast, 
and  flour  to  make  them  of  the  right  consistency  to  mould  up. 
Set  them  in  a warm  place  ; when  risen,  mould  them  up  w'ith 
the  hand — let  them  remain  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  before  bak- 
ing them. 

Sponge  Biscuit. — Stir  into  a pint  of  lukewarm  milk  half 
a teacup  of  melted  butter,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  half  a tea- 
cup of  family,  or  a tablespoonful  of  brewers’  yeast  (the  latter 
is  the  bestV  add  flour  till  it  is  a very  stiff  batter.  When  light, 
drop  this  mixture  by  the  large  spoonful  on  to  flat  buttered 
tins,  several  inches  apart.  Let  them  remain  a few  minutes 
before  baking.  Bake  them  in  a quick  oven  till  they  are  a 
light  brown. 

Crackers. — Rub  six  ounces  of  butter  with  two  pounds  of 
flour — dissolve  a couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  saleratus  in  a wine- 
glass of  milk,  and  strain  it  on  to  the  flour — add  a teaspoonful 
of  salt,  and  milk  enough  to  enable  you  to  roll  it  out.  Beat  it 
with  a rolling-pin  for  half  an  hour,  pounding  it  out  thin — cut 
it  into  cakes  with  a tumbler — bake  them  about  fifteen  minutes, 
then  take  them  from  the  oven.  When  the  rest  of  your 
things  are  baked  sufficiently,  take  them  out,  set  in  the  crack- 
ers, and  let  them  remain  till  baked  hard  and  crispy. 

Cream  Cakes. — Mix  half  a pint  of  thick  cream  with  the 
same  quantity  of  milk,  four  eggs,  and  flour  to  render  them  just 
stiff  enough  to  drop  on  buttered  tins.  They  should  be  dropped 
by  the  large  spoonful  several  inches  apart,  and  baked  in  a 
quick  oven. 

Crumpets. — Take  three  teacups  of  raised  dough,  and 
work  into  it  with  the  hand  half  a teacup  of  melted  butter, 
three  eggs,  and  milk  to  render  it  a thick  batter.  Turn  it  into 
a buttered  bake  pan,  let  it  remain  fifteen  minutes,  then  put 
on  a bake  pan  heated  so  as  to  scorch  flour.  It  will  bake  in 
half  an  hour. 

Rice  Cakes. — Mix  a pint  of  rice  boiled  soft  with  a pint 
of  milk,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  three  eggs  beaten  to  a 
froth.  Stir  in  rice  or  wheat  flour  till  of  the  right  consistency 
to  fry.  If  you  like  them  baked,  add  two  more  eggs,  and 
enough  more  flour  to  make  them  stiff  enough  to  roll  out,  and 
cut  them  into  cakes. 

Buckwheat  Cakes. — Mix  a quart  of  buckwheat  flour  with 
a pint  of  lukewarm  milk  (water  will  do,  but  is  not  as  good), 
and  a teacup  of  yeast ; set  it  in  a warm  place  to  rise.  When 
light  (which  will  be  in  the  course  of  eight  or  ten  hours  if 
family  yeast  is  used  ; if  brewers’  yeast  is  used  they  will  rise 


674 


HINTS  TO  HOUSEKEEPERS. 


much  quicker),  add  a teaspoonful  of  salt — if  sour,  the  same 
quantity  of  saleratus,  dissolved  in  a little  milk  and  strained. 
If  they  are  too  thick,  thin  them  with  cold  milk  or  water.  Fry 
them  in  just  fat  enough  to  prevent  their  sticking  to  the 
frying  pan. 

Green-Corn  Cake. — Mix  a pint  of  grated  green  corn  with 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  milk,  a teacup  of  flour,  half  a teacup 
of  melted  butter,  one  egg,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  pepper.  Drop  this  mixture  into  hot  butter  by 
the  spoonful,  let  the  cakes  fry  eight  or  ten  minutes.  These 
cakes  are  nice  served  up  with  meat  for  dinner. 

Indian-Corn  Cake. — Stir  into  a quart  of  sour  or  butter- 
milk a couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  saleratus,  a little  salt,  and 
sifted  Indian  meal  to  render  it  a thick  batter — a little  cream 
improves  the  cake — bake  it  in  deep  cake  pans  about  an  hour. 
When  sour  milk  cannot  be  procured,  boil  sweet  milk,  and  turn 
it  on  to  the  Indian  meal  ; when  cool,  put  in  three  beaten  eggs 
to  a quart  of  the  meal,  add  salt  to  the  taste. 

Indian  Slap  Jacks. — Scald  a quart  of  Indian  meal,  when 
lukewarm  turn,  stir  in  half  a pint  of  flour,  half  a teacup  of 
yeast,  and  a little  salt.  When  light,  fry  them  in  just  fat 
enough  to  prevent  their  sticking  to  the  frying  pan.  Another 
method  of  making  them,  which  is  very  nice,  is  to  turn  boiling 
milk  or  water  on  to  the  Indian  meal,  in  the  proportion  of  a 
quart  of  the  former  to  a pint  of  the  latter,  stir  in  three  table- 
spoonfuls of  flour,  three  eggs  well  beaten,  and  a couple  of  tea- 
spoonfuls of  salt. 

Johnny  Cakes. — Scald  a quart  of  sifted  Indian  meal  with 
sufficient  water  to  make  it  a very  thick  batter  ; stir  in  two  or 
three  teaspoonfuls  of  salt,  mould  it  with  the  hand  into  small 
cakes.  In  order  to  mould  them  up  it  will  be  necessary  to 
rub  a good  deal  of  flour  on  the  hands,  to  prevent  their  stick- 
ing. Fry  them  in  nearly  fat  enough  to  cover  them.  When 
brown  on  the  under  side  they  should  be  turned.  It  takes 
about  twenty  minutes  to  cook  them.  When  cooked,  split  and 
butter  them.  Another  way  of  making  them,  which  is  nice,  is 
to  scald  the  Indian  meal,  and  put  in  saleratus,  dissolved  in 
milk,  and  salt  in  the  proportion  of  a teaspoonful  of  each  to  a 
quart  of  meal.  Add  two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  of  wheat 
flour  and  drop  the  batter  by  the  large  spoonful  into  a frying 
pan.  The  batter  should  be  of  a very  thick  consistency,  and 


there  should  be  just  fat  enough  in  the  frying  pan  to  prevent 
the  cakes  sticking  to  it. 

Hoe  Cakes. — Scald  a quart  of  Indian  meal  with  just  water 
enough  to  make  a thick  batter ; stir  in  a couple  of  teaspoon- 
fuls of  salt,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter  ; turn  it  into  a 
buttered  bake  pan,  and  bake  it  half  an  hour. 

Muffins. — Mix  a quart  of  wheat  flour  smoothly  with  a pint 
and  a half  of  lukewarm  milk,  half  a teacup  of  yeast,  a couple 
of  beaten  eggs,  a heaping  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a couple 
of  tablespoonfuls  of  lukewarm  melted  butter  ; set  the  batter 
in  a warm  place  to  rise  ; when  light,  butter  your  muffin  cups, 
turn  in  the  mixture,  and  bake  the  muffins  till  a light  brown. 

Raised  Flour  Waffles, — Stir  into  a quart  of  flour  suffi- 
cient lukewarm  milk  to  make  a thick  batter — the  milk  should 
be  stirred  in  gradually,  so  as  to  have  it  free  from  lumps — put 
in  a tablespoonful  of  melted  butter,  a couple  of  beaten  eggs, 
a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  half  a teacup  of  yeast  ; when 
risen,  fill  your  waffle-irons  with  the  batter,  bake  them  on  a 
hot  bed  of  coals.  When  they  have  been  on  the  fire  between 
two  and  three  minutes,  turn  the  waffle-irons  over  ; when  brown 
on  both  sides,  they  are  sufficiently  baked.  The  waffle-irons 
should  be  well  greased  with  lard,  and  very  hot,  before  each  one 
is  put  in.  The  waffles  should  be  buttered  as  soon  as  cooked. 
Serve  them  up  with  powdered  white  sugar  and  cinnamon. 

Quick  Waffles. — Mix  flour  and  cold  milk  together,  to 
make  a thick  batter.  To  a quart  of  the  flour  put  six  beaten 
eggs,  a tablespoonful  of  melted  butter,  and  a teaspoonful  of 
salt.  Some  cooks  add  a quarter  of  a pound  of  sugar,  and  half 
a nutmeg.  Bake  them  immediately. 

Rice  Waffles. — Take  a teacup  and  a half  of  boiled  rice, 
warm  it  with  a pint  of  milk,  mix  it  smooth,  then  take  it  from 
the  fire,  stir  in  a pint  of  cold  milk  and  a teaspoonful  of  salt. 
Beat  four  eggs,  and  stir  them  in,  together  with  sufficient  flour 
to  make  a thick  batter. 

Rice  Wafers. — Melt  a quarter  of  a pound  of  butter,  and 
mix  it  with  a pound  of  rice  flour,  a teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a 
wine  glass  of  wine.  Beat  four  eggs,  and  stir  in,  together  with 
just  cold  milk  enough  to  enable  you  to  roll  them  out  easily. 
They  should  be  rolled  out  as  thin  as  possible,  cut  with  a wine 
glass  into  cakes,  and  baked  in  a moderate  oven,  on  buttered 
flat  tins. 


COMMERCE. 


&75 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COMMERCE. 


HE  practice  of  commerce  is  in  a great  measure 
dependent  on  mutual  good  faith,  and  the  integ- 
rity of  seller  and  buyer,  and  can  in  no  case 
permanently  flourish  where  these  fundamental 
qualities  are  wanting.  The  first  or  great  leading 
quality,  therefore,  in  the  character  of  a merchant, 
ought  to  be  scrupulous  honesty  both  in  word  and  deed. 
The  article  which  he  proposes  to  dispose  of  must 
be  exactly  what  he  declares  it  to  be,  not  inferior  or  in 
any  respect  unsound  in  its  nature.  If  it  possess  any  blem- 
ishes, these  must  be  announced  to  the  buyer  before  the 
bargain  is  concluded,  and,  if  necessary,  though  at  a con- 
siderable loss,  an  allowance  made  for  them.  The  mer- 
chant is  not  less  called  on  to  be  faithful  in  the  fulfill- 
ment of  all  promises  which  he  may  make,  whether  with  respect 
to  goods  or  their  payment ; because  those  to  whom  the  prom- 
ises have  been  made  may  on  that  account  have  made  similar 
promises  to  others,  and,  therefore,  the  breaking  of  a single 
promise  may  prove  injurious  in  every  link  of  a whole  train  of 
transactions.  Perfect  honesty  or  integrity  is  a fundamental 
principle  of  trade  ; and  the  next  most  important  are,  strict 
regularity  in  all  proceedings,  according  to  established  usage, 
and  also  steady  perseverance.  The  merchant  must  give  regu- 
lar attendance  during  the  hours  of  business,  be  regular  in  exe- 
cuting all  orders  and  answering  all  letters  ; regular  in  the  keep- 
ing of  his  books,  and  in  the  reckoning  of  his  stock  and  moneys  ; 
in  short,  he  must  be  methodic  and  careful  in  all  branches 
of  his  concerns,  for  without  this  species  of  attention,  the  best 
business  is  apt  to  become  confused,  and  to  be  ultimately 
ruined.  What  is  true  of  individuals  is  true  when  applied 
to  a whole  nation.  No  people  have  ever  attained  opulence 
and  high  mercantile  consideration,  who  have  not  possessed  a 
character  for  integrity  and  regularity  in  all  their  dealings. 

Besides  these  indispensable  qualities  in  the  individual  char- 
acter of  a merchant  or  tradesman,  there  is  required  a happy 
combination  of  enterprise  and  prudence  with  the  utmost  cool- 
ness-enterprise to  embrace  favorable  opportunities  of  buying 
and  selling,  and  prudence  and  coolness  to  restrain  from  en- 
gaging  in  over-hazardous  and  ruinous  speculations.  In  all  his 
transactions,  the  man  of  business  is  understood  to  proceed 
upon  a cool  inflexible  principle  of  doing  that  which  is  most 
advantageous  for  himself,  without  fear  or  favor ; because  in 


commerce  each  party  is  supposed  to  be  governed  by  motives 
of  self-interest  (always  within  the  rules  of  honesty  and  pro- 
priety),  and  is  under  no  obligation  to  deal  from  mere  personal 
regard,  or  any  kind  of  friendly  consideration.  In  commerce 
there  is,  strictly  speaking,  no  friendship.  If  there  be  friend- 
ship among  the  parties  concerned,  it  is  a thing  aloof  from 
business  transactions — a matter  of  private  arrangement — and 
is  only  to  be  regarded  as  such.  On  this  account,  even  among 
the  most  intimate  friends,  there  must  be  an  exact  mode  of 
dealing,  and  the  most  accurate  counting  and  reckoning. 

COMMERCIAL  TERMS  AND  TRANSACTIONS. 

The  following  explanations  of  the  principal  terms  used  in 
commerce,  will  illustrate  the  mode  of  conducting  business 
transactions. 

Firm. — Every  business,  whether  private  or  public,  is  con- 
ducted under  a specified  designation  or  title,  called  the  name 
of  the  firm.  This  name  may  be  that  of  a single  individual  to 
whom  the  business  belongs,  or  of  two  or  more  individuals,  or 
any  title  which  it  may  be  found  advisable  to  adopt.  Some- 
times the  name  of  a firm  remains  long  after  all  who  are  indi- 
cated by  it  are  dead  ; in  such  a case,  the  business  has  passed 
into  the  hands  of  new  proprietors,  who,  though  legally  respon- 
sible for  its  obligations,  are  not,  for  some  private  reason,  in- 
clined to  change  the  old  and  well-known  title  of  their  firm. 
A particular  firm  or  business-concern  is  sometimes  personified 
in  the  term  house — as,  Such  a house  does  a great  deal  of  busi- 
ness, etc. 

Company. — Two  or  more  individuals  engaged  in  one  busi- 
ness constitute  a company  or  copartnery,  each  individual  be- 
ing called  a partner.  Companies  are  of  two  kinds,  private  and 
public.  A private  company  is  organized  by  a private  arrange- 
ment among  the  parties,  each  having  certain  duties  to  per- 
form and  a certain  share  in  the  concern.  In  companies  of  the 
private  and  common  description,  no  individual  can  leave  the 
concern  at  his  own  pleasure,  for  by  doing  so  he  might  seri- 
ously injure  or  embarrass  his  partners.  He  can  withdraw 
only  after  giving  a reasonable  warning,  by  which  lime  is 
allowed  to  wind  up  the  concern,  or  place  it  in  a condition  to 
pay  him  back  the  capital  which  he  has  risked,  or  the  profits 
which  are  his  due.  No  partner,  however,  can  transfer  his 
shares  to  another  person,  by  which  a new  member  would  be 
introduced  into  the  firm  without  the  consent  of  the  partners. 

The  profits  of  partnerships  are  divided  according  to  a 


676 


COMMERCE. 


specified  agreement  or  deed  of  copartnery.  Generally,  in  the 
case  of  partnerships  of  two  or  three  persons,  each  receives  the 
same  share  on  the  occasion  of  an  annual  division,  but  in 
other  cases,  a partner  may  not  be  entitled  to  more  than  a 
fourth  or  sixth  part  of  what  another  receives.  The  amount  of 
capital  which  a partner  invests  in  the  concern,  the  service  he 
can  be  to  the  business,  and  other  circumstances,  regulate  the 
amount  of  his  share.  When  each  of  two  persons  sinks  the 
same  capital,  but  one  takes  the  whole  of  the  trouble,  then  he 
on  whom  the  trouble  falls,  who  is  called  the  active  partner,  is 
entitled  to  receive  a stated  sum  in  the  form  of  salary  over  and 
above  his  share  of  profits.  Whatever  be  the  share  which  in- 
dividual partners  have  in  a concern,  the  whole  are  equally 
liable  for  the  debts  incurred  by  the  company,  because  the 
public  give  credit  only  on  the  faith  that  the  company  gener- 
ally is  responsible.  He  who  draws  the  smallest  fraction  of 
profit,  failing  the  others,  may  be  compelled  to  pay  the  whole 
debts. 

Public  companies  are  very  different ; they  consist  of  a large 
body  of  partners,  or  proprietors  of  shares,  the  aggregate 
amount  of  which  forms  a joint  stock,  and  hence  such  associa- 
tions are  called  joint-stock  compatiies.  They  are  public,  from 
being  constituted  of  all  persons  who  choose  to  purchase 
shares,  and  these  shares  or  rights  of  partnership  are  also  pub- 
licly salable  at  any  time  without  the  consent  of  the  company. 
The  value  of  a share  in  a joint-stock  company  is  always  the 
price  it  will  bring  in  the  market  ; and  this  may  be  either 
greater  or  less,  in  any  proportion,  than  the  sum  which  its 
owner  stands  credited  for  in  the  stock  of  the  company.  Un- 
less specially  provided  for  in  the  fundamental  deed  of  copart- 
nery, every  member  of  a joint-stock  company  is  liable  in  his 
whole  personal  property  or  fortune  for  the  debts  of  the  con- 
cern. 

It  is  an  axiom  in  commerce,  that  business  is  much  better 
conducted  by  single  individuals  for  their  own  behoof,  than  by 
companies  of  any  kind  ; as  respects  joint-stock  associations, 
they  are  only  useful  in  very  great  concerns  requiring  enormous 
capital,  and  involving  serious  risks  of  loss. 

Capital. — The  capital  of  a merchant  is  strictly  the  amount 
of  money  which  he  embarks  in  his  trade,  or  trades  upon,  that 
is,  employs  for  buying  goods,  paying  wages  of  servants,  and 
liquidating  all  debts  when  due.  When  trading  within  the 
limits  of  his  capital,  business  is  done  upon  a secure  footing  ; 
but  if  he  proceeds  beyond  these  in  any  material  degree,  he  is 
said  to  be  over-trading,  and  is  exposed  to  the  chance  of  ruin 
or  very  serious  embarrassment.  Trading  beyond  the  amount 
of  available  capital,  is,  nevertheless,  a prevailing  error,  and 
causes  innumerable  bankruptcies.  With  a comparatively 
small  capital,  a tradesman  may  carry  on  a large  business,  by 
receiving  payments  shortly  after  making  his  outlays.  By  this 
means,  there  is  a rapid  turning  over  of  money,  and  small 
profits  upon  the  various  transactions  speedily  mount  up  to  a 
large  revenue.  For  example,  if  a tradesman  turn  over  his 
capital  twelve  times  in  the  year,  at  each  time  receiving  money 
for  what  he  sells,  he  can  afford  to  do  business  on  a twelve 
times  less  profit  than  if  he  could  turn  over  the  same  capital 
only  once  in  a year.  This  leads  to  a consideration  of  credit. 

Credit. — Credit  in  business  is  of  the  nature  of  a loan,  and 


is  founded  on  a confidence  in  the  integiity  of  the  person  cred- 
ited, or  the  borrower.  An  individual  wishes  to  buy  an  article 
from  a tradesman,  but  he  has  not  money  to  pay  for  it,  and  re- 
quires to  have  it  on  credit,  giving  either  a special  or  implied 
promise  to  pay  its  value  at  a future  time.  This  is  getting 
credit ; and  it  is  clear  that  the  seller  is  a lender  to  the  buyer. 
In  all  such  cases,  the  seller  must  be  remunerated  for  making 
his  loan.  He  cannot  afford  to  sell  on  credit  on  the  same  fa- 
vorable terms  as  for  ready  money  ; because,  if  he  were  to  re- 
ceive the  money  when  he  sold  the  article,  he  could  lay  it  out 
to  some  advantage,  or  turn  it  over  with  other  portions  of  his 
capital.  By  taking  credit,  the  buyer  deprives  the  seller  of 
the  opportunity  of  making  this  profit,  and  accordingly  he 
must  pay  a higher  price  for  the  article,  the  price  being  in- 
creased in  proportion  to  the  length  of  credit.  It  very  ordi- 
narily happens  that  the  seller  himself  has  purchased  the  article 
on  credit ; but  this  only  serves  to  increase  its  price  to  the  con- 
sumer, and  does  not  prevent  the  last  seller  from  charging  for 
the  credit  which  he  gives  and  the  risk  of  ultimate  non-payment 
which  he  runs.  Credit  for  a short  period  is  almost  essential  in 
all  great  transactions  ; but  when  going  beyond  fair  and  reason- 
able limits,  it  acts  most  perniciously  on  trade,  by  inducing 
heedless  speculation,  and  causing  an  undue  increase  in  the 
number  of  dealers  with  little  or  no  capital.  An  excessive 
competition  among  these  penniless  adventurers  is  the  conse- 
quence ; each  strives  to  undersell  the  other,  with  the  hope  of 
getting  money  to  meet  his  obligations,  and  thus  vast  quantities 
of  goods  are  sometimes  thrown  upon  the  market  below  the 
original  cost,  greatly  to  the  injury  of  the  manufacturer  and 
the  regular  trader.  What  are  called  “gluts  in  the  market” 
frequently  ensue  from  causes  of  this  nature. 

Orders. — An  order  is  a request  from  one  dealer  to  another 
to  supply  certain  goods.  An  order,  when  in  writing,  should 
be  plain,  explicit,  and  contain  no  more  words  than  are  neces- 
sary to  convey  the  sense  in  a simple,  courteous  manner.  The 
same  rule  applies  to  all  letters  of  business,  which,  by  the 
practice  of  trade,  are  confined  to  their  legitimate  object. 
A business  man’s  letters  should  be  plain,  concise,  and  to  the 
purpose  ; no  quaint  expressions,  no  book-phrases  ; and  yet 
they  must  be  full  and  sufficient  to  express  what  he  means,  so  as 
not  to  be  doubtful,  much  less  unintelligible. 

Counting-house — In  French  bureau;  in  Dutch  kantoor. 
The  counting-house  is  the  office  in  which  a merchant’s  literary 
correspondence,  book-keeping,  and  other  business  is  con- 
ducted. The  counting-house  should  be  a model  of  neatness 
and  regularity.  Its  furniture  consists  chiefly  of  desks  for  the 
clerks  and  the  books  of  the  establishment,  which  are  secured 
at  night  in  an  iron  or  fire-proof  safe.  Almost  every  different 
business  requires  a different  set  of  books,  but  the  mode  of 
keeping  them  is  generally  the  same.  The  usual  set  of  books 
comprises  a day-book,  in  which  sales  or  purchases  on  credit 
are  individually  entered  as  they  occur  ; a ledger,  into  which 
all  these  entries  are  engrossed  in  separate  accounts  ; a journal 
or  note  book,  for  entering  miscellaneous  transactions  ; a cash- 
book, in  which  every  payment  or  receipt  of  money  is  regularly 
entered  ; a letter-book,  into  which  the  letters  are  copied  before 
they  are  sent  off ; and  a bill-book,  for  the  entering  of  bills 
payable  and  receivable.  In  large  concerns  there  are  various 


COMMERCE. 


other  books,  as  foreign  ledger,  town  ledger,  country  ledger, 
etc.  The  strictest  care  and  accuracy  are  desirable.  It  is  an 
understood  rule  that  no  book  should  show  a blot  or  eras- 
ure ; a leaf,  also,  should  never  on  any  account  be  torn  out, 
whatever  blotch  or  error  it  contains.  The  reason  for 
this  scrupulous  care  is,  that  a merchant’s  books  should 
be  a clear  and  faithful  mirror  of  his  transactions,  and 
an  evidence  of  his  integrity.  In  the  case  of  misfortune  in 
trade,  or  other  circumstance,  the  books  may  be  subjected  to 
a rigid  judicial  examination,  and  the  appearance  of  an 
erasure  or  torn-out  leaf  may  lead  to  conjectures  of  an  unpleas- 
ant nature  and  consequences.  When  an  important  error 
occurs  in  book-keeping,  it  is  better  to  let  it  remain  and  write 
error  below  it,  than  to  make  a large  erasure  or  to  cut  out  the 
leaf. 

From  the  books  kept  by  a merchant,  a condensed  view  of 
his  affairs  ought  to  be  annually  made  up.  This  document 
contains  an  inventory  or  list  of  goods,  money,  debts  owing  to 
the  merchant,  or  other  available  property,  also  a contra  list  of 
all  debts  and  other  obligations  due  by  the  merchant.  Both 
being  balanced,  the  residue,  whether  for  or  against  the  mer- 
chant, is  at  once  observable.  Every  man  in  trade,  for  at 
least  his  own  satisfaction  and  government,  should  make  up  a 
balance-sheet  of  this  nature  annually. 

Bill  of  Parcels. — An  account  or  list  of  items  of  goods, 
with  the  price  of  each,  given  to  their  purchaser  by  the  seller, 
or  delivered  along  with  the  goods  at  the  purchaser’s  house. 
Should  a purchaser  dispute  the  delivery  of  the  goods,  it  is 
necessary  to  produce  proof  of  the  fact;  when  delivered  to  car- 
riers, a receipt  is  usually  given  by  subscribing  a parcel  book. 

Invoice. — A bill  or  account  of  goods,  which  is  forwarded 
separately,  announcing  the  date  of  their  dispatch  and  the  par- 
ticular conveyance  by  which  they  are  sent.  If  the  seller  fail 
to  forward  an  invoice  by  mail,  and  the  goods  be  lost  at  sea 
while  on  their  way,  the  purchaser  is  not  answerable,  for  he  is 
not  supposed  to  know  how  or  when  the  goods  were  sent,  and 
therefore  could  not  insure  against  their  loss.  The  careful 
sending  of  invoices  forms  an  important  duty  of  a merchant’s 
clerk. 

Invoices  of  merchandise  imported  into  the  United  States, 
are  required  by  law  to  be  made  out  in  the  weights,  measures, 
and  the  currency  of  the  country  or  place  from  which  the  im- 
portation is  made,  and  to  be  verified  before  a consul  or  com- 
mercial agent  of  the  United  States,  if  there  be  such  officer  at 
the  place,  if  not  then  before  any  public  officer  authorized  to 
administer  oaths. 

Bill  of  Lading. — A formal  acknowledgment  or  receipt 
given  by  sailing  masters  for  goods  put  on  board  their  vessels, 
including  a promise  to  deliver  them  safely  as  marked  and 
addressed  to  their  designed  destination,  always,  however,  ex- 
cepting loss  or  injury  by  the  act  of  God,  the  nation’s  enemies, 
fire,  or  the  dangers  or  accidents  of  the  sea.  The  certificates 
generally  in  use  in  the  United  States  except  only  the  dan- 
gers of  the  sea,  and  are  made  out  in  triplicate  ; the  master 
retains  one  bill,  the  shipper  one,  and  the  third  is  forwarded 
to  the  consignee.  The  receipt  of  a railroad  freight  agent,  or 
captain  of  a canal  or  steamboat,  is  equivalent  to  a bill  of 
lading  as  between  the  original  parties,  but  in  the  hands  of  an 


assignee  there  is  a distinction.  The  bill  of  lading  is  assign- 
able, and  the  assignee  is  entitled  to  the  goods,  subject 
however  to  the  shipper’s  right. 

Lloyd’s. — Lloyd  is  not  the  designation  of  any  individual 
or  of  any  company  : it  is  a name  used  in  reference  to  a set  of 
subscription  rooms  or  coffee-house,  in  London.  Formerly  the 
place  of  resort  was  in  the  Royal  Exchange,  but  since  the  de- 
struction of  that  building  by  fire,  the  place  of  meeting  is  in 
the  neighborhood  of  that  locality.  One  of  the  rooms  at  Lloyd’s 
is  devoted  to  subscribers  who  follow  the  profession  of  marine 
insurers,  technically  called  underwriters , from  their  writing 
under,  or  subscribing  to,  certain  obligations  in  deeds  presented 
for  their  acceptance.  When  a person  wishes  to  insure  a ship, 
or  goods  in  a ship,  against  damage  or  loss  at  sea,  he  offers  the 
risk  to  these  underwriters,  and  they  are  at  liberty  to  accept  it 
for  a specified  premium.  The  policy  or  deed  expressive  of 
the  insurance  is  usually  signed  by  more  than  one  underwriter, 
so  as  to  divide  the  risk.  Lloyd’s  is  not  only  a center  point  in 
the  metropolis  for  all  sea  insurance  business,  but  is  the  place 
to  which  every  species  of  intelligence  respecting  shipping  is 
forwarded  from  all  parts  of  the  world  ; and  this  information  is 
exhibited  publicly  in  one  of  the  rooms,  for  the  inspection  of 
all.  The  intelligence  is  for  the  most  part  sent  by  appointed 
agents,  one  part  of  whose  duty  consists  in  investigating  the 
cause  of  damage  to  vessels,  and  taking  charge  of  wrecked 
property  for  behoof  of  the  underwriters,  whoever  they  may  be. 
The  lists  made  up  and  exhibited  at  Lloyd’s  furnish  authentic 
information  for  the  use  of  merchants  and  shippers  of  goods  all 
over  the  united  kingdom, 

Dutch  Auction. — In  common  auction,  the  highest  bidder 
by  competition  is  the  purchaser  : but  according  to  the  process 
of  sale  called  Dutch  auction,  there  is  different  mode  of  deter- 
mining the  successful  bidder.  According  to  this  plan,  the 
article  is  put  up  at  a certain  nominal  price,  which  is  gradually 
lowered,  and  the  first  who  speaks  and  offers  the  sum  mentioned 
by  the  auctioneer  is  at  once  knocked  down  as  the  purchaser. 
This  is  the  fairest  mode  of  auctioneering  ; it  prevents  com- 
petition, and  the  article  brings  its  exact  value — that  which  it 
is  worth  in  the  estimation  of  those  present. 

Insolvency,  Bankruptcy. — When  a person  is  not  in 
circumstances  to  pay  his  debts  in  full,  he  is  insolvent , which  is 
nearly  equivalent  to  being  bankrupt  ; the  term  bankrupt, 
however,  is  more  commonly  applied  to  one  who  is  legally  an- 
nounced as  being  insolvent.  The  term  bankrupt  is  derived 
from  banctts  a bench,  and  ruptus  broken,  in  allusion  to  the 
benches  formerly  used  by  the  money-dealers  in  Italy,  which 
were  broken  in  case  of  their  failure  to  pay  their  debts.  The 
law  prescribes  a certain  form  of  procedure  in  the  case  of  com- 
mercial insolvency,  which  has  the  effect  of  deliberately  inves- 
tigating the  cause  of  the  misfortune,  and  relieving  the  bank- 
rupt from  all  obligations,  on  yielding  up  his  entire  property. 
A bankrupt  in  the  United  States  who  has  received  a discharge 
or  certificate  from  a competent  authority,  being  released  from 
all  pecuniary  claims,  may  again  enter  business  for  his  own 
behoof  without  any  fear  of  molestation  ; but  a debtor  who  has 
merely  taken  the  benefit  of  the  Insolvent  Act  in  England,  or 
process  of  cessio  bonorum  in  Scotland,  though  immediately 
relieved  from  prison  and  left  at  liberty  to  pursue  any  line  of 


67S 


COMMERCE. 


industry,  the  property  he  may  accumulate  is  at  all  times  liable 
to  seizure  by  his  former  creditors. 

A commission  of  bankruptcy  in  Scotland  is  entitled  a seques- 
tration, meaning  that  the  property  of  the  bankrupt  is  officially 
sequestrated,  or  taken  possession  of,  for  behoof  of  creditors. 

Customs. — The  revenue  duties  levied  on  imported  goods, 
usually  called  customs  duties.  The  place  appointed  by  the 
government  at  ports  of  entry  where  vessels  and  merchandise 
are  entered  and  duties  upon  imported  goods  are  collected,  and 
where  vessels  obtain  their  clearance  and  other  papers,  is 
called  a custom-house ; the  collectors,  appraisers,  surveyors, 
naval  officers  and  their  deputies,  examiners,  clerks  at  the 
head  of  divisions,  inspectors,  gaugers  and  weighers,  but  not 
subordinate  clerks,  are  called  custom-house  officers , and  are 
sworn  to  faithful  service  ; the  persons  who  act  for  merchants 
in  the  business  of  entering  and  clearing  goods  and  vessels, 
and  in  the  transactions  of  general  business,  are  known  officially 
as  custom-house  brokers.  A custom-house  entry  is  a state- 
ment made  in  writing  to  the  collector  of  the  district,  by  the 
owners  or  consignees  of  the  merchandise  on  board  any  ship  or 
vessel,  which  they  desire  to  land.  While  the  taxes  or  duties 
laid  on  articles  produced  and  consumed  at  home,  are  generally 
qualified  by  the  adjective  “ excise,”  and  are  best  known  in  the 
United  States  as  “internal  revenue”  taxes — the  tax  imposed 
upon  retailers  of  liquors,  wines,  and  beer,  in  the  form  of  a 
license  to  conduct  such  business,  emanates  in  many  of  the  large 
cities  from  an  appointive  body  known  as  a Board  of  Excise — 
duties  is  the  official  name  in  the  United  States  for  the  taxes 
levied  or  imposed  by  the  government  on  foreign  goods  im- 
ported into  the  country  ; also  money  paid  to  the  government 
on  exporting  goods.  The  former  is  called  import  duty,  the 
latter  export  duty.  Foreign  goods  are  said  to  be  bonded,  when 
the  payment  of  the  duties  is  secured  by  a bond,  or  when 
warehoused  in  a government  store,  and  under  the  control  of 
the  collector  of  the  port  until  entered  for  consumption  and 
the  duties  are  paid.  Bonded  warehouses  are  buildings  in 
which  imported  merchandise  is  stored  until  the  importer 
makes  entry  for  withdrawal  for  consumption  and  pays  the  du- 
ties, or  until  he  withdraws  the  merchandise  for  re-exportation 
to  a foreign  country  without  paying  the  duties.  These  stores 
are  owned  and  conducted  by  private  individuals,  and  their  oc- 
cupation is  termed  “ the  storage  business.”  Such  stores  are 
required  to  be  first-class  fire-proof  buildings,  and  to  used  for 
no  other  business,  and  they  must  be  approved  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  before  receiving  any  merchandise.  A 
government  officer  is  placed  in  charge  of  every  store,  at  the 
expense  of  the  owner,  and  the  business  is  conducted  under 
voluminous  provisions  and  requirements  established  by  the 
government.  The  officer  of  the  customs  detailed  to  take  charge 
of  a bonded  warehouse,  and  under  whose  supervision  bonded 
goods  are  received  and  delivered  from  the  store,  is  called  a 
bonded  store-keeper.  Goods,  wares,  and  merchandise  imported 
into  the  United  States,  subject  to  the  payment  of  ad  valorem 
duties,  are  required  bylaw  to  be  appraised  at  their  “actual 
market  value,”  at  the  time  and  place  of  export.  As  it  is  fre- 
quently very  difficult  to  establish  an  actual  market  value  in  a 
foreign  port,  many  goods  being  made  only  and  expressly  for 
foreign  markets,  and  not  sold  nor  offered  for  sale  at  the  place 


of  their  manufacture  or  shipment,  serious  litigations  often 
arise  between  the  merchant  and  the  government.  This  diffi- 
culty has  led  to  the  recognition  by  the  commercial  world  of 
the  distinctions,  cash  value,  market  value,  and  intrinsic  value, 
although  the  laws  name  but  one — the  “ actual  market  value.” 

Tonnage  Duty  is  a duty  imposed  for  the  purpose  of 
revenue,  and  is  levied  upon  all  vessels  engaged  in  foreign 
commerce,  and  also,  except  in  certain  cases  specially  exempted 
by  law,  on  all  vessels  engaged  in  domestic  trade.  These  duties 
are  required  to  be  paid  by  vessels  before  clearance  papers  will 
be  granted,  or  on  their  arrival  before  permits  will  be  given  to 
discharge  their  cargoes.  Tonnage  is  the  gauge  of  a ship’s 
dimensions,  nominally  understood  to  be  the  number  of  tons 
burden  that  a ship  will  carry.  The  rates  of  duty  fixed  by  law 
on  each  article  of  merchandise  imported  from  foreign  coun- 
tries, form  the  tariff,  the  details  of  which  differ  with  every 
country. 

Debenture. — This  is  a formal  certificate  given  by  the  col- 
lector of  a port  of  entry  to  an  importer,  for  drawback  of  duties 
on  imported  merchandise,  the  duties  on  which,  when  the 
merchandise  is  exported,  are  to  be  refunded.  DebenturecL 
goods,  are  merchandise  upon  which  the  drawback  has  been 
paid. 

Bill  of  Health. — In  order  to  prevent  a spread  of  contagious 
diseases,  stringent  laws  are  enforced  throughout  the  United 
States,  through  the  medium  of  a National  Board  of  Health 
and  State  and  City  Boards.  A bill  of  health  is  a certificate 
from  the  mayor  of  a city,  a board  of  health,  consul,  collector 
of  the  port,  or  other  authority  constituted  for  the  purpose,  as 
to  contagious  diseases  in  the  port  of  departure,  and  to  the 
state  of  health  of  a ship’s  crew  and  passengers  at  the  time  of 
her  leaving.  A strict  quarantine  is  established  in  the  lower 
bay  of  New  York,  at  which  all  in-coming  vessels  are  compelled 
to  report.  If  any  contagious  disease  prevails,  the  vessel  is  de- 
tained and  fumigated  until  all  danger  is  past. 

Bill  of  Entry,  a written  account  or  inventory  of  goods 
entered  at  the  custom  house,  whether  imported  or  intended  for 
exportation. 

Bill  of  Sale,  a writing  given  by  the  seller  of  goods  or  mer- 
chandise to  the  purchaser,  by  which  the  seller  conveys  away 
the  rig:.,  and  interest  he  has  in  the  goods  therein  named.  In 
the  United  States  it  may  be  given  without  a seal,  but  the  laws 
of  Great  Britain  require  it  to  be  under  seal. 

Bill  of  Sight,  in  England,  an  order  obtained  by  the  con- 
signee of  goods,  of  the  quantity  and  quality  of  which  he  is 
ignorant,  to  enter  them  by  bill  of  sight. 

Trade  and  Commerce. — These  words  are  nearly  synony 
mous,  but  in  their  use  thus  connected  the  word  “ trade”  conveys 
the  idea  of  home  or  domestic  traffic,  and  the  word  “ commerce  ” 
the  idea  of  more  extensive  traffic,  foreign,  varied,  and  whole- 
sale. 

Bill  of  Exchange. — The  common  bill  of  exchange  is  an 
order  drawn  on  a person  or  banking-house,  requesting  him  or  it 
to  pay  money  to  some  person,  or  to  the  order  of  a person  named 
therein.  The  person  who  draws  the  bill  or  draft  is  called  the 
drawer ; the  one  on  whom  the  demand  is  made  is  called  the 
drawee  ; and  the  person  to  whom  the  money  is  directed  to  be 
paid  is  called  the  payee.  The  indorser  writes  his  name  on  the 


COMMERCE. 


back  of  the  bill  ; he  to  whom  the  bill  is  transferred  by  such 
indorsement  is  the  indorsee ; and  whoever  is  entitled  to  receive 
the  payment  is  the  holder. 

(Vide  Forms  of  Commercial  Papers.) 

Promissory  Note. — This  is  a promise  or  engagement  in 
writing  to  pay  a specified  sum  at  a time  therein  limited,  or  on 
demand,  or  at  sight,  to  a person  therein  named,  or  his  order 
or  assigns,  or  to  the  bearer.  If  the  note  is  given  with  a speci- 
fied rate  of  interest,  it  is  a negotiable  note,  and  may  be  bought 
and  sold  without  difficulty. 

A NEGOTIABLE  NOTE. 

$500.  New  York,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  1,  1882. 

Three  months  after  date,  for  value  received,  I promise  to 
pay  John  Smith,  or  order,  Five  Hundred  Dollars,  with  interest. 

John  Brown. 


NOTE  NOT  NEGOTIABLE. 

$1,000.  Chicago,  III.,  Nov.  30,  1882. 

Nine  months  after  date,  for  value  received,  I promise  to  pay 
John  Brown,  One  Thousand  Dollars. 

John  Smith. 


A MARRIED  WOMAN’S  NOTE  (NEW  YORK 
STATE). 

$350-  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  15,  1882. 

For  value  received,  I promise  to  pay  James  G.  Sanderson,  or 
order,  Three  Hundred  and  Fifty  Dollars,  one  year  from  date, 
with  interest.  And  I hereby  charge  my  individual  property 
and  estate  with  the  payment  of  this  note. 

Louise  R.  Chandler. 


NEGOTIABLE  NOTE  IN  MISSOURI. 

$100.  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Oct.  30,  1882. 

Three  months  afterdate,  I promise  to  pay  to  H.  B.  Brown, 
One  Hundred  Dollars,  for  value  received  ; negotiable  and  pay- 
able without  defalcation  or  discount. 

George  Wilson,  Jr. 


A CASH  DUE-BILL. 

$50.  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  16,  1882. 

Due  Ralph  S.  Johnson,  or  order,  on  demand,  Fifty  Dollars, 
value  received.  Chas.  I.  Jacobs. 

A MERCHANDISE  DUE-BILL. 

$75.  San  Francisco,  Cai,.,  Sept.  29,  1882. 

Due  John  F Morton,  Seventy-five  Dollars,  in  merchandise 
from  our  store.  Smith  & Townley. 


A SIGHT  DRAFT. 


679 


$700.  New  Orleans,  La.,  July  4,  1882. 

At  sight,  pay  to  the  order  of  Mrs.  Jane  Wilson,  Seven 
Hundred  Dollars,  value  received,  and  charge  the  same  to  my 
account.  F.  G.  Alberson. 

To  First  National  Bank, 

Rome , N.  Y. 


A TIME  DRAFT. 

$25.  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  1,  1882. 

Thirty  days  after  date,  pay  to  the  order  of  S.  E.  Buck, 
Twenty-five  Dollars,  value  received,  and  charge  to  oui 
account.  Moore  & Richards. 

To  H.  V.  Rose, 

Washington,  D.  C. 


A BILL  OF  EXCHANGE. 

1. 

Exchange  for 

^500.  New  York,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  10,  1882. 

Sixty  days  after  sight  of  this  First  of  Exchange  (second  and 

third  unpaid),  pay  to  the  order  of 

Stephen  G.  Reynolds Five  Hundred  Pounds 

Sterling Value  received,  and  charge  the  same 

to  account John  Y.  Stanton. 

To  Baring  Bros., 

London , Eng. 

No.  172. 


Exchange  for 

^500.  New  York,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  10,  1882. 

Sixty  days  after  sight  of  this  Second  of  Exchange  (first  and 

third  unpaid),  pay  to  the  order  of 

Stephen  G.  Reynolds Five  Hundred  Pounds 

Sterling Value  received,  and  charge  the  same 

to  account John  Y.  Stanton- 

To  Baring  Bros., 

London,  Eng. 

No.  172. 


3- 

Exchange  for 

j£500.  New  York,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  10,  1882. 

Sixty  days  after  sight  of  this  Third  of  exchange  (first  and 

second  unpaid),  pay  to  the  order  of 

Stephen  G.  Reynolds Five  Hundred  Pounds 

Sterling Value  received,  and  charge  the  same 

to  account John  Y.  Stanton. 

To  Baring  Bros., 

London , Eng. 

No.  172. 


. 


MONEY. 


6So 


■4^0-  -^Mik 


KINS  of  wild  animals  cured  constitute  one  of 
the  earliest  forms  of  currency  known,  and  while 
employed  in  the  most  ancient  times,  are  not  yet 
disused  in  some  portions  of  the  world.  Such  a 
medium  seems  appropriate  among  those  who 
subsist  by  the  chase,  as  all  primeval  peoples  must 
V%d#/  in  some  degree,  and  it  is  not,  therefore,  surprising  to 
*'3‘  find  that  in  the  transactions  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Fur 
Company  with  the  Indians  the  unit  of  value  by  which  the  price 
of  other  articles  was  reckoned  was  the  beaver  skin. 

Pastoral  people  employ  similarly  the  skins  of  tame  animals, 
originally  delivering  the  entire  skin,  a cumbrous  process  de- 
ficient in  convenience  and  economy,  but  finally  employing  a 
small  disk  cut  from  the  leather  as  a representative  of  its  value. 
Live  stock  is  also  widely  employed,  as  it  has  been  from  the 
days  of  Abraham,  and  though  a rude,  it  is  still  a substantially 
uniform,  denominator  of  value.  The  Greeks  stamped  the 
image  of  an  ox  on  a piece  of  leather,  and  the  image  had 
thence  the  current  value  of  the  animal  represented.  In  the 
East,  the  camel,  the  ass  and  the  sheep  have  been,  ever  since 
they  were  subdued  to  the  uses  of  mankind,  employed  to 
reckon  possessions  or  determine  the  amount  of  tribute  or  mar- 
riage portions.  In  Lapland  and  some  portions  of  Sweden  and 
Norway  the  amount  of  wealth  possessed  by  a person  is  de- 
nominated in  reindeer.  Among  the  Tartars  the  number  of 
mares  similarly  determines  the  opulence  of  their  possessors. 
Among  the  Esquimaux  it  is  customary  to  speak  of  one  another 
as  worth  so  many  dogs. 

Slaves  have  been  employed  to  determine  ratios  of  value 
since  the  state  of  bondage  was  first  established  among  men. 
In  New  Guinea  the  slave  is  still  the  unit  by  which  the  value  of 
other  possessions  is  recorded,  as  he  used  to  be  among  the  Por- 
tuguese traders  of  the  Gold  Coast.  The  Portuguese  also  found 
small  mats  called  libongoes,  valued  at  about  ii  pence  each, 
employed  as  currency  on  the  African  coast,  and  bunches  of  red 
feathers  serve  by  their  comparative  stability  to  mark  the  fluc- 
tuations of  yams  and  breach-clouts  in  some  of  the  tropical 
islands  of  the  Pacific.  Some  tribes  of  North  American  Indians 
found  wampum  as  useful  in  their  rather  limited  mercantile 


transactions  as  the  merchant  of  South  street  or  Burling  slip 
finds  greenbacks  or  bills  of  exchange. 

Cowry  shells  are  still  extensively  used  in  East  India,  Siam, 
and  among  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago. 
Among  the  Fijians  whales’  teeth  pass  readily  from  hand  to 
hand,  effecting  all  necessary  interchanges,  the  red  teeth  being 
taken  at  about  twenty  times  the  value  of  the  white  ones. 

Ornaments  of  all  kinds  have  in  all  times  constituted  meas- 
ures of  value.  In  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  Etruria,  and  many  other 
ancient  countries,  as  well  as  in  Ireland  and  Northumbria, 
rings  have  been  found  which  were  designed  to  serve  the 
double  purpose  of  ornament  and  currency,  and  the  same  dual 
function  may  be  ascribed  to  the  anklets,  armlets,  and  ear-rings 
which  are  worn  throughout  British  India,  Persia,  Egypt,  and 
Abyssinia.  The  Goths  and  Celts  fashioned  their  rings  of 
thick  golden  wire  wound  in  spirals,  from  which  various 
lengths  could  be  broken  to  accommodate  the  varying  needs  of 
traffic.  Gold  chains  have  been  similarly  employed.  In  many 
countries  golden  beads  are  yet  hoarded,  worn,  and  circulated, 
fulfilling  thus  the  triple  functions  of  money,  inasmuch  as  they 
constitute  at  once  a store  of  value,  a standard  of  value,  and  an 
instrument  of  exchange.  Amber  was  used  as  currency  by  the 
savage  races  of  the  Baltic  in  the  period  of  the  Roman  domin- 
ion, as  it  still  is  in  some  of  the  regions  of  the  East.  The 
Egyptian  scarabee  carved  on  sard  or  nephrite  or  other  precious 
stones,  circulated  freely  throughout  the  Mediterranean  coasts 
and  islands  probably  before  the  first  Phoenician  coin  was  im- 
pressed ; and  engraved  gems  and  precious  stones  were  em- 
ployed to  transfer  wealth  as  well  from  one  country  to  another 
as  from  hand  to  hand  until  a comparatively  recent  period.  In 
Africa  ivory  tusks  pass  to  and  fro  in  the  processes  of  trade, 
rudely  defining  the  ratio  of  value  of  other  articles.  Among 
the  Tartars,  bricks  of  tea,  or  cubes  of  that  herb  pressed  into  a 
solid  form,  pass  from  hand  to  hand  as  freely  as  beaver  skins 
do  at  the  trading  posts  of  Hudson  Bay  or  the  Saskatchewan. 
Among  the  Malayans  the  only  currency  entirely  equal  to  the 
requirements  of  trade  consists  of  rough  hardware,  such  as 
hoes,  shovels,  and  the  like.  Pieces  of  cotton  cloth  of  a fixed 
length,  called  Guinea  cloth,  for  a long  period  constituted  the 
unit  of  value  in  Senegal,  Abyssinia,  Mexico,  Peru,  Siberia. 


MONEY. 


and  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  Sumatra, 
cubes  of  bees-wax  of  a fixed  weight  ; in  Scotland,  hand-made 
nails;  in  Switzerland,  eggs  ; in  Newfoundland,  dried  cod-fish; 
in  Virginia,  tobacco  ; in  Yucatan,  cacao  nuts  ; in  the  Greek 
Islands  and  the  Levant,  olive-oil  ; in  the  regions  of  the  Upper 
Nile,  salt,  have  all,  at  one  time  or  another,  served  the  pur- 
poses of  commercial  interchange.  In  agricultural  countries  it 
is  not  strange  that  corn  should  have  early  been  adopted  as  a 
measure  of  value.  The  leases  of  the  great  school  foundations 
of  Britain,  Cambridge,  Oxford,  and  Eaton,  with  probably 
many  others,  were  “com  leases,”  that  is,  specifying  that  the 
rental  should  consist  of  so  many  quarters  of  corn.  In  Nor- 
way, com  is  deposited  in  banks  and  lent  and  borrowed  on 
time  or  call  loans,  as  money  is  with  us.  In  Central  America 
and  Mexico,  maize  was  long  employed  to  serve  the  uses  of 
currency. 

In  New  England,  in  the  early  colonial  days,  leaden  bullets 
were  employed  to  indicate  value,  and  that  metal  is  still  coined 
and  circulated  in  Burmah.  Pewter  has  often  been  coined,  and 
in  many  countries,  though  not  to  the  same  extent  as  tin.  In 
fact  tin  coins  are  not  only  of  immense  antiquity,  but  their  im- 
press has  been  sanctioned  by  government  authority  down  to  a 
recent  period.  The  Phoenician  mariners  freighted  their  gal- 
leys with  the  tin  of  Britain  before  Carthage  was  founded,  and 
coins  of  the  same  oiled  the  wheels  of  commerce  in  the  marts 
of  Tyre  and  Sidon  before  Solomon  built  the  temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem. In  England,  as  late  as  the  period  of  William  and  Mary, 
tin  half-pence  and  farthings  were  struck,  though  they  failed 
to  become  a permanent  part  of  the  circulation.  In  numismati- 
cal  collections,  series  of  tin  coins  stamped  with  the  effigy  and 
legend  of  several  of  the  Roman  emperors,  are  abundant.  In 
Java  as  well  as  Mexico,  tin  coins  were  once  current,  and  the 
metal,  measured  by  weight,  is  still  a sort  of  legal  tender  in  the 
Straits  of  Malacca. 

METALLIC  MONEY. 

In  all  civilized  countries,  gold,  silver,  and  copper  have 
always  constituted  the  main  elements  of  coinage  and  the  most 
familiar  forms  of  currency.  The  ratio  of  value  between  the 
first  two  has  probably  varied  less  during  the  last  2,500  years 
than  that  between  any  other  known  substances.  Copper  has 
fluctuated  more,  but  its  function  has  always  been  subsidiary 
and  limited  to  small  transactions.  In  the  hierarchy  of  the 
metals  used  as  coins,  gold  may  represent  the  king,  silver  the 
lord,  and  copper  the  slave.  The  latter  is  now  practically 
emancipated,  bronze  and  nickel  taking  its  place.  Indium, 
osmium,  and  palladium  have  been  proposed  as  substitutes  for 
gold,  and  aluminum  and  manganese  for  silver,  but  without 
any  practical  result  thus  far.  Platinum,  which  is  mainly  found 
in  the  Ural  Mountains,  has  been  coined  to  some  extent  by  the 
Russian  Government  ; but,  although  a beautiful  and  valuable 
metal,  possessing  many  of  the  qualities  to  render  it  acceptable 
as  coin,  its  employment  as  money  has  been  found  to  be  im- 
practicable. 

Great  numbers  of  alloys  have  been  employed  in  coinage, 
and  indeed  it  may  be  said  that  almost  the  entire  system  of 
metallic  currency  throughout  the  world  is  composed  of  alloys. 
The  Tuscan  sequin,  the  purest  coin  known  in  history,  con- 


tained 999  parts  of  gold  in  1,000.  The  six-ducat  piece  of 
Naples  was  next  in  purity,  having  only  an  alloy  of  4,  while 
old  Byzantine  coins  called  bezants  contained  an  alloy  of  14 
parts  in  1,000.  Pure  gold  and  silver,  however,  are  soft  metals, 
and  untempered  by  others  are  subject  to  serious  loss  by  abra- 
sion. They  are,  therefore,  rendered  more  useful  by  the  ad- 
mixture of  a small  portion  of  copper,  which,  in  the  English 
system,  in  the  case  of  gold,  may  be  expressed  decimally  by 
916.66,  and  of  silver  925  parts  in  1,000.  Nickel  is  usually 
alloyed  with  three  parts  of  copper,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that 
its  adoption  as  a subsidiary  coinage  in  Germany,  coincident 
with  the  demonetization  of  silver,  caused  it  to  advance  rapidly 
in  price,  while  the  latter  was  as  rapidly  declining.  The  old 
Roman  as  was  made  of  the  mixed  metal  called  as,  a compound 
of  copper  and  tin,  and  in  quality  and  value  not  unlike  bronze. 
Brass  was  also  extensively  used  from  the  time  of  Hiram  of 
Tyre  to  that  of  the  Emperor  Otho.  The  old  Kings  of  North- 
umbria coined  a small  money  called  stycas  out  of  a natural 
alloy,  composed  of  copper,  zinc,  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  tin, 
which  the  metallurgists  of  that  rude  northern  coast  had  not 
enough  chemical  skill  to  separate. 

Lycurgus  established  an  iron  coinage  for  Lacedaemon,  not 
only  making  the  coins  of  such  weight  and  bulk  as  to  forbid 
their  export,  but  depriving  them  of  their  metallic  value  by 
causing  them  while  heated  to  be  plunged  into  vinegar,  thereby 
destroying  their  malleability. 

While  these  coins  were  the  largest  of  which  historic  mention 
is  made,  the  Portuguese  rei,  too  small  to  be  actually  coined,  is 
doubtless  the  smallest  unit  of  value  in  the  money  systems  of 
the  world.  It  is  only  about  the  nineteenth  part  of  an  English 
penny,  and  is  considerably  smaller  than  the  Chinese  cash, 
which,  of  actual  coins,  is  perhaps  of  the  lowest  value  knownt 
In  Sweden,  during  the  last  century,  huge  squares  of  copper 
weighing  between  three  and  four  pounds,  with  a stamp  in 
each  corner  and  one  in  the  center,  were  issued  as  coin,  and 
curious  specimens  of  them  may  still  be  seen  in  numismatical 
collections.  These,  with  the  Maundy  money,  a small  por- 
tion of  which  is  still  annually  struck  at  the  British  Mint  and 
distributed  by  her  Majesty  in  alms,  probably  represent  the 
extremest  variation  of  dimensions  known  among  modern 
systems  of  coinage,  the  smallest  piece  of  the  Maundy  money 
being  a silver  penny. 

The  Chinese  probably  illustrate  in  the  most  extreme  manner 
the  length  to  which  loose  views  concerning  currency  can  be 
carried.  The  history  of  their  currency  presents  that  mingling 
of  the  grotesque  with  the  tragic  which  most  of  their  actions 
have  when  viewed  through  Western  eyes.  Coined  money  was 
known  among  them  as  early  as  the  eleventh  century  before 
Christ,  but  their  inability  to  comprehend  the  principles  upon 
which  a currency  should  be  based  has  led  them  into  all  sorts 
of  extravagances,  which  have  been  attended  by  disorder, 
famine,  and  bloodshed.  Coins  came  at  last  to  be  made  so 
thin  that  one  thousand  of  them  piled  together  were  only  three 
inches  high  ; then  gold  and  silver  were  abandoned  ; and  cop- 
per, tin,  shells,  skins,  stones,  and  paper  were  given  a fixed 
value  and  used  until,  by  abuse,  all  the  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  the  use  of  money  were  lost,  and  there  was  nothing  left 
for  the  people  to  do  but  to  go  back  to  barter,  and  this  they  did 


682 


MONEY. 


more  than  once.  They  cannot  be  said  now  to  have  a coinage  ; 
2,900  years  ago  they  made  round  coins  with  a square  hole  in 
the  middle,  and  they  have  made  no  advance  beyond  that 
since.  The  well-known  cash  is  a cast-brass  coin  of  that  de- 
scription, and  although  it  is  valued  at  about  one  mill  and  a 
half  of  United  States  money,  and  has  to  be  strung  in  lots  of 
one  thousand  to  be  computed  with  any  ease,  it  is  the  sole 
measure  of  value  and  legal  tender  of  the  country.  Spanish, 
Mexican,  and  the  new  trade  dollars  of  the  United  States  are 
employed  in  China  ; they  pass  because  they  are  necessary  for 
larger  operations,  and  because  faith  in  their  standard  value 
has  become  established  ; but  they  are  current  simply  as  stamped 
ingots,  with  their  weight  and  fineness  indicated. 

The  coined  money  of  Great  Britain  is  the  most  elegantly 
executed,  and  among  the  purest  in  the  world.  The  greater 
part  of  the  continental  coinage  is  poorly  executed  and  basely 
alloyed.  In  Holland,  and  most  of  the  German  States,  the 
coins  legally  current  as  silver  money  are  apparently  one-third 
brass,  and  resemble  the  counterfeit  shillings  and  sixpences  of 
a former  period  in  England.  In  France  and  Belgium,  the 
new  gold  and  silver  coins  are  handsome,  and  so  likewise  are 
the  large  gold  and  silver  pieces  of  Prussia.  The  coins  and 
medals  executed  by  'iirecfion  of  Napoleon  in  France  are  in  a 
high  style  of  art. 

The  Latin  Mor  ztary  Union  was  established  in  December, 
1865,  for  the  puipose  of  maintaining  the  double  standard  of 
metallic  currency,  or  keeping  silver  at  a constant  ratio  with 
gold.  The  combination  was  formed  by  a union  of  France, 
Italy,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland. 

The  possible  depreciation  of  silver  was  foreseen,  and  some 
of  its  fluctuations  had  been  experienced,  but  it  was  thought 
that,  by  a close  union  of  silver-using  powers  rating  silver  at  a 
common  value,  its  price  could  be  made  permanent.  At  first 
the  combination  proceeded  boldly.  It  threw  open  the  mints 
of  the  Union  to  bullion  owners,  declaring  that  it  would  coin 
silver  at  the  ratio  to  gold  that  it  had  established  of  fifteen  and 
one-half  to  one,  and  proclaimed  that  the  coins  thus  issued 
should  have  in  the  markets  both  a legal  tender  efficiency  and 
an  intrinsic  efficiency  in  exchange  exactly  represented  by  that 
proportion. 

The  plan  worked  well  until  the  year  1S73,  when  Germany 
demonetized  silver.  But  in  the  mean  time  it  was  sought  to 
give  the  double  standard  a broader  foundation  by  bringing 
other  nations  into  the  combination.  For  this  purpose,  at  the 
invitation  of  the  French  government,  forty-five  representatives 
of  twenty-three  countries  met  at  Paris  in  1867.  The  proposed 
double  standard  was  examined  and  discussed  from  every  point 
of  view  by  men  skilled  in  financial  science,  and  was  at  last 
rejected  by  a vote  of  forty-three  to  two.  In  1870  there  was  a 
second  gathering  of  the  same  kind,  which,  by  a smaller  ma- 
jority, arrived  at  the. same  conclusion.  Meantime  silver  had 
begun  to  accumulate,  and  depreciation  to  foreshadow  itself 
more  clearly.  The  demonetization  of  the  metal  by  Germany 
gave  the  first  sharp  alarm.  The  Union  was  immediately 
forced  to  limit  the  coinage  for  1874  to  $24,000,000.  This 
was  increased  to  $30,000,000  in  1875,  but  again  reduced  in 
1876  to  $24,000,000,  and  in  1877  to  $11,600,000.  In  the 
mean  time,  also,  France,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland  stopped 


the  coinage  of  five-franc  pieces,  thus  reducing  what  silver  they 
had  to  a large  subsidiary  currency.  Later  signs  of  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Union  with  the  defeat  of  its  objects  were  supplied 
by  the  failure  of  the  monetary  conference  at  Paris,  and  by  the 
withdrawal  of  Switzerland  from  the  Union. 

GREAT  BRITAIN,  COINED  MONEY  OF. 

In  Great  Britain  money  of  the  current  and  standard  coinage 
is  frequently  signified  by  the  term  sterling,  as  “one  pound 
sterling,”  etc.  With  respect  to  the  origin  of  the  word  sterling) 
there  are  three  opinions.  The  first  is  that  it  is  derived  from 
Sterling  Castle,  and  that  Edward  I.,  having  penetrated  so  far 
into  Scotland,  caused  a coin  to  be  struck  there,  which  he  called 
Sterling.  The  second  opinion  derives  it  from  the  figure  of  a 
bird  called  starling,  which  appears  about  the  cross  in  the 
ancient  arms  of  England.  The  third  most  probably  assigns 
its  true  origin,  by  deducing  it  from  Esterling  ; for  in  the  time 
of  Plenry  III.  it  is  called  Moneta  Esterlingorum,  the  money  of 
the  Esterlings  or  people  of  the  East,  who  came  hither  to  refine 
the  silver  of  which  it  was  made,  and  hence  it  was  valued  more 
than  any  other  coin,  on  account  of  the  purity  of  its  substance. 
The  denomination  of  the  weights  and  their  parts  is  of  the 
Saxon  or  Esterling  tongue,  as  pound,  shilling,  penny,  and 
farthing,  which  are  so  called  in  their  language  to  the  present 
day.  The  term  sterling  is  now  disused  in  England  in  all 
ordinary  transactions,  but  is  still  used  in  Scotland  to  distin- 
guish sums  from  the  ancient  money  of  the  country,  as  referred 
to  in  old  deeds  and  notices  of  pecuniary  transactions.  The 
old  Scots’  money,  previous  to  the  Union  of  1707,  was  in 
pounds,  shillings,  and  pence,  but  these  were  only  a twelfth  of 
the  value  of  sterling  money  of  the  same  denomination  ; thus  a 
pound  Scots  was  only  twenty  pence  sterling.  The  word  ster- 
ling is  also  in  use  in  the  colonies,  to  distinguish  the  legal 
standard  of  Great  Britain  from  the  currency  money  in  these 
places. 

It  is  customary  to  estimate  the  purity  of  gold  by  an  imagi- 
nary standard  of  24  carats.  If  in  a piece  of  gold  weighing  24 
carats  there  be  i-24th  of  alloy,  then  the  piece  is  one  below 
the  standard.  What  is  called  jewelers’  gold  is  seldom  purer 
than  20  fine  to  4 of  alloy — the  alloy  being  usually  silver,  but 
sometimes  copper,  which  gives  a deeper  red  tinge  to  the  metal. 
Perfectly  pure  gold  is  never  seen  either  in  trinkets  or  cofrns, 
for  it  is  too  ductile,  and  for  that  and  other  reasons  requires  a 
certain  quantity  of  alloy.  Sovereigns,  and  other  modem 
English  gold  coins,  contain  one-twelfth  of  alloy,  but  this 
twelfth  is  not  reckoned  as  gold  in  point  of  value.  At  pres- 
ent the  gold  coin  of  Great  Britain  is  issued  at  very  nearly  its 
precise  market  value  as  bullion.  A pound  weight  of  gold  of 
22  carats  fineness  produces  coins  to  the  amount  of 
^46  14s.  6d.,  which  is  about  the  price  at  which  bullion  sells 
for  in  the  market.  Thus  the  gold  of  that  country  is  coined 
free  of  expense.  In  coining  silver,  the  government  is  allowed, 
by  the  Act  of  56  Geo.  III.,  a profit  or  seigniorage  of  about 
six  per  cent.  ; the  pound  weight  of  silver,  which  should  pro- 
duce 62  shillings,  being  coined  into  66  shillings.  The  silver 
coins  being  therefore  of  a little  less  real  value  than  the  sums 
they  represent,  they  are  not  liable  to  be  melted  down  by  silver- 
smiths for  the  manufacture  of  articles  in  their  trade 


MONEY. 


683 


The  word  money  is  from  the  Temple  of  Juno  Moneta , in 
which  money  was  first  coined  by  the  ancients.  Pecuniary  is 
from  pccus , a flock — flocks  and  herds  of  animals  being  origi- 
nally equivalent  to  money,  or  things  constituting  wealth.  Cash, 
in  commerce,  signifies  ready  money,  or  actual  coin  paid*  on  the 
instant,  and  is  from  the  French  word  caisse,  a coffer  or  chest 
in  which  money  is  kept.  Pound  never  was  a coin  ; the  term 
was  originally  employed  to  signify  a pound  weight  of  silver, 
but  afterwards  it  was  employed  to  mean  twenty  shillings  in  tale, 
or  by  counting.  Guinea  took  its  name  from  the  coast  of 
Guinea  in  Africa,  whence  the  gold  for  it  was  originally  brought; 
at  first,  the  piece  was  current  at  twenty  shillings,  afterwards  it 
was  equal  to  21s.  6d.,  and  finally  settled  at  21s.  In  the  pres- 
ent day  the  guinea  is  not  coined,  and  the  term  only  remains  to 
indicate  21s.  Honorary  fees  and  gifts  are  still  usually  reck- 
oned in  guineas,  though  paid  in  other  money.  Shilling  and 
penny  are  both  from  Saxon  words  ; the  penny  was  first  coined 
in  silver.  Groat  was  a name  given  to  silver  pieces  equal  to 


four  pennies  in  value,  coined  by  Edward  III.  ; the  word  groat 
is  a corruption  of  grosses  or  great  pieces,  and  was  given  to  dis- 
tinguish this  larger  coinage  from  pennies  or  small  coins. 
Farthing  is  a corruption  of  fourthing,  or  the  fourth  part  of  a 
penny. 

UNITED  STATES,  COINED  MONEY  OF  THE. 

What  is  termed  money  in  the  United  States  now  consists  of 
gold,  silver,  nickel  and  composition  coins,  and  the  paper  cur- 
rency, or  bills,  issued  by  the  banks  under  a national  banking 
law. 

In  compliance  with  the  first  section  of  the  Act  of  March  3, 
1873,  the  director  of  the  mint  made  the  subjoined  estimate  of 
the  value  in  United  States  money  of  the  standard  coins  of 
foreign  countries,  and  by  order  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, January  I,  1880,  these  rates  were  to  be  taken  in  estimat- 
ing the  values  of  all  foreign  merchandise  made  out  in  any  of 
said  currencies,  imported  on  and  after  that  date. 


COUNTRY. 

MONETARY  UNIT. 

STANDARD. 

VAL.  IN  U.  S. 
MONEY. 

STANDARD  COIN. 

Silver 

•4U3 

■19,3 

.83,6 
• 54,5 

Gold  and  Silver. . . 

5,  10,  and  20  francs. 
Boliviano. 

Silver 

Gold 

Gold 

Silver 

.83,6 
.91,2 
.26,8 
• 83,6 
4-974 

Chili 

Peso 

Gold 

Condor,  doubloon,  and  escudo. 
10  and  20  crowns. 

Gold 

Peso 

Silver 

Peso. 

Egypt 

Pound,  100  Piasters...  . 

Gold 

5,  10,  25,  and  50  piasters. 
5,  10,  and  20  francs. 

J sovereign  and  sovereign. 

•19,3 
4.86, 6J 

Great  Britain 

Pound  Sterling 

Gold 

•19,3 

• 23,8 
•39,7 

• 19,3 
•99,7 

5,  10,  20,  50  and  100  drachmas. 
5,  10,  and  20  marks. 

Gold 

Rupee,  16  annas 

Silver 

5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  lire. 
I,  2,  5,  10,  and  20  yen. 

Japan  

Yen  (gold) 

Gold  and  Silver.. . . 

Dollar  

Gold 

I.  OO 

.90,9 

.40,2 

.26,8 

Peso  or  dollar,  5,  10,  25  and  50  centavos 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Crown 

Gold 

10  and  20  crowns. 

Peru 

Sol 

Silver 

•83,6 

1.08 

Portugal  

Gold 

2,  5,  and  10  milreis. 
4,  and  1 rouble. 

Russia 

Rouble,  100  copecks. . . 

Silver 

.66,9 
1, 00 

Sandwich  Islands 

Spain 

Peseta,  100  centimes. . . 

Gold  and  Silver.. . . 

.19,3 

5,  10,  20,  50,  and  roo  pesetas. 

Sweden 

Gold 

.26,8 

•19.3 

•74,8 

.04,4 

5,  10,  and  20  francs. 

25,  50,  100,  250,  and  500  piasters. 

T ripoli 

Turkey 

Mahbub.  20  piasters.. . . 
Piaster  

Silver 

Gold 

U.  S.  of  Colombia 

Peso 

Silver 

• 83,6 

Peso. 

The  gold  pieces  are  ; 

1.  The  double  eagle,  or  $20  piece.  Coinage  of  the  double 
eagle  was  auihoiized  by  the  Act  of  March  3,  1849.  Itsweightis 
516  grains.  Its  fineness  is  900.  (This  technical  form  of  ex- 
pression means  that  900  parts  in  1,000  are  pure  metal, 
the  other  100  parts  are  alloy.)  The  amount  of  coinage  of  the 
double  eagle  is  far  greater  than  that  of  all  the  other  gold 
pieces  of  the  country. 

2.  The  eagle,  or  $10  piece.  Its  coinage  was  authorized  by 


the  Act  of  April  2,  1792.  The  weight  was  first  established  by 
law  at  270  grains,  but  was  changed  forty-two  years  afterward, 
by  the  Act  of  June  28,  1834,  to  258  grains,  where  it  has  re- 
mained ever  since.  Its  fineness  was  in  the  beginning  made 
9165,  but  was  changed  by  the  Act  of  June  28,  1834,  the  same 
Act  that  lowered  its  weight,  to  899.225.  Two  years  and  a half 
subsequently  its  fineness  was  increased — less  than  one  part  in 
a thousand — to  900.  Its  weight  and  fineness  have  remained 
thus  fixed  to  the  present  day. 


684 


MONEY. 


3.  The  half  eagle,  or  $5  piece.  This  elegant  coin  has  un- 
dergone the  same  vicissitudes  as  the  eagle.  Its  coinage  was 
authorized  by  the  same  Act  of  April  2,  1792.  Its  weight  was 
135  grains  and  its  fineness  916^.  By  the  Act  of  June  28, 
1834,  its  weight  was  reduced  to  129  grains  and  its  fineness  to 
899.225.  By  the  act  of  January  16,  1857,  its  fineness  was 
slightly  raised  to  the  uniform  standard  of  900.  Its  weight 
and  fineness  have  thus  remained  to  our  time. 

4.  The  quarter  eagle,  or  $2.50  piece.  This  fine  coin  be- 
longs to  the  same  family  with  the  eagle  and  half  eagle.  Its 
coinage  was  authorized,  its  weight  and  fineness  correspond- 
ingly altered  by  the  same  Acts.  The  statute  of  1792  made  its 
weight  67.5  grains  and  its  fineness  916J.  Its  weight  was 
reduced  to  64.5  grains  and  its  fineness  to  800.225  by  the  Act 
of  1834.  The  Act  of  1837  raised  its  fineness  to  900. 

5.  The  dollar.  This  pretty  little  gold  piece  was  created  by 
the  Act  of  March  3,  1849,  the  same  Act  that  authorized  the 
coinage  of  the  double  eagle.  It  has  remained  unchanged. 
Its  weight  is  25.8  grains  and  its  fineness  900. 

6.  Three-dollar  piece.  An  act  of  February  21,  1853,  estab- 
lished this  irregular  coin.  Its  weight,  77.4  grains,  and  its 
fineness,  goo,  are  of  the  normal  standard,  and  have  not  been 
changed  by  subsequent  Acts 

In  gold  coin  the  alloy  was  at  first  a compound  of  silver  and 
copper.  It  was  forbidden  by  statute  that  the  alloy  should  be 
more  than  half  silver.  It  is  now  nearly  all  copper,  owing  to 
advances  in  the  art  of  assaying  and  improved  methods  in 
coinage. 

There  are  four  coining  mints,  located  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.; 
San  Francisco,  Cal.;  Carson  City,  Nev. ; and  New  Orleans, 
La.,  the  last  one  being  put  in  operation  on  January  20,  1879. 
The  largest  proportion  of  assaying  and  refining  is  done  at  New 
York  City  ; Helena,  Montana  ; Boise  City,  Idaho  ; and  Den- 
ver, Colorado. 

The  Philadelphia  Mint  is  capable  of  turning  out  about 
$1,500,000  in  coined  money  a month  ; the  San  Francisco  Mint 
$1,000,000,  the  Carson  City  Mint  $500,000,  and  the  New 
Orleans  Mint  about  500.000  pieces  of  various  denominations. 
Under  the  law  of  February  28,  1878,  which  required  that  be- 
tween 2,000,000  and  4,000,000  of  the  new  (“  Bland  ”)  dollars 
should  be  turned  out  by  the  mints  every  month,  the  coining 
facilities  of  the  government  were  severely  tested  to  produce 
this  particular  silver  coin,  and  maintain  the  usual  supply  of 
gold  and  subsidiary  coins.  Silver  is  sent  from  the  assay  offices 
to  the  mints  pure,  or  999  fine,  which  is  about  as  pure  as  silver 
can  be.  It  is  sent  in  large'  bars,  and,  when  received  at  the 
mint,  is  melted  and  alloyed  with  copper.  Coin  silver  is  900 
fine. 

The  first  silver  coins  were  struck  in  1794  (authorized  in 
1792),  at  the  Philadelphia  Mint,  and  consisted  of  1,758  dollars 
and  10,600  half  dollars,  and  a few  half  dimes  (5  cents),  more 
for  curiosities  than  use.  In  the  succeeding  year  the  issue  was 
203,033  dollars,  323,038  half  dollars,  no  quarters,  no  dimes, 
and  86,416  half  dimes.  In  1796  the  mint  coined  only  72,920 
dollars  and  3,918  half  dollars,  with  2,948  quarters.  In  1797 
the  number  of  dollars  issued  was  2,776,  and  the  mint  records 
state  that  there  were  no  half  dollars  and  only  252  quarters. 
Dollars  only  were  coined  in  1798.  In  1796  the  head  of  Liberty 


was  changed,  and  a new  head,  inferior  in  point  of  comeliness, 
substituted.  This  also  had  flowing  locks,  but  these  were  bound 
by  a broad  fillet,  and  hence  the  name  “ fillet  dollars.”  In 
1798  there  were  no  halves  nor  quarters,  and  there  were  none 
in  1799,  nor  again  in  1800.  But  in  the  following  year  the 
half  dollars  were  commenced  again,  being  of  the  fillet  series, 
with  the  heraldic  eagle  on  the  reverse. 

1S04  is  the  annus  mirabilis  of  the  American  silver  coins. 
According  to  the  records,  19,570  dollars  were  issued,  156,519 
halves,  and  6,738  quarters.  There  are  but  two  dollars  of  1804 
known  to  exist,  and  these  are  said  to  have  been  struck  surrep- 
titiously from  the  original  die  at  the  Philadelphia  mint  in  1827. 
The  value  of  these  two  to  numismaticians  is  enormous  ; as  high 
as  $1,000  has  been  refused  for  one  of  them. 

The  first  dollar  pieces  (1792)  contained  416  grains  of  silver 
of  892.7  fineness,  and  this  proportion  was  maintained  until 
1873,  when  the  quantity  of  silver  was  reduced  to  412.5  grains, 
and  the  fineness  increased  to  900.  The  fifty-cent  pieces,  from 
1792  to  1837,  contained  208  grains,  892.7  fineness,  and  the 
twenty-five  cent  pieces  a proportionate  amount ; and  both 
were  subjected  to  a reduction  in  number  of  grains  and  increase 
in  fineness  in  1873.  The  ten-cent  pieces  contained  41.6 
grains,  of  standard  fineness,  and  now  bear  38.58  grains  under 
the  new  standard  of  fineness.  From  1851  to  1853,  the  five- 
cent  pieces  were  composed  of  12.375  grains,  750  fine,  and  from 
1853  to  1873,  when  their  coinage  was  abolished,  11.52  grains, 
900  fine.  The  old  copper  cents,  authorized  in  1792,  contained 
264  grains  ; the  next  year  the  amount  was  reduced  to  208,  and 
three  years  later  to  168.  As  a purely  copper  token  this  coin 
was  abolished  shortly  after  the  last  reduction  in  the  number  of 
grains.  The  two-cent  piece  of  April,  1864,  contained  96 
grains  of  copper,  zinc,  and  tin,  and  was  discontinued  in  1873. 
The  half-cent  pieces  were  established  in  1792,  containing  132 
grains  ; this  amount  was  reduced  in  1793  to  104,  and  in  1796 
to  84.  None  are  coined  now.  An  Act  of  March,  1875, 
authorized  the  coinage  of  a silver  twenty-cent  piece,  contain- 
ing 77- 16  grains,  900  fine.  This  coin  being  but  a trifle  smaller 
than  the  twenty-five  cent  piece,  led  to  such  a general  confusion 
of  the  two,  that  in  1878  its  coinage  was  stopped.  But  few  are 
now  found  in  circulation.  The  one-cent  piece  of  present  use 
was  authorized  in  1857,  and  consisted  of  72  grains  of  copper 
and  nickel,  and  in  1864  this  composition  was  changed  to  48 
grains  of  copper,  zinc,  and  tin.  Finally,  the  five  and  three 
cent  nickel  pieces  were  authorized  in  1866  and  1865  respect- 
ively ; the  latter  has  a comparatively  small  circulation. 

The  amount  of  standard  silver  dollars  coined  from  February 
28,  1878,  to  October  31,  1882,  was  $128,329,880,  of  which 
$93,006,382  remained  in  the  Treasury,  and  $35,323,498  was 
placed  in  circulation.  Of  the  $30,007,175  coined  in  the  thir- 
teen months  preceding  October  31,  1882,  $2,950,072  wenf 
into  circulation,  and  $27,057,103  remained  in  the  Treas 
ury. 

The  total  value  of  the  minor  coin  in  the  Treasury  on  Sep- 
tember 1,  1882,  was  $504,515.29.  The  supply  of  five-cent 
nickel  coins  in  the  Treasury,  which  three  years  previous 
reached  the  sum  of  $1,184,252.95,  had  been  exhausted,  and 
their  coinage  was  resumed  by  the  mint.  None  of  these  coins 
are  supplied  by  the  Treasury,  but  the  one-cent  and  five-cent 


MONEY. 


685 


pieces  are  furnished  in  multiples  of  $20  by  the  Mint,  which 
bears  the  expense  of  their  transportation. 

Savings  Banks. — These  are  banks  for  receiving  and  taking 
charge  of  small  sums,  the  savings  of  industiy.  and  were  insti- 
tuted for  the  benefit  of  workmen  and  others,  who  were  able  to 
spare  a little  from  their  earnings.  It  is  believed  that  Quaker 
thrift  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  led  to  the  inception  of  the  idea, 
and  that  the  first  savings  bank  in  the  world  was  founded  in 
that  city  in  1816.  As  the  scheme  grew  in  popularity  through- 
out the  United  States,  guardians  of  minor  children,  adminis- 
trators of  estates  of  deceased  persons,  and  other  holders  of 
trust  funds,  found  the  savings  banks  very  serviceable  as  places 
of  deposit  for  money  that  had  to  be  laid  away  for  a specified 
period  of  time.  Hence,  the  exigencies  of  business  transac- 
tions forced  an  innovation  upon  the  original  plan.  In  the 
United  States  this  use  of  savings  banks  is  still  maintained ; 
but  during  the  past  fifteen  years  Safe  Deposit  and  Trust  Com- 
panies have  been  numerously  established  for  the  special  pur- 
pose of  holding  funds,  both  in  trust  and  in  legal  dispute,  be- 
sides securities  of  all  kinds,  jewelry,  diamonds,  and  articles 
of  like  value.  Thus  a guardian,  an  administrator,  or  a society 
will  invest  money  in  Government,  State,  or  City  bonds,  or,  if 
permitted  by  the  terms  of  trust,  in  real  estate  or  stock  of 
various  corporations,  and  place  the  bond,  certificate  of  stock, 
or  other  acknowledgment  of  the  indebtedness,  with  a Safe  De- 
posit or  Trust  Company,  for  safe-keeping.  The  savings  banks 
are  allowed  by  law  to  invest  their  money  in  first-class  securi- 
ties only,  so  as  to  prevent  their  officers  from  using  the  fund  in 
the  irregular  pursuit  of  “wild  cat”  speculations. 

The  average  rate  of  interest  allowed  by  savings  banks  in  the 
United  States  on  deposits  is  four  per  cent.;  it  is  frequently 
below  that  rate.  Some  of  the  larger  banks  will  not  permit  in- 
dividual deposits  beyond  a special  amount  at  one  time,  while 
others  decrease  the  rate  of  interest  as  the  amount  of  deposits 
increases,  claiming  that  their  vast  aggregates  of  deposits  cannot 
be  invested,  under  the  law,  in  a manner  that  will  warrant  the 
maximum  rate  of  interest  after  paying  current  expenses. 

From  Philadelphia  the  original  conception  or  plan  of  the 
savings  bank  extended  all  over  the  United  States,  throughout 
the  United  Kingdom,  France,  and  other  countries.  Several 
Acts  of  Parliament  were  successively  passed  between  1817  and 
1828  for  the  regulation  of  savings  banks  in  England  ; and  in 
the  year  last  mentioned  the  whole  of  these  were  consolidated 
in  one  statute  (9  Geo.  IV.,  chap.  92).  This  Act,  together  with 
another  passed  in  1833,  conferring  additional  and  important 
privileges  on  savings  banks  (3  Will.  IV.,  chap.  14),  constitutes 
the  existing  law  relative  to  these  establishments.  In  1835  the 
Act  was  extended  to  Scotland. 

Savings  banks  established  according  to  the  provisions  of 
these  acts  are  entitled  National  Security  Savings  Banks,  be- 
cause the  money  deposited  in  them  is  paid  into  the  Bank  of 
England  on  account  of  government,  whereby  the  nation  be- 
comes security  for  the  amount  of  deposits — a security  reckoned 
the  best  of  all  that  could  be  given  to  the  depositors.  The  in- 
terest given  by  government  on  the  sums  so  deposited  is  ^3 
16s.  o$d.  per  cent,  per  annum,  whatever  may  be  the  fluctua- 
tions in  the  value  of  the  public  funds  during  the  term  of  in- 
vestment This  rate  of  interest  being  higher  than  what  gov- 


ernment could  otherwise  borrow  money  for,  it  happens  that 
the  public  are  really  losing  money  annually  by  their  generosity. 
The  rate  of  interest  payable  to  the  depositors  is  £3  8s.  sjd. 
per  cent,  per  annum. 

Deposits  of  from  one  shilling  to  thirty  pounds  may  be  re- 
ceived by  these  banks  ; but  no  individual  depositor  is  allowed 
to  lodge  more  than  thirty  pounds  in  one  year,  or  than  ^150  in 
whole.  Charitable  and  provident  institutions  may  lodge  funds 
to  the  amount  of  £100  in  a single  year,  or  .£300  in  all  ; and 
friendly  societies  are  permitted  to  deposit  the  whole  of  their 
funds,  whatever  may  be  their  amount.  Compound  interest  is 
given  on  the  sums  lodged,  the  interest  being  added  to  the 
principal  at  the  end  of  each  year  in  some  banks,  and  at  the 
end  of  each  half-year  in  others,  and  interest  afterwards  allowed 
on  the  whole.  Any  depositor  may  receive,  on  demand,  the 
money  lodged  by  him,  if  it  do  not  amount  to  a considerable 
sum  ; and  even  in  that  case  it  will  be  returned  on  a few  days’, 
or  at  most  two  or  three  weeks’  notice.  Practically,  payment 
is  always  made  on  demand. 

Several  new  features  of  taking  care  of  small  savings  have 
been  instituted  that  deserve  mention  in  this  connection.  Let 
us  glance  first  at  the  operations  of  the  so-called  creditors’  loan 
societies  of  Germany,  founded  by  Schulze-Delitzsch,  and  which 
practically  discharge  the  function  of  banks  for  workingmen. 
In  1S78  these  numbered  upwards  of  1,800,  and  the  balances 
reported  by  929  show  aggregate  advances  for  the  year  amount- 
ing to  $375,000,000 — a sum  which,  distributed  among  the 
laboring  population,  should  have  afforded  material  relief  in  a 
time  of  financial  stringency.  The  929  reporting  societies 
contain  nearly  half  a million  members,  and  the  funds  deposited 
in  the  year  ending  January  1,  1878,  amounted  to  nearly 
$90,000,000.  It  appears  that  the  total  transactions  for  that 
twelvemonth  exceeded  those  of  1876  by  over  $6,000,000,  and 
the  proportion  of  capital  to  deposits  was  about  two  per  cent, 
better  than  in  the  year  before.  The  aggregate  capital  of  all 
the  co-operative  societies  organized  by  Schulze-Delitzsch,  and 
reporting  to  the  central  office  (including  those  intended  foi 
production  and  consumption  as  well  as  credit)  is  $40,000,000. 

Impressive  testimony  to  the  stability  and  usefulness  of 
these  workmen’s  banks  is  the  success  with  which  they  have 
withstood  the  recent  prostration  of  industry  and  commerce  in 
the  German  Empire.  Indeed,  the  system  is  so  well  accred- 
ited by  experience  that  it  has  been  introduced  in  other  parts  of 
Europe,  and  especially  in  Italy  and  Belgium,  where  co-oper- 
ative credit  banks  have  become  numerous  enough  to  form 
unions,  and  hold  congresses. 

The  second  of  these  novel  schemes  is  the  system  of  Penny 
Banks,  introduced  into  England  in  1857,  the  first  being 
opened  at  Greenock,  where  five  thousand  depositors  availed 
themselves  of  its  advantages  in  the  first  year.  From  year  to 
year  penny  banks  ‘have  been  on  the  increase,  and  from  recent 
statistics  it  has  been  shown  that  at  the  present  time  progress 
is  in  every  way  satisfactory. 

Rapid  as  has  been  the  progress  of  the  penny-bank  move- 
ment in  England,  it  is  far  behind  France  and  Belgium.  In 
both  those  countries,  school  banks  have  been  instituted  with 
much  greater  success  than  has  hitherto  crowned  the  attempt 
made  in  England,  and  it  is  to  the  development  of  these 


686 


MONEY. 


school-banks  that  the  marvelous  increase  in  the  total  amount 
deposited  in  savings  banks  generally  is  to  be  attributed.  In 
France,  the  movement  is  of  very  recent  origin  ; nevertheless, 
up  to  December,  1866,  penny  banks  had  been  introduced  into 
fifty-three  out  of  eighty-two  departments,  2,200  school  banks 
were  established,  and  no  fewer  than  230  000  scholars  had  de- 
posited in  excess  of  the  total  limit,  and  had  transferred  their 
accounts  to  ordinary  savings  banks. 

In  Belgium  an  admirable  plan  is  adopted.  Prizes  are  given 
by  the  government  to  elementary  scholars  foi  general  profi- 
ciency, in  the  shape  of  a deposit  book,  with  a small  sum  en- 
tered therein  to  the  credit  of  the  recipient.  In  this  way  good 
conduct  is  rewarded,  and  in  addition  a practical  lesson  in 
thrift  is  imparted.  In  the  years  1873-5,  1,051  deposit  books 
were  distributed  in  this  way. 

Mr.  Oulton,  the  chairman  of  the  School  Management  Com- 
mittee of  the  Liverpool  School  Board,  advocates  that  a sav- 
ings bank  should  be  established  in  every  school  in  the  king- 
dom ; not  merely  that  the  school  building  should  be  used  for 
the  purpose,  as  it  very  properly  is  already  in  many  neighbor- 
hoods, but  that  the  penny  bank  should  be  “ an  element  in  the 
school  routine,  the  text-book  of  thrift,  the  visible  illustration 

in  the  object  lesson  of  economy Penny  banks  should  be 

to  the  lesson  on  thrift  what  pen,  ink  and  paper  are  to  the  les- 
son on  writing — the  necessary  concomitant.”  He  pointed,  as 
an  evidence  of  the  utility  of  these  banks,  to  the  Liverpool 
Penny  Savings  Bank  Association,  formed  to  sustain  and  ex- 
tend the  system  of  penny  banks  in  and  around  Liverpool,  and 
to  promote  their  efficiency  and  good  management.  In  the  re- 
port for  the  year  ending  November  20th,  1877,  it  was  shown 
that  in  seventy-four  banks  organized  by  this  association,  there 
had  been  295,800  transactions  during  the  year,  ,£14,931  ns. 
iod.  had  been  deposited,  £9,401  12s.  5d.  withdrawn,  and 
£4,063  13s.  transferred  to  the  Liverpool  Savings  Bank  in  the 
depositors’  own  names.  There  was  at  the  end  of  the  year  an 
aggregate  balance  of  £4,844  9s.  id.  due  to  22,749  depositors. 

One  of  the  most  pleasing  features  in  connection  with  the 
movement  is  that  so  many  of  these  banks  avail  themselves  of 
the  advantages  offered  by  the  Post  Office  Savings  Bank  as  re- 
gards the  gratuitous  supply  of  books  and  information,  and  the 
investment  of  their  funds  with  the  government,  thus  obtaining 
a guaranty  for  their  absolute  security.  This  leads  to  a con- 
sideration of  a third  scheme.  The  report  of  the  Postmaster 
General  published  in  July,  1877,  gives  the  following  particu- 
lars. During  1876,  authority  was  given  for  one  hundred  and 
seventy-two  penny  banks  in  various  parts  of  the  United  King- 
dom to  invest  their  funds  in  the  Post  Office  Savings  Bank,  and 
since  that  time  the  progress  has  been  even  more  remarkable, 
one  hundred  and  seventeen  penny  banks  having  been  author- 
ized during  the  quarter  ending  March  31st,  1877,  exceeding 
by  forty-one  the  number  during  the  corresponding  quarter  in 
1876.  Of  these  two  hundred  and  eighty-nine  penny  banks, 
eighteen  were  in  board  schools,  twenty  in  Sunday  schools,  and 
thirty  in  other  schools,  one  being  in  a Poor-law  Union- 
school,  under  the  management  of  the  master  and  chaplain  of 
the  workhouse.  Farthing  deposits  are  received  from  these 
pauper  children,  and  as  much  as  £4  18s.  was  invested  on  be- 
half of  the  penny  bank  between  April  and  December,  1876. 


In  England,  at  the  close  of  the  year  1876,  after  sixteen  years’ 
operation,  the  Postal  Savings  Bank  had  realized  a net  profit 
of  over  $5,500,000. 

Shortly  after  the  confederation  of  the  provinces  of  the  Do- 
minion, the  Post  Office  Act  of  1867  was  adopted  by  Parliament, 
and  the  formation  of  the  Post  Office  Savings  Bank  was  pro- 
vided for.  On  the  following  1st  of  April,  the  system  went 
into  operation,  and  at  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  eighty-one 
offices  had  been  established  throughout  the  Dominion.  On 
June  30th,  1869,  two  hundred  and  thirteen  offices  had  been 
opened,  and  that  number  has  been  increased  gradually  until 
on  June  30th,  1877,  there  were  two  hundred  and  eighty-seven 
branches  in  existence. 

At  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  1877,  there  had  been  324,662 
deposits  made,  and  they  amounted  in  all  to  $16,504  252.  Of 
that  amount  $1,725,300  had  been  invested  in  Dominion  five 
per  cent,  stock  ; $12,998,334  had  been  withdrawn,  and  the 
balance,  standing  to  the  credit  of  open  accounts,  and  drawing 
interest,  was  $2,639,937.  During  the  nine  years  and  three 
months  in  which  the  bank  had  been  doing  business  90,416  ac- 
counts had  been  opened,  66,342  closed,  and  on  June  30,  1877, 
24,074  were  open.  The  average  amount  of  each  account  open 
was  $109.60.  Interest  to  the  amount  of  $859,319  had  been 
allowed  depositors.  Each  deposit  averaged  about  $50,  and 
the  withdrawals  $75.  The  average  cost  of  each  transaction — 
viz.  of  each  deposit  or  withdrawal — was  less  than  twenty-three 
cents,  and  the  total  expense  of  management,  including  sal- 
aries, compensation  to  Postmasters,  inspection,  printing,  sta- 
tionery, and  other  items,  was  $117,563.78,  or  an  average  of 
about  $11, 000  per  annum. 

Every  post  office,  being  a money-order  office,  is  open  for  the 
purpose  of  the  savings  bank,  during  the  money-order  office 
hours.  Deposits  maybe  made  in  amounts  of  $1  or  any  number 
of  dollars  (cents  not  being  received), provided  the  deposits  made 
in  any  one  year  ending  June  30  do  not  exceed  $300,  and  pro- 
vided the  total  amount  standing  in  such  depositor’s  name  on 
the  books  of  the  Postmaster  General  does  not  exceed  $1,000 
exclusive  of  interest.  This  provision  is  made  to  prevent  the 
system  from  clashing  with  the  general  banking  business  of  the 
country.  The  privilege  of  purchasing  Dominion  five  per  cent, 
stock  is  allowed  the  depositor,  so  that  if  he  desires  to  still  use 
the  Post  Office  Savings  Bank  after  he  has  accumulated  $1,000, 
he  can  have  that  amount,  or  any  portion  of  it  not  less  than 
$100,  transferred  to  Dominion  stock,  redeemable  on  three 
months’  notice,  at  the  office  of  the  Receiver  General  at  Ot- 
tawa, or  at  those  of  his  deputies  at  Halifax,  St.  John,  Mon- 
treal, Toronto,  Winnipeg  or  Victoria.  Such  stock  is  nor 
transferable,  and  no  one  depositor  is  allowed  to  be  the  holder 
of  more  than  $1,000  worth.  It  will  thus  he  seen  that  the  sav- 
ings banks  cannot  be  used  for  more  than  $2,000  by  any  one 
person. 

Every  individual  on  making  a first  deposit  is  required  to 
give  his  name,  occupation,  and  residence,  and  to  sign  a dec- 
laration that  he  is  not  directly  or  indirectly  entitled  to  any 
sum  or  sums  standing  in  his  own  name,  or  in  that  of  any 
other  person  on  the  books  of  the  Post  Office  Savings  Bank, 
and  consenting  to  his  deposits  being  governed  by  the  regula- 
tions of  the  bank.  A provision  of  the  declaration  is  that  il 


MONEY. 


687 


any  portion  of  it  is  not  true,  the  depositor  shall  forfeit  all  the 
right  and  title  to  his  deposit.  Interest  calculated  yearly  at 
the  rate  of  four  per  cent,  per  annum  is  allowed  on  deposits,  and 
is  computed  from  the  first  of  the  calendar  month  next  fol- 
lowing the  deposit  up  to  the  first  of  the  month  in  which 
moneys  are  withdrawn.  On  the  30th  of  June,  every  year,  in- 
terest is  calculated  on  the  amount  to  the  depositors’ credit,  and 
is  added  to  and  becomes  part  of  the  principal  money. 

Postmasters  of  savings-bank  offices  add  the  deposits  made 
with  them  daily  to  their  money-order  funds,  and  likewise  pay 


savings-bank  checks  issued  on  their  offices  out  of  money-order 
funds,  and  embody  in  their  accounts  to  the  money-order 
branch  a recapitulation  of  their  savings-bank  transactions,  en- 
closing as  vouchers  for  payments  on  savings  bank  account  the 
checks  paid  during  the  period  to  which  the  account  relates. 
The  balance  of  the  business  is  adjusted  between  the  money- 
order  and  the  savings-bank  branches,  the  excess  of  deposits 
over  withdrawals  being  paid  over  by  the  money-order  branch 
to  the  Receiver  General,  on  account  of  the  Post  Office  Savings 
Bank. 


a; 


HE  term  bank,  in  reference  to  commerce,  signi- 
fies a place  of  deposit  of  money,  and  is  derived 
from  the  Italian  banco,  a seat  or  bench,  because  the 
early  custodians  and  dealers  in  money  in  Italy 
were  accustomed  to  sit  on  benches  in  the  market 
ices  of  the  principal  towns.  During  the  middle  ages, 
which  commerce  was  but  little  developed,  there  could 
no  field  open  for  banking  as  a business  ; but  on  the 
revival  of  business  in  the  12th  century,  and  when  the  cities  of 
Italy  engrossed  nearly  all  the  trade  of  Europe,  the  necessity 
arose  again  for  the  employment  of  bankers.  The  successful 
manufacturing  efforts  of  the  Florentines  brought  them  into  com- 
mercial dealings  with  different  countries  in  Europe,  and  thence 
arose  the  establishment  of  banks  as  private  concerns.  The 
earliest  public  bank  established  in  modern  Europe  was  that  of 
Venice,  which  was  founded  in  1157.  About  the  year  1350,  the 
cloth  merchants  of  Barcelona,  then  a wealthy  body,  added  the 
business  of  banking  to  their  other  commercial  pursuits  ; being 
authorized  so  to  do  by  an  ordinance  of  the  King  of  Aragon, 
which  contained  the  important  stipulation  that  they  should  be 
restricted  from  acting  as  bankers  until  they  should  have  given 
sufficient  security  for  the  liquidation  of  their  engagements.  In 
1401,  a bank  was  opened  by  the  functionaries  of  the  city,  which 
was  both  a bank  of  deposit  and  of  circulation,  the  first  of  the 
kind  ever  established  in  Europe. 

The  Bank  of  Genoa  was  planned  and  partially  organized 
in  1345,  but  was  not  brought  into  operation  until  1407.  when 
the  numorous  loans  which  the  Republic  had  contracted  with 
its  citizens  were  consolidated,  and  formed  the  nominal  capital 
stock  of  the  bank.  As  security  for  its  capital  in  the  hands  of 
the  Republic,  this  bank,  which  was  given  the  name  of  the 
Chamber  of  St.  George,  received  in  pledge  the  island  of  Cor- 
sica and  several  other  dependencies  of  Genoa.  Since  1800, 
when  the  French,  besieged  in  Genoa,  appropriated  its  treas. 
ure  to  the  payment  of  their  troops,  the  bank  has  had  little 
than  a nominal  existence. 

The  banks  of  note  next  established,  of  which  records  re- 
main, were  opened  in  Holland  and  in  Hamburg.  The  most 
celebrated  of  these  was  the  Bank  of  Amsterdam,  established 


in  1609,  simply  as  a bank  of  deposit,  under  the  guaranty  of 
the  city.  The  credit  given  in  the  bank  for  foreign  coin  and 
the  worn  coin  of  the  country,  was  called  bank-money,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  current  money  of  the  place  ; and  as  the  regu- 
lations directed  that  all  bills  drawn  upon  or  negotiated  at 
Amsterdam,  of  the  value  of  600  guilders  and  upwards,  must 
be  paid  in  bank-money,  every  merchant  was  obliged  to  keep 
an  account  with  the  bank,  in  order  to  make  his  ordinary  pay- 
ments. The  Bank  of  Hamburg  was  established  in  1619, 
on  the  model  of  that  of  Amsterdam  originally.  Deposits  are 
received  only  in  bullion,  and  a charge  is  made  for  their  safe- 
keeping. It  advances  money  on  jewels  up  to  three-fourths  of 
their  value.  The  city  is  responsible  for  all  deposits,  which 
may  be  sold  at  auction  if  they  remain  eighteen  months  with- 
out payment  of  charges.  If  the  value  is  not  claimed  within 
three  years,  the  property  in  the  deposits  is  lost,  and  passes  to 
the  poor  fund  of  the  city. 

Next  in  point  of  date  among  these  establishments  is  the 
Bank  of  England,  which  was  opened  in  1694.  It  was 
originally  chartered  for  ten  years,  and  the  charter  has  since 
been  prolonged,  by  various  renewals,  till  August  I,  1879,  and, 
from  that  date,  subject  to  a year’s  notice.  The  Bank  of  Eng- 
land is,  and  always  has  been,  the  government  bank,  transact- 
ing for  it  all  the  banking  business  of  the  nation,  receiving  the 
produce  of  the  taxes,  loans,  etc.,  and  paying  the  interest  of 
the  public  debt,  the  drafts  of  the  Treasury,  and  other  public 
departments,  transferring  stock,  etc.  For  this  service  the 
bank  receives,  exclusive  of  the  use  of  the  balances  of  the  pub- 
lic money  in  its  hands,  about  £95,000  a year. 

Down  to  1797  the  bank  always  had  paid  its  notes  on  de- 
mand. But  in  1796  and  the  early  part  of  1797,  owing  to 
rumors  of  a French  invasion,  there  was  a run  made  on  the 
bank,  and  it  was  feared  that  a suspension  was  inevitable.  In 
February,  1797,  Mr.  Pitt,  apprehensive  that  he  might  not  be 
able  to  obtain  sufficient  specie  for  foreign  payments,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  low  state  of  the  bank  reserve,  procured  the  issue 
of  an  order  in  council,  requiring  the  bank  to  suspend  specie 
payments.  The  suspension  lasted  till  1819,  and  is  known  to 
writers  on  finance  as  “ the  period  of  the  bank  restriction.” 
The  bank’s  notes,  however,  continued  to  circulate,  and  a 


library 
Of  THE 

UNIVERSITY  Of  ILLINOIS 


BANKS  AND  BANKING. 


689 


committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  reported  soon  after  the 
suspension  that  the  bank  was  not  merely  possessed  of  the  most 
ample  funds  to  meet  all  its  engagements,  but  that  it  had  a 
surplus  stock,  after  the  deduction  of  all  demands,  of  no  less 
than  £15,513,000. 

The  panic  of  1825  subjected  the  bank  to  a severe  strain. 
All  England  had  been  possessed  with  a rage  for  speculation. 
The  provincial  bankers  gave  in  to  the  infatuation  and  made 
the  mos  tsudden  and  excessive  additions  to  their  advances. 
The  currency  was  inflated,  and  there  resulted  a drain  for  gold 
on  the  Bank  of  England.  In  that  year  the  Directors  allowed 
their  stock  of  bullion  to  fall  from  £10,721,000  to  .£1,260,000. 
The  result  was  a tremendous  panic.  In  less  than  six  weeks 
over  seventy  banks  were  prostrated,  and  a vacuum  created  in 
the  currency  that  absorbed  nearly  .£10,000,000  of  additional 
issues  by  the  Bank  of  England.  Parliament  enacted  that 
thereafter  no  note  for  less  than  £5  should  be  issued. 

In  the  commercial  crisis  of  1837-9  the  bank  was  forced  to 
draw  for  £2, 000, 000  on  the  Bank  of  France,  and  even  after 
that  aid,  says  Mr.  Bagehot,  the  Directors  permitted  their  bull- 
ion, which  was  still  the  currency  reserve,  as  well  as  the  bank- 
ing reserve,  to  be  reduced  to  ,£2,400,000.  A great  alarm  per- 
vaded society,  and  generated  an  eager  controversy,  out  of 
which  ultimately  emerged  the  act  of  1844,  devised  by  Sir 
Robert  Peel.  This  law  divided  the  Bank  of  England  into  two 
distinct  departments,  an  issue  department  and  a banking  de- 
partment. The  issue  department  issues  nothing  but  notes, 
and  can  only  put  out  .£15, 000, 000  on  Government  securities, 
and  for  all  the  rest  of  its  notes  it  must  have  bullion  deposited. 

The  bank  department  received  from  the  issue  department 
£15,000,000  in  currency,  which  amount  is  loaned  or  issued  to 
the  government,  on  which  the  bank  receives  3 per  cent,  inter- 
est. The  bank,  however,  pays  to  the  government  £180,000 
annually  for  the  exclusive  privilege  of  issue,  and  the  profit  of 
the  bank,  after  deducting  the  expense  of  management,  is 
estimated  at  from  £80,000  to  £100,000  annually. 

Peel’s  act,  dividing  the  bank  into  two  distinct  departments, 
has  been  suspended  three  times  in  order  to  allow  the  banking 
department  to  employ  the  coin  and  bullion  of  the  issue  depart- 
ment. In  other  words,  the  act  has  thrice  been  placed  in 
abeyance  to  save  the  credit  of  the  banking  department.  The 
redeemability  of  the  notes,  however,  has  never  been  questioned 
for  a moment  since  the  passage  of  the  act.  The  suspensions 
occurred  in  1847,  1857  and  1866. 

The  Bank  of  England  is  the  custodian  of  the  reserves  of  the 
several  London  banks  and  private  bankers.  These  deposited 
reserves  are,  for  the  most  part,  loaned  out  by  the  bank.  Then, 
again,  the  reserves  of  the  country  banks,  and  of  the  Scotch 
and  Irish  bankers  as  well,  are  deposited  with  the  great  Eng- 
lish banks,  which,  in  their  turn,  keep  their  reserves  at  the 
bank  of  England.  Therefore  the  reserve  in  the  banking  de- 
partment of  the  Bank  of  England  is  the  banking  reserve  not 
only  of  the  Bank  of  England  but  of  all  London,  and  not  only 
of  all  London,  but  of  all  England,  Ireland  and  Scotland.  The 
credit  system  of  Great  Britain  depends  upon  the  security  of 
the  Bank  of  England. 

The  Bank  of  Vif.nna,  established  in  1703  as  a bank  of  de- 
posit and  circulation,  became  a bank  of  issue  in  1793.  This 


institution  now  does  comparatively  little  commercial  business, 
being  recognized  as  a means  of  the  government  for  manag- 
ing the  public  debt  and  finances. 

The  Banks  of  Berlin  and  Breslau  were  founded  in  1765 
under  the  direct  authority  of  the  government.  They  are 
banks  of  deposit  and  issue,  and  also  discount  bills  of  exchange. 
In  some  important  particulars  the  banking  system  of  Germany 
resembles  that  of  the  United  States,  the  Imperial  Bank  and  its 
branches  in  nearly  every  town  corresponding  to  the  American 
chain  of  National  Banks.  The  Imperial  Bank  enjoys  an  enor- 
mous monopoly  of  immunities  and  powers. 

Premising  that  the  original  capital  is  $30,000,000,  divided 
into  40,000  shares,  it  may  be  said  that  the  management  is 
vested  iu  a committee  of  three,  representing  the  stockholders, 
subject,  however,  to  the  oversight  of  a directory  consisting  of 
the  Chancellor  and  four  other  members.  As  regards  the  limits 
cf  the  circulation,  it  is  provided  that  one-third  of  the  issues 
must  be  covered  by  reserves  in  current  German  money  or  bull- 
ion, and  the  remaining  two-thirds  by  discounted  bills  of  ex- 
change, having  not  more  than  three  months  to  run.  These 
notes  must  be  redeemed  on  presentation  at  the  bank  or  at  any 
of  its  branches.  The  Reichs-bank  is  authorized  to  discount  not 
only  bills,  but  obligations  of  German  States  and  municipalities, 
running  not  more  than  three  months  from  date,  and  it  may 
purchase  and  sell  securities  both  on  its  own  account  and  on 
commission.  It  is  likewise  a trust  company,  empowered  to 
undertake  the  custody  and  administration  of  estates.  As  for 
the  reception  of  deposits,  the  sole  restriction  is  that  the  total 
amount  of  interest-bearing  debts  shall  not  exceed  the  total 
capital,  plus  the  reserves.  Against  all  these  privileges  may  be 
set  a certain  limitation  on  the  pecuniary  advantages  accruing 
to  shareholders.  From  the  net  profits  maybe  paid  an  ordinary 
dividend  of  4^  per  cent,  on  the  original  capital,  while  20  per 
cent,  may  be  turned  into  the  reserves,  so  long  as  these  do  not 
equal  one-quarter  of  the  capital.  Of  the  remainder,  half  be- 
longs to  the  imperial  treasury,  and  half  to  the  share  owners, 
except  when  the  latter’s  dividend  reaches  8 percent.,  in  which 
case  the  surplus  beyond  that  goes,  one  quarter  to  the  stock- 
holders and  three-quarters  to  the  treasury. 

During  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Catharine,  three  different 
Jjanks  were  established  in  St.  Petersburg  : the  Loan  Bank, 
the  Assignation  Bank  ; and  the  Loan  Bank  for  the  nobility 
and  towns.  The  first,  opened  in  1772,  made  advances  upon 
deposits  of  bullion  and  jewels,  and  allowed  interest  upon  all 
sums  remaining  for  one  year  and  over.  At  present  the  oper- 
ations of  this  bank  are  carried  on  for  the  benefit  of  the  Found- 
ling Hospital  in  St.  Petersburg.  The  Assignation  Bank  was 
opened  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1768,  and  in  Moscow  in  1770.  It 
issues  paper  money,  and  is  really  an  imperial  institution.  The 
Loan  Bank  for  the  nobility  and  towns,  advances  money  on 
real  security,  discounts  commercial  paper,  and  carries  on  an 
insurance  business.  In  1797  the  Aid  Bank  was  established  for 
the  purpose  of  advancing  money  to  relieve  estates  from  mort- 
gages, and  to  provide  for  their  improvement.  There  is  also 
the  Commercial  Bank  of  Russia,  whose  capital  is  declared  to 
be  sacred  by  the  Government,  and  free  from  all  taxes,  attach- 
ments and  calls  from  the  State.  It  has  numerous  branches 
throughout  the  empire,  receives  deposits  of  coin  and  bullion. 


69c 


BANKS  AND  BANKING. 


discounts  paper,  and  makes  advances  upon  merchandise  of 
domestic  production. 

The  Bank  of  Stockholm  was  founded  in  1688,  when  its 
direction  was  assumed  by  the  Assembly  of  the  States  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Sweden,  and  became  a bank  of  deposit,  discount 
and  circulation.  Since  1766,  when  the  affairs  of  the  bank  fell 
to  a very  low  state,  and  the  Assembly  assisted  it  with  a 
large  loan,  a committee  composed  of  members  of  each  of  the 
three  States,  nobles,  clergy  and  burghers,  is  appointed  trien- 
nially  to  inspect  its  condition,  securities  and  prospects. 

The  Bank  of  F rance,  originally  formed  in  1800,  was  placed 
on  a solid  basis  in  1806,  when  its  capital  was  raised  to  90,000,- 
OOO  francs.  The  bank  is  now  the  only  authorized  source  of 
paper  money  in  France.  Its  charter  and  exclusive  privileges 
have  been  conferred,  varied,  or  continued  by  different  govern- 
ments and  under  various  laws  ; at  present  1897  is  the  time 
fixed  at  which  the  terms  made  with  the  bank  by  the  public  may 
be  ended.  The  bank  has  branches  scattered  throughout  ai’  the 
departments.  Besides  discounting,  the  Bank  of  France  ad- 
vances upon  deposits  of  stock  and  pledges  of  a miscellaneous 
kind.  It  also  undertakes  the  safe  custody  of  valuables.  A 
council  of  twenty-one  members  conducts  the  direction  of  af- 
fairs, viz  . : a governor  and  two  sub-governors,  who  are  to  be 
nominees  of  the  head  of  the  government  ; fifteen  directors  and 
three  censors,  nominated  by  the  shareholders. 

The  banks  of  the  United  States  of  a public  character  are 
organized  under  the  National  Banking  Act,  and  the  word 
“ National  ” appears  in  the  corporate  name  of  each.  The 
notes  are  prepared  by  the  Bureau  of  Engraving  and  Printing 
at  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  each  bank  is  entitled  to  issue  and 
circulate  bills  aggregating  90  per  cent,  of  its  capital  stock  ; at 
the  same  time  it  must  deposit  with  the  government  a definite 
sum  as  security  for  its  circulation.  The  total  number  of 
national  banks  in  the  United  States  on  Oct.  31,  1882,  was 
2,269,  which  on  July  1,  previous,  reported  a capital  of  $477,- 
184,390,  not  including  surplus,  which  fund  at  that  date 
amounted  to  more  than  $131,000,000  ; while  the  average  capi- 
tal of  all  the  State  banks,  private  bankers,  and  savings  banks, 
for  the  six  months  ending  May  31,  1882,  was  only  $234,929,- 
956.  The  latter  amount  is  less  than  two-fifths  of  the  combined 


capital  and  surplus  of  the  national  banks.  • 

The  total  amount  of  the  circulating  medium  of  the  country 
on  Nov.  1,  1882,  is  given  as  follows  : 

T reasury  notes  outstanding $346,681,016 

National  bank  notes  outstanding 362,727,747 

Gold  in  the  Treasury,  less  certificates  held  by 

the  banks 148,435,473 

Standard  silver  dollars  in  the  Treasury 92,414,977 

Subsidiary  silver  coin  and  silver  bullion  in  the 

Treasury 30,761,935 

Coin  in  the  national  banks 102,362,063 

Coin  in  State  and  savings  banks 17,892,500 

Estimated  amount  of  coin  held  by  the  people. . 387,562,793 

Total $1,488,838,554 


The  estimated  total  currency  of  the  country,  on  November  1, 
thus  appears  to  have  been  more  than  $1,488,000,000,  which  is 
$433,000,000  in  excess  of  the  amount  held  on  January  1, 


1879,  and  $186,000,000  in  excess  of  the  amount  held  on  No- 
vember 1,  1880.  The  gain  in  gold  coin  since  the  resumption 
of  specie  payments  alone  has  been  $288,000,000,  and  in  gold 
and  silver  coin  $394,000,000.  The  increase  in  national  bank 
notes  has  been  nearly  $39,000,000. 

The  interest-bearing  bonded  debt  of  the  United  States  has 
been  rapidly  reduced  since  1869,  at  which  time  the  funding  of 
miscellaneous  obligations  of  the  government  had  been  success- 
fully accomplished.  The  reduction  of  this  debt  during  the 
twelve  years  ending  June  30,  1881,  has  been  $648,403,668, 
and  the  amount  of  interest  paid  $1,270,596,784;  the  average 
annual  payment  of  the  principal  being  $54,433,639,  and  of  in- 
terest $105,883,065. 

The  security  of  the  national  bank  notes  under  the  present 
system  is  perfect.  In  twenty  years  not  a single  bank  note  has 
failed  to  be  redeemed  at  its  face  value.  Banks  organized  un- 
der a general  law,  located  so  often  at  great  distances  from  com- 
mercial centers,  render  a security  for  circulation  of  uniform 
and  positive  value  an  absolute  necessity. 

The  banks  hold  $40,000,000  of  3J  per  cents.,  and  nearly 
$180,000,000  of  3 per  cents.,  as  security  for  their  circulation. 

The  National  banks  held  on  November,  1,  1882,  bonds  for 
circulation  not  payable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  government, 
as  follows  : Four  and  one-half  per  cent,  bonds,  $33,754,650; 
Pacific  Railway  sixes,  $3,526,000  ; four  percent,  bonds,  $104,- 
917,500  ; total,  $142,198,150. 

They  also  held  $220,000,000  of  United  States  bonds  which 
are  subject  to  the  call  of  the  government. 

The  total  amount  of  bonds  outstanding,  held  by  the  banks 
and  by  the  people,  which  are  available  for  circulation,  and  not 
payable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  government,  and  cannot  be  re- 
deemed except  by  purchase  in  the  market,  is  as  follows  : 

Four  per  cents,  payable  July  1,  1907 $738,929,600 

Four  and  one-half  per  cents,  payable  September  1, 

1891 250,000,000 

Pacific  Railway  Sixes,  payable  September  I,  1895  3,002,000 

Pacific  Railway  Sixes,  payable  September  1,  1896  8,000,000 

Pacific  Railway  Sixes,  payable  September  1,  1897  9,712,000 

Pacific  Railway  Sixes,  payable  September  1,  1898  29,383,000 

Pacific  Railway  Sixes,  payable  September  i,  1899  14,526,512 


Total $i,053,553TI2 

The  public  funds  deposited  with  national  bank  depositaries 
amounted  to  $143,261,541.41,  making  the  total  receipts  of 
public  moneys  by  these  depositaries,  since  the  establishment  of 
the  national  banking  system,  $3,182,722,588,02.  The  bal- 
ance remaining  with  them  at  the  close  of  the  year  to  the  credit 
of  the  treasurer  was  $9,610,432.86,  and  the  balance  to  the 
credit  of  disbursing  officers  amounted  to  $3,152,254.56,  mak- 
ing a total  deposit  of  $12,762,687.42,  which  is  protected  by 
$15,925,000,  in  United  States  bonds  lodged  with  the  Treas- 
urer. At  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  1882,  the  United  States 
bonds  held  in  trust  for  the  national  banks  amounted  to  $376,- 
627,500.  Of  this  amount  $360,722,700  was  held  to  secure  cir. 
culation,  and  $15,925,000  to  secure  public  moneys. 

The  number  of  notes  outstanding  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1882,  was  63,083,047,  as  against  59,839,- 
069  outstanding  on  June  30,  1881.  The  amount  of  ones  and 


BANKS  AND  BANKING. 


691 


twos  outstanding  increased  $14,040,945  in  three  years.  The 
amount  of  United  States  notes  received  in  payment  of  duties 
on  imports  was  $24,650,576,  as  against  $19,079,753  in  the 
year  ending  October  31,  1881.  The  total  amount  so  received 
since  the  resumption  of  specie  payments  is  $185,053,930,  an 
average  of  $4,044,650  a month.  The  amount  of  silver  certi- 
ficates nominally  outstanding  on  October  31,  1882,  was  $73,- 
607,710,  of  which  $7,987,260  is  held  by  the  Treasury. 

Of  the  old  issue  of  gold  certificates  under  the  Act  of  March 
3,  1863,  there  was  redeemed  $745,800,000,  making  the  total 
redemptions  $976,097,790.46,  and  reducing  the  amount  out- 
standing to  $5,037,120.  Of  the  issue  authorized  by  the  Act 
of  July  12,  1882,  $138,000,000  have  been  printed  for  issue  by 
the  Assistant  Treasurer  of  the  United  States  in  New  York. 
Of  these  there  were  issued  to  October  31,  1882,  $21,790,000, 
of  which  $14,827,720  was  held  in  the  cash  of  the  various  Sub- 
Treasuries,  leaving  the  amount  actually  outstanding  $6,962,- 
280.  The  amount  of  fractional  currency  outstanding  at  the 
close  of  the  fiscal  year  1882  was  $15,420,186.10. 

The  Clearing  House  system  was  first  established  in  London 
in  1790.  The  New  York  Clearing  House  was  the  first  of  the 
kind  established  in  America,  and  began  its  operations  Oct.  1 1, 
1853.  It  then  consisted  of  fifty-two  banks.  Since  that  time 
clearing  houses  have  been  established  in  all  the  principal  cities 
of  the  country.  The  increasing  business  of  exchanges  by  the 
banks,  it  is  claimed  by  bankers,  made  the  organization  of  such 
an  association  a necessity.  Each  bank  in  its  daily  dealings  re- 
ceives many  bills  of  other  banks,  and  checks  drawn  on  them,  so 
that  at  the  close  of  the  day’s  business  every  bank  has  in  its 
drawers  various  sums  thus  due  to  it  by  other  banks.  It  is,  in 
like  manner,  the  debtor  of  other  banks  which  have  received  its 
bills  and  checks.  Before  the  Clearing  House  was  established 
it  was  necessary  for  each  bank  every  morning  to  make  up  its 
accounts  with  every  other  bank  and  to  send  a messenger  to 
the  debtor  banks  to  present  accounts  and  to  receive  balances, 
which  were  adjusted  in  gold.  This  finally  became  so  labori- 
ous, dangerous  and  complicated,  that  balances  were  arranged 
weekly  every  Friday.  The  Clearing  House  obviated  this.  Its 
settlements  are  made  so  rapidly  that  the  transactions  adjusted 
through  it  have  amounted  in  a single  day  to  $206,034,920.51 
— all  settled  within  an  hour. 

The  establishment  of  the  Clearing  House  system  closed 
2 500  bank  ledger  accounts,  with  numerous  daily  entries  in 
each,  and  enabled  the  banks  to  settle  with  each  other  every 
day  without  loss  or  delay,  and  with  comparatively  little 
trouble.  It  also  brought  the  bank  officers  into  intimate  and 
friendly  relations,  and  enabled  them  by  united  action  to  aid 
and  strengthen  one  another  in  times  of  excitement  and  finan- 
cial danger.  Upon  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  in  i86r, 
the  banks  of  New  York,  through  the  Clearing  House,  effected 
loans  to  the  Government  to  carry  on  the  war.  These  loans 
amounted  to  over  $200,000,000. 

The  panic  of  1873  was  checked  by  a similar  action,  the  ex- 
perience of  the  war  enabling  the  banks  to  act  with  such 
promptness  in  combining  their  entire  resources  by  the  use  of 
loan  certificates — amounting  to  over  $25,000.000 — as  to  sus- 
tain themselves  against  a panic,  the  serious  results  of  which 
were  greatly  modified  by  their  action. 


The  New  York  Clearing  House  is  opened  promptly  at  10 
A.M.  The  banks  are  each  represented  by  two  clerks,  one  a 
messenger  who  brings  with  him  the  checks,  drafts  and  other 
evidences  of  indebtedness  that  his  bank  has  received  upon 
other  banks  during  the  previous  day.  These  are  called  the 
“ exchanges,”  and  are  assorted  for  each  bank  and  are  placed 
in  envelopes.  On  the  outside  of  each  envelope  is  a slip  on 
which  are  the  amounts  of  the  various  items  which  it  contains. 
These  are  arranged  on  the  desks  where  they  belong.  The 
messengers  take  their  places  in  a line  outside  the  row  of  desks, 
each  opposite  the  desk  assigned  to  his  bank,  which  is  occupied 
by  the  bank’s  clerk,  who  has  a printed  list  of  all  the  banks  in 
the  Clearing  House,  and  the  amounts  his  messenger  has 
against  every  other  bank.  At  a signal  from  a large  gong  over 
the  manager’s  platform,  each  messenger  moves  forward  to  the 
desks  of  the  other  banks,  beginning  with  the  one  next  in  line, 
and  delivers  the  envelopes  containing  checks  and  drafts  for 
the  bank  represented  by  that  desk.  The  clerk  receives  the 
list,  returns  it  checked  and  signed,  and  the  messenger  follows 
out  the  same  course  until  every  bank  clerk  has  been  visited 
and  the  messenger  has  returned  to  his  original  position  in  the 
line.  This  system  of  “exchanges”  is  accomplished  in  ten 
minutes.  Under  the  old  order  of  exchanges  it  would  have  re- 
quired seven  or  eight  hours. 

In  addition  to  the  great  saving  of  time  by  the  present 
method,  it  is  claimed  that  every  bank  knows  at  once  the  exact 
balance  for  or  against  it,  slips  being  furnished  to  the  clerks 
showing  the  difference  between  the  total  amounts  received  and 
brought  by  the  banks,  and  the  balance  either  due  to  or  from 
the  Clearing  House  to  each  bank.  As  these  accounts  are  made 
up,  the  clerks  report  them  to  the  Assistant  Manager  in  sepa- 
rate columns  on  what  is  termed  a “ proof-sheet.”  If  no  errors 
are  found  the  clerks  are  permitted  to  return  to  their  banks  ; 
but  if  errors  are  discovered  the  clerks  must  examine  and  revise 
their  work,  and  not  until  every  error  has  been  corrected  can 
the  clerks  be  relieved  from  duty.  The  rules  of  the  association 
require  that  all  the  work  of  reporting,  entering,  and  proving 
daily  accounts,  must  be  done  in  thirty-five  minutes,  under  pen- 
alty of  a fine  to  be  collected  from  the  offending  bank. 

The  debit  banks  are  required  to  pay  to  the  Manager  of  the 
Clearing  House  in  legal-tender  notes  or  coin  the  balances  due 
before  1:30  P.M.,  and  the  credit  banks  receive  the  money  im- 
mediately thereafter,  so  that,  by  one  process,  the  transactions 
of  the  previous  day  are  completed.  A record  is  kept  of  the 
daily  transactions  of  each  bank  in  the  Clearing  House,  and  a 
week’s  statement  of  its  loans,  specie,  legal-tenders,  deposits  and 
circulation  must  be  made  to  the  Manager,  so  that  the  condition 
and  business  of  every  bank  maybe  estimated.  Banks  are  com- 
pelled to  keep  up  their  balances,  a rule  of  the  Clearing  House 
forbidding  one  bank  to  loan  its  credit  balance  in  the  Clear- 
ing House  to  another  bank  in  the  settlement  of  daily 
accounts. 

In  a single  year  the  transactions  in  the  New  York  Clearing 
House  have  reached  a total  of  $23,816,282,298,  ora  daily  aver- 
age of  $77,830,987.  In  November,  1878,  the  Government, 
by  its  Sub-Treasurer  at  New  York,  entered  the  Clearing 
House  Association,  and  the  new  order  for  paying  drafts  of  the 
banks  on  the  New  York  banks  was  carried  into  effect. 


692 


GEOLOGY 


ORDER  OF  ROCKS. 

EOLOGY  (from  the  Greek,  ge,  the  earth,  and 
logos,  discourse)  may  be  defined  as  the  science 
which  describes  the  solid  materials  of  the  earth, 
the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged,  the  causes 
which  have  effected  that  arrangement,  and  the 
organic  remains  which  are  found  in  them. 

The  solid  parts  of  the  external  crust  consist  of  a 
variety  of  substances,  to  which,  whether  they  be 
hard  or  soft,  the  term  rock  is  applied.  Rocks  are  distinguished 
both  by  peculiarities  in  their  constitution,  and  peculiarities 
in  their  form  and  arrangement. 

At  some  places  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  found  to  consist 
of  a hard  rock  of  crystalline  or  glassy  texture,  generally  called 
granite,  though  subject  to  a considerable  number  of  varieties. 
Granite  is  never,  except  in  peculiar  circumstances,  found  in 
the  form  of  a layer,  whether  thick  or  thin,  but  generally  in 
large,  irregular-shaped  masses  ; and  no  other  kind  of  rock, 
except  in  equally  rare  and  peculiar  circumstances,  is  ever 
found  beneath  it. 

At  other  places  the  earth’s  immediate  surface  is  found  com- 
posed of  some  one  of  certain  kinds  of  rock  not  less  hard  in 
texture  than  granite,  and  also  of  a crystalline  consistence, 
but  always  found  in  layers  or  beds,  generally  of  great  thickness. 

At  other  places  we  find,  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  rocks 
of  a comparatively  soft,  and  not  of  a crystalline  consistence, 
forming  also  layers  or  beds,  of  greater  or  less  thickness. 

In  some  places,  rock  of  a very  hard  kind  is  found,  not  ex- 
actly like  any  of  the  above,  deposited  in  irregular  forms,  and 
often  with  the  appearance  of  having  penetrated  through  gaps 
forcibly  made  in  other  rocks. 

Finally,  throughout  the  first  three  classes  of  rocks,  but  par- 
ticularly the  first  two,  there  are  thin  veins  of  diverse  substances, 
including  minerals. 

Rocks  of  the  first  class  are  denominated  Plutonic  (from 
Pluto,  the  god  of  the  infernal  regions  amongst  the  ancients), 
as  supposed  to  have  been  formed  at  great  depths  in  the  earth, 
the  matter  having  been  originally  in  a hot  and  soft  state,  and 
afterwards  cooled  and  crystallized  slowly,  under  such  enor- 
mous pressure  as  prevented  the  contained  gases  from  expanding. 
The  term  unstratified  is  also  applied  to  this  class  of  rocks. 

Rocks  of  the  second  and  third  classes  are  called  Aqueous, 


X 


as  composed  of  matter  deposited  by  water.  Those  of  the 
second  class  are  more  specially  named  Metamorphoric  (from 
the  Greek,  metamorphosis,  a transformation),  as  supposed  to 
have  undergone  a remarkable  change  in  the  course  of  their 
formation.  It  is  supposed  that  the  matter  of  these  rocks, 
derived  from  rocks  of  the  granitic  kind,  and  suspended  in  vast 
oceans,  was,  when  deposited,  subjected  to  a great  heat  from 
below,  which  gave  it,  in  its  reconsolidation  much  of  that 
crystalline  texture  which  it  had  in  its  plutonic  form. 

Rocks  of  the  fourth  class  are  denominated  Volcanic,  as 
being  evidently  composed  of  lavas,  or  masses  of  fire-melted 
rocky  matter,  which  have  been  sent  upwards  by  volcanoes. 

Rocks  of  the  second  and  third  classes  are  likewise  called 
Stratified  Rocks,  as  being  invariably  found  in  strata  or  layers. 
Rocks  of  the  first  and  fourth  classes,  as  wanting  this  peculiar- 
ity, are  distinguished  as  Unstratified  Rocks. 

The  plutonic,  and  some  of  the  lower  metamorphoric  rocks, 
have  been  also  called  Primary , or  Primitive  Rocks,  as  either 
the  first  formed  of  all,  or  formed  very  early.  The  upper  meta- 
morphoric rocks  have  in  like  manner  been  called  the  Transi- 
tion Series,  as  forming  a kind  of  link  between  the  primary  and 
those  which  follow,  and  partaking  the  characters  of  both.  Of 
the  remainder  of  the  aqueous  rocks,  a considerable  number, 
being  the  lower  portion,  are  sometimes  called  the  Secondary 
Rocks,  while  the  upper  are  named  Tertiary.  Igneous  Rock  is 
also  a various  name  for  the  volcanic  kind. 

When  rocks  of  various  classes  are  seen  at  or  near  the  same 
place,  it  is  found  that  those  of  the  second  (except  in  the  extra- 
ordinary circumstances  alluded  to),  lie  above  those  of  the  first  ; 
and  those  of  the  third  above  those  of  the  second  and  first 
classes.  Special  kinds  of  aqueous  rock  are  also  found  in  a 
certain  order  above  one  another — much  in  the  same  way  as  if 
we  were  to  place  a book  of  many  volumes  on  its  side,  having 
previously  arranged  the  volumes  according  to  their  numbers, 
in  which  case  the  second  would  be  above  the  first,  the  third 
above  the  second,  and  so  on.  Rocks  are  thus  said  to  observe 
an  order  of  supraposition — the  volcanic  kind  alone  observing 
no  order. 

In  some  of  the  upper  metamorphoric  rocks,  and  in  all  those 
of  the  secondary  and  tertiary  series,  remains  of  plants  and 
animals  are  found,  showing  that  when  these  rocks  were  formed, 
the  earth  had  become  a scene  of  vegetable  and  animal  life 
The  rocks  containing  these  organic  remains  or  fossils 


GEOLOGY. 


693 


are  called  Fossiliferous  ; and  the  remaining  rocks,  from 
their  containing  no  such  relics,  are  called  Non-fossiliferous. 

The  changes  produced  by  the  united  operations  of  aqueous 
and  igneous  agency  are  in  part  represented  in  the  subjoined 
engraving  of  a supposed  section  of  part  of  the  earth’s  crust. 

Now  to  begin  our  lesson  ! 

Here  are  three  pieces  of  stone  : — 

1.  A piece  of  Sandstone. 

2.  A piece  of  Granite. 

3.  A piece  of  Chalk. 

You  are  quite  familiar  with  each  of  these  kinds  of  stone. 
Sandstone  is  a common  material  for  walls,  lintels,  hearths, 
and  flagstones.  Granite  may  now  be  frequently  seen  in  pol- 
ished columns  and  slabs  in  public  buildings,  shops,  and  in 
tombstones  ; and  the  streets  in  many  of  our  large  cities  and 
towns  are  now  paved  with  it.  Common  white  chalk  is  well 
known  to  everybody. 


grains  tend  to  lie  in  lines,  and  that  these  lines  run  in  a general 
way  parallel  with  each  other. 

5.  The  grains  differ  from  each  other  in  size  and  in  the 
material  of  which  they  are  made.  Most  of  them  consist  of  a 
very  hard  white  or  colorless  substance  like  glass,  some  are  per- 
haps small  spangles  of  a material  which  glistens  like  silver, 
others  are  softer  and  of  various  colors.  They  lie  touching 
each  other  in  some  sandstones  ; in  others  they  are  separated 
by  a hard  kind  of  cement  which  binds  them  all  into  a solid 
stone.  It  is  this  cement  which  usually  colors  the  sandstone, 
since  it  is  often  red  or  yellow,  and  sometimes  green,  brown, 
purple,  and  even  black. 

Summing  up  these  characters  in  a short  definition,  you 
might  describe  your  sandstone  as  a stone  composed  of  worn, 
rounded  grains  of  various  other  stones  arranged  in 
layers. 

Proceed  now  in  the  same  way  with  the  piece  of  granite. 


a Primary  Rock,  which  has  been  thrown  up,  so  as  to  disturb  and  mix  itself  with  the  Secondary  Rocks. 
b Secondary  Rock,  thrown  into  inclinations  and  curves  by  the  rising  of  the  Primary  Rock. 
c Tertiary  Formation,  deposited  in  a hollow  formed  by  the  disturbance  of  the  Secondary  Rocks. 
d Basaltic  Columns,  e A fault  or  hitch  in  the  strata. 

The  Circles  are  boulders  or  detached  stones  rounded  by  traveling  in  water,  and  deposited  in  hollows  formed  by 
water. 

The  dots  indicate  beds  of  gravel,  immediately  beneath  the  soil. 


Take  the  piece  of  sandstone  in  your  hands  and  examine  it 
carefully,  using  even  a magnifying  glass  if  the  grains  are 
minute.  Then  write  down  each  of  the  characters  you  observe 
one  after  another.  You  will  of  course  pay  little  heed  to  the 
color,  for  sandstones,  like  books,  may  be  red  or  white,  green  or 
yellow,  or  indeed  of  almost  any  color.  Nor  will  you  give  much 
weight  to  the  hardness  or  softness  as  an  essential  character,  for 
you  may  find  even  in  a small  piece  of  the  stone  that  one  part 
is  quite  hard  while  a neighboring  place  is  soft  and  crumbling. 

If  your  piece  of  sandstone  has  been  well  chosen  for  you,  you 
will  be  able  to  write  down  the  following  characters  : — 

1.  The  stone  is  made  up  of  small  grains. 

2.  The  grains  are  all  more  or  less  rounded  or  worn. 

3.  By  scraping  the  surface  of  the  stone  these  rounded  grains 
can  be  separated  from  the  stone,  and  when  they  lie  in  this 
loose  state  they  are  seen  to  be  mere  grains  of  sand. 

4.  More  careful  examination  of  the  stone  shows  that  the 


You  find  at  once  a very  different  set  of  appearances,  but  after 
a little  time  you  will  be  able  to  make  out  and  to  write  down 
the  following  : — 

The  stone  contains  no  rounded  grains. 

It  is  composed  of  three  different  substances,  each  of  which 
has  a peculiar  crystalline  form.  Thus,  one  of  these,  called 
feldspar,  lies  in  long  smooth-faced,  sharply  defined  crystals  of 
a pale  flesh  color,  or  dull  white,  which  you  can  with  some 
difficulty  scratch  with  the  point  of  a knife.  Another,  termed 
mica,  lies  in  bright  glistening  plates,  which  you  can  easily 
scratch  and  split  up  into  thin  transparent  leaves.  If  you  com- 
pare these  shining  plates  with  the  little  silvery  spangles  in  the 
sandstone,  you  will  see  that  they  are  the  same  material.  The 
third,  named  quartz,  is  a very  hard,  clear,  glassy  substance 
on  which  your  knife  makes  no  impression,  but  which  you  may 
recognize  as  the  same  material  out  of  which  most  of  the  grains 
of  the  sandstone  are  made. 


GEOLOGY. 


694 


The  crystals  in  granite  do  not  occur  in  any  definite  order, 
but  are  scattered  at  random  through  the  whole  of  the  stone. 

Here  are  characters  strikingly  different  from  those  of  the 
sandstone.  You  might  make  out  of  them  such  a short  defini- 
tion as  this— Granite  is  a stone  composed  of  distinct  crys- 
tals, not  laid  down  in  layers,  but  irregularly  interlaced 
with  each  other. 

Lastly  go  through  the  same  process  of  examination  with 
your  piece  of  chalk.  At  first  sight  this  stone  seems  to  have 
no  distinct  characters  at  all.  It  is  a soft,  white,  crumbling 
substance,  soils  your  fingers  when  you  touch  it,  and  seems 
neither  to  have  grains  like  the  sandstone  nor  crystals  like  the 
granite.  You  will  need  to  use  a magnifying  glass,  or  even 
perhaps  a microscope,  to  see  what  the  real  nature  of  chalk  is. 
Take  a fine  brush  and  rub  off  a little  chalk  into  a glass  of 
clear  water  ; then  shake  the  water  gently  and  let  it  stand  fora 
while  until  you  see  a layer  of  sediment  on  the  bottom.  Pour 
off  the  water  and  place  a little  of  this  sediment  upon  a piece 
of  glass,  and  look  at  it  under  the  microscope  or  magnifying- 
glass.  You  will  find  it  to  have  strongly  marked  characters, 
which  might  be  set  down  thus  : — 

The  stone,  though  it  seems  to  the  eye  much  more  uniform 
in  its  texture  than  either  sandstone  or  granite,  is  made  up  of 
particles  resembling  each  other  in  color  and  composition, 
but  presenting  a variety  of  forms. 

It  consists  of  minute  shells,  pieces  of  coral,  fragments  of 
sponges,  and  white  particles,  which  are  evidently  the  broken- 
down  remains  of  shells. 

As  a brief  description  of  chalk  you  might  say  that  it  is  a 
stone  formed  out  of  the  remains  of  once  living  animals. 

You  should  repeat  this  kind  of  examination  again  and  again 
until  you  get  quite  familiar  with  the  characters  which  have 
been  written  down  here.  And  you  will  see  why  it  is  im- 
portant for  you  to  do  so  when  you  come  afterwards  to  find 
out  that  these  three  stones  are  examples  of  three  great  groups 
into  which  most  of  the  rocks  of  the  world  may  be  arranged. 
So  that  when  you  master  the  composition  of  a piece  of  sand- 
stone, or  chalk,  or  granite,  and  learn  how  each  stone  was 
formed,  you  not  only  do  that,  but  lay  a foundation  of  knowl- 
edge which  will  enable  you  to  understand  how  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  stones  of  our  mountains,  valleys,  and  sea- 
shores came  into  existence. 

In  spite  then  of  the  apparently  infinite  diversity  of  the 
stones  of  which  the  globe  is  built  up,  you  see  that  by  a little 
study  they  may  be  grouped  into  very  few  classes.  You  have 
to  follow  a simple  principle  of  classification,  and  each  stone 
you  may  meet  with  falls  naturally  into  its  own  proper  group. 
You  do  not  concern  yourselves  much  with  mere  outer  shape  and 
hue,  but  try  to  find  out  what  the  stone  is  made  of,  and  ask 
whether  it  should  be  placed  in  the  Sandstone  group,  or  in  the 
Granite  group,  or  in  the  Chalk  group. 

WHAT  STONES  HAVE  TO  TELL  US. 

We  take  again  our  three  pieces  of  stone — sandstone,  chalk, 
and  granite — and  compare  other  stones  with  them.  We  get 
out  of  town  to  the  nearest  pit  or  quarry  or  ravine,  to  any 
opening  in  fact,  either  natural  or  artificial,  which  will  enable 
us  to  see  down  beneath  the  grass  and  the  soil  of  the  surface. 


In  one  place  we  may  find  a clay-pit,  in  another  a sandstone 
quarry,  in  another  a railway  cutting  through  chalk  or  lime- 
stone, in  another  a deep  ravine  in  hard  rocks  with  a stream 
flowing  at  its  bottom.  It  does  not  matter  for  our  present 
purpose  what  the  nature  of  the  opening  be,  provided  it  shows 
us  what  lies  beneath  the  soil.  In  all  such  places  we  meet 
with  stone  of  some  kind,  or  of  many  different  kinds.  By  a 
little  practice  we  learn  that  these  various  sorts  of  stones  may 
be  usually  arranged  under  one  or  other  of  the  three  divisions. 
For  example,  a large  number  of  stones  will  be  found  answer- 
ing to  the  general  description  which  you  found  to  be  true  of 
sandstone.  These  will  of  course  be  placed  together  with  our 
piece  of  sandstone.  Another  considerable  quantity  of  stones 
will  be  met  with  made  up  wholly  or  almost  wholly  of  the  re- 
mains of  plants  or  of  animals.  These  we  arrange  in  the  same 
division  with  our  piece  of  chalk.  Lastly,  a good  many  stones 
may  be  met  with  built  up  of  crystals  of  different  kinds,  and 
these,  for  the  present  . we  class  together  with  our  piece  of 
granite. 

In  this  way  you  would  advance  from  the  mere  pieces  of 
stone  which  you  can  hold  in  your  hand,  up  to  the  masses  of 
stone  lying  under  a whole  parish  or  a county  or  even  the  en- 
tire kingdom. 

You  would  begin  to  perceive  that  the  different  kinds  of 
stone  are  not  scattered  at  random  over  the  country,  but  have 
each  their  own  places,  with  their  own  kinds  of  hills  or  val- 
leys. 

The  solid  earth  under  your  feet  has  a history  as  well  as  the 
people  who  have  lived  on  its  surface.  Take  Great  Britain  for 
example.  You  will  learn  that  once  agreat  part  of  this  country  as 
well  as  of  Europe  and  North  America  was  buried  under  ice  like 
Greenland.  Earlier  still  it  had  jungles  of  palms  and  other 
tropical  plants  ; yet  further  back  it  lay  beneath  a wide  deep 
ocean  ; and  beyond  that  time  can  be  traced  many  still  more 
remote  periods,  when  it  was  forest-covered  land  or  wide 
marshy  plains,  or  again  buried  under  the  great  sea.  Step  by 
step  you  may  follow  this  strange  history  backwards,  and  with 
as  much  certainty  as  you  trace  the  doings  of  Julius  Caesar,  or 
William  the  Conqueror. 

SEDIMENTARY  ROCKS. 

I.  What  Sediment  Is. 

To  each  of  these  groups  names  must  be  given.  We  might 
call  them  the  Sandstone  group,  the  Chalk  group,  and  the 
Granite  group.  But  it  happens  that  other  names  have  been 
already  in  use,  which  will  be  more  convenient.  Accordingly 
we  shall  refer  all  stones  having  characters  like  those  of  sand- 
stone to  the  Sedimentary  Rocks  ; those  formed  of  the  re- 
mains of  plants  or  animals,  as  chalk  is,  to  the  Organic 
Rocks  ; and  those  having  a crystalline  character,  like  our 
granite  group,  to  the  Igneous  Rocks.  The  meaning  of  these 
names  will  be  seen  as  we  proceed. 

The  word  “rock  ” is  applied  to  any  kind  of  natural  stone, 
whatever  may  be  its  hardness  or  softness.  In  this  sense, 
sand,  mud,  clay,  peat,  and  coal  are  rocks,  as  much  as  sand- 
stone, limestone,  or  granite. 

Sediment  is  something  which,  after  having  been  suspended 


GEOLOGY. 


695 


in  or  moved  along  by  water,  has  settled  down  upon  the  bot- 
tom. 

The  term  Sedimentary  Rocks  is  a very  expressive  one,  for 
it  includes  stones  formed  of  all  kinds  of  sediment,  whether 
coarse  or  fine. 

II.  How  Gravel,  Sand,  and  Mud  are  Made. 

You  have  taken  the  first  step  in  the  study  of  the  Sediment- 
ary Rocks — you  now  know  that  they  are  made  of  secernent, 
such  as  gravel,  sand,  and  mud.  How  then  are  gravel,  sand, 
and  mud  made  at  the  present  day  ? 

If  you  were  to  search  on  the  shore  of  the  sea,  or  on  the 
banks  of  a river,  you  could,  without  much  difficulty,  prove  in 
another  way  that  sand  and  gravel  only  differ  from  each  other 
in  the  size  of  their  grains. 

Let  us  get  away  up  among  the  hills,  and  watch  what  goes 
on  where  the  brooks  first  begin  to  flow.  Where  the  rocks  are 
hard  and  tough,  they  rise  out  of  the  hill-sides,  at  prominent 
crags  and  cliffs,  down  which  the  little  streamlets  dance  from 
ledge  to  ledge  before  they  unite  into  larger  streams  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  valleys.  Now  let  us  descend  the  brook  and  look 
at  its  channel  carefully  as  we  go.  The  red  fragments 
from  that  crag  will  be  easily  distinguishable  from  the  other 
dull  gray  stones,  which  have  been  detached  from  the  rest 
of  the  crags  on  either  side.  If  you  look  narrowly  at  the  bits 
of  stone  which  are  strewed  about  upon  the  slope  you  will 
notice  that  they  are  all  more  or  less  angular  in  shape,  that 
is  to  say,  they  have  sharp  edges.  But  those  in  the  brook  are 
not  quite  so  rough  nor  so  sharp-edged  as  those  on  the  bare 
hill-side  above.  Follow  the  brook  down  the  valley  for  some 
way  and  then  take  another  look  at  the  stones  in  the  bed  of 
the  stream.  You  do  not  now  find  so  many  big  blocks  of  the 
red  stone,  and  those  you  do  meet  with  are  more  rounded  and 
worn  than  they  were  near  the  crag.  They  have  grown  smooth 
and  polished,  their  edges  have  been  worn  off,  and  many  of 
them  are  well  rounded.  Once  more  you  make  a further  ex- 
amination still  lower  down  the  valley,  and  here  and  there 
where  the  stream  has  thrown  up  a bank  of  gravel,  you  find 
that  the  pieces  of  our  red  crag  have  been  so  well  ground  away 
that  they  now  form  part  of  an  ordinary  water-worn  gravel. 


III. — How  Gravel,  Sand,  and  Mud  Become  Sedimentary 
Rocks. 

So  long  as  a current  of  water  is  moving  swiftly  it  keeps  the 
gravel,  sand,  and  mud  from  settling  down  on  the  bottom.  A 
rapid  current  will  hurry  along,  not  only  mud  and  sand,  but 
even  gravel.  As  its  rapidity  flags,  first  the  gravel  will  sink  to 
the  bottom  as  a sediment,  the  sand  will  sink  more  slowly  and 
be  carried  farther,  while  the  mud  will  hang  in  the  water  for  a 
long  time,  travel  a much  greater  distance,  and  only  fall  with 
extreme  slowness  to  the  bottom. 

You  can  examine  the  bottom  of  a dried  up  pool  and  see  exactly 
what  took  place  when  the  muddy  water  filled  it.  Here  at  the 
upper  end  is  the  tongue  of  sand  pushed  out  from  the  shore  by 
the  streamlet.  You  recognize  it  as  a true  delta.  The  bottom 


of  the  rest  of  the  pool  is  covered  with  fine  muddy  silt  or  sand 
spread  out  over  all  the  space  on  which  the  water  lay. 

With  a knife  we  carefully  cut  a hole  or  trench  through  these 
deposits  on  the  floor  so  as  to  learn  what  they  consist  of  from 
top  to  bottom.  A cutting  of  this  kind  is  called  a Section,  and 
may  be  of  any  size.  The  steep  side  of  a brook,  the  wall  of  a 
ravine,  the  side  of  a quarry  or  railway-cutting,  a line  of  cliff, 
are  all  sections  of  the  rocks.  Let  us  see  what  our  section  has 
to  tell. 

In  the  center  of  the  little  basin  the  sediment  brought  in  by 
the  rain  has  accumulated  to  a depth,  let  us  say,  of  an  inch, 
below  which  lies  the  ordinary  surface  of  the  roadway.  Now 
what  feature  strikes  you  first  about  this  deposit  of  sediment 
when  you  come  to  look  at  the  section  which  we  have  cut 
through  it?  Are  the  materials  arranged  without  any  order? 
By  no  means.  The  materials  have  been  deposited  in  layers 
which  have  been  laid  down  flat  one  above  another.  Some  of 
these  layers  are  finer,  others  coarser  than  the  rest.  But 
whether  coarse  or  fine  they  all  show  the  same  general  arrange- 
ment in  level  lines. 

In  this  way  you  gradually  would  come  to  be  convinced  that 
one  grand  leading  feature  of  the  sedimentary  deposits  laid 
down  under  water  is  that  they  are  not  mere  random  heaps  of 
rubbish,  but  that  they  are  assorted  and  spread  over  each  other 
in  regular  layers.  This  kind  of  arrangement  is  called  Strati- 
fication, and  the  sediments  so  arranged  are  said  to  be  strati- 
fied. So  characteristic  is  this  mode  of  arrangement  among  the 
sedimentary  rocks  that  they  are  often  called  also  the  Stratified 
Rocks. 

The  sheets  of  sand,  gravel,  or  mud  which  can  be  seen  on 
the  sea-shore,  or  at  any  lake  or  pool  on  land,  are  soft  or  loose 
materials.  Sandstone,  conglomerate,  shale,  or  any  other 
sedimentary  rock,  is  usually  more  or  less  hard  or  com- 
pact. 

A sedimentary  rock  then  is  one  formed  from  sediment 
which  was  derived  from  the  waste  of  older  rocks,  and  de- 
posited in  water.  It  usually  shows  the  stratified  arrangement 
characteristic  of  water-formed  deposits.  Since  its  original 
formation  it  has  usually  been  hardened  into  stone  by  pressure 
or  infiltration. 

IV.  How  the  Remains  of  Plants  and  Animals  come  to 
be  Found  in  Sedimentary  Rocks. 

What  is  this  black  object  lying  on  the  upper  surface  of  that 
stone  ? You  see  at  once  that  it  has  the  form  of  a plant  and 
resembles  some  of  the  fern  tribe.  Examine  it  more  closely, 
and  tracing  the  delicate  veining  of  the  fronds,  you  cannot 
doubt  that,  although  no  longer  soft  and  green,  it  was  once  a 
living  fern.  It  has  been  changed  into  a black  substance 
which,  when  you  look  carefully  at  it,  proves  to  be  a kind  of 
coal.  Little  fragments  and  layers  of  the  same  black  coaly 
substance  may  occur  throughout  the  piece  of  shale.  If  you 
scrape  a little  off  and  put  it  upon  the  point  of  a knife,  you 
find  that  you  can  bum  away  the  black  material  while  the 
grains  of  sand  or  clay  remain  behind.  These  fragments  and 
layers  arc  evidently  only  leaves  and  bits  of  different  plants 
imbedded  at  the  same  time  as  the  larger  and  better  preserved 


GEOLOGY. 


09  0 


fern.  Now  how  did  plants  find  their  way  into  the  heart  of  a 
piece  of  stone  ? 

Rain  can  wash  away  leaves  and  other  pieces  of  plants,  and 
allow  them  to  drop  in  a pool,  where  they  become  interstrati- 
fied  with  the  silt,  that  is,  are  deposited  between  its  layers  and 
covered  over  by  it. 

You  can  now  see  therefore  how  it  is  that  pieces  of  ferns  or 
any  other  kind  of  land  plants  should  be  found  in  the  heart  of 
such  a solid  stone  as  our  bit  of  shale.  The  stone  was  once 
merely  so  much  sediment  laid  down  below  water,  and  the 
fragmentary  plants  were  drifted  away  from  the  place  where 
they  grew  until  at  last  they  were  buried  among  that  sediment. 

It  is  not  only  plants,  however,  which  occur  imbedded  in 
sedimentary  rocks.  You  will  notice  a number  of  shells  and 
other  animal  remains,  chiefly  trilobitcs,  that  is,  little  sea- 
creatures  belonging  to  the  same  great  tribe  with  our  common 
crab  and  lobster.  You  do  not  need  now  to  be  told  how  they 
came  there.  You  have  learnt  that  anything  lying  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sea  or  of  a lake  will  be  buried  in  sediment. 

Any  relic  of  a plant  or  animal  imbedded  in  rock  is  called  a 
Fossil. 

V.  A Quarry  and  its  Lessons. 

Let  us  suppose  ourselves  to  be  in  a quarry. 

In  the  first  place  what  feature  about  the  quarry  strikes  you 
most  forcibly  when  you  enter?  You  answer  readily,  the 
Stratification  of  the  rocks.  They  are  arranged  in  layers  or 
beds,  one  above  another,  in  that  stratified  arrangement  which 
you  have  found  to  be  so  characteristic  of  rocks  laid  down  as 
sediment  under  water. 

In  the  second  place,  you  observe  that  they  do  not  all  consist 
of  the  same  materials.  Some  are  of  fine  conglomerate,  others 
of  various  kinds  of  sandstone,  and  some  of  different  sorts  of 
shales  or  clays.  These  beds  or  strata  as  they  are  called, 
alternate  irregularly  with  each  other,  just  as  gravel,  sand, 
and  mud  might  be  found  alternating  in  the  delta  of  a river 
or  under  the  sea. 

In  the  third  place,  let  us  ask  you  to  point  out  which  are  the 
oldest  of  the  beds.  You  answer  without  hesitation  that  those 
at  the  bottom  of  the  quarry  must  be  the  oldest,  because  they 
certainly  were  deposited  before  those  lying  above  them.  In 
all  such  cases  the  beds  at  the  bottom  are  the  oldest,  and  those 
at  the  top  the  newest.  This  arrangement  of  one  bed  or 
stratum  above  another  is  called  the  Order  of  Superposition. 

We  split  open  some  of  the  lower  beds  of  sandstone  and  find 
their  surfaces  often  covered  with  markings.  If  you  have  ever 
walked  along  a flat  sandy  beach  you  must  have  noticed  the 
ripple-marks  which  the  shallow  rippling  water  leaves  on  the 
soft  sand.  They  are  precisely  like  those  on  the  sandstone. 
You  may  see  them  too  along  the  shelving  margin  of  a lake, 
indeed  whatever  water  has  been  thrown  by  the  wind  into  little 
wavelets  over  a sandy  bottom.  They  betoken  shallow  water. 
Hence  we  have  learnt  one  important  fact  from  our  quarry,  as 
to  the  origin  of  these  rocks  : viz.,  that  they  were  not  deposited 
in  a deep  sea,  but  in  shallow  water. 

We  look  still  further  among  these  strata,  and  notice  at  last 
that  some  of  them  are  curiously  covered  with  little  round  pits, 
about  the  size  of  peas  or  less.  How  did  these  markings  come 


there?  You  know  that  when  drops  of  rain  fall  upon  a smooth 
surface  of  moist  sand,  such  as  that  of  the  beach,  they  each 
make  a little  dent  on  it. 

Here  then  is  another  fact  which  throws  still  more  light  on 
the  history  of  these  rocks.  The  ripple-marks  show  that  the 
water  must  have  been  shallow  ; the  rain  prints  prove  that  it 
must  have  risen  along  a beach  liable,  now  and  then,  to  be  laid 
dry  to  the  air  and  rain.  Now  can  we  tell  whether  the  water 
was  salt  or  fresh  ? in  other  words,  was  this  beach  the  shore  of  a 
lake,  or  of  the  sea  ? 

Again  we  turn  to  the  rocks  themselves,  and  from  some  of 
the  layers  of  shale  we  pick  out  a number  of  fossils,  which 
enable  us  to  answer  the  question. 

ORGANIC  ROCKS,  OR  ROCKS  FORMED  OF 
THE  REMAINS  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS. 

I.  Rocks  Formed  of  the  Remains  of  Plants. 

Since  the  leaves,  branches,  and  stems  of  plants,  and  the 
shells  or  other  remains  of  animals,  are  sometimes  scattered  so 
abundantly  through  ordinary  sedimentary  rocks,  it  is  easy  to 
see  that  sometimes  they  may  occur  in  such  quantity  as  to  form 
great  deposits  of  themselves.  You  could  hardly  call  such 
deposits  sedimentary,  in  the  same  sense  in  which  common 
shale  and  sandstone  are  so  named.  We  may  term  them  Or- 
ganic Rocks,  or,  Organically  derived  Rocks,  because 
they  owe  their  origin  to  the  accumulation  of  what  are  called 
organic  remains,  or  fossils,  that  is,  the  remains  of  plants  or 
animals.  A plant  or  animal  lives,  moves,  and  grows  by  means 
of  what  are  called  organs.  For  instance,  we  walk  by  using 
our  legs,  which  are  our  organs  of  locomotion ; we  speak  with 
our  mouth,  which  contains  our  organs  of  speech  ; we  see  by 
means  of  eyes,  which  are  our  organs  of  sight ; and  so  on. 
Every  object,  therefore,  which  possesses  organs  is  said  to  be 
organized  or  to  be  an  organism.  So  that  when  you  see  this 
word  organism  you  will  remember  that  it  means  either  a plant 
or  an  animal,  for  it  is  only  plants  and  animals  which  are  really 
organized. 

We  begin  with  those  rocks  which  have  been  formed  out  of 
the  remains  of  plants.  As  an  illustration  let  us  ask  you  to 
examine  carefully  a piece  of  coal.  If  you  master  all  that  it 
has  to  tell  you,  you  will  not  have  much  difficulty  in  tracing 
out  the  history  of  other  rocks  belonging  to  this  series. 

Now  look  at  one  end  of  a lump  of  coal,  where  the  edges  ol 
the  layers  are  exposed.  You  cannot  follow  them  with  the 
same  ease  as  in  the  case  of  a piece  of  shale,  for  they  seem  to 
blend  into  one  another.  But  you  may  notice  that  among  the 
layers  of  hard,  bright,  glossy  substance,  there  occur  others  of  a 
soft  material  like  charcoal.  A mere  general  look  at  such  a 
piece  of  coal  would  show  you  that  it  is  stratified. 

You  know  that  coal  can  be  burnt  away  so  as  to  leave  only 
ashes  behind,  and  that  in  this  respect  it  resembles  wood  and 
peat.  Chemists  have  analyzed  coal  and  found  that  it  consists 
of  the  same  materials  as  wood  or  peat,  and  that  in  reality  it  is 
only  so  much  vegetation  which  has  been  pressed  together,  and 
gradually  changed  into  the  black  substance  now  used  as  fuel. 

Let  us  suppose  ourselves  at  a coal  mine.  Now,  first  of  all, 
you  see  that  the  coal  occurs  as  a bed,  having  a thickness  of  a 


GEOLOGY. 


697 


few  feet.  This  bedded  character  agrees  with  what  you  have 
already  noticed  as  to  the  internal  layers  in  the  stone,  and  con- 
firms you  in  believing  that  coal  is  a stratified  rock.  Next  ob- 
serve that  the  pavement  on  which  the  coal  rests,  and  the  roof 
which  covers  it,  are  both  made  of  very  different  materials  from 
the  coal  itself.  Were  you  to  cut  a trench  or  section  through 
pavement,  coal,  and  roof,  you  would  prove  beyond  any  doubt 
that  the  bed  of  coal  lies  among  beds  of  common  sedimentary 
rocks. 

You  are  driven  to  conclude  that  in  truth  the  under-clay  is 
an  old  soil,  and  the  bed  of  coal  represents  the  vegeta- 
tion which  grew  upon  it. 

II.  Rocks  Formed  out  of  the  Remains  of  Animals. 

It  is  on  the  floor  of  the  great  sea  that  the  most  wonderful 
examples  occur  of  the  way  in  which  rocks  are  gradually  built 
up  from  the  remains  of  animals  to  a depth  of  many  hundreds 
or  thousands  of  feet,  and  over  distances  of  many  hundreds  of 
miles. 

To  the  west  of  Britain  the  Atlantic  soon  and  suddenly 
deepens.  Its  floor  then  stretches  away  to  Newfoundland  as  a 
vast  plain,  the  lowest  part  of  which  is  about  14,000  feet  below 
the  waves.  It  was  over  this  wide  submarine  plain  that  the 
telegraph  cables  had  to  be  laid,  and  hence  numerous  sound- 
ings were  made  all  the  way  across  from  Ireland  to  the  Ameri- 
can coast.  While  in  the  shallower  parts  of  the  sea  the  bottom 
was  found  to  be  covered  with  sand,  gravel,  or  mud,  from  the 
deeper  parts  there  came  up  with  the  sounding-lead  a peculiar 
gray  sticky  substance  known  as  ooze,  which  must  stretch  over 
that  wide  deep-sea  basin  for  many  thousands  of  square  miles. 
This  ooze  when  dried  looks  like  a dirty  kind  of  chalk.  After 
the  lapse  of  centuries,  if  the  deposit  were  to  remain  undis- 
turbed, and  if  we  could  set  a watch  to  measure  its  growth,  we 
should  find  it  to  have  risen  upward  and  to  have  inclosed  the 
remains  of  any  star-fishes  or  other  sea-creatures  which  chanced 
to  die  and  leave  their  remains  upon  the  bottom.  Hundreds 
of  feet  of  such  slow-formed  deposit  have  no  doubt  already  been 
laid  down  over  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  between  Ireland  and 
Newfoundland.  Here  then  is  a second  and  notable  example 
of  how  a deep  and  far-spread  mass  of  rock  may  be  formed  out 
of  the  remains  of  animals. 

IGNEOUS  ROCKS. 

I.  What  Igneous  Rocks  Are. 

This  word  igneous  means  literally  fiery.  It  does  not  very 
accurately  describe  the  rocks  to  which  it  is  applied,  but  it  has 
long  been  in  use  to  include  all  rocks  which  have  been  actually 
melted  within  the  earth,  or  which  have  been  thrown  out  at  the 
surface  by  the  action  of  volcanoes.  So  that  the  Igneous- Rocks 
owe  their  origin  to  some  of  the  effects  of  the  internal  heat  of 
the  earth. 

You  will  find  that  the  solid  materials  cast  up  by  volcanoes 
are  of  two  kinds — 1st,  streams  of  molten  rock  called  Lava, 
poured  down  the  sides  of  a volcanic  mountain  during  an  erup- 
tion : and  2d,  immense  quantities  of  dust,  sand,  and  stones, 
cast  up  into  the  air  from  the  mouth  of  the  volcano,  and  falling 
down  upon  the  mountain,  sometimes  even  all  over  the  sur- 
rounding country  for  a distance  of  many  miles. 


Here  then  are  two  very  dissimilar  kinds  of  rock-material 
discharged  from  the  interior  of  the  globe.  The  lava  cools  and 
hardens  into  a solid  rock.  The  loose  ashes  and  stones,  like- 
wise, are  in  time  pressed  and  hardened  into  more  or  less  firm 
beds  of  stone.  So  that  two  totally  distinct  kinds  of  rock  are 
laid  down  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth  by  the  volcano.  In  the 
case  of  the  lava,  the  rock,  if  you  look  at  it  with  a magnifying 
glass,  is  seen  to  be  made  up  of  distinct  crystals  all  matted 
together.  The  beds  of  ashes,  on  the  other  hand,  no  matter 
how  compact  they  may  have  become,  are  found  to  be  made 
up  of  irregular  fragments  of  various  kinds  of  stone,  and  of 
all  sizes,  from  the  finest  dust  up  to  big  blocks.  By  attending 
to  this  very  simple  and  intelligible  difference  you  could 
arrange  igneous  rocks  into  two  great  groups — 1st,  the  Crys- 
talline, that  is,  those  which  are  made  up  of  crystals,  and 
which  have  once  been  in  a melted  state  ; and  2d,  the  Frag- 
mental, that  is,  those  which  consist  of  the  loose  materials 
thrown  out  during  volcanic  explosions. 

Crystalline  Igneous  Rocks. — When  the  rock  was  still 
melted  it  was  full  of  imprisoned  steam  and  gas  which  were  con- 
stantly striving  to  escape  to  the  surface.  It  was  this  steam 
which  collected  into  little  bubbles  and  formed  the  curious  set 
of  holes  in  the  mass  of  the  still  molten  rock.  In  the  same 
way  the  holes  which  you  often  see  in  the  heart  of  a loaf  of 
bread  were  formed  by  the  struggles  of  the  steam  to  escape  from 
the  dough  as  it  was  heated  in  the  oven. 

There  are  Fragmental  Igneous  Rocks. — Now  this  is 
the  kind  of  material  under  which  the  old  Roman  city  of  Pom- 
peii was  buried.  It  fell  upon  the  streets  and  houses  and  grad- 
ually covered  them  up  as  the  eruption  of  the  neighboring  vol- 
cano continued.  And  at  this  day  the  workmen  find  the  streets 
and  chambers  all  choked  up  with  layers  of  coarser  and  finer 
volcanic  ash  and  dust. 

These  masses  of  consolidated  volcanic  dust  and  stones  are 
known  by  the  name  of  T uff. 

II.  Where  Igneous  Rocks  Come  From. 

If  we  ask  you  from  what  source  the  Igneous  Rocks  have 
been  derived,  you  will  reply  that  they  have  come  up  from 
the  intensely  hot  regions  within  the  earth. 

Deep  Borings  and  Mines. — If  you  were  taken  down  to 
the  bottom  of  a deep  mine  in  the  United  States,  you  would 
find  the  temperature  much  warmer  there  than  near  the  sur- 
face, and  a similar  increase  of  heat  would  meet  you  in  the 
deep  mines  of  every  country  in  the  world.  You  would  soon 
discover,  too,  that  on  the  whole  the  deeper  the  mine  the 
greater  the  warmth  would  be.  In  the  same  way  were  you  to 
bore  a deep  narrow  hole  into  the  earth  for  several  hundreds 
of  feet  and  let  a thermometer  down  to  the  bottom,  you  would 
find  that  the  mercury  would  rise  in  the  tube. 

Experiments  of  this  kind  have  been  made  all  over  the  globe, 
with  the  result  of  showing  that  after  we  get  down  for  a short 
and  variable  distance  below  the  surface,  we  reach  a temperature 
which  remains  the  same  all  the  year,  and  that  underneath  that 
limit  the  temperature  rises  about  1°  Fahrenheit  for  every  fifty 
or  sixty  feet  of  descent.  If  this  rate  of  increase  continues,  we 
should  get  uncomfortably  hot  before  having  descended  very 
far.  For  instance,  at  a depth  of  about  two  miles  water  would 


GEOLOGY. 


be  at  its  boiling-point,  and  at  depths  of  twenty-five  or  thirty 
miles,  the  metals  would  have  the  same  temperatures  as  those 
at  which  they  respectively  melt  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  It 
is  clear  from  this  kind  of  evidence  that  the  inside  of  our 
planet  must  be  in  an  intensely  heated  condition. 

In  many  parts  of  the  world  Hot  Springs  occur.  To  keep 
up  such  hot  springs  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe  there  must 
assuredly  be  great  stores  of  heat  within  the  earth. 

Neither  the  heat  of  deep  mines  nor  of  hot  springs  affords 
such  an  impressive  lesson  as  to  the  earth’s  internal  high  tem- 
perature as  is  furnished  by  Volcanoes.  The  hot  vapors  and 
steam  which  rise  from  the  craters  of  volcanoes,  the  torrents 
of  hot  water  which  sometimes  issue  from  their  sides,  the 
streams  of  molten  lava  which  break  out  and  roll  far  down  the 
slopes  of  a volcanic  mountain,  burning  up  and  burying  trees, 
fields,  gardens,  and  villages — are  all  tokens  of  the  intense 
heat  of  the  inside  of  the  earth  from  which  they  come. 

At  the  present  time  there  are,  it  is  said,  about  270  volcanoes 
either  constantly  or  at  intervals  throwing  out  steam,  hot  ashes, 
and  lava,  in  different  parts  of  the  globe.  Even  among  the 
perpetual  snows  of  the  South  Polar  regions  they  have  been 
met  with,  and  also  far  within  the  Arctic  Circle  at  the  Island 
of  Jan  Mayen. 

But  besides  these  volcanoes  which  are  still  active,  many  others 
occur  from  which  no  eruptions  have  ever  been  seen  to  take 
take  place,  and  which  are  therefore  called  dormant  or  extinct. 

But  in  igneous  rocks  you  do  not  see  the  only  evidence  of 
how  the  internal  heat  affects  the  surface  of  the  earth.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  Earthquakes  must  be  mainly  due  to 
commotions  which  take  their  origin  from  the  effects  of  this 
heat. 

> Perhaps  you  will  ask,  why,  since  the  inside  of  the  planet  is 
so  hot,  does  it  not  melt  the  outside,  or  at  least  why  is  the  out- 
side not  warmer  ? There  can  be  no  doubt  that  at  one  time, 
many  millions  of  years  ago,  the  globe  was  immensely  hotter 
than  it  is  now.  In  fact  it  then  resembled  our  burning  sun,  of 
which  it  once  probably  formed  a part,  and  from  which  it  and 
the  other  planets  were  one  by  one  detached.  During  the  vast 
interval  which  has  passed  away  since  then  it  has  been  gradu- 
ally cooling,  and  thus  the  heat  in  the  inside  is  only  the  re- 
mains of  that  fierce  heat  which  once  marked  the  whole  planet. 
The  outer  parts  have  cooled  and  become  solid,  but  they  are 
bad  conductors  of  heat,  and  allow  the  heat  from  the  inside  to 
pass  away  into  space  only  with  extreme  slowness.  Hence,  in 
spite  of  the  high  temperature  of  the  interior,  we  are  not  sensi- 
ble that  it  warms  the  outer  surface  of  the  earth. 

You  are  already  familiar  with  the  fact  that  bodies  expand 
when  they  are  heated,  and  contract  as  they  cool.  When  the 
earth  was  vastly  hotter  than  now  it  must  also  have  filled  more 
space.  While  cooling  it  has  been  contracting.  As  it  is  still 
cooling  it  must  be  still  contracting,  but  so  slowly  that  on  the 
whole  we  are  not  sensible  of  the  process.  But  some  of  the 
effects  are  visible  enough  among  the  rocks. 

THE  CRUST  OF  THE  EARTH. 

I.  Proofs  that  Parts  of  the  Crust  have  been  Pushed  Up. 

This  solid  rocky  outer  part  of  the  earth  on  which  we  live, 


into  which  men  sink  mines  and  out  of  which  springs  arise,  is 
called  the  Earth’s  Crust. 

The  rocks  of  which  this  crust  consists  belong  mostly  to  the 
Sedimentary  series,  a large  number  to  the  Organic  series,  and 
a smaller,  but  still  considerable  proportion,  to  the  Igneous 
series. 

II.  Proofs  that  Parts  of  the  Crust  have  Sunk  Down. 

Submerged  Forests,  are  to  be  regarded  as  evidence  of 
subsidence  of  the  earth’s  surface,  just  as  the  raised  beaches  are 
taken  as  proofs  of  upheaval. 

The  beds  of  coal,  for  example,  which  once  flourished  as 
green  forests  at  the  surface,  are  now  found  buried  deep  within 
the  earth. 

Two  facts  are  now  very  clear  to  you  about  the  crust  of  the 
earth — 1st,  it  has  often  been  pushed  outward,  so  as  to  rise 
above  the  level  of  the  sea  ; and  2d,  it  has  also  often  sunk  in- 
ward so  as  to  carry  parts  of  the  land  deep  beneath  the  sea-level. 
But  it  could  not  undergo  these  movements  without  suffering 
other  changes. 

III.  Proofs  that  the  Rocks  of  the  Earth’s  Crust  have 
been  Tilted,  Crumpled,  and  Broken. 

The  crust  of  the  earth,  instead  of  being  made  of  regular  lay- 
ers one  above  another,  like  the  coats  of  an  onion,  has  been  so 
squeezed  and  fractured,  that  in  many  cases  the  bottom  or  old- 
est rocks  have  been  pushed  up  far  above  the  newest. 

Wherever,  therefore,  strata  are  pushed  up  or  let  down  more 
at  one  place  than  at  another,  without  being  actually  broken 
across,  they  must  be  thrown  into  an  inclined  position.  Now 
this  unequal  and  irregular  kind  of  movement  has  taken  place 
many  times  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  If  you  look  at  the 
stratified  rocks,  in  most  parts  of  this  and  other  countries,  you 
will  seldom  find  them  quite  flat — usually  they  are  inclined, 
sometimes  gently,  sometimes  steeply,  so  that  they  have  not 
only  been  upheaved  out  of  the  sea,  but  have  been  moved  ir- 
regularly and  unequally. 

IV.  The  Origin  of  Mountains. 

First  of  all,  then,  when  any  chain  of  mountains  is  examined 
it  is  found  to  be  made  of  rocks  belonging  to  one  or  more  of 
the  three  great  classes  with  which  you  are  already  acquainted. 
In  particular,  the  great  mass  of  most  mountain  chains  consists 
of  various  kinds  of  stratified  rocks — such  as  sandstones,  con- 
glomerates, limestones,  and  others.  Now  you  have  found  that 
these  rocks  have  been  laid  down  under  water,  most  of  them 
under  the  sea.  They  often  contain  the  remains  of  shells, 
corals,  sea-urchins,  or  other  marine  creatures,  and  these  re 
mains  may  be  taken  out  of  the  rocks  even  at  the  summits  of 
the  mountains.  No  clearer  proof  than  this  could  be  required 
to  show  that  mountains  are  not  so  old  as  “the  beginning  of 
things,”  for  these  fossils  prove  that  where  the  mountains  now 
stand  wide  seas  once  rolled. 

Again,  mountains  which  consist  of  rocks  formed  originally 
under  the  sea  must  owe  their  existence  to  some  force  which 
could  raise  up  the  bed  of  the  sea  into  high  land.  As  a con- 
sequence of  the  slow  cooling  of  our  planet,  its  outer  crust,  un- 
der the  enormous  strain  of  contraction,  has  been  forced  up  into 


GEOLOGY. 


699 


ridges  in  different  places,  with  wide  sunken  spaces  between. 
The  ridges  form  mountain  chains,  while  the  sunken  spaces  are 
filled  with  the  waters  of  the  ocean.  If  you  look  at  a map  of 
the  world  you  may  trace  out  the  principal  lines  of  elevation, 
as  they  are  called,  over  the  globe. 

The  same  forces  which  have  carved  out  valleys  and  left 
mountain  ridges  standing  out  between  them  are  still  busy  at 
their  work.  Every  year  adds  to  the  waste.  And  thus,  although 
when  we  gaze  at  a mountain-chain  we  know  that  first  of  all 
it  was  heaved  up  by  movements  from  below,  we  nevertheless 
learn  to  recognize  that  all  the  familiar  forms  which  it  now 
assumes  have  since  that  early  time  of  upheaval  been  carved 
upon  it  by  the  very  same  forces — rains,  frosts,  springs, 
glaciers,  and  the  rest — which  are  busy  sculpturing  its  surface 
still. 

V.  How  the  Rocks  of  the  Crust  Tell  the  History  of 
the  Earth. 

What  papers  and  inscriptions,  coins  and  books  are 
to  the  historian,  the  rocks  of  the  earth’s  crust  are  to  the 
geologist.  They  contain  all  the  real  evidence  at  his  disposal. 
What  he  can  gather  from  them  at  one  place  must  be  com- 
pared with  what  he  collects  from  them  at  another.  He  must 
journey  far  and  wide  in  search  of  facts  which  are  not  to  be 
found  at  his  own  door.  Gaps  will  certainly  occur,  which  even 
the  skill  and  industry  of  many  years  may  never  completely 
bridge  over;  for  the  rocks,  as  we  have  aheady  seen,  are  sub- 
ject to  revolutions  quite  as  destructive  in  their  way  as  those 


which  have  swept  away  the  archives  of  cities  and  nations. 
The  geologist,  therefore,  can  only  at  the  best  produce  an  im- 
perfect chronicle.  But  it  is  one  which  has  a profound  interest 
for  all  of  us,  for  it  is  the  story  of  our  own  globe — of  its  con- 
tinents and  oceans,  its  mountains  and  valleys,  its  rivers  and 
lakes,  of  the  tribes  of  plants  and  animals  which  people  its  sur- 
face, and  of  the  advent  and  progress  of  man  himself. 

Geological  history  brings  before  us,  in  this  way,  many  facts 
well  calculated  to  impress  our  minds  with  the  great  antiquity 
of  our  planet,  and  with  the  marvelous  chain  of  changes  by 
which  the  present  order  of  things  has  been  brought  about. 
We  learn  from  it  that  mountains  and  valleys  have  not  come 
suddenly  into  existence,  such  as  we  now  see  them,  but  have 
been  formed  gradually,  by  a long  series  of  processes  similar  to 
those  which  are  even  now  slowly  doing  the  same  work.  We 
discover  that  every  part  of  the  land  under  our  feet  can  yield 
us  up  its  story,  if  we  only  know  how  to  question  it.  And, 
strangest  of  all,  we  find  that  the  races  of  plants  and  animals 
which  now  tenant  land  and  sea,  are  not  the  first  or  original  races, 
but  that  they  were  preceded  by  others,  these  again  by  others 
still  more  remote.  We  see  that  there  has  been  upon  the  earth 
a history  of  living  things,  as  well  as  of  dead  matter.  At  the 
beginning  of  that  wonderful  history  we  detect  traces  merely  of 
lowly  forms,  like  the  foraminifera  of  the  Atlantic  ooze.  At  the 
end  we  are  brought  face  to  face  with  man — thinking,  working, 
restless  man,  battling  steadily  with  the  powers  of  nature,  and 
overcoming  them  one  by  one,  by  learning  how  to  obey  the 
laws  which  direct  them. 


700 


OUR  NEXT  DOOR  NEIGHBORS,  CANADA  AND  MEXICO. 


CANADA. 


(Dominion  of  Canada.) 

CONSTITUTION  and  Government.— The 

Dominion  of  Canada  consists  of  the  provinces 
of  Ontario,  Quebec — formerly  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada — Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Mani- 
toba, British  Columbia,  and  Prince  Edward  Is- 
land. They  were  united  under  the  provisions 
of  an  Act  of'  the  Imperial  Parliament  passed  in 
March,  1867,  known  as  “The  British  North  Amer- 
ica Act,  1867,”  which  came  into  operation  on  the 
1st  July,  1867,  by  royal  proclamation.  The  Act  orders  that 
the  constitution  of  the  Dominion  shall  be  “ similar  in  princi- 
ple to  that  of  the  United  Kingdom  that  the  executive  au- 
thority shall  be  vested  in  the  Sovereign  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  and  carried  on  in  her  name  by  a Governor-General 
and  Privy  Council  ; and  that  the  legislative  power  shall  be 
exercised  by  a Parliament  of  two  Houses,  called  the  “ Senate,” 
and  the  “ House  of  Commons.”  Provision  is  made  in  the 
Act  for  the  admission  of  Newfoundland,  still  independent 
province  of  British  North  America,  into  the  Dominion  of 
Canada. 

The  members  of  the  Senate  of  the  Parliament  of  the  Do- 
minion are  nominated  for  life,  by  summons  of  the  Governor- 
General  under  the  Great  Seal  of  Canada.  By  the  terms  of 
the  constitution,  there  are  77  senators,  namely,  24  from  the 
Province  of  Ontario,  2 ^ from  Quebec,  10  from  Nova  Scotia, 
io  from  New  Brunswick,  2 from  Manitoba,  3 from  British 
Columbia,  and  4 from  Prince  Edward  Island.  Each  senator 
must  be  30  years  of  age,  a born  or  naturalized  subject,  and 
possessed  of  property,  real  or  personal,  of  the  value  of  4,000 
dollars  in  the  province  for  which  he  is  appointed.  The  House 
of  Commons  of  the  Dominion  is  elected  by  the  people,  for 
five  years,  at  the  rate  of  one  representative  for  every  17,000 
souls.  At  present,  on  the  basis  of  the  census  returns  of  1871, 
the  House  of  Commons  consists  of  206  members,  namely,  88 
for  Ontario,  65  for  Quebec,  21  for  Nova  Scotia,  16  for  New 
Brunswick,  4 for  Manitoba,  6 for  British  Columbia,  and  6 for 
Prince  Edward  Island. 

The  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  are  elected  by 
constituencies,  varying  in  the  different  provinces.  In  Ontario 


and  Quebec  a vote  is  given  to  every  male  subject  being  the 
owner  or  occupier  or  tenant  of  real  property  of  the  assessed 
value  of  300  dollars,  or  of  the  yearly  value  of  30  dollars,  if 
within  cities  or  towns,  or  of  the  assessed  value  of  200  dollars, 
or  the  yearly  value  of  20  dollars,  if  not  so  situate.  In  New 
Brunswick  a vote  is  given  to  every  male  subject  of  the  age  of 
21  years,  assessed  in  respect  of  real  estate  to  the  amount  of 
100  dollars,  or  of  personal  property,  or  personal  and  real, 
amounting  together  to  400  dollars,  or  400  dollars  annual  in- 
come. In  Nova  Scotia  the  franchise  is  with  all  subjects  of 
the  age  of  21  years,  assessed  in  respect  of  real  estate  to  the 
value  of  150  dollars,  or  in  respect  of  personal  estate,  or  of 
real  and  personal  together,  to  the  value  of  400  dollars.  Voting 
in  Quebec,  Ontario,  Nova  Scotia,  Manitoba,  British  Colum- 
bia, and  Prince  Edward  Island  is  open  ; but  in  New  Bruns- 
wick votes  are  taken  by  ballot. 

The  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  has  a salary  of 
4,000  dollars  per  annum,  and  each  member  an  allowance  of 
10  dollars  per  diem,  up  to  the  end  of  30  days,  and  for  a ses- 
sion lasting  longer  than  this  period,  the  sum  of  1,000  dollars, 
with,  in  every  case,  10  cents  per  mile  for  traveling  expenses. 
The  sum  of  8 dollars  per  diem  is  deducted  for  every  day’s  ab- 
sence of  a member,  unless  the  same  is  caused  by  illness. 
There  is  the  same  allowance  for  the  members  of  the  Senate 
of  the  Dominion. 

The  seven  provinces  forming  the  Dominion  have  each  a 
separate  parliament  and  administration,  with  a Lieutenant- 
Governor  at  the  head  of  the  executive.  They  have  full  pow- 
ers to  regulate  their  own  local  affairs,  dispose  of  their  revenues, 
and  enact  such  laws  as  they  may  deem  best  for  their  own 
internal  welfare,  provided  only  they  do  not  interfere  with,  ox 
are  adverse  to,  the  action  and  policy  of  the  central  adminis- 
tration under  the  Governor-General. 

Governor- General. — Rt.  Hon.  Sir  John  Douglas  Sutherland 
Campbell,  Marquis  of  Lome,  K.T.,  G.C.M.G.,  born  August 
6,  1845,  eldest  son  of  the  eighth  duke  of  Argyle  ; educated  at 
Eton,  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  ; returned  to  Parlia- 
ment for  Argyllshire,  February,  1868  ; married  March  21, 
1871,  to  Princess  Louise,  daughter  of  Queen  Victoria  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  Appointed  Governor-General  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada  and  of  British  North  America,  October 
14,  1878  ; assumed  the  Government,  December  7,  1878. 


UBRMW 
OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF 


ILLINOIS 


OUR  NEXT  DOOR  NEIGHBORS,  CANADA  AND  MEXICO. 


701 


The  Governor-General  has  a salary  of  10,000/.  per  annum. 
He  is  assisted  in  his  functions,  under  the  provisions  of  the 
Act  of  1867,  by  a Council,  composed  of  thirteen  heads  of  de- 
partments. 

The  present  Council  was  formed  October  17,  1878. 

Each  of  the  ministers  has  a salary,  fixed  by  statute,  of 
7,000  dollars,  or  1,400/.  a year,  with  the  exception  of  the  rec- 
ognized Prime  Minister,  who  has  8,000,  or  1,600/.  per  an- 
num. The  body  of  ministers  is  officially  known  as  the 
“Queen’s  Privy  Council  for  the  Dominion  of  Canada.” 

Church  and  Education. — There  is  no  State  Church  in 
the  Dominion,  nor  in  the  whole  of  British  North  America. 
The  Church  of  England  is  governed  by  nine  bishops  ; the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  by  four  archbishops  and  fourteen 
bishops  ; and  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada — formed  in 
1875  by  the  union  of  two  formerly  distinct  bodies — by  pres- 
byteries, synods,  and  an  annual  assembly  presided  over  by 
moderators.  The  number  of  members  of  each  religious  creed 
in  the  Dominion  was  as  follows  at  the  census  of  April  3, 
1871  : 


Roman  Cathoiics 1,492,029 

Presbyterians 544.99s 

Anglicans 494,049 

Wesleyans  and  Methodists  567,091 

Baptists 239,343 

Total  


Lutherans 37,935 

Congregationalists 21,829 

Miscellaneous  creeds 65.857 

Of  “no  religion” 5,575 

No  creed  stated 17,055 


3,485,76: 


The  census  returns,  besides  the  broad  religious  divisions 
here  given,  signalize  a multitude  of  sectarian  creeds,  includ- 
ing “ Second  Adventists,”  “ Disciples,”  “ Bible  Christians,” 
“ Tunkers,”  “ Mennonists,”  “Universalists,”  and  “Mormons.” 
Roman  Catholicism  prevails  most  extensively  in  the  province 
of  Quebec,  formerly  Lower  Canada,  the  number  of  its  ad- 
herents there,  1871,  amounting  to  1,019,850,  or  nearly  85  per 
cent,  of  the  total  of  the  Dominion.  In  the  province  of  On- 
tario, formerly  Upper  Canada,  the  number  of  Roman  Catholics 
in  1871  was  274,162  ; while  the  Church  of  England  numbered 
330,965,  and  the  Presbyterians  356,442  adherents. 

The  provinces  of  Quebec  and  Ontario  have  separate  school 
laws,  adapted  to  the  religious  elements  prevailing  in  either. 
Each  township  in  Ontario  is  divided  into  several  school  sec- 
tions, according  to  the  requirements  of  its  inhabitants.  The 
common  schools  are  supported  partly  by  government,  and 
partly  by  local  self-imposed  taxation,  and  occasionally  by  the 
payment  of  a small  fee  for  each  scholar.  All  teachers  must 
pass  an  examination  before  a county  board  of  education,  or 
receive  a license  from  the  provincial  Normal  School,  em- 
powering them  to  teach,  before  they  can  claim  the  government 
allowance. — (Official  Communication.) 

Revenue  and  Expenditure.— The  financial  accounts  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  are  made  up  under  three  different 
headings,  namely,  first  “Consolidated  Fund,”  comprising  the 
general  sources  of  revenue,  and  branches  of  expenditure  ; 
secondly,  “Loans”  in  revenue,  and  “Redemption”  with 
“Premiums  and  Discounts,”  in  expenditure;  and,  thirdly, 
“Open  Accounts.”  The  total  actual  revenue,  under  these 
three  divisions,  was  as  follows  in  the  financial  year  ending 
]une  30,  187Q  : 


Consolidated  Fund $22,517,382  14 

Loans 23,189,908  33 

Open  Accounts 6,771,874  62 

Total $52,479,165  09 

£10,495,833 

The  actual  sources  of  revenue,  comprised  under  the  division 
called  Consolidated  Fund,  embracing  all  the  ordinary  receipts, 
were  as  follows  in  the  financial  year  ending  June  30,  1879: 

Sources  of  Revenue,  Consolidated  Fund. 


Customs $12,900,659  29 

Excise 5,390,763  17 

Bill  Stamps 185,190  89 

Post  office,  including  Ocean  Postage  1,172,418  14 

Public  Works,  including  Railways 1,863,149  07 

Interest  on  Investments  (Permanent) 521,494  63 

“ “ (Temporary) 71,005  41 

Northern  Railway  Interest  Account 40,849  56 

Ordnance  Lands 47,621  23 

Casual  Premium  and  Discount 460  82 

Bank  Imposts 2,853  °3 

Fines,  Forfeitures,  and  Seizures 32,  148  81 

Tonnage  Dues  (River  Police) 21,361  65 

“ (Mariners’  Fund) 37,757  39 

Steamboat  Inspection >2,331  16 

Fisheries >7.738  34 

Cullers’  Fees 24,715  45 

Militia >6,031  14 

Penitentiaries 53,>>5  >o 

Miscellaneous  Receipts >5,325  77 

Superannuation 41,959  30 

Dominion  Lands,  Manitoba 23,828  09 

Dominion  Steamers 1,612  09 

Gas  Inspection  and  Law  Stamps 3,172  36 

Insurance  Inspection 6,134  38 

Weights  and  Measures 13,685  97 

Total  Revenue,  Consolidated  Fund $22,517,382  14 

•£4.503,476 


The  total  actual  expenditure,  under  the  three  divisions 
before  named,  with  the  addition  of  “ Premiums  and  Dis- 
counts,” was  as  follows  in  the  financial  year  ending  June 


30,  1879: 

Consolidated  Fund $24,455,381  56 

Redemption 14,032,240  69 

Premiums  and  Discounts 676,225  30 

Open  Accounts 8,292,574  37 

Total $47,456,421  92 

.£9,491,284 


The  actual  branches  of  expenditure  comprised  under  the 
division  called  Consolidated  Fund,  embracing  all  the  ordinary 
disbursements,  were  as  follows  in  the  financial  year  ending 
June  30,  1879 : 


Branches  of  Expenditure. 


Interest  on  Public  Debt $7, '94,734  >4 

Charges  of  Management 275,559  37 

Sinking  Fund 1,037,219  76 

Premium,  Discount  and  Exchange 2,364  06 

Subsidies  to  Provinces 3,442,764  34 

Civil  Government 861,170  85 

Administration  of  Justice 577,896  58 

Police it, 122  08 

Penitentiaries 308,482  61 

. Legislation 748,007  58 


702 


OUR  NEXT  DOOR  NEIGHBORS,  CANADA  AND  MEXICO. 


Geological  Survey $110,78592 

Arts,  Agriculture  and  Statistics 63,068  23 

Immigration  and  Quarantine 212,224  05 

Marine  Hospitals 58,237  34 

Pensions r°7,795  °4 

Superannuation 113,531  63 

Militia  and  Defense 777,69890 

Public  Works 1,013,593  10 

Ocean  and  River  Steam  Service 398,876  76 

Light-houses  and  Coast  Services 447,566  92 

Fisheries 82,319  07 

Steamboat  Inspection 13, ’57  38 

Insurance  Inspection 8,537  16 

Miscellaneous 101,602  15 

Indian  Grants 498,327  29 

Dominion  Lands 91, 773  29 

Mounted  Police,  N.  W.  T 344,823  77 

Customs 719,711  29 

Excise 211,064  71 

Weights  and  Measures 84,004  97 

Inspection  of  Staples 622  94 

Adulteration  of  Food 7,797  02 

Culling  Timber  44,670  02 

Post  Office 1,784,423  88 

Public  Works 2,680,979  10 

Minor  Revenues 27,888  26 


Total  Expenditure  Consolidated  Fund $24,464,401  56 

.£4,892,880 

The  estimates  of  expenditure  under  the  Consolidated  Fund 
for  the  financial  year  ending  June  30,  1881,  amounted  to 

25.517.000  dollars,  or  5,103,400/.,  and  of  total  expenditure  to 
25,207,203  dollars,  or  5,041,440/.  On  the  total  receipts  and 
expenditure  for  the  year  there  was  a saving  of  1,003,000/. 
For  the  financial  year  ending  June  30,  1880,  the  estimates  of 
expenditure  on  the  Consolidated  Fund  were  23,427,882  dol- 
lars, or  4,685,576/.,  and  the  total  expenditure,  39,616,140  dol- 
lars, or  7,923.228/  The  revenue  for  1882-3  is  estimated  at 

30.600.000  dollars,  and  expenditure  at  27,600,000. 

The  public  debt  of  the  Dominion,  incurred  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  public  works,  and  the  interest  of  which  forms  the 
largest  branch  of  the  expenditure,  was  as  follows  on  July  1, 
1879: 

Funded  and  Unfunded  Debt. 


Payable  in  London. 


JL 


Imperial  Guarantee,  4 per  cent 

$30,660,000 

OO 

Intercolonial  Loan,  5 per  cent 

2i433033 

34 

Consolidated  Canadian  Loan  Bonds,  5 per  cent. 

0 

00 

00 

N 

99 

“ “ “ Stock,  5 per  cent. 

9,605,799 

51 

Canadian  Bonds  (old)  5 per  cent 

20,440 

06 

“ “ 6 per  cent 

12,428,980 

06 

Nova  Scotia  Bonds,  6 per  cent 

1,0.32,833 

35 

New  Brunswick  Bonds,  6 per  cent 

4,491,446 

67 

British  Columbia  Bonds,  6 per  cent 

924,666 

67 

Prince  Edward  Island  Bonds,  6 per  cent 

I,09I,I06 

54 

Dominion  Loan  of  1874,  4 per  cent 

19,466,666 

67 

“ 1875,  4 per  cent 

4,866,666 

66 

**  1876,  4 per  cent 

12,166,666 

66 

“ 1878,  4 per  cent 

7,300,000 

OO 

Payable  in  Canada. 

Canada  Bonds  (old)  5 per  cent 

113,650 

OO 

Canadian  Bonds  (old)  6 per  cent 

T ,200 

OO 

Nova  Scotia,  6 per  cent 

951,920 

01 

New  Brunswick,  6 per  cent 

123,700 

00 

Prince  Edward  Island,  6 per-cent 

* 203,371 

31 

Bonds  convertible  into  Stock,  6 per  cent $538,000  00 

Dominion  Stock,  6 per  cent 4,121,197  25 

“ 5 per  cent 3-945-739  82 

Savings  Banks,  Post  Office,  4 per  cent 2,925,290  80 

5 per  cent 179,900  00 

“ Toronto,  4 per  cent 222,467  24 

“ Winnipeg,  4 per  cent 75,264  75 

“ Nova  Scotia,  4 per  cent. 2,495,201  32 

“ New  Brunswick,  4 per  cent 1,704,738  54 

“ British  Columbia,  5 per  cent .. . 1,179,40286 

“ Nova  Scotia  Suspense  Account.  2,639  85 

“ “ Interest  Account...  1,565  39 

“ New  Brunswick  Suspense  Ac- 
count  639  69 

“ New  Brunswick  Interest  Ac- 

count 403  57 

Prince  Edward  Island,  4 per 

cent 420,169  19 

Indemnity  to  Seigneurs  and  Townships,  6 per 

cent 391,33°  96 

Notes,  Canada 10,789,710  04 

“ Nova  Scotia 41,397  04 

Unpaid  Warrants,  Prince  Edward  Island 630  70 

Overdue  Debentures,  Province  of  Canada 8,641  06 


Total  Funded  and  Unfunded  Debt $158,745,580  57 

^3J, 749, 116 


To  the  existing  debt  was  added,  in  1879,  a four  per  cent, 
loan  of  3,000,000/.,  one-half  of  which  bears  the  guarantee  ol 
the  British  government.  Out  of  this  loan  1,547,000/  is  to  be 
employed  in  redeeming  the  six  per  cent,  bonds. 

According  to  the  Public  Accounts  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1880,  the  Public  Debt  of  Canada  stood  as  follows : 

Without  Interest $30,446,137  22 

At  4 per  cent.  “ 98,729,24929 


“5  “ “ 52,110,026  68 

“ 6 “ “ 17,839,910  13 


Total $199,125,32332 

£39,825,064 


In  the  financial  estimates  for  the  year  1878-79,  the  total 
expenditure  on  account  of  the  debt  was  set  down  at  15,501,674 
dollars,  or  3,100,335/.,  and  in  the  provisional  estimates  for 
1879-80  the  same  was  calculated  at  14,282,413  dollars,  or 
2,856,483  /. 

Army. — In  addition  to  the  troops  maintained  by  the  Impe- 
rial Government — the  strength  of  which  was  reduced,  in  1871, 
to  2,000  men,  forming  the  garrison  of  the  fortress  of  Halifax, 
considered  an  “ Imperial  station  ” — Canada  has  a large  volun- 
teer force,  and  a newly  organized  militia,  brought  into  exist- 
ence by  a statute  of  the  first  Federal  Parliament,  passed  in 
March,  1868,  “to  provide  for  the  defense  of  the  Dominion.” 
By  the  terms  of  the  Act,  the  militia  consists  of  all  male  British 
subjects  between  18  and  60,  who  are  called  out  to  serve  in 
four  classes,  namely:  1st  class,  18  to  30,  unmarried;  2d, 

from  30  to  45,  unmarried;  3d,  18  to  45,  married;  4th,  45 
to  60.  Widowers  without  children  rank  as  unmarried, 
but  with  them,  as  married.  The  militia  is  divided  into  an 
active  and  a reserve  force.  The  active  includes  the  volunteer, 
the  regular,  and  the  marine  militia.  The  regular  militia  are 
those  who  voluntarily  enlist  to  serve  in  the  same,  or  men  bal- 


Jp~ 


OUR  NEXT  DOOR  NEIGHBORS,  CANADA  AND  MEXICO. 


loted,  or  in  part  of  both.  The  marine  militia  is  made  up  of 
persons  whose  usual  occupation  is  on  sailing  or  steam  craft 
navigating  the  waters  of  the  Dominion.  Volunteers  have  to 
serve  for  three  years  ; and  the  regular  and  marine  militia  for 
two  years.  On  the  1st  of  January  1879,  the  active  militia 
comprised  a force  of  45,152  officers  and  men,  organized  as 
follows  : cavalry,  2,637 1 field  artillery,  1,438  ; garrison 

artillery,  3,470  ; engineers,  282  ; infantry  and  rifles,  37,316, 
The  reserve  militia  comprised  655,000  rank  and  file  at  the 
same  date. 

Under  the  Act  of  1868,  amended  in  1871,  Canada  is  divided 
into  twelve  military  districts,  four  of  which  are  formed  by 
Ontario,  three  by  Quebec,  one  by  Nova  Scotia,  one  by  New 
Brunswick,  one  by  Manitoba,  one  by  Prince  Edward  Island, 
and  one  by  British  Columbia.  Two  schools  of  military  in- 
struction for  artillery  are  established  in  each  of  the  provinces 
of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  and  one  in  each  of  the  provinces  of 
New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia.  There  is,  besides,  a royal 
military  college  at  Kingston,  Ontario. 

Area  and  Population. — The  population  of  Canada  in  the 
year  1800  was  estimated  at  240,000  ; in  1825  it  amounted  to 
581,920  ; in  1851  to  1,842,265  ; and  in  1861  to  3,090,561. 
The  census  of  April  3,  1871,  stated  the  area  and  population 
of  the  Dominion  as  follows  ; with  which  are  given  the  pre- 
liminary results  of  the  census  of  April  3,  1881  : 


Area : 

Population, 

1871. 

1881. 

Provinces. 

English 

square 

miles. 

Males. 

Fcmal’s 

Total. 

Total. 

107,780 

193,355 

27,322 

828,590 

596,04! 

145,888 

792,261 

595s4?5 

139,706 

1,620.851 

I,I9I,5l6 

285,594 

1,913,460 

1,358,469 

321,129 

5Jew  Brunswick.  . . . 

2I,73I 

194,008 

387,800 

440,585 

Manitoba  (former 

13,969 

356,000 

6,277 

5,868 

12,145 

33*586 

49,509 

60,000 

Prince  Edward 

2,r33 

47,121 

46,900 

94,02! 

108,928 

Northwest  Territory 
(including  Manito- 
ba extension) 

2,650,000 

60,500 

100,000 

3,372,290 

3,686,013 

352,080 

The  average  increase  in  ten  years  has  been  at  the  rate  of 
1805  per  cent.,  varying  from  13  61  per  cent,  in  Nova  Scotia 
to  289  per  cent,  in  Manitoba. 

By  an  Order  in  Council  issued  in  August,  1880,  all  British 
possessions  in  North  America  not  already  included  in  the 
Dominion,  comprising  all  islands  with  the  exception  of  New- 
foundland and  its  dependencies,  are  to  be  considered  as  form- 
ing part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  from  September  1,  1880. 

The  census  of  Newfoundland,  taken  at  the  end  of  1869. 
stated  the  'total  population  at  146,536 — comprising  75,547 
males,  and  70,989  females — living  on  an  area  of  40,200  Eng- 
lish square  miles.  In  1874  the  population  was  161,389.  In 
1881  it  was  181,753. 

The  population  of  the  Dominion  consisted  at  the  census  of 
1871  to  the  extent  of  more  than  four-fifths  of  natives  of 
British  North  America.  These  numbered  2,900,531,  of  whom 
1,138,794  were  natives  of  Ontario;  1,147,664,  of  Quebec; 


360,832  of  Nova  Scotia  , 245,068  of  New  Brunswick  ; 405 
of  Manitoba  and  British  Columbia  ; and  7,768  natives  ol 
Prince  Edward  Island  and  Newfoundland.  Of  alien-born 
inhabitants  of  the  Dominion  the  most  numerous  at  the  census 
of  1871  were  485,526  natives  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  population  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Dominion  and 
of  British  North  America  was  as  follows  at  the  census  of 
1881  : 


Ontario. 


Dominion  of  Canada. 


Toronto 

Hamilton 

Ottawa 

London 


86,455 

35,065 

27,4' 7 
19,76-5 


Ouebec  I Montreal  140,863 
yuebec -j  ouebec  b2 

Nova  Scotia.  .Halifax  34,102 

New  Brunswick  (’71)  St.  John  28,988 


British  North  America. 

Newfoundland St.  John's  (1871) 22,583 

The  increase  of  population  in  recent  years  has  been  chiefly 
through  immigration  from  the  United  Kingdom.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  total  number  of  immigrants,  and  the  num- 
ber who  actually  settled  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  in  each 
of  the  ten  years  from  1870  to  1879  : 


Years 

Total  number 
of  Immi- 
grants. 

Number  of 
Settlers. 

Years 

Total  number 
of  Immi- 
grants. 

Number  of 
Settlers. 

1870 

44,3T3 

24,706 

1875 

43,458 

27,382 

1871 

37^949 

27,773 

1876 

31,650 

25,633 

1872 

52,608 

36,578 

1877 

35,285 

27,082 

1873 

99,059 

50,050 

1878 

41,033 

29,807 

i874 

80,022 

39,373 

1879 

61,051 

40,492 

The  number  of  immigrants  as  well  as  of  settlers,  is  inclusive 
of  those  arrived  from  the  United  States. 

Trade  and  Industry. — The  trade  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  is  chiefly  with  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
the  greater  part  of  the  imports  being  derived  from  the  United 
States,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  exports  going  to  Great 
Britain.  The  following  statement  gives  the  total  value  of  ex- 
ports and  of  imports,  and  the  total  value  of  imports  entered 
for  home  consumption  in  the  Dominion,  in  each  of  the  ten 
fiscal  years  ending  June  30,  from  1872  to  1881  : 


Years  ended 
June  30. 

Total  Exports. 

Total  Imports. 

Imports  for  Home 
Consumption. 

1872 

Dollars. 

82,639,663 

Dollars. 

111,430,527 

Dollars. 
107,709, 1 !6 

1873 

89,789,922 

128,011,282 

128,213,582 

127,514,504 

1874 

89,351,928 

127,404,169 

119,618,657 

1875 

77,886,979 

123,070,283 

1876 

80,966,435 

93,210,346 

x94i733i2I8 

06,300,483 

1877 

75,875,393 

99,327,962 

1878 

79,323,667 

93,081,787 

9 '.199,577 

1879 

7 ‘,503.535 

81,961,251 

80,338,432 

1880 

87,911,458 

86,489,747 

71,782,349 

1881 

98,290,823 

io5,33°,84° 

— 

The  following  tabular  statement  exhibits  the  commercial  in- 
tercourse of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  with  the  United  King- 
dom, giving  the  total  value  of  the  exports  to  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  and  of  the  imports  of  British  and  Irish  produce  and 
manufactures  into  the  Dominion,  in  each  of  the  ten  years 
ending  Dec.  31,  1871  to  1880: 




7°4 


OUR  NEXT  DOOR  NEIGHBORS,  CANADA  AND  MEXICO. 


Years. 

Exports  from  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada  to 
Great  Britain. 

Imports  of  British  Home 
Produce  into  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada. 

1871 

£ 

8,623,115 

£ 

7,760,559 

1872 

8,652,2j8 

9,637,I33 

1873 

11,117,122 
11 036*8 1 2 

8,112,751 

8,849i747 

1874 

1S75 

9,615,927 

8,414,099 

1876 

10,324,705 

6,902,723 

1877 

II  ,186,195 
8,874,257 

7,000,419 

1878 

5,926,908 

1879 

9,834,236 

5,°4°,524 

1880 

12,930,571 

6,8l6,I23 

The  two  staple  articles  of  export  from  the  Dominion  of  Can- 
ada to  the  United  Kingdom  are  breadstuffs  and  wood.  In  the 
year  1880,  the  total  exports  of  corn  and  flour  amounted  to 
4,555,ior/.,  of  which  2,066,426/.  was  for  wheat  ; 267,375/. 
for  oats  ; 970,307 /.  for  maize,  or  Indian  corn  ; and  405,841/. 
for  wheat-meal  and  flour  ; the  remainder  comprising  peas, 
oatmeal,  and  other  kinds  of  breadstuffs.  The  value  of  the 
exports  of  wood  and  timber  to  Great  Britain  in  1880  were 
4,694,924/.,  made  up  chiefly  of  hewn  timber,  of  the  value  of 
1,539,245/.,  and  of  sawn  wood,  of  the  value  of  3,079,693/. 
The  principal  articles  of  British  produce  imported  into  the 
Dominion  in  the  year  1880  were  iron,  wrought  and  unwrought, 
of  the  value  of  1,691,649/.;  woolen  manufactures,  of  the 
value  of  1,124,115/.;  and  cotton  goods,  of  the  value  of  877,- 
988/. 

Not  included  in  the  above  returns  is  the  trade  with  the 
province  of  Newfoundland  and  the  coast  of  Labrador,  as  yet 
not  included  within  the  Dominion.  The  exports  from  New- 
foundland and  Labrador  to  Great  Britain,  chiefly  fish  and 
train  oil,  amounted  to  458,417/.,  and  the  imports  of  British 
produce  to  892,747/.,  in  the  year  1880.  The  principal  articles 
of  British  imports  into  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  in  1880 
were  apparel  and  haberdashery,  of  the  value  of  106,296/.;  and 
cotton  manufactures,  of  the  value  of  40,036/.  For  the  year 
ending  July  31,  1881,  the  total  exports  were  1,912,143/. 

The  tonnage  of  shipping  registered  in  each  of  the  Provinces 


of  the  Dominion  on  December  31, 

1878, 

was  as  follows 

Vessels. 

Tons. 

Nova  Scotia 

3i°°3 

553,368 

New  Brunswick 

IiI42 

335,965 

Quebec 

L976 

248,349 

Ontario 

958 

135,440 

Prince  Edward  Island 

322 

54,250 

British  Columbia  and  Manitoba. 

68 

6,643 

Total 

7,469 

Ii333iOI5 

The  total  enumerated  in  the  preceding  table  comprised  834 
steamers,  measuring  116,620  tons.  During  the  year  1878, 
there  were  340  new  vessels,  of  101,506  tons,  built  in  the  Do- 
minion. 

The  Dominion  of  Canada  had  a network  of  railways  of  a 
total  length  of  5,574  miles  at  the  end  of  June,  1878.  There 
were  at  the  same  period  lines  of  a total  length  of  1,996  miles 
in  course  of  construction,  and  3,000  miles  more  had  been  sur- 
veyed, and  concessions  granted  by  the  Government.  Partly 
included  in  the  latter  class  is  a railway  crossing  the  whole  of 
the  Dominion,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  to  the  con- 
struction of  which  the  British  Government  contributes  a grant, 


in  the  form  of  a guaranteed  loan  of  2,500,000/.  In  June,  1879, 
there  were  6,256  miles  open. 

On  January  1,  1879,  there  were  in  the  Dominion  5,378 
post-offices.  The  number  of  letters  and  post-cards  sent 
through  the  post-office  during  the  year  ended  June  30,  1878, 
was  53,685,000  ; and  of  newspapers,  posted  from  offices  of 
publication,  3,720,480  lbs.  in  weight,  and  of  others  6,252,740 
in  number.  A uniform  rate  of  postage  of  three  cents  has 
been  established  over  the  whole  Dominion. 

Resident  Minister  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  in  Great 
Britain. — Hon.  Sir  A.  T.  Galt,  K.C.M.G. ; appointed  May  1, 
1880. 

Money,  Weights,  and  Measures. — The  money,  weights, 

and  measures  of  Canada  are: 

Money. — The  Dollar  of  100  cents.  Average  rate  of  ex- 
change = 4r. 

The  decimal  system  of  currency  was  introduced  into  the 
Dominion  of  Canada  and  British  North  America  by  Act  34 
Viet.  cap.  5.  It  is  ordered  by  the  Act  that  the  unit  of 
account  shall  be  the  dollar  of  100  cents,  the  value  of  which 
dollar  shall  be  on  the  basis  of  486  cents  and  two-thirds  of  a 
cent  to  the  pound  of  British  sterling  money.  The  value  of 
the  money  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  fixed  by  law  as  follows  : 
The  sovereign  of  the  weight  and  fineness  now  established, 
four  dollars  and  eighty-six  and  two-third  cents  ; the  crown 
piece,  one  dollar  and  twenty  cents ; the  half-crown  piece, 
sixty  cents  ; the  florin,  forty-eight  cents  ; the  shilling,  twenty- 
four  cents  ; the  sixpence,  twelve  cents. 

Weights  and  Measures. — A new  and  uniform  system  of 
weights  and  measures  was  introduced  into  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  by  Act  36  Viet.  cap.  48,  assented  to  May  23,  1873, 
entitled  “ An  Act  respecting  Weights  and  Measures.”  The 
Act  orders  that  “ the  Imperial  yard  shall  be  the  standard 
measure  of  length  ; ” “ that  the  Imperial  pound  Avoirdupois 
shall  be  the  standard  measure  of  weight ;”  that  “ the  gallon 
known  as  the  ‘ Imperial  gallon  ’ shall  be  the  standard  measure 
of  capacity  for  liquids  ; ” that  “ the  standard  or  unit  of  measure 
for  the  sale  of  gas  by  meter,  the  cubic  foot  containing  (>l^0Ls 
lbs.  avoirdupois  weight  of  distilled  water  weighed  in  the  air 
at  the  temperature  of  62  deg.  Fah.;  the  barometer  being  at  30 
inches  ; ” and  that  “ the  bushel  measure  known  as  the  ‘ Im- 
perial bushel  ’ shall  be  the  standard  measure  of  capacity  for 
commodities  sold  by  dry  measure.”  Of  old  weights  and 
measures  usually  employed,  the  chief  are  : 


tVzne  gallon = C83333  gallon. 

Ale  gallon = 1 01695  “ 

Bushel =0  9692  imperial  bushel. 


By  Act  of  42  Viet.  cap.  26,  it  was  further  provided  : That 

in  contracts  for  sale  and  delivery  of  any  of  the  undermen- 
tioned articles  the  bushel  shall  be  determined  by  weighing, 
unless  a bushel  by  measure  be  specially  agreed  upon,  the 


weight  equivalent  to  a bushel  being  as  follows  : 


Wheat 60  lbs. 

Indian  corn 56  “ 

Rye 56  “ 

Peas 60  “ 

Malt 36  “ 

Oats 34  “ 

Beans 60  “ 

Flaxseed 50  “ 

Hemp 44  “ 

Blue  grass  seed 14  “ 


Castor  beans, 

Potatoes 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Parsnips 

Beets 

Onions . 

Clover  seed. 

Timothy 

Buckwheat  . 


40  lbs. 
60  “ 


,60 

48 

.48 


It 

If 


OUR  NEXT  DOOR  NEIGHBORS,  CANADA  AND  MEXICO. 


7°5 


By  the  same  Act  the  British  hundredweight  of  112  pounds, 
end  the  ton  of  2,240  pounds,  were  abolished,  and  the  hundred- 
weight was  declared  to  be  100  pounds  and  the  ton  2,000 
pounds  avoirdupois,  thus  assimilating  the  weights  of  Canada 
and  the  United  States. 

MEXICO. 

(Republica  Mexicana.) 

Constitution  and  Government. — The  present  constitu- 
tion of  Mexico  bears  date  February  5,  1857.  By  the  terms  of 
it  Mexico  is  declared  a federative  republic,  divided  into  States 
— 19  at  the  outset,  but  at  present  27  in  number,  with  2 terri- 
tories— each  of  which  is  permitted  to  manage  its  own  local 
affairs,  while  the  whole  are  bound  together  in  one  body  politic 
by  fundamental  and  constitutional  laws.  The  powers  of  the 
supreme  government  are  divided  into  three  branches,  the 
legislative,  executive,  and  judiciary.  The  legislative  power 
is  vested  in  a Congress  consisting  of  a House  of  Represent- 
atives and  a Senate,  and  the  executive  in  a President.  Rep- 
resentatives, elected  by  each  State,  at  the  rate  of  one  mem- 
ber for  80,000  inhabitants — 331  in  1879 — hold  their  places 
for  two  years.  The  qualifications  requisite  are,  twenty-five 
years’  age,  and  eight  years’  residence  in  the  State.  The 
Senate  consists  of  two  members  for  each  State,  of  at  least 
thirty  years  of  age,  who  are  elected  by  a plurality  of  votes  in 
the  State  Congress.  The  members  of  both  Houses  receive 
salaries  of  2,000  dollars  a year.  The  President  and  Vice- 
President  are  elected  by  the  Congress  of  the  States,  and  hold 
office  for  four  years.  Congress  has  to  meet  annually  from 
January  1 to  April  15,  and  a Council  of  Government,  consist- 
ing of  the  Vice-President  and  half  the  Senate,  sits  during  the 
recesses. 

President  of  the  Republic. — General  Gonzales : installed 
President  of  the  Republic,  as  successor  of  General  Porfirio 
Diaz,  December  1,  1880. 

The  President  was  installed  in  power  in  consequence  of  a 
revolution  which  overthrew  his  predecessor,  elected  1872,  and 
re-elected  1876. 

The  administration  is  carried  on,  under  the  direction  of  the 
President,  by  a council  of  six  ministers,  heads  of  the  depart- 
ments of  Justice,  Finance,  the  Interior,  Army  and  Navy, 
Foreign  Affairs,  and  Public  Works. 

Revenue  and  Expenditure. — The  public  revenue  is  de- 
rived to  the  extent  of  more  than  two-thirds  from  customs  du- 
ties, laid  both  on  exports  and  imports,  while  nearly  one-half 
of  the  total  expenditure  is  for  the  maintenance  of  the  army. 
The  finances  of  the  State  have  been  for  many  years  in  great 
disorder,  the  expenditure  exceeding  constantly  the  revenue. 
The  following  statement  gives  the  budget  for  1881-82  : 

Sources  of  Revenue. 


Customs  and  harbor  duties $15,000,000 

Taxes ,....  4,000,000 

Stamps 3,500,000 

Sale  of  national  lands 35,000 

Post  offices  and  Mint 950,000 

Miscellaneous  receipts 2,240,000 

Total  revenue $25,725,000 

.£5, 145,000 


Branches  of  Expenditure. 


Congress  and  Executive  power $1,038,734 

Supreme  Court  of  Justice 366,576 

Ministry  of  the  Interior 3,149,757 

Ministry  of  Finance 4, >73, 585 

Ministry  of  War 8,659,927 

Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs 317,660 

Justice  and  Education 1,352,820 

Public  Works 6,162,637 


Total  expenditure $25,221,696 

£5.044,339 


In  the  budget  estimates  for  the  financial  year  ending  June 
30,  1879,  the  total  revenue  was  calculated  at  16,128,807  dol- 
lars, or  3,225,761/.,  and  the  total  expenditure  at  22,108,046 
dollars,  or  4,421,609/.,  leaving  a deficit  of  5,979,239  dollars, 
or  1,195,848/.  There  were  deficits  for  the  previous  twenty 
years. 

The  public  debt  of  Mexico,  both  internal  and  external,  was 
estimated,  in  1879,  at  425,500,000  dollars,  or  85,100,000/. 
But  no  official  returns  regarding  it  have  been  published  since 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  I.,  in  1865,  when  the 
total  debt  was  stated  to  be  63,471,450/.,  bearing  an  annual 
interest  of  3,945,094/.  In  the  subjoined  statement  an  abstract 
is  given  of  these  returns  bearing  date  August  I,  1865  ; 


Capital. 

Annual 

Interest. 

Old  English  Three  per  Cent.  Loan,  as  per  settle- 

£ 

£ 

ment  of  1851 

10,241,650 

3074205 

Three  per  Cent.  Stock  created  1864,  for  settle- 
ment of  overdue  coupons  of  old  loan 

4,864,800 

x45i944 

Six  per  Cent.  Anglo-French  Loan  of  1864 

12,^65,000 

741, Qoo 

Six  per  Cent.  Lottery  Loan  of  1865 

10,000,000 

— 

Interest  ;£6oo,ooo,  Lottery  Prizes  ^120, oco,  Sink- 
ing Fund  ^250,000 

_ 

970,000 

Six  per  Cent.  Internal  Mexican  Debt,  circa 

7 ,000,000 

420,000 

Admitted  Claims  of  Foreigners  bearing  interest 

6,coo,ooo 

360,000 

Amount  due  to  French  Government  for  War  ex- 

penses  at  31st  March,  1865 

13,000,000 

— 

Annual  payment  to  France  on  account  of  War 
expenses,  as  per  Paris  Convention  of  1864 

— 

1,000,000 

63, 47  L 450 

The  actual  Government  of  the  Republic  does  not  recognize 
any  portion  of  the  above  liabilities,  except  the  six  per  cent, 
internal  Mexican  debt,  the  interest  of  which  has  not  been 
paid  for  a great  number  of  years. 

Area  and  Population. — The  area  of  Mexico  and  number 
of  inhabitants  are  chiefly  known  through  estimates.  The 
most  reliable  of  these,  based  on  partial  enumerations  made  by 
the  Government  of  the  Republic  in  1874,  state  the  area  of 
Mexico  to  embrace  a territory  of  743,948  English  square 
miles,  with  a total  population  of  9,343,470.  The  following 
table,  drawn  up  after  a report  published  in  the  “ Diario  Ofi- 
cial  ” of  Mexico,  June  7,  1875,  gives  the  area  and  population 
of  each  of  the  27  States  composing  the  Republic,  with  addition 
of  the  territory  of  Lower  California,  and  the  Federal  district  ot 
Mexico,  seat  of  the  central  Government. 

It  should  be  stated  the  Mexican  Government  is  at  present 
engaged  (1883)  in  having  the  most  complete  set  of  tables  pre- 
pared ; no  expense  has  been  spared  to  make  them  as  complete 
as  possible,  President  Gonzales  and  his  Cabinet  being  deeply 
interested.  When  these  tables  are  prepared  they  will  be  scat- 
tered broadcast  so  as  to  show  the  world  what  Mexico  is  doing 


OUR  NEXT  DOOR  NEIGHBORS,  CANADA  AND  MEXICO. 


706 




State. 

Area:  English 
Square  Miles 

Population, 

'*73- 

States .— Aguascalientes 

2,895 

89,715 

Campeche 

25,832 

80,366 

Chiapas 

16,048 

193,987 

Chihuahua  

83,746 

180,668 

Coahuila  

50,890 

98,397 

Colima 

3,743 

65,827 

Durango  

42,5I<> 

185,077 

Guanajuato 

II,4H 

900,000 

Guerrero 

24,550 

320,069 

Hidalgo 

8,163 

404,207 

Jalisco 

39-i68 

966,689 

Mexico 

7,838 

663,557 

Michoacan 

25,689 

618,240 

Morelos 

1,776 

150,384 

Nuevo-Leon 

23,635 

178,872 

Oaxaca 

33,591 

648,779 

Puebla 

12,021 

697,788 

Querttaro 

3,207 

153,286 

San  Louis  Potosi 

27i5°° 

460,322 

Sinaloa 

36,198 

168,031 

Sonora 

79  021 

109,388 

Tabasco 

11,851 

83,707 

Tamaulipas 

304225 

140,000 

Tlaxcala  

1,620 

121,663 

Vera  Cruz 

26,232 

504,950 

Yucatan 

29,567 

422,365 

Zacatecas 

22,998 

397,945 

Territories  : — Lower  California. . . . 

61,562 

23,195 

Federal  District  of  Mexico 

461 

3 '5,996 

Total 

743,948 

94343447° 

It  is  calculated  that  five  millions,  or  rather  more  than  one- 
half,  of  the  population  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  are  pure 
“ Indians,”  the  rest  comprising  a mixture  of  various  races  ; 
the  white,  or  European-descended  inhabitants,  numbering  from 
about  500,000  souls.  Formerly  existing  distinctions  of  color 
and  race  were  abolished  by  the  constitution  of  1824,  which 
admits  persons  of  all  colors  to  the  equal  enjoyment  of  civil 
and  political  rights. 

Trade  and  Industry. — The  total  imports  of  Mexico  in  the 
year  1876  were  of  the  estimated  value  of  28,485,000  dollars, 
or  5,697,000/.,  and  the  value  of  the  exports  25,435,000  dol- 
lars, or  5,087,000/.  The  chief  article  of  export  was  silver,  of 
the  estimated  value  of  15,000,000  dollars,  or  3,000,000/.,  the 
remainder  comprising  copper  ores,  cochineal,  indigo,  hides, 
and  mahogany  and  other  woods.  The  staple  imports  are  cot- 
ton and  linen  manufactures,  wrought  iron,  and  machinery. 
More  than  two-thirds  of  the  total  trade  of  Mexico  is  carried 
on  with  the  United  States,  and  the  remainder  with  France, 
Germany,  and  Great  Britain. 

The  principal  articles  of  export  from  Mexico  to  Great  Bri- 
tain in  the  year  1880  were  mahogany,  of  the  value  of  218,604/., 
and  unrefined  sugar,  of  the  value  of  98,113/.  Cotton  manu- 
factures, of  the  value  of  572,692/.;  linens,  of  the  value  of 
68,864/.,  and  iron,  wrought  and  unwrought,  of  the  value  of 
261,253/.,  formed  the  chief  imports  of  the  United  Kingdom 
into  Mexico  in  1880. 

The  subjoined  tabular  statement  shows  the  total  value  of 


the  exports  from  Mexico  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  ol 
the  imports  of  British  and  Irish  produce  into  Mexico,  in  each 
of  the  ten  years  from  1871  to  1880: 


Years. 

Exports  from  Mexico 
to 

Great  Britain. 

Imports  of 

British  Horae  Produce 
into  Mexico. 

187I 

£ 

3974334 

£ 

1.049,013 

1872 

4434524 

843,186 

1873 

499,532 

1,194,124 

1874 

546  651 

1,124,613 

884,901 

4875 

7- ^,907 
662,132 

1876 

502,224 

1877 

798,857 

995,510 

1878 

507,082 

773,331 

1879 

582,759 

693,123 

1880 

628,071 

1,225,567 

The  formerly  valuable  silver  mines  of  Mexico,  neglected 
for  a long  time,  were  partly  reopened  in  1864.  The  richest 
of  all  the  mines  now  worked  are  those  of  Real  del  Monte  and 
Pachuca,  situated  about  sixty  miles  from  the  City  of  Mexico, 
and  belonging  to  an  Anglo-Mexican  company.  The  total 
exports  of  silvel  ore  from  Mexico  to  the  United  Kingdom 
amounted  in  value  to  80/.  in  1869,  to  3,340/.  in  1870,  to  29,- 
774/.  in  1871,  to  25,643/.  in  1872,  to  11,019/.  in  1873,  to 
2,254/.  in  1874,  to  7,919/.  1875,  to  14,572/.  in  1876,  1014,538/. 
in  1877,  to  5,066/.  in  1878,  to  38,261/.  in  1879,  and  to  22,395/. 
in  1880. 

Mexico  had  1,070  miles  of  railway  open  for  traffic  in  1881., 
The  principal  line,  called  the  “ National  Mexican,”  300  miles 
long,  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  City  of  Mexico,  with  branch  to 
Pueblo,  was  commenced,  under  State  aid,  in  1864,  and  com- 
pleted in  1869.  The  lines  under  construction  include  an  Inter- 
Oceanic  railway  across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  between 
the  mouth  of  the  Coazacoalco  and  the  Upper  Lagoon  on  the 
Pacific  side.  This  line  will  be  60  miles  long,  and  was  to  be 
opened  at  the  end  of  1882. 

The  total  length  of  telegraph  lines,  at  the  end  of  June, 
1881,  was  10,580  English  miles.  There  were,  at  the  same  date, 
363  telegraph  offices. 

The  post-office  carried  4,406,410  letters  in  the  year  1879-80. 
At  the  end  of  June,  1881  there  were  873  post-offices  in  the  re- 
public. 

Money,  Weights  and  Measures. — The  money,  weights 
and  measures  of  Mexico  and  the  British  equivalents,  are  as  fol 
lows : 

Money. 

The  Dollar ^ of  100  cents.-  approximate  value,  41. 

Weights  and  Measures. 


The  A rroia\{??™C 

41  Square  Vara 

w Fanega 


3$  imperial  gallons. 
2}  “ “ 

1. 09  vara  = i yard. 
1 i imperial  bushels# 


POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1790-1880. 


707 


POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AT  EACH  CENSUS,  1790-1880. 


States  and 
Territories. 

1790. 

1800. 

l8lO. 

1820. 

I83O. 

1840. 

1850. 

i860. 

1870. 

1880. 

Percent. 

increase, 

1870-1880. 

The  United  I 
States.. . j 

3,929,214 

5,308,483 

7,239,881 

9,633,822 

12,866,020 

17,069,453 

23,191,876 

31, 443,321 

38,558.374 

50,155,783 

30.08 

The  States... 

3,929,214 

5,294,390 

7,215,858 

9,600,783 

12,820,868 

17,019,641 

23,067,262 

34,483,744 

38,115,641 

49,374,340 

29-53 

I 

T9 

127,901 

144255 

*5 

27 

3°9i527 
3°  4388 

12 

1 590,756 

97,574 

12 

771,623 

209,897 

92,597 

*3 

25 

26 

964,201 

996,992 

484,471 

560,247 

39,864 

537,454 

*7 

25 

4,262,505 

802,525 

864,694 

26.63 

65  65 

2 

25 

3 

29 

4 

38 

25 

5 

Connecticut 

8 

237,946 

8 

25 1 ,002 

9 

26l,942 

14 

275,148 

16 

297,675 

20 

3°9,978 

21 

370,792 

24 

460.147 

23 

622,700 

15.86 

6 

Delaware  . . 

l6 

59,' °96 

■7 

64,273 

49 

72,6,4 

22 

72,749 

24 

76,748 

26 

78,085 

3° 

91,532 

32 

112,216 

34 

125,015 

3* 

146,608 

17.27 

43.53 

3°  .23 

7 

25 

10 

34,730 

5 >6,823 

27 

9 

54,477 

694,392 

31 

9 

87,445 

906,185 

140,424 

1,057,286 

187,748 

I,l84,IC9 

269,493 

1,542,180 

8 

Georgia 

1 3 

82,548 

12 

162,686 

II 

252,433 

11 

340,985 

11 

12 

■3 

Q 

12,282 

24,520 

55,162 

147,178 

1574445 
343 1°3* 

*4 

xo 

476,483 

685,866 

851,470 

988,416 

192,214 

4,711,954 

1,350,428 

674,943 

107,206 

1,155,684 

2,539,894 

1,680,637 

1,194,020 

364,399 

1,321,011 

726.915 

626.915 

3,077,871 

1,978,301 

1,624,615 

996,096 

1,648,690 

21.18 

10 

23 

5,644 

21 

18 

43 

7 

6 

6 

6 

II 

28 

43,412 

27 

20 

II 

X 2 

*73-35 

22.98 

'3 

Kentucky  . . 

4 

73.677 

9 

220, Q5  5 

7 

406.511 

6 

564,135 

6 

687,947 

6 

779,828 

8 

982,405 

9 

8 

8 

*4 

18 

76,556 

228,705 

152,923 

298,269 

*9 

12 

215,739 

3994455 

>9 

43 

352,4** 
501 4793 

t8 

517,762 

583,169 

*7 

22 

708,002 

628,279 

939,946 

648,936 

29.30 

3«5* 

J5 

Maine  . ... 

11 

96,540 

14 

454, 7‘9 

‘4 

12 

16 

23 

27 

16 

Maryland  . . 

6 

3' 9.728 

7 

34'.548 

8 

380,546 

IO 

407.350 

II 

4474040 

*5 

470,019 

*7 

583,034 

■9 

687,049 

20 

780,8Q4 

23 

934<943 

19.72 

*7 

Mass 

378,787 

422,845 

472,040 

4,762 

5234159 

85765 

8 

610,408 

8 

737,699 

6 

994,514 

397,654 

1,231,066 

749i**3 

4.457,351 

1,184,059 

439,706 

827,922 

1,721,295 

4^83,085 

4—36,037 

780,773 

4,434,597 

2,168,380 

22.35 

38.24 

18 

24 

26 

34,639 

23 

212,267 

16 

*3 

28 

*9 

20 

Mississippi . 

•9 

8,850 

40,352 

20,845 

21 

75,448 

66,557 

22 

136,621 

i4°4455 

*7 

16 

375,654 

383,702 

l5 
1 3 

606,526 

682,044 

14 

8 

79*1305 

18 

l8 

36.67 

21 

22 

21 

26 

28,841 

6,857 

326,073 

23 

24 

38 

3i 

62,266 

346,991 

N.  H’shire  . 

IO 

141,885 

II 

i8^,8s8 

16 

214,460 

*5 

244,022 

277,426 

18 

269,328 

22 

284,574 

22 

347,976 

27 

3* 

318,300 

906,096 

9.01 

25 

New  Jersey. 

9 

184,139 

IO 

211,149 

43 

245,562 

*4 

320,823 

18 

373,306 

49 

489,555 

21 

672,035 

47 

49 

*iT3Ii*  *6 

24-83 

26 

New  York  . 

5 

340,120 

3 

589,054 

2 

959,049 

1 

1,372.1 1 i 

1 

1,918,608 

1 

2,428,921 

1 

3,007,394 

1 

3,880,735 

1 

4,382,759 

I 

5,082,871 

*5*97 

27 

N.  Carolina. 

3 

393,75' 

4 

478,103 

4 

555,5oo 

4 

638,829 

5 

737,987 

7 

753, 4'9 

10 

869,039 

12 

992,622 

*4 

1,071,361 

15 

',399,750 

30.65 

19.99 

92.21 
21.60 

27.22 

28 

18 

45,365 

•3 

230,760 

581,295 

4 

937,903 

1,519,467 



1,980,329 

*3^294 

2,311,786 

*47,545 

2,339,511 

52,465 

2,906,215 

174,620 

2,665,260 

3,198,062 

474,768 

4,282,891 

276,531 

29 

30 

32 

2 

34 

36 

36 

Penn 

434i37* 

68,825 

602,365 
69, 122 

810,091 

76,934 

* >047,507 
834°'5 

2 

1,343,233 

97,  >99 

2 

*1724,033 

108,830 

3^21,95* 

2i7v353 

3* 

R.  Island. . . 

15 

16 

'7 

20 

23 

24 

28 

2Q 

32 

33 

32 

S.  Carolina. 

7 

249i°73 

6 

345,59' 

6 

4'5,4'S 

8 

502,741 

9 

581,185 

11 

594-398 

*4 

668,507 

18 

703,708 

22 

705,606 

20 

995,577 

41.09 
22.55 
94-45 
• 52 

33 

34 

35 

35,691 

15 

105,602 

IO 

26l,727 

68  r ,904 

5 

829,210 

5 

1,109,801 

604,215 

315,098 

1,258,520 

818,579 

Texas  .. 

25 

23 

212,592 

314,120 

23 

28 

Vermont... 

12 

85,425 

■3 

454,465 

'5 

247,895 

l6 

235,966 

17 

280,652 

21 

291,948 

3° 

330,554 

32 

332,286 

36 

37 

38 

\ irginia.. . . 
W.  Virginia 

1 

747,610 

I 

880,200 

I 

974,600 

2 

1,065,1 16 

3 

1,211 ,405 

4 

*i239i797 

4 

1,421,661 

5 

1,596,318 

10 

1,225,163 

*4 

4,512,565 

618,457 

23.45 

24 

773,881 

1,054,670 

16 

24.73 

The  States . 

3,929»2I4 

S,924,39<> 

7,2'5,858 

9,600,783 

12,820,868 

17,019,641 

23,067,262 

34.183,744 

38,115,641 

49,374,340 

29-53 

I 

Arizona .... 

8 

9,658 

6 

318.72 

2 

14,181 

131,700 

3 

Dist.  Col’b. 

I 

*41093 

I 

24,02 1 

I 

33.039 

1 

39,834 

1 

43,712 

2 

54,687 

O 

2 

75,080 

I 

1 

177,624 

34.87 

4 

Idaho  ...... 

6 

8 

32,6lO 

s 

Montana  . . 

6 

N.  Mexico.. 

61,547 

41,380 

y 

93,546 

9 ',s74 

i'9,56s 

9°.  13 

7 

Utah 

8 

Washingt’n 
Wyoming. . 

243*57 

127.99 

9 

0 

20,789 

33.039 

39,834 

43,7‘2 

124,614 

259,577 

442,73° 

784,443 

77.18 

Total  pop’n,.. 

3i929)2x4 

5,308,483 

7,239,881 

9,633,822 

12,866,020 

■ 7,069,453 

23,191,876 

3',443,32I 

38,558,374 

50,455,783 

30.08 

Increase 

Increase 

Increase 

Increase 

Increase 

Increase 

Increase 

Increase 

Increase 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

1790-1800, 

l80I-l8l0, 

1 8 1 0- 1 820, 

1820-1830, 

183O-184O, 

1840-1850, 

1 

850-1860, 

1860-T87O, 

1870-1880, 

35. 40. 

36  3»- 

33-06. 

32.5*. 

33.52. 

35-83. 

35-44. 

22.65. 

30.08. 

Note.  The  narrow  column  under  each  census  year  shows  the  order  of  the  States  and  Territories  when  arranged  according  to  magnitude  of 
population.  The  figures  of  population  for  x88o  are  in  some  cases  subject  to  final  correction  at  the  Census  Office. 


RAINFALL  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  ETC. 


RAINFALL  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Inches. 


Baltimore 41.10 

Baton  Rouge,  La 60.16 

Boston 44-99 

Buffalo,  N.Y 33-84 

Burlington,  Vt 34- 15 

Brunswick,  Me 44  68 

Charleston,  S.  C 43  63 

Cleveland,  Ohio 37- 61 

Cincinnati 44  - §7 

Dalles,  Oregon 21.74 

Detroit,  Michigan 3°-°5 

Fort  Bliss,  Texas 9.56 

Fort  Bridger,  Utah 6.12 

Fort  Brown,  Texas 33  44 

Fort  Colville,  Wash.  Ter 9 83 

Fort  Craig,  New  Mexico 11.67 

Fort  Defiance,  Arizona 14.21 

Fort  Garland,  Colorado 6.11 

Fort  Gibson,  Indian  Territory..  . . 36.37 

Fort  Hoskins,  Oregon 66.71 

Fort  Kearney,  Nebraska 25.25 

Fort  Laramie,  Wyoming 15 .1:6 

Fort  Leavenworth,  Kansas 31-74 


Inches. 

Fort  Marcy,  New  Mexico 16.65 

Fort  Massachusetts,  Colorado  ...  17.06 

Fort  Myers,  Florida • 56 . 5 5 

Fort  Randall,  Dakota 16.51 

Fort  Smith,  Arkansas 40.36 

Fort  Snelling,  Minnesota 25.11 

Fort  Towson,  Indian  Territory .. . 57.08 

Fort  Vancouver,  Wash.  Ter 38.84 

Fortress  Monroe 47 .04 

Gaston,  N.  C 43-40 

Hanover,  N.  H 4°-32 

Huntsville,  Alabama 54  88 

Key  West,  Florida 36.23 

Macinac,  Michigan 23.96 

Marietta,  Ohio 42 . 70 

Meadow  Valley,  California 57-03 

Memphis,  Tennessee 45-46 

Milwaukee,  Wisconsin 30.40 

Muscatine,  Iowa 42.88 

Mount  Vernon  Arsenal,  Ala 66.14 

Natchez,  Miss 53-55 

Neah  Bay,  Wash.  Ter 123.35 

Newark,  N.  J 44-85 


New  Bedford,  Mass 

New  Haven,  Conn 

New  Orleans,  La 

New  York 

Penn  Yan,  N.  Y 

Peoria.  Ill 

Philadelphia  

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

Providence,  R.  I 

Richmond,  Ind 

Sacramento,  Cal 

Salt  Lake,  Utah 

San  Francisco,  Cal. ...... 

San  Diego.  Cal 

Savannah.  Ga 

Sitka,  Alaska 

Springdale,  Ky 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Washington,  Ark 

Washington.  D.  C 

White  Sulphur  Spring,  Va 


Bermuda 

Cayenne 

Cordova,  Mex 
Havana 


Average  Annual  Rainfall  in  Some  Other  Parts  of  America. 


Inches. 

55-34 

116.00 

112.08 

91.02 


Maranham  

Rio  Janeiro 

San  Domingo 

St.  John’s,  New  Brunswick 


Inches. 
277.00 
59.02 
107.06 
51 . 12 


St.  John’s,  Newfoundland. 

Toronto,  Canada 

Vera  Cruz,  Mexico 


Inches 

41.42 
44-43 
5105 

43- 24 

28.42 
35-83 

44- 05 
37-Og 
41-54 
43-32 
19.56 

23-85 

21.69 

9.16 

48.32 

83-39 

48.58 

42.18 

54-50 

37-52 

37-54 


Inches. 

58.30 

35-17 

183.20 


Inches. 

Aberdeen,  Scotland 28.87 

Armagh,  Ireland 36.12 

Bath,  England 30.00 

Bergen,  Norway 88.61 

Berlin,  Prussia 23.56 

Bordeaux,  France 34.00 

Borrowdale,  England 141.54 

Brussels,  Belgium 28  06 

Cambridge,  England 24.09 

Cracow,  Austria 13-03 

Coimbra,  Portugal 118.08 


Average  Annual  Rainfall  in  Europe. 

Inches. 


Cork,  Ireland 40.02 

Copenhagen,  Denmark 18.35 

Dublin,  Ireland 21.01 

Geneva,  Switzerland... 31-07 

Glasgow,  Scotland 21.33 

Limerick,  Ireland 35  00 

Lisbon,  Portugal 27.01 

Liverpool 34.05 

London  24.04 

Manchester,  England  36.02 

Mannheim,  Germany 22.47 


Inches . 


Marseilles,  France 23.04 

Milan,  Italy 38  01 

Naples 29.64 

Paris 22.64 

Prague,  Austria 14.01 

Rome 30.86 

Stockholm,  Sweden 20.04 

St.  Petersburg 17 .03 

Truro,  England 44.00 

York,  England 23.00 


RATE  OF  MORTALITY  IN  AMERICAN  CITIES.— NUMBER  OF  DEATHS  PER  ANNUM  OUT 

OF  i.ooo  INHABITANTS. 


Atlanta,  Ga 

Baltimore  

Boston 

Brooklyn 

Charleston,  S.  C 

Chicago  

Cincinnati 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Dayton,  Ohio. 

Erie,  Pa 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

.ouisville,  Ky 

Lowell,  Mass 

Memphis,  Tenn 

Mobile,  Ala  

Milwaukee,  Wis 

Nashville,  Tenn 

Newark,  N.  J . 

New  Haven,  Conn 


4r- 


POPULATION. 

Deaths  in  every  x ,000  of  Pop’n. 

CITIES. 

POPULATION. 

Deaths  in  every  1,000  of  Pop’n. 

1880. 

1870. 

1875- 

1876. 

1877. 

1878. 

1879. 

1880. 

1880. 

187O. 

1875, 

I876. 

1877. 

1878. 

1879. 

1880. 

332,313 

267-354 

21.23 

21.26 

21.25 

17.26 

29-34 

24.7 

New  York  

1,206,299 

942,292 

29.79  27  23  24.36 

2524 

25.82 

26.7 

369,832 

250,526 

25.00 

23-58 

2T.43 

21.66 

19.80 

23-5 

Paterson,  N.  J 

5Ii03I 

33-579 

30.94  26.72  24.28 

I9-29 

24.85 

566 ,663 

396,099 

25-91 

24.92 

21.61 

19  72 

2O.4O 

24.0 

Philadelphia  

847,170 

674,022 

24.35  24.51  19.02 

18.03 

1/  20 

20.9 

49,999 

48,956 

34.60 

30.72 

24  34 

27.18 

28.40 

329 

Pittsburgh,  Pa  

156,389 

86,076 

2T.6g  21.90  23-87 

19.49 

I9.4O 

22.1 

5°3,l85 

298,977 

20.29 

20.42 

18.24 

i,S-7° 

17.20 

20.8 

Providence,  R.  I 

104,857 

68,904 

l8.94.l8.3O 

18.81 

19-75 

I9.60 

20.0 

255,139 

2l6, 23Q 

20.39 

23.10 

17.81 

i8-33 

18.89 

209 

Reading,  Pa 

43,280 

33.93° 

19-55  27.95  22.50 

18.8 

l60,I46 

Q2,82Q 

T7*5° 

20.4 

Richmond,  Va 

64,670 

6l  ,038 

24.97 

22.  18 

21.93 

17,37 

20.10 

27.6 

38,678 

3°  ,473 

14.22 

14.04 

12.29 

15.00 

13.80 

25-3 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

89,366 

62,386 

24-39 

21. 27 

18.4I 

15-65 

l6. QO 

27,737 

IQ,646 

18.74 

13.40 

I3-7I 

13-88 

17. 1 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah . . . 

20,768 

12,854 

24.60 

20.4 

19.28 

18.89 

19.86 

59,475 

40,928 

19.60 

22.4 

Selma,  Ala  

7,529 

6,484 

22  53 

16.87 

I9.62 

30.81 

28.99 

26.8 

33-593 

40,226 

29.79 

24.78 

26.06 

31-0 

St.  Louis 

35°, 5' 8 

310,804 

23.88 

19.89  17.24 

21.66 

18.19 

19.3 

2Q,I 32 

32,°34 

22.00 

24,34 

24.14 

iS-93 

21.00 

24.4 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 

51,792 

43,051 

10.26 

13,20 

>3-79 

13.09 

115,712 

71,440 

14.64 

18.78 

16.84 

23-37 

■5-85 

21.5 

Toledo,  Ohio 

50-i37 

31,584 

24.90 

14. 80,13.54 

12.32 

43-377 

25,865 

43-17 

31.82 

29-57 

20.00 

25.00 

23-3 

Washington,  D.  C 

1 47  .293 

109,199 

29.03 

25.8l 

24-39 

24.20 

25.20 

22.9 

136,508 

105,059 

20.29 

27, T5 

23.17 

22.40 

21.4 

Yonkers,  N.  Y 

l8,892 

12,733 

19-29 

23-37 

17.81 

12.60 

14-3 

62,882 

50,840 

20.79 

T7.8g 

19.66 

17.90 

15.40 

18.5 

LAWS  RELATING  TO  RIGHTS  OF  AMERICAN  WOMEN. 


709 


l 


Laws  Relating  to  the  Rights  of  American  Women. 


MARRIAGE. 

CARRIAGE  may  be  entered  into  by  any 
two  persons,  with  the  following  excep- 
tions: Idiots,  lunatics,  persons  of  un- 
sound mind,  persons  related  by  blood 
or  affinity,  within  certain  degrees  pro- 
hibited by  law;  infants  under  the  age  of 
consent,  which,  in  the  State  of  New 
York,  is  14  for  males  and  12  for  females,  and  all  persons 
already  married  and  not  legally  divorced. 

The  law  relating  to  marriages,  touching  the  prohib- 
ited degrees  of  kindred,  age,  and  so  forth,  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  statutes  of  the  different  States. 

Marriage  may  be  solemnized  before  any  person  pro- 
fessing to  be  a justice  of  the  peace  or  a minister  of  the 
gospel. 

But  a precise  compliance  with  all  the  requirements  of 
law  has  not  been  deemed  necessary;  and  in  some  im- 
portant provisions  it  has  been  held  that  a disregard  of 
them  was  punishable,  but  did  not  vitiate  the  marriage; 
as  the  want  of  consent  of  parents  or  guardians,  where 
one  party  is  a minor.  The  essential  thing  seems  to  be 
the  declaration  of  consent  by  both  parties,  before  a 
person  authorized  to  receive  such  declaration  by  law. 

Consent  is  the  essence  of  this  contract,  as  of  all  other 
contracts.  Hence  it  cannot  be  valid,  if  made  by  those 
who  had  not  sufficient  minds  to  consent;  such  as  idiots, 
or  insane  persons.  Hence  such  marriages  are  void  at 
common  law  and  by  the  statutes  of  several  of  the 
States.  It  is  usual,  however,  for  such  marriages  to  be 
declared  void  by  a competent  tribunal  after  a due  ascer- 
tainment of  the  facts.  In  some  of  the  States  this  can 
be  done  by  common  law  courts. 

From  the  necessity  of  consent  likewise,  a marriage 
obtained  by  force  or  fraud  is  void;  but  the  force  or 
fraud  must  be  certain  and  extreme. 


The  same  is  true  if  another  husband  or  wife  of  either 
of  the  parties  be  living. 

Bigamy  or  polygamy  is  an  indictable  offence  in  all  the 
States,  but  exceptions  are  made  in  cases  of  long-contin- 
ued absence,  with  belief  of  the  death  of  the  party,  etc. 
But  these  exceptions  to  the  criminality  of  the  act  do  not 
change  the  question  as  to  the  validity  of  the  second 
marriage,  which  is  the  same  as  before.  And  so  if  the 
parties  are  within  the  prohibited  degrees  of  kindred. 

The  consent  of  parents  or  guardians  to  the  marriage 
of  minors  depends  on  the  statutes  of  the  several  States. 
Generally,  if  not  universally,  the  marriage  would  be 
held  valid,  though  the  person  celebrating  it  might  be 
held  punishable. 

In  the  statutes  of  some  of  the  States  there  are  pro- 
visions to  the  effect  that  a marriage  not  lawfully  cele- 
brated by  reason  of  the  fraud  of  one  of  the  parties  shall 
yet  be  held  valid  in  favor  of  the  innocent  party,  as  in 
case  the  husband  imposed  upon  the  wife  by  a forged  or 
unauthorized  license  or  a pretended  clergyman. 

FOREIGN  MARRIAGES. 

It  is  a doctrine  of  English  and  American  law  that  a 
marriage  which  is  valid  where  contracted  is  valid  every- 
where. But  it  is  subject  to  some  qualification.  A mar- 
riage contracted  elsewhere  would  not  be  held  valid  in  a 
State  the  law  of  which  forbade  it  as  incestuous,  al- 
though an  issue  might  be  made  whether  it  would  be 
held  incestuous,  so  far  as  to  annul  the  marriage,  if 
within  the  degrees  prohibited  by  the  laws  of  the  State 
in  which  the  question  arose,  or  only  if  it  be  between 
kindred  who  are  too  near  to  marry  by  the  law  of  the 
civilized  world. 

If  a married  man,  a citizen  of  one  of  our  States,  went 
into  a Mormon  territory,  and  there  married  again,  he 
would  not  be  held  on  his  return  to  be  the  lawful  Dus* 


710 


LAWS  RELATING  TO  RIGHTS  OF  AMERICAN  WOMEN. 


band  of  two  wives;  or  if  a Mormon  came  to  any  of  tlie 
States  with  two  or  more  wives,  lie  would  not  beheld  to 
be  the  lawful  husband  of  all  of  them. 

Though  the  rule  is  true  that  a marriage  which  is  void 
when  contracted  is  valid  nowhere,  there  are  exceptions 
to  it:  as  if  two  Americans  intermarried  in  China,  where 
the  marriage  was  performed  in  presence  of  an  American 
chaplain,  according  to  American  forms.  If  such  mar- 
riage were  held  void  in  China,  it  would  be  held  valid  in 
the  United  States. 

The  incidents  of  marriage,  and  contracts  in  relation 
to  marriage,  such  as  settlement  of  property  are  con- 
strued by  the  law  of  the  place  where  these  were  made; 
this  being  supposed  to  be  the  intention  and  agreement 
of  the  parties.  But  this  rule  does  not  hold  when  the 
parties  are  married  while  accidentally  or  temporarily 
absent  from  their  homes,  as  then  there  is  no  domicile, 
and  the  marriage  is  regarded  as  constructively  domestic. 

DIVORCE. 

The  law  and  practice  in  relation  to  divorce  differ  in 
the  different  States,  being  exactly  alike  in  no  two  of 
them. 

Absolute  divorce  can  be  obtained  in  the  State  of  New 
York  for  adultery  alone. 

Limited  divorce  is  granted  on  the  following  grounds: 

1.  Idiocy  or  lunacy. 

2.  Consent  of  either  party  having  been  obtained  by 
force  or  fraud. 

3.  Want  of  age  or  of  physical  capacity. 

4.  The  former  husband  or  wife  of  the  respective 
parties  being  still  living. 

5.  Inhuman  treatment,  abandonment,  neglect  or  fail- 
ure on  the  part  of  the  husband  to  provide  for  the  wife. 

6.  Such  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  defendant  as 
would  render  it  dangerous  for  plaintiff  to  cohabit  with 
defendant. 

A divorce  a vinculo  annuls  the  marriage  entirely,  and 
restores  the  parties  to  all  the  rights  of  unmarried  per- 
sons, and  relieves  them  from  all  liabilities  that  grew 
out  of  the  marriage,  except  so  far  as  may  be  provided 
by  the  statutes  or  made  a portion  of  the  decree  by  the 
court.  Thus  the  statutes  of  some  States  provide  that 
the  guilty  party  shall  not  marry  again.  The  court 
generally  has  the  power  to  decree  the  terms  of  the  sepa- 
ration, regarding  alimony,  possession  of  children,  and 
so  forth.  Strict  care  is  taken  to  prevent  divorce  being 
obtained  by  collusion.  It  will  not  be  granted  merely 
upon  the  consent  or  default  of  the  party  charged,  but 
only  on  the  proof  of  cause  alleged. 

The  causes  of  divorce  from  bed  and  board  are  now 
very  commonly  made  sufficient  for  divorce  from  the 
bond  of  marriage.  Asa  general  rule,  a woman  divorced 
from  the  bed  and  board  of  her  husband  acquires  the 


rights  of  an  unmarried  woman,  with  regard  to  property, 
business,  and  contracts.  The  husband  is  relieved  from 
his  general  duty  of  maintaining  her,  the  courts  gen- 
erally exercising  their  power  of  decreeing  such  main- 
tenance by  the  husband  as  the  character  and  circum- 
stances of  the  case  render  fit. 

In  some  of  the  States  it  is  the  custom  of  the  legis- 
tures  to  grant  divorces  by  private  acts,  and  this  is  some- 
times done  for  the  feeblest  of  reasons. 

As  a general  rule,  a divorce  granted  in  a State  in 
which  both  parties  had  their  actual  domicile,  and  also 
were  married,  is  valid  everywhere.  Again,  every  State 
generally  recognizes  the  validity  of  a divorce  granted 
where  both  parties  have  their  actual  domicile,  if  granted 
in  accordance  with  the  law  of  that  place. 

In  the  United  States  the  law  on  this  subject  is  gen- 
erally regulated  by  statutes,  and  these  differ  very  much. 
In  the  absence  of  statutory  provision,  the  rule  of  the 
courts  generally  is  that  a divorce,  which  was  valid 
where  granted,  and  which  was  obtained  in  good  faith, 
is  valid  everywhere. 

CONTRACTS  TO  MARRY. 

Contracts  to  marry  at  a future  time  are  valid  and 
effectual  in  law  as  any;  and,  in  actions  upon  them, 
damages  may  be  recovered,  for  pecuniary  loss,  or  for 
suffering  and  injury  to  condition  and  prospects. 

Where  the  promise  is  mutual,  an  action  for  breach  of 
promise  m;iy  be  maintained  against  a woman. 

This  action  connot  be  maintained  against  an  infant. 
But  the  infant  may  bring  an  action,  in  this  case,  against 
an  adult. 

A promise  to  give  to  a woman,  or  settle  upon  her,  a 
specific  sum  or  estate  on  her  marriage,  is  valid. 

RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN. 

Any  and  all  property  owned  by  a woman  at  the  time 
of  her  marriage,  together  with  the  rents,  issues,  and 
profits  thereof,  and  the  property  that  comes  to  her  by 
descent,  devise,  bequest,  gift  or  grant,  or  which  she 
acquires  by  her  trade,  business,  labor,  or  services  per- 
formed on  her  separate  account,  shall,  notwithstanding 
her  marriage,  remain  her  sole  and  separate  property, 
and  may  be  used,  collected,  and  invested  by  her  in  her 
own  name,  and  shall  not  be  subject  to  the  interference 
or  control  of  her  husband,  or  be  liable  for  his  debts,  un- 
less  for  such  debts  as  may  have  been  contracted  for  the 
support  of  herself  or  children  by  her  as  his  agent. 

A married  woman  may  also  bargain,  sell,  assign, 
transfer,  and  convey  such  property  and  enter  into  con- 
tracts concerning  the  same,  on  her  separate  trade,  labor 
or  business  with  the  same  effect  as  if  she  were  not  mar- 
ried. But  her  husband  is  not  liable  for  such  contracts, 
and  they  do  not  render  him  or  his  property  in  any  wise 


LAWS  RELATING  TO  RIGHTS  OF  AMERICAN  WOMEN. 


7 1 1 


liable  therefor.  She  may  also  sue  and  be  sued  in  all 
matters  having  relation  to  her  sole  and  separate  proper- 
ty in  the  same  manner  as  if  she  were  sole. 

A married  woman’s  contract  may  be  enforced  against 
her  and  her  separate  estate  : 

First — When  the  contract  is  created  in  or  respecting 
the  carrying  on  of  the  wife’s  trade  or  business. 

Second — When  it  relates  to  or  is  made  for  the  benefit 
of  her  sole  or  separate  estate. 

Third— When  the  intention  to  charge  the  separate 
estate  is  expressed  in  the  contract  creating  the  liability. 

When  a husband  receives  a principal  sum  of  money 
belonging  to  his  wife,  the  law  presumes  that  he  receives 
it  for  her  use,  and  that  he  must  account  for  it,  or  ex- 
pend it  on  her  account  by  her  authority  or  direction, 
or  that  she  gave  it  to  him  as  a gift. 

Should  he  receive  interest  or  income  and  spend  it 
without  her  knowledge  dnd  without  objection,  a gift 
will  be  presumed  from  acquiescence. 

Money  received  by  a husband  from  his  wife  and  ex- 
pended by  him,  under  his  direction,  on  his  land,  in 
improving  the  home  of  the  family,  is  a gift,  and  cannot 
be  recovered  by  the  wife,  or  reclaimed,  or  an  account 
demanded. 

An  appropriation  of  her  separate  property  by  a wife, 
herself,  to  the  use  and  benefit  of  her  husband,  in  the 
absence  of  an  agreement  to  repay,  or  any  circumstances 
from  which  such  an  agreement  can  be  inferred,  will  not 
create  the  relation  of  debtor  and  creditor,  nor  render 
the  husband  liable  to  account. 

And  though  no  words  of  gift  be  spoken,  a gift  by  a 
wife  to  her  husband  may  be  shown  by  the  nature  of  the 
transaction  itself,  or  it  may  appear  from  the  attending 
circumstances. 

A wife  who  deserts  her  husband  without  cause  is  not 
entitled  to  the  aid  of  a Court  of  Equity  in  getting  pos- 
session of  such  chattels,  as  she  has  contributed  to  the 
furnishing  and  adornment  of  her  husband’s  house.  Her 
legal  title  remains,  and  she  could  convey  her  interest 
to  a third  paity  by  sale,  and  said  party  would  have  a 
valid  title,  unless  her  husband  should  prove  a gift. 

A wife’s  property  is  not  liable  to  a lien  of  a sub-con- 
tractor for  materials  furnished  to  the  husband  for  the 
erection  of  a building  thereon,  where  it  is  not  shown 
that  the  wife  was  notified  of  the  intention  to  furnish 
the  materials,  or  a settlement  made  with  the  contractor 
and  given  to  the  wife,  to  her  agent  or  trustee. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

Administration  is  the  legal  right  to  settle  and  control 
the  estate  of  deceased  persons,  as  also  the  exercise  of 
that  right.  Letters  of  administration  are  the  warrant 
under  the  seal  of  the  court  granting  the  legal  right. 

The  estate  of  a person  who  has  died  leaving  no  valid 


will  behind  him,  is  distributed  among  his  heirs  by  what 
is  called  “ the  operation  of  law.”  This  is  regulated  by 
the  statutes  of  the  State  in  which  the  deceased  resided  at 
the  time  of  his  death.  The  distribution  is  made  by  an 
administrator  duly  appointed  by  law,  and  who  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  court  having  jurisdiction  in  such  cases 
ou  being  satisfied  that  the  person  is  legally  qualified. 
The  appointment  must  be  made  with  the  consent  of  the 
person  appointed.  It  is  generally  accepted  as  a rule 
that  any  one  is  legally  competent  to  be  an  administrator 
who  is  legally  competent  to  make  a contract.  Certain 
classes  of  persons  are  disqualified  by  statute,  as,  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  drunkards,  gamblers,  spendthrifts, 
and  so  forth.  The  relatives  of  deceased  are  considered 
as  entitled  to  the  appointment  of  administering  the 
estate.  The  order  of  precedence  is  regulated  by  statute. 
Administration  is  to  be  granted  to  the  husband  on  the 
wife's  personal  estate,  and  administration  on  the  hus- 
band’s estate  is  to  be  granted  to  the  widow  and  the  next 
of  kin  in  the  following  order,  provided  they  will 
accept: 

1.  To  the  widow. 

2.  To  the  children. 

3.  To  the  father. 

4.  To  the  brothers. 

5.  To  the  sisters. 

C.  To  the  grandchildren. 

7.  To  any  other  of  the  next  of  kin  who  would  be  en- 
titled to  a share  in  the  distribution  of  the  estate. 

The  guardians  of  minors  who  are  entitled  may  ad- 
minister for  them. 

Should  none  of  the  relations  or  guardians  accept,  the 
administration  will  be  given  to  the  creditors  of  the 
deceased.  The  creditor  applying  first,  provided  he  be 
legally  competent,  is  to  be  preferred.  In  case  no 
creditor  applies,  any  person  who  is  legally  qualified  may 
be  appointed. 

In  the  city  of  New  York,  the  public  administrator 
may  administer  the  estate  after  the  next  of  kin.  In 
the  State  of  New  York,  the  Surrogate  may  select, 
among  the  next  of  kin,  any  one  in  equal  degree,  and 
appoint  him  sole  administrator  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
others.  Where  there  are  several  persons  of  the  same 
degree  of  kindred  to  the  intestate,  entitled  to  adminis- 
tration, they  are  preferred  in  the  following  order  : 

1.  Males  to  females. 

2.  Relatives  of  the  whole  blood  to  those  of  the  half 
blood. 

3.  Unmarried  to  married  women,  and  in  case  there  be 
several  persons  equally  entitled,  the  Surrogate  may 
grant  letters  to  one  or  more  of  them  as  he  may  judgo 
best. 

Letters  of  administration  unduly  granted  may  be  re- 
voked. 


LAWS  RELATING  TO  EIGHTS  OF  AMERICAN  WOMEN. 


r- 

^ 7i: 


Administration  may  also  be  granted  on  certain  con- 
ditions, for  a certain  limited  time,  or  for  a special 
purpose. 

The  powers  and  duties  of  an  administrator  differ 
from  those  of  an  executor  inasmuch  as  he  is  bound  to 
distribute  and  dispose  of  the  estate  according  to  the 
direction  of  the  law,  as  he  has  no  will  to  follow. 

First. — The  administrator  must  give  bonds  with 
sureties  for  the  faithful  administration  of  his  trust. 

Second. — He  must  make  an  inventory  of  the  goods 
and  chattels  of  the  intestate,  in  accordance  with  the 
requirements  of  the  law. 

Third. — Two  copies  of  said  inventory  shall  be  made, 
one  of  which  will  be  lodged  with  the  judge  of  the 
court,  and  the  other  will  be  kept  by  the  administrator. 
The  latter  will  be  obliged  to  account  for  the  property 
mentioned  in  the  inventory. 

Fourth. — The  inventory  completed,  the  administrator 
must  then  collect  the  outstanding  debts  of  the  same, 
and  follow  the  order  of  payment,  as  regulated  by  the 
local  statutes. 

All  the  debts  of  the  intestate  being  liquidated, 
the  administrator  will  divide  the  remainder  of  the  as- 
sets among  the  surviving  relatives  of  the  deceased.  In 
doing  this  be  will  act  under  the  directions  of  the  court. 

Letters  of  administration  are  of  three  kinds:  first, 
upon  the  goods,  chattels,  and  credits  of  a person  who 
shall  have  died  intestate,  as  considered  above;  second, 
special  letters  of  administration  authorizing  the  ad- 
ministrator to  collect  and  preserve  the  estate  either  of 
a testator  in  certain  cases,  or,  of  an  intestate;  and  lastly, 
letters  of  administration  authorizing  the  person  ap- 
pointed to  execute  the  powers  given  by  will  of  the  de- 
ceased, called  letters  of  administration,  with  the  will 
annexed. 

The  last  named  is  granted  when  there  are  no  persons 
named  as  executors  in  the  will;  when  all  the  executors 
named  shall  have  renounced,  or  shall  be  legally  incom- 
petent; or  after  testamentary  letters  shall  have  super- 
seded or  revoked. 

When  a man  having  a family  shall  die  leaving  a 
wiclow,  or  a minor  child  or  children,  or  a widow  shall 
die  leaving  a minor  child  or  children,  the  following 
articles  shall  not  be  deemed  assets,  for  the  purpose  of 
distribution,  the  payment  of  debts  or  legacies,  but  shall 
be  included  and  stated  in  the  inventory  of  the  estate 
without  being  appraised. 

I.  All  spinning  wheels,  weaving  looms,  one  knitting 
machine,  one  sewing  machine,  and  stores  put  up  and 
kept  for  use  in  the  family. 

II.  The  family  Bible,  family  pictures,  and  school 
books  used  by  or  in  the  family  of  such  deceased  person, 
and  books  not  exceeding  in  value  fifty  dollars,  which 


were  kept  and  used  as  part  of  the  family  library  before 
the  decease  of  such  person. 

III.  All  sheep  to  the  number  of  ten,  with  their 
fleeces,  and  the  yarn  and  cloth  manufactured  from  the 
same;  one  cow,  two  swine,  and  the  pork  of  such  swine, 
aDd  necessary  food  for  such  swine,  sheep  or  cow  for 
sixty  days;  and  all  necessary  provisions,  and  fuel  for 
such  widow,  or  child,  or  children,  for  sixty  days  after 
the  death  of  such  deceased  person. 

IV.  All  necessary  wearing  apparel,  beds,  bedsteads, 
and  bedding;  necessary  cooking  utensils;  the  clothing 
of  the  family;  the  clothes  of  the  widow,  and  her  orna- 
ments proper  for  her  station;  one  table,  six  chairs, 
twelve  knives  and  forks,  twelve  plates,  twelve  teacups 
and  saucers,  one  sugar-dish,  one  milk-pot,  and  teapot 
and  twelve  spoons,  and  also  other  household  furniture 
which  shall  not  exceed  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  in 
value. 

All  articles  and  property  set  apart,  in  accordance 
with  law  for  the  benefit  of  a widow  and  a minor  or 
minors,  shall  be  and  remain  the  sole  personal  property 
of  such  widow,  after  such  minor  or  minors  shall  have 
arrived  at  age. 

The  executor  or  administrator,  pending  the  final  set- 
tlement of  accounts,  should  not  suffer  any  considerable 
balances  to  lie  unproductive.  When  real  securities  are 
not  to  be  had,  he  should  obtain  the  approval  of  the 
surrogate  as  to  the  investment. 

The  executor  should  always  exercise  the  care  which  a 
prudent  man  would  use  about  his  own  affairs,  as  to 
title,  when  real  estate  is  in  question,  or  as  to  the  secu- 
rity offered  by  a bank  if  a deposit  is  made  of  the  fund. 

Reasonable  funeral  expenses  are  to  be  paid  in  pref- 
erence to  any  debts,  and  are  charged  as  expenses  of 
administration. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

When  the  deceased  shall  have  died  intestate,  the  sur- 
plus of  his  personal  estate  remaining  after  a payment  of 
debts,  and  where  the  deceased  left  a will,  the  surplus 
remaining  after  the  payment  of  debts  and  legacies,  if 
not  bequeathed,  shall  be  distributed  to  the  widow, 
children,  or  next  of  kin  of  the  deceased  in  the  manner 
following: 

1.  One  third  part  thereof  to  the  widow,  and  all  the 
residue  of  equal  portions,  among  the  children,  and  such 
persons  as  legally  represent  such  children,  if  any  of 
them  shall  have  died  before  the  deceased. 

2.  If  there  be  no  children,  nor  any  legal  representa- 
tives of  them,  then  oue  moiety  (that  is  one  half)  of  the 
whole  surplus,  shall  be  allotted  to  the  widow,  and  the 
other  moiety  shall  be  distributed  to  the  next  of  kin  of 
the  deceased. 

3.  If  the  deceased  leave  a widow,  and  no  descend- 


LAWS  RELATING  TO  EIGHTS  OF  AMERICAN  WOMEN. 


% 

713 


ant,  parent,  brother  or  sister,  nephew  or  niece,  the  1 
widow  shall  be  entitled  to  the  whole  surplus;  but  if 
there  be  a brother  or  sister,  nephew  or  niece,  and  no 
descendant  or  parent,  the  widow  shall  be  entitled  to 
a moiety  of  the  surplus,  and  to  the  whole  of  the  residue 
where  it  does  not  exceed  two  thousand  dollars ; if  the 
residue  exceed  that  sum,  she  shall  receive  in  addition 
to  her  moiety  two  thousand  dollars,  and  the  remainder 
shall  be  distributed  to  the  brothers  and  sisters  and  their 
representatives. 

4 If  there  be  no  widow,  then  the  whole  surplus 
shall  be  distributed  equally  to  and  among  the  children, 
and  such  as  legally  represent  them. 

5.  In  case  there  be  no  widow,  and  no  children,  and 
no  representatives  of  a child,  then  the  whole  surplus 
shall  be  distributed  to  the  next  of  kin,  in  equal  degree 
to  the  deceased,  and  the  legal  representatives. 

6.  If  the  deceased  shall  leave  no  children,  and  no 
representatives  of  them,  and  no  father,  and  shall  leave 
a widow  and  a mother,  the  moiety  not  distributed  to 
the  widow,  shall  be  distributed  in  equal  shares  to  his 
mother,  and  brothers  and  sisters,  or  the  representatives 
of  such  brothers  and  sisters;  and  if  there  be  no  widow, 
the  whole  surplus  shall  be  distributed  iu  like  manner 
to  the  mother  and  to  the  brothers  and  sisters,  or  the 
representatives  of  such  brothers  and  sisters. 

7.  If  the  deceased  leave  a father,  and  no  child  or  de- 
scendant, the  father  shall  take  a moiety,  if  there  be  a 
widow,  and  the  whole  if  there  be  no  widow. 

8.  If  the  deceased  leave  a mother,  and  no  child,  de- 
scendant, father,  brother,  sister  or  representatives  of  a 
brother  or  sister,  the  mother,  if  there  be  a widow,  shall 
take  a moiety,  and  the  whole  if  there  be  no  widow. 

9.  When  the  descendants  or  next  of  kin  of  the  de- 
ceased, entitled  to  share  in  his  estate,  shall  be  all  in 
equal  degree  to  the  deceased,  their  shares  shall  be  equal. 

10.  When  such  descendants,  or  next  of  kin  shall  be 
of  unequal  degrees  of  kindred,  the  surplus  shall  be  ap- 
portioned among  those  entitled  thereto,  according  to 
their  respective  stocks  ; so  that  those  who  take  in  their 
own  right,  shall  receive  equal  shares,  and  those  who 
take  by  representation  shall  receive  the  shares  to  which 
the  parent  whom  they  represent,  if  living,  would  have 
been  entitled. 

11.  No  representation  shall  be  admitted  among  col- 
laterals after  brothers’  and  sisters’  children. 

12.  Relations  of  the  half  blood  shall  take  equally 
with  those  of  the  whole  blood,  in  the  same  degree,  and 
representatives  of  such  relations  shall  take  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  representatives  of  the  whole  blood. 

13.  Descendants  and  next  of  kin  of  the  deceased  be- 
gotten before  his  death,  but  born  thereafter,  shall  take 
in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  had  been  born  iu  the  life- 
time of  the  deceased,  and  had  survived. 


These  provisions  apply  to  the  personal  estate  of  mar- 
ried women  who  die  intestate,  leaving  descendants;  and 
the  husband  of  any  deceased  married  woman  may  de- 
mand, recover,  and  enjoy  the  same  distributive  share 
in  her  personal  estate  that  she,  if  a widow,  would  be  en- 
titled to  in  his  personal  estate,  but  no  more. 

The  real  property  of  every  person  dying  intestate 
shall  descend  as  follows  : 

1.  To  his  lineal  descendants. 

2.  To  his  father. 

3.  To  his  mother. 

4.  To  his  collateral  relatives. 

Should  the  inheritance  come  to  the  intestate  on  the 
part  of  the  mother,  the  father  does  not  take  if  the 
mother  be  living;  and,  in  such  a case,  if  she  be  dead, 
the  father  takes  a life  interest  only,  unless  all  the 
brothers  and  sisters  of  the  deceased  and  their  descend- 
ants be  dead,  or  unless  the  deceased  had  no  brothers  or 
sisters,  in  which  case  the  father  is  entitled  to  take  the 
fee. 

In  case  there  is  no  father  or  mother,  and  the  inheri- 
tance came  to  the  deceased  on  the  part  of  the  mother,  it 
will  descend  to  the  collateral  relatives  of  the  mother  in 
preference  to  those  of  the  father. 

In  case  the  inheritance  came  to  the  deceased  on  the 
part  of  neither  father  nor  mother,  it  will  descend  to  the 
collateral  relatives  of  both  in  equal  shares. 

Relatives  of  the  half  blood  inherit  equally  with  those 
of  the  whole  blood  in  the  same  degree. 

The  mother  of  an  illegitimate  child,  dying  without 
any  descendants,  takes  the  inheritance. 

In  addition  to  the  provisions  in  favor  of  the  widow 
and  the  minor  children  from  the  personal  estate  of  her 
husband,  it  is  provided  that  she  may  tarry  in  the  house 
of  her  husband  forty  days  after  his  death,  whether  her 
dower  be  sooner  assigned  or  not,  without  being  liable 
to  rent  for  the  same,  and  meantime  she  shall  have  her 
reasonable  sustenance  off  the  estate  of  her  husband. 
This  sustenance  shall  be  provided  out  of  the  personal 
property  of  her  husband,  and  through  the  executor  or 
administrator,  should  one  be  appointed  prior  to  the  ex- 
piration of  the  forty  days,  and  shall  be  given  according- 
ly to  the  circumstances  and  station  in  life  of  the  family, 
to  the  widow  and  children  dependent  on  her.  In  pro- 
viding this  sustenance,  the  executor  or  administrator 
may  exercise  judgment  and  discretion,  as  he  should  iu 
paying  funeral  expenses. 

DOWER  OF  WIDOW. 

Dower  is  the  estate  which  the  widow  of  a deceased 
person  takes  in  the  lands  of  her  husband,  being  a life 
estate  in  one-third  of  the  lands  whereof  he  was  seized 
of  an  estate  of  inheritance  at  any  time  during  the  mar- 
riage. 


LAWS  RELATING  TO  RIGHTS  OF  AMERICAN  WOMEN. 


A widow  can  be  barred  of  her  dower  by  her  own  act 
only,  such  as  by  uniting  with  her  husband,  in  con- 
veying the  land  by  ante-nuptial  settlement,  by  accept- 
ance of  a devise  or  bequest,  in  lieu  of  a dower,  or  by 
conjugal  unfaithfulness;  but  to  make  this  last  effectual 
a divorce  should  be  decreed  against  her  for  adultery,  in 
the  lifetime  of  her  husband. 

The  widow  of  an  alien  entitled  to  hold  real  estate,  if 
an  inhabitant  of  this  state  at  the  time  of  his  death,  is 
entitled  to  dower  in  the  same  manner,  as  if  such  alien 
had  been  a native  citizen. 

Any  woman,  being  an  alien,  who  has  heretofore  mar- 
ried, or  who  may  hereafter  marry  a citizen  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  entitled  to  dower,  within  this 
State  to  the  same  extent  as  if  a citizen  of  the  United 
States. 

There  are  some  restrictions  to  this  general  rule,  as  if 
a husband  exchanges  lands,  the  wife  not  uniting  in  the 
conveyance  completing  the  exchange,  she  shall  not  be 
entitled  to  dower  in  both  but  shall  make  her  election, 
and  if  she  shall  not  begin  proceedings  to  recover  her 
dower  in  the  land  given  in  exchange,  within  a year  fol- 
lowing the  death  of  her  husband,  she  shall  be  considered 
as  having  elected  to  take  her  dower  in  the  lands  re- 
ceived in  exchange.  Where  a person  mortgages  his 
lands  before  his  marriage,  his  widow  shall  not  be  en- 
titled to  dower,  as  against  the  mortgagee,  or  those 
claiming  under  him,  but  she  shall  be  entitled  to  dower 
against  everybody  else. 

When  a husband  executes  a mortgage  for  purchase 
money,  the  widow  will  not  be  entitled  to  dower,  as 
against  the  mortgagee,  or  those  claiming  under  him, 
but  shall  be  entitled,  as  against  all  other  persons,  and 
if  the  lands  so  mortgaged  be  sold  under  such  mortgage, 
she  will  be  entitled  to  dower  in  any  surplus  remaining 
after  payment  of  the  mortgage,  and  costs  and  expenses 
of  sale,  and  she  shall  be  entitled  to  the  interest  or  in- 
come of  one-third  of  such  surplus  during  life. 

A wife  may  cut  off  her  incolate  dower,  by  uniting  in 
the  conveyance  of  land  with  her  husband  during  the 
marriage,  or,  before  her  marriage,  by  consenting  to  re- 
ceive a settlement,  either  in  lands  or  money,  as  a joint- 
ure or  provision  in  lieu  of  dower. 

Any  widow  who  shall  not  have  her  dower  assigned 
to  her  within  forty  days  after  the  decease  of  her  hus- 
band, may  apply  for  admeasurement  of  herdower  to  the 
proper  court,  specifying  therein  the  lands  to  which  she 
claims  dower. 

WILLS. 

All  persons  of  sound  mind  and  of  proper  age  are 
capable  of  disposing  of  their  property  by  last  will  and 
testament.  In  some  of  the  States  minors  may  bequeath 
personal  property.  The  limitation  for  disposiug  of 


personal  estate  by  will  is  eighteen  years  for  males  and 
sixteen  for  females. 

A will  must  be  made  in  writing  and  subscribed  with 
the  testator’s  name,  unless  the  person  be  prevented  from 
so  doing  by  the  extremity  of  his  last  illness,  in  which 
case  his  name  may  be  signed  in  his  presence,  and  by 
his  express  direction.  But  in  such  a case  the  statute 
requires  that  the  writer  shall  also  affix  his  own  name  as 
a witness,  or  incur  a penalty  of  fifty  dollars. 

A will  requires  at  least  two  attesting  witnesses. 

The  form  of  a will  is  not  material,  provided  it  mani- 
fests, in  a sufficiently  clear  manner,  the  intention  of 
the  testator.  He  may  put  it  in  any  language  he  may 
choose. 

A will  may  be  revoked  at  any  time  by  the  testator. 

It  may  be  revoked  as  follows: 

First. — By  subsequent  instrument.  A second  will 
nullifies  a former  will,  providing  it  contains  words  ex- 
pressly revoking  it,  or  that  it  makes  a different  and  in- 
compatible disposition  of  the  property. 

Second. — By  the  destruction  of  the  will. 

Third.— By  marriage.  Marriage,  and  the  birth  of  a 
child  after  the  execution  of  a will,  is  a presumptive 
revocation  of  such  will,  provided  wife  and  child  are 
left  unprovided  for. 

An  unmarried  woman’s  will  is  annulled  by  her  mar- 
riage. She  may  make  a deed  of  settlement  of  her 
estate,  however,  before  marriage,  empowering  her  to 
retain  the  right  to  make  a will  after  marriage. 

Children  born  after  the  execution  of  the  will,  and  in 
the  lifetime  of  the  father,  will  inherit  at  the  death  of 
the  testator  in  the  same  manner  as  if  he  had  died  with- 
out making  a will. 

Fourth. — By  alteration  of  estate.  Any  alteration  of 
the  estate  or  interest  of  the  testator  in  the  property 
devised,  implies  a revocation  of  the  will. 

A sale  of  the  devised  property,  or  a valid  agreement 
to  sell  it,  is  a legal  revocation  of  such  will. 

A codicil,  so  far  as  it  may  be  inconsistent  with  the 
will,  works  a revocation. 

A subsequent  will,  duly  executed,  revokes  all  former 
wills,  though  no  words  to  that  effect  may  be  used. 

Property  cannot  be  devised  to  corporations,  unless 
such  corporations  are  expressly  authorized  to  receive 
bequests  by  their  charters. 

A will  should  not  be  written  by  a legatee  or  devisee, 
nor  should  either  of  them,  or  an  executor,  or  any  one 
interested  in  the  will  be  called  upon  to  witness  such 
will. 

Married  women  are  now  enabled  to  devise  real  estate 
in  the  same  manner  and  with  the  like  effect  as  if  they 
were  unmarried. 

And  no  person  having  a husband,  wife,  child  or 
parent  shall,  by  his  or  her  last  will  and  testament,  de- 


r 


LAWS  RELATING  TO  RIGHTS  OF  AMERICAN  WOMEN. 


7*5 


vise  or  bequeath  to  any  benevolent,  charitable,  literary, 
scientific,  religious,  or  missionary  society,  association 
or  corporation,  in  trust  or  otherwise,  more  than  one- 
half  part  of  his  or  her  estate,  after  the  payment  of  his 
or  her  debts,  and  any  such  devise  or  bequest  shall  be 
valid  to  the  extent  of  one-half  and  no  more. 

Every  citizen  of  the  United  States  may  take  lands  by 
devise. 

And  any  person  may  take  personal  property  by  be- 
quest under  any  will,  except  a witness  thereto. 

BIRTHS  AND  DEATHS. 

All  marriages,  births,  and  deaths  are  required  by  law 
to  bp  recorded,  within  a given  time. 

Of  these  the  death  record  is  the  only  one,  as  a rule, 
that  is  kept  with  measurable  accuracy.  The  authorities 
are  extremely  careful  that  no  body  be  interred  without 
special  permission,  and  due  certificate  as  to  death, 
cause  of  death,  &c.  Births  are  only  partially  reported, 
and  though  failure  to  report  the  fact  to  the  Board  of 
Statistics  by  one  or  all  of  those  present  at  the  birth  is 
punishable  under  the  law  as  a misdemeanor,  the  authori- 
ties, in  many  of  our  cities,  wink  at  such  delinquencies, 
although  it  is  on  record  that  fines  have  been  imposed  on 
physicians  and  others  for  violation  of  the  code  in  this 
regard.  But  burial  permits,  procured  for  the  removal 
of  the  body  of  the  deceased  person,  can  only  be  granted 
and  signed  by  the  Register  of  Records.  No  permits  can 
be  procured  without  a proper  certificate  from  the  phy- 
sician who  attended  the  case.  In  the  event  of  sudden, 
violent,  or  suspicious  death,  whether  with  or  without 
the  attendance  of  a physician,  the  Coroner  steps  in  and 
subpoenas  a “ properly  qualified  physician,”  to  view  the 
body  of  the  deceased  persons,  or,  if  necessary,  to  make 
an  autopsy  thereon. 

No  master  of  a ferryboat  or  public  conveyance  may 
carry  the  body  of  a deceased  person  without  presenta- 
tion of  the  death  certificate,  duly  signed,  and  the  same 
rule  applies  to  those  in  charge  of  the  burial  ground. 

The  statistics  cover  every  detail,  regarding  the 
various  diseases  causing  death,  the  times  and  the  seasons 
in  which  death  occurs;  and  in  the  case  of  birth,  the 
parentage,  whether  native  or  foreign  born,  black, 
white,  or  parti  colored,  together  with  the  place  of  birth, 
the  father  and  mother’s  names,  the  mother’s  maiden 
name,  the  birthplace  (County  or  State)  of  the  father 
and  mother,  their  age  and  occupation,  the  number  of  the 
child,  whether  first, 'second,  &c.  New  York  is  less  ac- 
curate in  its  birth  returns  than  any  other  city  in  the 
Union,  only  65  per  cent,  of  the  births  b;  ing  reported. 
Massachusetts  is  the  most  exacting  and  accurate  of  any 
of  the  States  in  the  matter  of  the  registering  of  births. 

LANDLORD  AND  TENANT. 

Where  a tenant  hires  rooms  from  another  the  relation 


of  landlord  and  tenant  is  formed  with  certain  corre- 
sponding rights  and  privileges.  If  the  hiring  be  by 
the  mouth,  the  tenant  may  leave  when  the  month  ex- 
pires, without  incurring  any  new  liabiliiy.  In  such  a 
case  the  landlord  has  the  liberty  of  terminating  the 
tenancy  at  the  end  of  the  month,  and  the  power  to  dis- 
possess the  tenant,  upon  giving  the  latter  five  days’ 
written  notice  that  unless  the  tenant  removes  at  the 
end  of  the  month  the  landlord  will  resort  to  proceed- 
ings to  dispossess  him. 

If  the  hiring  be  by  the  year,  the  same  corresponding 
rights  and  privileges  attach,  excepting  that  the  five 
days’  preliminary  notice  need  not  be  given  to  the  yearly 
tenant.  If  the  hiring  is  by  the  year,  the  tenant  cannot 
be  dispossessed  until  the  year  expires,  if  the  rent  be 
paid  in  the  meantime. 

The  difficulties  tenants  often  experience  arise  from  a 
misunderstanding  of  the  nature  of  their  hiring — that  is, 
while  they  frequently  regard  it  as  by  the  year,  the  land- 
lord regards  it  as  by  the  month.  If  the  court  happens 
to  agree  with  the  landlord,  in  his  construction  with  the 
hiring,  the  tenant  must  go;  and  in  this  respect  the 
landlord  has  the  advantage ; tenements  are  generally 
hired  by  the  month,  at  a monthly  rental,  and  the  printed 
receipt  given  provides  that  “the  letting  is  by  the 
month  only.”  These  circumstances  tend  to  corroborate 
the  landlord  in  his  theory,  which  accounts  for  the  fact 
that  landlords  generally  succeed  in  their  construction  of 
those  agreements. 

If  the  tenant,  instead  of  accepting  these  receipts  pro- 
viding that  the  hiring  is  “by  the  month  only,”  will  get 
the  landlord  to  leave  that  provision  out,  his  chances  of 
remaining  for  the  year  are  improved  ; and  if  he  can  in- 
duce the  landlord  to  insert  in  the  receipt  the  words, 
“the  hiring  is  for  one  year,”  his  possession  for  that 
time  is  assured.  Where  a tenant  hires  by  the  month 
and  remains  in  possession  after  the  expiration  of  the 
month,  the  landlord  has  an  option  either  to  treat  the 
tenant  as  a tresspasser  or  as  a tenant  for  a renewed  term 
of  one  month.  He  may  treat  him  as  a tresspasser  by 
dispossessing  him,  or  as  a tenant  for  a new  term  of 
one  month  by  accepting  the  second  month’s  rent. 

In  this  way  these  monthly  tenancies  are  sometimes 
continued  for  months,  when  all  of  a sudden  they  are 
brought  to  a close  by  five  day’s  notice  from  the  land- 
lord that  the  tenant  must  remove  at  the  end  of  the 
month. 

If  the  hiring  is  by  the  month,  it  matters  not  what  the 
landlord’s  reason  for  terminating  it  may  be,  the  law 
gives  him  a legal  right  to  bring  it  to  a close,  and  his 
motive  for  so  doing  becomes  immaterial. 

The  only  way  for  a tenant  to  protect  himself  from 
this  risk  is  by  written  agreement,  specifying  distinctly 
that  he  hires  by  the  year,  or  by  a receipt  signed  by  the 
landlord  or  his  agent,  indicating  in  substance  the  same 


r 


7 io 


LAWS  RELATING  TO  RIGHTS  OF  AMERICAN  WOMEN. 


thing,  or  by  an  oral  understanding,  had  in  presence 
of  witnesses,  that  the  hiring  is  by  the  year,  and  for  the 
tenant  to  refuse  to  accept  receipts  indicating  that  the 
hiring  is  by  the  month  only. 

Leases  for  one  year  or  less  need  no  written  agree- 
ment. Leases  for  more  than  a year  must  be  in  writing; 
if  for  life,  signed,  sealed  and  witnessed  in  the  same 
manner  as  any  other  document. 

Leases  for  over  three  years  must  be  recorded.  No 
particular  form  is  necessary. 

Iu  the  city  of  New  York,  when  the  duration  of  the 
occupation  is  not  specified,  the  agreement  shall  be  held 
valid  until  the  first  day  of  the  May  following  the  occu- 
pation under  such  agreement. 

A landlord  can  no  longer  distress  for  rent  in  New 
York,  nor  has  any  lieu  on  the  goods  and  chattels  of  the 
tenant  for  rent  due.  Rent  may  be  collected  by  action 
after  the  removal  of  the  tenant. 

A tenant  is  not  responsible  for  taxes,  unless  it  is  so 
stated  in  the  lease. 


A lease  falling  into  the  hands  of  a party  accidentally 
would  be  invalid,  and  must,  in  all  cases,  be  delivered 
to  the  party  for  whom  it  is  intended. 

The  tenant  may  underlet  as  much  of  the  property  as 
he  may  desire,  unless  it  is  expressly  forbidden  in  the 
lease.  Tenants  at  will  cannot  underlet. 

A lease  made  by  a minor  is  not  binding  after  the 
minor  has  attained  his  majority.  But  it  binds  the 
lessee,  unless  the  minor  should  release  him.  Should  the 
minor  receive  rent  after  attaining  his  majority,  the 
lease  will  be  thereby  ratified.  A lease  given  by  a 
guardian  will  not  extend  beyond  the  majority  of  the 
ward.  A new  lease  renders  void  a former  lease. 

Iu  case  there  are  no  writings  the  tenancy  begins  from 
the  day  possession  is  taken ; where  there  are  writings 
and  the  time  of  commencement  is  not  stated,  the 
tenancy  will  be  held  to  commence  from  the  date  of  said 
writings. 

If  a landlord  consents  to  receive  a substitute,  the 
former  tenant  is  thereby  released. 


SCULPTURE— MODELLING. 


70 


jNYONE  starting  for  the  first  time  as  a 
sculptor  must  be  struck  by  the  extreme 
simplicity  of  the  material  and  the  ease 
■with  which  the  rudiments  of  the  art  are 
to  be  learnt.  A lump  of  soft  clay,  a 
board  to  put  it  upon,  and  a few  wooden 
tools  of  most  simple  shapes — these,  and 
a bit  of  sponge,  and  your  own  fingers  are  really  all 
that  is  necessary  to  produce  a result.  When  the  result 
has  been  attained,  and  the  work  has  been  modelled, 
then  no  doubt  there  are  a few  things  to  learn  to  enable 
you  to  transpose  your  work — which  now  exists  in  soft 
material — into  a hard  and  more  durable  substance, 
either  into  stone,  plaster,  or  terra  cotta.  There  is  no 
good  in  disguising  the  fact  that  to  carve  properly,  a 
strong  arm  and  a firm  grasp  are  required,  and  that  is 
not  consistent  with  a woman’s  more  delicate  frame. 
She  may  console  herself  though  with  the  reflection  that 
there  are  many  man  sculptors  who  do  not  do  their  own 
carving,  so  she  will  not  be  exceptional  if  she  employs 
help  to  perform  that  part  for  which  she  is  not  fitted. 

In  earlier  days  it  would  have  been  almost  impossible 
for  ladies  to  take  up  the  profession  of  a sculptor,  as  we 
have  reason  to  believe  that  the  clay  model  was  much 
less  depended  upon,  the  statue  in  marble  being  worked 
from  small  sketches  or  models,  and  not  so  elabordtely 
pointed  up,  or  so  dependant  for  its  general  form  upon 
mechanism  as  now.  With  all  this  great  difference  it  is 
still  a pity  for  a man  who  is  able,  not  to  carve  or  finish 
his  marble  work  himself,  and  in  fact  our  best  work  has 
been  produced  by  the  sculptor’s  own  chisel ; it  is,  how- 
ever, considered  legitimate  help,  and  a lady  would  be 
perfectly  justified  in  employing  assistance  in  that 
branch  of  the  art. 

You  will  find  that  although  the  rudiments  are  so 
easily  learned,  the  art  of  modelling  will  not  appear  so 
very  easy : and  if  you  love  your  work,  you  will  find 


there  is  more  and  more  to  learn,  and  the  knowledge 
will  gradually  dawn  upon  you  that  sculpture  is  not 
merely  a copy  of  what  you  see,  but  rather  a free  trans- 
lation. It  is  easier  certainly  to  produce  a show  in  this 
art  than  in  painting,  that  is,  it  requires  a less  skilled 
artist  to  reach  to  a certain  point  in  the  one  than  in  the 
other;  but  that  being  the  case,  it  is  equally  certain  that 
it  requires  greater  art  to  put  individuality  into  sculpt- 
ure than  into  painting,  and  to  touch  the  deeper  chords 
of  human  nature,  for  that  which  helps  you  at  the  com- 
mencement of  your  career,  namely,  the  simplicity  of 
your  materials,  impedes  you  as  you  march  onward,  and 
makes  it  very  difficult  for  you  to  impress  your  thoughts 
into  it.  1 ou  have  form,  and  form  alone,  to  deal  with, 
color  being  entirely  excluded.  (The  question  of  poly- 
chromy  is  not  alluded  to  here,  as  the  color  employed  by 
the  Greeks  was  especially  unrealistic  and  decorative 
in  its  character.)  Sculpture,  therefore,  is  one  step 
further  off  life  than  her  sister  art,  and  it  requires  more 
imagination  both  to  enjoy  it  thoroughly  aud  to  practice 
it  to  perfection. 

To  prove  that  form  is  more  rarely  appreciated  than 
color,  we  would  instance  the  general  opinion  of  faces 
that  we  meet  at  an  assembly.  Ask  why  a certain  face 
pleases  more  than  another,  and  the  answer  will  be 
generally  one  based  on  complexion  and  expression 
rather  than  on  form.  Now  complexion  is  impossible  to 
render  in  sculpture,  and  in  the  power  of  expression  the 
art  is  exceedingly  limited ; the  subtle  changings,  the  ex- 
quisite language  of  the  eye,  being  entirely  outside  tLtv 
province  of  sculpture. 

We  will  assume  now  that  you  are  not  troubling  your- 
self about  the  limits  of  a sculpture’s  art,  that  you  are 
not  going  into  the  abstruse  question  of  Lessing’s 
Lacoon,  about  what  can  and  what  cannot  be  done,  nor 
are  dreaming  at  present  of  ranking  with  Fnidias, 
Michael  Angelo,  and  the  other  giants,  but  arc  simply 


7 1 3 


SCULPTUKE— MODELLING. 


anxious  to  do  your  little  in  the  modeller’s  art,  and  would 
be  glad  if  all  unnecessary  difficulties  were  cleared  for 
you. 

A few  axioms  may  be  useful  at  starting. 

1.  Do  not  be  afraid  of  making  a muss;  the  corollary 
naturally  follows,  do  not  work  on  a carpeted  floor,  or 
mother  and  aunts  will  “ go  ” for  you  with  righteous  in- 
dignation; therefore  select  a room  where  you  can  do  as 
you  like,  see  only  that  it  has  a good  light,  either  a high 
side-light  (blocking  out  the  lower)  or  a skylight,  the 
former  being  better  because  less  flattering  to  your  work ; 
a room  to  the  north  or  north-east  is  preferable  in  order 
to  avoid  the  sun. 

2.  Work  with  soft  clay,  and  have  a sponge  by  your 
side  to  keep  your  fingers  from  sticking,  and  let  the  clay 
you  put  on  be  softer  than  that  on  which  you  work. 
The  principle  of  modelling,  as  opposed  to  carving,  is, 
that  in  the  first  you  put  on,  and  in  the  latter  you  take 
off. 

3.  Use  your  fingers  as  much  as  you  can,  and  let  your 
tools  be  as  simple  as  possible — more  like  a continuation 
of  fingers,  as  if  Nature  had  provided  you  with  two  or 
three  smaller  and  larger  ones.  Let  them  be  slightly 
curved,  just  as  your  fingers  when  much  used,  will  of 
themselves  assume  a backward  turn. 

4.  Be  sure  you  consider  the  question  of  weight  and 
balance  when  arranging  your  supports,  or  one  fine 
morning  you  may  see  your  work,  when  far  advanced, 
lying  on  the  floor.  If  you  anticipate  baking  when  the 
work  is  done,  you  must  either  have  no  supports  at  all, 
or  place  them  in  such  a manner,  that  you  can  easily  re- 
move them  when  the  clay  is  tolerably  hard,  without  in- 
juring the  surface  of  your  work. 

5.  All  clay  bakes,  some  harder  than  others,  but  terra 
cotta  merely  means  baked  clay. 

C.  In  working  from  life,  depend  as  little  as  possible 
upon  measurements;  rely  upon  the  eye,  and  so  culti- 
vate it. 

“These  few  precepts  in  the  memory  see  thou  char- 
acter,” to  quote  the  wordly-wise  Polonius. 

In  working  from  life  you  should  also  try  to  have  your 
sitter  very  much  in  the  same  light  as  your  work,  for 
light  and  shade  are  most  important  factors,  and  you  will 
find  that  the  relative  proportions  of  shadow  were  won- 
derfully understood  in  the  best  Greek  work,  and  in  fact 
in  all  good  work,  two  equal  shadows  never  being  near 
to  each  other. 

In  addition  to  clay,  you  can  also  use  wax  for  model- 
ling; it  has  the  advantage  of  being  much  cleaner,  but 
still  we  should  not  recommend  it,  as  clay  admits  of 
freer  and  quicker  work,  and  the  end  is  attained  with 
more  facility.  English  clay  bakes  about  the  same  color 
as  when  moist.  The  French  is  dark  grey,  and  bakes  a 
light  reddish  hue.  Besides  the  essentials — clay,  tools, 
and  a board — you  will  find  it  more  convenient  to  have  a 


proper  stand,  or  banker,  as  it  is  called,  with  a revolving 
top,  so  that  you  may  easily  turn  your  model  around,  for 
it  is  most  important  not  to  work  too  long  at  one  view — ■ 
it  is  the  fault  of  a painter  when  first  learning  to  model. 

Your  sitters,  too,  you  should  make  as  comfortable  as 
you  can,  so  that  you  are  not  worried  by  their  not  being 
at  their  ease ; an  office  revolving  chair  on  a raised  dais 
is  perhaps  the  best  contrivance  you  have  while  model- 
ling in  the  round,  to  take  relief  into  consideration,  but 
this  though  often  tried  at  starting,  we  should  not  rec- 
ommend at  first.  It  has  difficulties  of  its  own,  which, 
when  understood,  might  hamper  you  when  afterward 
modelling  from  the  round.  These  difficulties  of  treat- 
ment would  be  soon  overcome  when  you  had  learned  how 
to  model  at  all. 

One  great  advantage  a sculptor  has  over  a painter  is 
that  he  can  take  advantage  of  artificial  lighting.  We 
can  thus  throw  the  light  where  we  will;  for,  although 
work  will,  and  should,  look  better  in  a certain  light,  it 
should  not  look  wrong  in  any.  It  does  not  matter  very 
much  what  you  choose  to  model  first:  no  doubt  you  will 
select  something  difficult,  but  will  soon  discard  it  for 
some  more  simple  form.  A foot,  or  a hand,  whether 
antique  or  cast  from  life  are  as  good  as  anything,  or  a 
face  where  the  planes  are  simple  and  broadly  marked. 
For  the  foot  or  hand  you  would  probably  require  no 
support  at  all;  for  the  heads  just  an  upright  stick  fast- 
ened well  into  a board,  or  bat,  as  we  call  it,  that  is, 
twTo  boards  each  about  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  square, 
fixed  at  two  sides  with  two-inch  space  between,  one 
above  the  other,  parallel,  so  that  you  have  room  to 
place  your  tools  in  between.  When  you  have  the  sup- 
port ready,  build  your  work  up  to  the  bat,  keeping  the 
upright  well  in  the  middle,  so  as  not  to  let  it  protrude 
at  the  neck  or  elsewhere.  Keep  your  work  clean-look- 
ing and  simple,  the  planes  all  distinctly  marked,  and 
particularly  avoid  all  details  and  sharp  cuttings  until 
you  have  the  general  form  rightly  set  in.  It  is  good  not 
to  be  always  too  near  your  work.  Continually  place 
your  model  and  work  together,  so  as  to  compare  them, 
remembering  to  have  them  at  the  same  angle  to  the 
light.  You  will  understand  by  this  that  it  is  seldom 
you  can  sit  to  your  work.  When  working  keep  damp 
cloths  over  your  work,  and  do  not  let  the  cloths  touch 
the  more  important  surfaces. 

If  you  should  intend  that  your  clay  model  should  go 
to  the  kiln  to  be  baked,  there  are  two  or  threeparticulars 
you  must  carefully  attend  to.  In  the  first  place,  see  that 
your  clay  is  quite  clean,  from  lime,  plaster  or  stone,  as 
the  presence  of  any  of  these  is  sufficient  to  burst  your 
work  and  make  pieces  fly.  Secondly,  before  sending  it 
away  from  your  studio,  see  that  your  work  is  perfectly 
dry.  It  is  only  through  non-attention  in  these  matters 
that  much  of  beginner’s  work  is  spoiled  in  the  firing;  it 
is  seldom  the  fault  of  the  potter.  A small  figure  can  be 


SCULPTURE  -MODELLING. 


baked  solid,  but  a larger  one  should  always  be  hollowed 
out,  as  there  is  much  more  room  for  air  to  play  round  it. 
If  you  hollow  it  out,  take  care  that  there  are  a few  small 
holes — in  unimportant  places  where  they  would  not  be 
seen — to  allow  of  escape  of  air.  The  hollowing  out 
should  be  done  when  the  clay  is  totally  hard,  but  before 
it  is  quite  dry.  It  is  better  to  build  up  your  work  sol- 
idly and  hollow  it  out  afterward,  than  to  hollow  it  out 
from  the  first.  The  latter  can  be  done,  but  the  difficul- 
ties necessitated  by  it  are  apt  to  distract  your  attention 
from  your  chief  object,  as  very  great  care  would  be  re- 
quired to  put  the  model  together.  The  question  of  sup- 
ports has  been  referred  to.  Most  busts  you  can  build  up 
without  any  support  at  all;  and  for  statuettes  you  caD 
generally  arrange  a support  that  can  readily  be  removed 
when  the  clay  becomes  of  sufficient  consistency  to  stand 
alone,  Take  care,  also,  that  the  clay  is  well  kneaded, 
so  that  it  holds  together,  and  that  there  are  no  air-holes 
present. 

You  can  never  be  quite  sure  of  the  color  when  baked, 
as  that  depends  a little  upon  the  surroundings  of  your 
work  in  the  kiln,  nor  can  you  always  avoid  slight 
cracks. 

There  is  another  important  point  to  remember  about 
terra  cotta.  As  clay  naturally  shrinks  when  drying,  you 
must  allow  for  it.  If  you  should  want  your  work,  when 
finished,  to  be  of  a certain  size,  one-tenth  is  generally 
allowed — a little  more  or  less  would  depend  upon  the 
degree  of  moisture  that  is  in  the  clay,  but  it  is  seldom 
necessary  to  be  so  very  particular. 

There  are  drawbacks  to  terra  cotta,  but  it  is  well  to 
know  that  terra  cotta  can  be  repaired.  A thin  coat  of 
distemper  or  paint  will  hide  the  cracks,  although  it  also 
slightly  hides  the  more  delicate  modelling,  so  it  is  not 
therefore  to  be  recommended  for  finer  work — better 
show  the  cracks. 

If  you  don’t  intend  to  have  your  work  baked,  but  to 
have  it  cast  in  plaster  preparatory  for  bronze  or  marble, 
you  need  not  be  so  careful  in  preparing  your  clay, 
neither  need  you  consider  your  supports  except  for  their 
strength  and  position.  Do  not  attempt  to  cast  your 
work  yourself,  for  it  requires  some  little  skill  to  mix  the 
plaster,  and  there  are  men  (moulders)  who  make  it  their 
vocation — only  caution  them  that  you  want  your  work 
returned  to  you  exactly  as  you  left  it,  otherwise  you 
may  find  your  surfaces  all  gone  and  worked  out,  or  fin- 
ished according  to  the  moulder’s  notion. 

These  remarks  will  assist  those  who  might  try  to 
model  unaided,  but  if  you  get  to  like  the  work,  and 


would  wish  to  succeed,  you  should  take  a few  lessons 
from  an  expert,  so  as  to  be  guided  iu  your  progress. 

In  modelling,  remember  always  that  you  have  merely 
form  to  deal  with,  but  you  have,  if  modelling  a bust,  to 
give  the  impression  of  the  head  and  not  a copy  of  it,  and 
this  is  where  the  art  of  the  sculptor  is  called  into  play. 

In  sculpture  you  cannot  give  the  color  to  the  eye;  you 
cannot  give  eyelashes,  nor  the  fineness  of  the  hair — 
all  these  points  so  important  in  life — so  you  must  exe- 
cute your  work  that  none  of  these  specialties  should  be 
missed.  “ How  is  this  to  be  done  ?”  you  will  ask.  In 
a great  measure  it  must  be  left  to  you  to  decide,  to  your 
own  feeling  and  individuality.  There  are  several  ways  of 
interpreting  life,  and  several  schools  formed  on  these 
ways  of  execution,  and  a sculptor  is  perhaps  the  last 
person  to  recommend  one  way  or  the  other,  as,  if  he 
loves  his  art,  he  has  become  a specialist  himself,  and 
would  unintentionally  direct  you  towards  his  own  way 
of  interpretation.  He  can  teach  you  to  see  nature,  it  is 
true,  but  can  only  teach  you  to  render  it  in  his  own 
way — he  is  not  able  to  say  which  is  the  right  way,  prob- 
ably there  isn’t  one;  it  is  only  a matter  of  feeling. 

The  destination  of  a work  as  well  as  the  subject  itself, 
are  most  important  factors  in  determining  the  treatment. 

We  will  refer  to  one  or  two  ways  of  treatment.  For 
instance,  in  the  eyes  the  Greeks  left  the  pupils  blank, 
but  they  gathered  shadow  by  sinking  the  whole  eye,  and 
generally  making  the  lower  eyelid  deeper  than  the  upper. 
We  moderns  usually  cut  in  the  pupil,  and  leave  the  eye 
where  nature  placed  it,  conventionalizing  the  pupil  more. 
Perhaps  the  former  way  is  more  suitable  for  ideal  work, 
and  the  latter  for  portrait  and  character.  The  disad- 
vantage of  the  latter  way  is  that  it  is  more  dependent 
for  its  true  effect  upon  the  light  in  which  it  may  be 
placed.  The  Roman  work  is  marked  much  in  the  same 
way  as  our  own,  only  not  so  deeply. 

Whilst  speaking  of  the  antique  we  caution  you  against 
a too  free  use  of  it.  Students  generally  commence  there, 
and  they  stop  there  so  long,  that  the  development  of  all 
individuality  and  life  is  checked. 

It  is  certainly  useful  at  first,  because  you  are  not 
troubled  with  a model’s  varying  phases,  but  when  you 
have  attained  some  little  proficiency  in  modelling,  it 
would  be  better  to  go  direct  to  life.  In  the  antique,  as 
iu  other  work,  there  is  both  good  and  bad.  Many  of 
the  figures,  and  also  of  the  busts  are  merely  interesting 
from  a historical  point  of  view,  and  you  must,  as  a stu- 
dent, look  at  them  from  the  artistic  side,  to  see  whether 
the  form  is  good,  the  lines  well  composed,  and  whether 
the  entire  builds  up  into  one  artistic  whole. 


720 


BRASS  WORK. 


HIS  work  is  easy,  pretty,  and  effective, 
and  is  well  suited  to  ladies,  as  it  does 
not  require  any  great  degree  of  strength. 

Most  of  us  know  what  is  meant  by 
repousse  work  in  metal.  In  that  kind 
of  work  the  pattern  is  beaten  out  at  the 
back  so  that  it  stands  out  from  the 
ground-work,  which  remains  at  its  old  level.  The 
work  which  we  are  about  to  describe  is  precisely  the  op- 
posite to  this.  Though  the  effect  produced  is  somewhat 
the  same,  it  is  attained  by  different  means.  In  a few 
words,  instead  of  beating  out  the  pattern  from  behind, 
the  ground  is  beaten  down  from  in  front,  leaving  the 
pattern  untouched. 

The  tools  required  for  this  work  are  few  and  inex- 
pensive. The  beating  down  of  the  metal  is  effected  by 
means  of  punches,  struck  by  a mallet  or  hammer.  It  is 
well  to  use  punches  with  some  little  pattern  on  them, 
for  two  reasons:  firstly,  because  they  are  then  less  likely 
to  slip  from  the  exact  place  where  the  blow  is  required ; 
and  secondly,  because  such  punches  give  a grained 
surface  to  the  ground-work,  and  such  an  appearance  is 
more  pleasing  than  a plain  surface,  and  affords  a greater 
contrast  to  the  smoothness  of  the  pattern.  Punches 
suitable  for  this  purpose  are  called  “star  ” and  “ chequer- 
ing” punches. 

Besides  these  you  will  require  some  tool  with  a plain 
edge  for  marking  out  lines  on  the  pattern  itself.  For 
this  purpose  a blunt  bradawl  or  small  screw-driver  may 
be  used,  or  even  a large  nail  filed  to  a similar  edge ; 
these  tools  should  not  be  sharp,  or  you  will  run  the  risk 
of  cutting  the  metal.  These  are  also  useful  for  getting 
into  sharp  angles  in  the  pattern,  where  your  punches, 
whether  round  or  square,  cannot  go  ; a triangular  file 
broken  off  will  also  be  found  a handy  tool  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

If  you  have  any  doubts  of  your  ability  to  hit  the  head 
of  the  punch,  it  will  be  safer  to  use  a mallet  than  a 
hammer,  as  a miss  means  an  awkward  rap  on  the 
knuckles.  You  will  require  a pair  of  shell  shears  for 
cutting  the  sheet  metal;  these  are  like  a pair  of  very 
strong  scissors. 


The  metal  itself  should  be  brass,  at  any  rate  to  begin 
with,  though  if  you  like  you  may  use  silver  when  you 
get  on. 

The  kind  of  brass  to  use  is  sheet  brass;  No.  7 gauge 
will  be  found  to  be  of  a proper  thickness.  It  may  be 
procured  of  any  length,  in  width  from  two  or  fhree 
inches  upwards.  It  is  sold  by  weight. 

The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  decide  on  the  pattern,  and 
we  would  suggest  for  your  first  attempt  some  simple  de- 
sign on  a small  piece  of  brass;  a plain  Latin  cross  on  a 
bit  four  inches  by  three  inches  will  do  very  well;  or,  if 
you  like,  the  initial  letter  of  your  name.  Cut  your 
brass  to  the  size  required  with  the  shears ; you  will  find 
it  rather  difficult  to  make  a straight  cut  of  any  length 
at  first.  This  is  because  the  part  cut  off  does  not  yield 
and  get  out  of  the  way  like  paper  or  cloth.  You  will 
have  to  bend  it  out  of  the  way,  it  can  easily  be  flattened 
afterwards  with  the  hammer. 

Cut  out  a piece  of  thin  paper  (tissue  paper  does  well) 
the  exact  size  of  the  brass,  and  on  it  trace  your  pattern. 
Flatten  the  brass,  and  gum  the  paper  to  it.  Never 
mind  if  there  are  a few  small  wrinkles,  these  will  vanish 
when  the  paper  dries.  Thin  paper  is  recommended  be- 
cause thick  paper  is  apt  to  loosen  and  come  off  when 
the  punch  is  applied.  This  sometimes  occurs  even  with 
thin  paper,  and  if  you  find  this  happening,  it  is  best  to 
trace  the  pattern  through  the  paper  on  the  brass  with 
some  sharp  instrument,  taking  care  to  scratch  only  very 
faintly.  You  can  then  wash  off  the  paper,  and  be  inde- 
pendent of  it. 

To  work  on  the  brass,  it  must  be  fastened  down  in 
some  manner,  and  the  most  convenient  way  of  doing 
this  is  to  put  a strip  of  wood  on  each  end  and  screw  it 
down.  The  brass  need  only  be  covered  by  the  wood 
for  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  or  even  less.  The  board 
it  is  screwed  down  to  should  lie  quite  flat  and  firm  on 
the  table  you  work  at,  and  the  table  itself  should  be  a 
carpenter’s  bench,  or  some  very  strong  and  steady  piece 
of  furniture. 

The  most  essential  point  about  the  punching  is  that 
it  should  be  commenced  at  the  edges  of  the  brass,  and 
worked  inwards  towards  the  middle.  If  the  piece  oi 


BRASS  WORK. 


-%» 

721  f 


brass  you  are  using  is  larger  than  is  really  required,  it 
may  be  fastened  down  at  once  as  recommended  above. 
But  if  it  is  only  the  exact  size,  the  edges,  which  are  to 
go  under  the  strips  of  wood,  must  be  first  punched. 

Holding  the  punch  perfectly  perpendicular,  strike 
firmly  with  the  mallet,  or  hammer,  so  as  to  dent  the 
brass. 

Begin  at  one  corner,  and  work  all  around  the  edge, 
allowing  the  marks  to  overlap  each  other  somewhat 
irregularly,  so  as  to  do  away  with  any  suggestion  of 
pattern  in  the  ground-work.  When  you  have  got  all 
round,  do  a second  row  inside  the  first  in  the  same 
irregular  manner.  Enough  of  the  ground  will  now  be 
done  to  enable  you  to  fasten  it  down  with  the  strips  of 
wood,  and  you  can  then  proceed,  working  inwards 
towards  the  pattern.  As  you  get  on  you  will  see  the 
inworked  portion  in  the  center  (containing  all  the  pat- 
tern) rising  up  in  relief.  You  must  now  be  guided  by 
the  pattern  itself.  If  it  is  a figure  with  no  grounding  in 
the  middle,  proceed  with  the  punching  right  up  to  the 
edges  of  the  pattern.  If  it  has  an  isolated  piece  of 
ground-work  in  it,  for  instance,  if  it  has  the  letter  O, 
it  will  be  well  at  this  stage  to  begin  punching  the  mid- 
dle, and  working  alternately  thence  to  the  pattern,  and 
from  the  outside  also,  for  if  you  go  quite  up  to  the  pat- 
tern from  the  outside  before  you  touch  the  middle,  the 
brass  will  have  risen  to  such  a height  that  it  will  be 
difficult  to  punch  it  down  neatly. 

On  the  same  principle  if  the  pattern  has  some  ground- 
work running  into  it,  as  in  the  letter  V,  you  should 
commence  working  up  into  this  place  before  you  have 
reached  the  pattern  from  the  outside. 

As  a general  rule,  it  is  a good  thing  to  keep  the  ad- 
vancing line  of  dents  at  the  same  distance  from  the  out- 
line all  round,  that  is  to  say,  the  punch-marks  should 
give  a rough  representation  of  this  outline.  But  no  rule 
can  be  laid  down  on  this  point,  and  a few  attempts  will 
show  you  with  tolerable  certainty  how  to  proceed  in 
any  particular  case. 

As  you  get  near  to  the  pattern  a new  difficulty  en- 
counters you.  This  is  caused  by  the  fact  that,  as  the 
center  has  risen,  you  are  working  each  punch-mark  on  a 
sloping  surface  of  brass.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  punch  will  slip  when  struck,  and  will  not  make  a 
clean  dent. 

This  is  very  annoying,  especially  as  it  occurs  chiefly 
when  you  are  approaching  the  outline  of  the  pattern 
and  wish  every  blow  to  t(Ml  in  exactly  its  right  place. 

It  may  he  avoided  by  holding  the  punch  very  firmly 
against  the  brass  and  by  giving  the  head  of  it  a slight 
inclination  outwards  from  the  pattern,  so  that  the  blow 
may  be  directed  really  at  right  angles  to  the  surface, 
.?.s  was  the  case  before  the  rising  of  the  pattern  took 
place.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  mention  that  the 
punch  is  usually  held  in  the  left  hand  and  the  mallet  or 


hammer  in  the  right,  though  it  is  sometimes  convenient 
to  work  the  reverse  way. 

When  you  have  worked  up  to  the  pattern  in  this 
manner,  and  have  carefully  gone  round  the  outline, 
wash  off  the  paper  tracing,  if  you  have  retained  it  till 
now.  You  will  then  be  able  to  see  many  little  places 
which  require  punching,  and  this  can  be  easily  done  b/ 
the  aid  of  the  eye  alone. 

If  the  punch-marks  appear  too  marked  or  regular  in 
any  part  of  the  ground  go  over  this  again,  until  the 
whole  ground-work  presents  a uniformly  dented  ap- 
pearance. 

If  any  lines  have  to  be  marked  out  on  the  pattern  it- 
self, this  is  the  time  to  do  it.  Intricate  work  on  the 
pattern  is  difficult  and  not  effective,  but  in  many  cases, 
some  simple  lines  must  be  made. 

For  instance,  if  a butterfly  has  been  represented,  it 
would  be  hopeless  to  attempt  any  reproduction  of  the 
pattern  on  its  wings,  but  it  would  be  easy  (and  suf- 
ficient) to  mark  out  the  division  between  its  front  and 
hind  wings  and  the  segments  of  its  body.  This  should 
be  done  with  the  small  screw-driver  or  bradawl  men- 
tioned before.  They  should  be  used  as  a punch,  and 
the  lines  marked  out  by  light  blows  of  the  hammer,  as  it 
is  not  desired  to  sink  these  lines  down  to  the  level  of 
the  ground-work.  In  fact,  if  they  are  well  marked,  the 
less  indented  they  are  the  better.  Be  careful  to  hold 
these  chisel-shaped  implements  upright  when  struck,  as 
you  do  not  want  to  dig  the  corners  into  the  work. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  any  idea  on  paper  of  the  exact 
force  which  should  be  given  to  the  blows  of  the  mallet 
or  hammer,  but  a few  trials  will  put  you  in  the  way  of 
it.  The  brass  should  be  considerably  indented,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  you  must  be  careful  to  avoid  mak- 
ing a hole. 

Perhaps  you  will  be  able  to  get  on  better  with  thinner 
brass  than  we  have  recommended ; this  is  a matter  of 
individual  preference. 

Your  work  is  now  finished  as  far  as  the  punching 
goes,  and  you  can  remove  the  slips  of  wood  which  have 
been  holding  it  down  and  examine  it  at  your  leisure. 

You  will  probably  find  that  it  has  a slight  curl  in  it 
and  will  not  lie  flat.  This  may  be  removed  by  beating  the 
ground-work  lightly  with  a small  hammer,  and  it  will 
be  found  useful  to  beat  it  from  behind,  by  turning  it 
upside  down  and  beating  it  on  the  projecting  corner  of 
a board.  Of  course  this  corner  must  not  project  on  the 
pattern,  or  the  raised  work  will  be  beaten  down. 

If  any  fragments  of  paper  remain,  or  any  gum,  they 
can  be  removed  by  warm  water  and  rubbing  with  a rag. 

The  whole  work  can  now  be  polished,  using  sifted 
whiting,  tripoli  powder,  or  anything  of  that  kind  which 
will  not  scratch  the  brass.  It  will  be  a matter  of  taste 
or  convenience  whether  you  prefer  the  brass  to  look  old 
or  tvN  keep  it  polished.  In  the  former  case  it  only  re- 


BE  ASS  WOEK. 


r 


722 


1 


quires  to  be  let  alone,  and  in  a very  short  time  it  will  1 
lose  its  bright  polish  and  the  pale  yellow  color  which 
it  will  have  immediately  after  it  is  cleaned.  But  if  you 
wish  it  always  to  shine,  you  must  either  be  always 
polishing  it  or  else  it  must  be  “lacquered.” 

“ Lacquering  ” brass  is  nothing  more  than  varnishing 
it  with  a transparent  varnish,  which  protects  it  from 
the  action  of  the  air  and  enables  the  lustre  to  be  seen 
through  it.  The  varnish  used  for  this  purpose  is 
“shellac”  varnish,  aud  is  made  by  dissolving  shellac 
in  spirits  of  wine.  As  you  will  only  require  a small 
quantity,  it  will  be  better  to  buy  it  than  to  try  to  make 
it  yourself. 

Before  applying  it  see  that  the  brass  is  perfectly 
clean,  then  warm  it,  and  lay  on  the  varnish  with  a small 
brush.  It  will  dry  rapidly,  and  be  hard  and  trans- 
parent if  the  woik  has  been  properly  carried  out.  If 
the  varnish  becomes  too  thick,  as  it  will  do  if  the  cork 
is  ever  left  out,  it  may  be  thinned  by  adding  some 
methylated  spirits,  and  the  brush  can  be  cleaned  in  the 
same  liquid,  which  may  also  be  used  for  cleaning  old 
lacquer  off,  or  for  removing  an  unsatisfactory  coat  be- 
fore applying  a fresh  one. 

The  work  is  now  ready  for  fixing  wherever  you  in- 
tend, and  this  leads  us  to  consider  to  what  purposes 
euch  work  is  applicable.  It  may  be  generally  stated 
that  wherever  a decorative  panel  of  moderate  size  is  re- 
quired, this  metal  work  will  be  found  suitable.  Per- 
haps the  simplest  thing  to  begin  on,  after  your  first  at- 
tempt, will  be  a door-plate.  We  do  not  mean  the  brass 
plate  on  the  outside  of  the  front  door,  which  conveys 
to  passers-by  the  name  and  profession  of  the  occupier, 
but  the  plates  used  on  room  doors  to  prevent  the  door 
from  being  soiled  by  the  fingers.  Such  a plate  should 
be  attached  to  the  door  by  very  small  brass-headed 
screws,  and  holes  to  receive  them  should  be  drilled  in 
the  corners.  If  it  is  not  lacquered  and  requires  to  be 
cleaned,  it  is  as  well  to  cut  out  of  a piece  of  pasteboard 
a hole  the  exact  shape  of  the  plate.  This  pasteboard 
should  be  held  over  the  plate  while  it  is  being  cleaned, 
and  will  protect  the  door  from  being  injured  by  what- 
ever composition  is  used. 

Brass  work  may  be  advantageously  substituted  for 
mirrors  in  the  ebonized  furniture  so  fashionable  at 
present,  and  it  may  also  be  used  for  the  panels  in  the 
lid  and  sides  of  a wooden  coal-box.  A small  shield, 
with  a crest  or  coat  of  arms  worked  on  it,  is  an  effec- 
tive ornament  in  wall  decoration.  Panels  should  have 
a slight  margin  left  outside  the  worked  part,  this  will 
be  found  useful  in  fixing. 

You  may  also  try  to  make  circular,  card-tray,  or  an 
oblong  pen-tray.  A margin  must  be  left  to  form  the 
sides  of  these  articles,  and  the  punching  should  begin 
from  the  inside  of  this  margin. 

This  will  cause  the  sides  to  rise  somewhat,  and  will 


be  sufficient,  unless  a very  deep  tray  is  desired.  In 
this  case  more  slope  may  be  given  by  denting  lines 
with  your  chisel  shaped  tool  on  the  margin  at  right 
angles  to  the  edge.  This  will  give  a crimped  look  to 
the  margin  and  make  it  rise.  The  blows  should  be 
harder  at  the  outside. 

It  may  be  well  to  say  a few  words  about  the  time  and 
labor  required  for  this  work.  The  time  taken  in  draw- 
ing the  pattern  will  of  course  be  less  if  the  worker  is 
gifted  with  sufficient  artistic  power  to  enable  her  to 
rapidly  sketch  the  outline  from  the  subject,  whatever  it 
may  be,  but  a very  short  time  will  suffice  even  for  those 
who  have  to  trace  their  outlines.  Leaves,  &c.,  may  be 
put  on  the  paper,  and  the  outline  traced  directly  from 
them. 

Anybody  can  draw  geometrical  patterns  with  rule  and 
compasses,  though  we  think  they  are  as  a rule  unsuited 
to  brass  work. 

The  actual  labor  of  working  the  punch  is  very  slight, 
though  it  may  be  found  that  the  hand  which  holds  it  is 
apt  to  get  rather  cramped  at  first.  The  time  required 
will,  of  course,  depend  greatly  on  the  intricacy  of  the 
pattern,  more  care  being  required  where  there  is  much 
outline,  but  at  the  same  time  there  will  be  less  ground 
to  do  if  the  pattern  covers  much  space.  About  twenty 
minutes  should  be  ample  for  a square  panel  of  five 
inches  in  the  side,  that  is  to  say,  with  an  average  pat- 
tern, but  this  is  not  meant  to  include  tracing  or  fixing 
the  paper  design. 

With  regard  to  the  sort  of  designs  which  can  appro- 
priately be  represented,  it  is  really  so  much  a matter  of 
taste  that  no  absolute  rule  can  be  laid  down.  Speaking 
generally,  any  subject  which  can  be  expressed  chiefly 
by  means  of  outline  is  suitable.  Leaves,  either  singly 
or  in  the  form  of  sprays,  will  do  very  well.  Girls 
should  go  to  the  right  source  for  their  model — nature 
herself.  Of  course,  any  kind  of  motto  or  saying  may  be 
worked  on  a band  of  brass,  if  you  have  a suitable  place 
to  put  it  in  when  finished. 

Insects  produce  an  effective  and  quaint  appearance. 
Butterflies  and  moths,  with  their  wings  extended,  or 
butterflies,  with  the  wings  closed  about  the  back,  are 
easy  and  striking,  while  beetles  have  quite  a “cunning” 
look.  Some  large  beetle  should  be  chosen,  either  the 
Egyptian,  scarabwus,  or  the  large  water-beetles  of  the 
ponds. 

You  can  attempt  to  imitate,  if  you  will,  the  old 
repousse  work,  of  which  Cellini  was  such  a master, 
though  you  will  perhaps  be  unable  to  try  it  on  the  same 
precious  metals  which  were  placed  at  his  command  by 
his  wealthy  and  influential  patrons.  Learn,  however, 
to  command  your  temper  better  than  he  did ; you  may 
be  sure  that  your  work  will  be  none  the  worse  for  that. 

In  these  days,  a greater  respect  for  life  prevails  than 


Jb 


BRASS  WORK. 


r 


723 


in  his  age,  and  when  we  want  to  defeat  a rival,  we  do 
so  by  trying  to  make  our  work  better  than  his,  and  not 
by  an  appeal  to  arms. 

A little  care  and  pains  will  enable  you  to  turn  out 
very  fair  work,  and  you  will  be  surprised  and  pleased  to 
find  what  a wonderful  effect  may  be  produced  by  such 
simple  means.  You  will  have  to  exercise  your  fore- 
thought in  the  selection  of  a subject  within  the  range 
of  the  process  and  the  reach  of  your  own  powers,  and 
your  manual  dexterity  will  be  called  out  in  the  execu- 
tion of  the  work.  It  is  an  old  saying,  but  a very  true 


one,  that  what  is  worth  doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well. 

Work  done  badly  bears  on  it  the  stamp  of  its  own 
worthlessness,  the  confession  that  the  workman  had  not 
thought  it  worth  doing.  A beginner’s  work  cannot  be 
as  good  as  that  of  an  old  hand,  but  let  it  be  the  begin- 
ner’s best,  and  nobody  should  complain.  And  whatever 
you  do,  fit  yourself  up  a workshop  of  your  own,  where 
you  can  carry  out  your  brass  work  or  wood  carving  and 
other  such  employment  conveniently,  without  fear  of 
interruption,  or  of  being  told  you  make  a “horrible 
mess.” 


CIVIL  SERVICE  RULES. 


tlie  exercise  of  the  power  vested  in  the 
President  by  the  Constitution,  and  by 
virtue  of  the  1753d  section  of  the  Re- 
vised Statutes,  and  of  the  civil  service 
act  approved  January  16,  1883,  the  fol- 
lowing rules  for  the  regulation  and  im- 
provement of  the  executive  civil  service 
are  hereby  amended  and  promulgated : 

Rule  I. 

No  person  in  said  service  shall  use  his  official  authority  or  influence 
either  to  coerce  the  political  action  of  any  person  or  body  or  to  interfere 
with  any  election. 

Rule  II. 

No  person  in  the  public  service  shall  for  that  reason  be  under  any 
obligation  to  contribute  to  any  political  fund,  or  to  render  any  political 
service,  and  he  will  not  be  removed  or  otherwise  prejudiced  for  refusing 
to  do  so. 

Rule  III. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  collectors,  postmasters,  assistant  treasurers, 
naval  officers,  surveyors,  appraisers,  and  custodians  of  public  buildings, 
at  places  where  examinations  are  to  be  held,  to  allow  and  arrange  for 
the  reasonable  use  of  suitable  rooms  in  the  public  buildings  in  their 
charge,  and  for  heating,  lighting,  and  furnishing  the  same,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  such  examinations;  and  all  other  executive  officers  shall  in  all 
legal  and  proper  ways  facilitate  such  examinations  and  the  execution 
of  these  rules. 

Rule  IV. 

1.  All  officials  connected  with  any  office  where,  or  for  which,  any  ex- 
amination is  to  take  place,  will  give  the  Civil  Service  Commission,  and 
the  chief  examiner,  such  information  as  may  be  reasonably  required  to 
enable  the  Commission  to  select  competent  and  trustworthy  examiners; 
and  the  examinations  by  those  selected  as  examiners,  and  the  work  in- 
cident thereto,  will  be  regarded  as  a part  of  the  public  business  to  be 
performed  at  such  office. 

2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  executive  officer  promptly  to  inform 
the  Commission,  in  writing,  of  the  removal  or  discharge  from  the  pub- 
lic service  of  any  examiner  in  his  office,  or  of  the  inability  or  refusal  of 
any  such  examiner  to  act  in  that  capacity. 

Rule  V. 

There  shall  be  three  branches  of  the  service,  classified  under  the 
civil  service  act  (not  including  laborers  or  workmen,  or  officers  required 
to  be  confirmed  by  the  Senate),  as  follows: 

1.  Those  classified  in  the  departments  at  Washington  shall  be  desig- 
nated “ The  Classified  Departmental  Service.” 

2.  Those  classified  under  any  collector,  naval  officer,  surveyor,  or  ap- 
praiser in  any  customs  district,  shall  be  designated  “ The  Classified 
Customs  Service.” 

3.  Those  classified  under  any  postmaster  at  any  post  office,  includ- 
ing that  at  Washington,  shall  be  designated  “ The  Classified  Postal 
Service.” 


4.  The  Classified  Customs  Service  shall  embrace  the  several  customs 
districts  where  the  officials  are  as  many  as  fifty,  now  the  following: 
New  York  City,  N.  Y.;  Boston.  Mass. ; Philadelphia,  Pa. ; San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal  ; Baltimore,  Md.;  New  Or  cans,  La.;  Chicago,  111.;  Burling 
ton,  Vt.;  Portland,  Me.;  Detroit,  Mich.;  Port  Huron,  Mich. 

5.  The  Classified  Postal  Service  shall  embrace  the  several  post  offices 
where  the  officials  are  as  many  as  fifty,  now  the  following  : Albany,  N. 
Y. ; Baltimore,  Md.;  Boston,  Mass.;  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.;  Buffalo,  N.  Y. ; 
Chicago,  111 . ; Cincinnati,  Ohio  ; Cleveland,  Ohio;  Detroit,  Mich. ; In- 
dianapolis, Ind. ; Kansas  City,  Mo. ; Louisville,  Ky. ; Milwaukee,  Wis.; 
Newark,  N.  J.:  New  Orleans,  La.;  New  York  City,  N.  Y. ; Philadel- 
phia, Pa.;  Pittsburg,  Pa . ; Providence,  K.  I.;  Rochester,  N.  Y. ; St. 
Louis,  Mo.;  San  Francisco,  Cal.;  Washington,  D.  C. 

Rule  VI. 

1.  There  shall  be  open,  competitive  examinations  for  testing  the  fit- 
ness of  applicants  for  admission  to  the  service.  Such  examinations 
shall  be  practical  in  their  character,  and,  so  far  as  may  be,  shall  re- 
late to  those  matters  which  will  fairly  test  the  relative  capacity  and 
fitness  of  the  persons  examined  to  discharge  the  duties  of  the  branch  of 
the  service  which  they  seek  to  enter. 

2.  There  shall,  so  far  as  they  may  be  deemed  useful,  be  competitive 
examinations  of  a suitable  character  to  test  the  fitness  of  persons  for 
promotion  in  the  service. 

Rule  VII. 

1.  The  general  examinations  under  the  first  clause  of  Rule  VI  for  ad- 
mission to  the  service  6hall  be  limited  to  the  following  subjects:  1st. 
Orthography,  penmanship,  and  copying.  2d.  Arithmetic — fundamental 
rules,  fractions,  and  percentage.  3d.  Interest,  discounts,  and  elements 
of  book-keeping  and  of  accounts.  4th.  Elements  of  the  English 
language,  letter-writing,  and  the  proper  construction  of  sentences.  5th. 
Elements  of  the  geography,  history,  and  government  of  the  United 
States. 

2.  Proficiency  in  each  of  these  subjects  shall  be  credited  in  grading 
the  standing  of  the  persons  examined  in  proportion  to  the  value  of  a 
knowledge  of  such  subjects  in  the  branch  or  part  of  the  service  which 
the  applicant  seeks  to  enter. 

3.  No  one  shall  be  entitled  to  be  certified  for  appointment,  whose 
standing  upon  a just  grading  in  the  general  examination  shall  be  less 
than  sixty-five  per  centum  of  complete  proficiency  in  the  first  three 
subjects  mentioned  in  this  rule,  and  the  measure  of  proficiency  shall  be 
deemed  adequate. 

4.  For  places  in  which  a lower  degree  of  education  will  suffice,  the 
Commission  may  limit  the  examinations  to  less  than  the  five  subjects 
above  mentioned;  but  no  person  shall  be  certified  for  appointment, 
under  this  clause,  whose  grading  shall  be  less  than  an  average  of  sixty- 
five  per  centum  on  such  of  the  first  three  subjects  or  parts  thereof  as 
the  examination  may  embrace. 

5.  The  Commission  may  also  order  examinations  upon  other  subjects 
of  a technical  or  special  character,  to  test  the  capacity  which  may  be 
needed  in  any  part  of  the  Classified  Service  which  requires  peculiar  in- 
formation or  skill.  Examinations  hereunder  may  be  competitive  or 
non-competitive,  and  the  maximum  limitations  of  age  contained  in  the 
twelfth  Rule  shall  not  apply  to  applicants  for  the  same.  The  applies- 


CIVIL  SERVICE  RULES. 


725 


tion  for,  and  notice  of,  these  special  examinations,  the  records  thereof 
and  the  certification  of  those  found  competent  shall  be  such  as  the 
Commission  may  provide  for.  After  consulting  the  head  of  any  De- 
partment or  office,  the  Commission  may  from  time  to  time  designate, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  President,  the  positions  therein  for  which 
applicants  may  be  required  to  pass  this  special  examination. 

Rule  VIII. 

No  question  in  any  examination,  or  proceeding  by,  or  under,  the 
Commission  or  examiners,  shall  call  for  the  expression  or  disclosure  of 
any  political  or  religious  opinion  or  affiliation,  and  if  such  opinion  or 
affiliation  be  known,  no  discrimination  shall  be  made  by  reason  thereof 
by  the  examiners,  the  Commission  or  the  appointing  power.  The 
Commission  and  its  examiners  shall  discountenance  all  disclosure,  be- 
fore either  of  them,  of  such  opinion  by  or  concerning  any  applicant  for 
examination  or  by  or  concerning  any  one  whose  name  is  on  any  regis- 
ter awaiting  appointment. 

Rule  IX. 

All  regular  applications  for  the  competitive  examinations  for  admis- 
sion to  the  classified  service  must  be  made  on  blanks  in  a form  ap- 
proved by  the  Commission.  All  requests  for  such  blanks,  and  all  ap- 
plications for  examination,  must  be  addressed  as  follows  : 1.  If  for  the 
Classified  Departmental  Service,  to  the  U.  S.  Civil  Service  Commission, 
Washington,  D.  C.  2.  If  for  the  Classified  Postal  Service,  to  the  post- 
master under  whom  service  is  sought.  3.  If  for  the  Classified  Customs 
Service,  to  the  head  of  either  customs  office  in  which  service  is  sought. 
All  officers  receiving  such  applications  will  endorse  thereon  the  date  of 
the  reception  thereof  and  transmit  the  same  to  the  proper  examining 
board  of  the  district  or  office  where  service  is  sought,  or,  if  in  Washing- 
ton, to  the  Civil  Service  Commission. 

Rule  X. 

Every  examining  board  shall  keep  such  records,  and  such  papers  on 
file,  and  make  such  reports  as  the  Commission  shall  require  ; and  any 
such  paper  or  record  in  the  charge  of  any  examination  board  or  any 
officer  shall  at  all  times  be  open  to  examination  as  the  Commission 
shall  direct,  and  upon  its  request  shall  be  forwarded  to  the  Commission 
for  inspection  and  revision. 

Rule  XI. 

Every  application,  in  order  to  entitle  the  applicant  to  appear  for 
examination  or  to  be  examined,  must  state,  under  oath,  the  facts  on 
the  following  subjects:  1.  Full  name,  residence,  and  post  office  address, 

2.  Citizenship.  3.  Age.  4.  Place  of  birth.  5.  Health  and  physical 
capacity  for  the  public  service.  6.  Right  of  preference  by  reason  of 
military  or  naval  service.  7.  Previous  employment  in  the  public 
service.  8.  Business  or  employment  and  residence  for  the  previous 
five  years.  9.  Education.  Such  other  information  shall  be  furnished 
as  the  Commission  may  reasonably  require  touching  the  applicant’s  fit- 
ness for  the  public  service.  The  applicant  must  also  state  the  number 
of  members  of  his  family  in  the  public  service,  and  where  employed, 
and  must  also  assert  that  he  is  not  disqualified  under  section  8 of  the 
civil  service  act,  which  is  as  follows:  “That  no  person  habitually  using 
intoxicating  beverages  to  excess  shall  be  appointed  to  or  retained  in  any 
office,  appointment,  or  employment  to  which  the  provisions  of  this  act 
are  applicable.”  No  person  under  enlistment  in  the  Army  or  Navy  of 
the  United  States  shall  be  examined  under  these  Rules. 

Rule  XII. 

1.  Every  regular  application  must  be  supported  by  proper  certificates 
of  good  moral  character,  health,  and  physical  and  mental  capacity  for 
doing  the  public  work,  the  certificates  to  be  in  snch  form  and  number 
as  the  regulations  of  the  Commission  shall  provide;  but  no  certificate 
will  be  received  which  is  inconsistent  with  the  tenth  section  of  the  civil 
service  act. 

2.  No  one  shall  be  entitled  to  be  examined  for  admission  to  the  Clas- 
sified Postal  Service  if  under  sixteen  or  over  thirty-five  years  of  age; 
or  to  the  Classified  Customs  Service,  or  to  the  Classified  Departmental 
Service,  if  under  eighteen  or  over  forty-five  years  of  age;  but  no  one 
shall  be  examined  for  appointment  to  any  place  in  the  Classified  Cus- 
toms Service  except  that  of  clerk  or  messenger  who  is  nnder  twenty-one 


years  of  age;  but  these  limitations  of  age  shall  not  apply  to  persons 
honorably  discharged  from  the  military  or  naval  service  of  the  country, 
who  are  otherwise  duly  qualified. 

Rule  XIII. 

1.  The  date  of  the  reception  of  all  regular  applications  for  the  Classi- 
fied Departmental  Service  shall  be  entered  of  record  by  the  Commis- 
sion, and  of  all  other  regular  applications  by  the  proper  examining 
boards  of  the  district  or  office  for  which  they  are  made  ; and  applicants 
when  in  excess  of  the  number  that  can  be  examined  at  a single  exami- 
nation shall,  subject  to  the  needs  of  apportionment,  be  notified  to  ap- 
pear, in  their  order  on  the  respective  records.  But  any  applicants  in 
the  several  States  and  Territories  for  appointment  in  the  Classified  De- 
partmental Service  may  be  notified  to  appear  for  examination  at  any 
place  at  which  an  examination  is  to  be  held,  whether  in  any  State  or 
Territory,  or  in  Washington,  which  shall  be  deemed  most  convenient 
for  them. 

2.  The  Commission  is  authorized,  in  aid  of  the  apportionment  among 
the  States  and  Territories,  to  hold  examinations  at  places  convenient 
for  applicants  from  different  States  and  Territories,  or  for  those  exam- 
ination districts  which  it  may  designate  and  which  the  President  shall 
approve. 

Rule  XIY. 

Those  examined  shall  be  graded,  and  shall  have  their  grade  marked 
upon  a register  after  those  previously  thereon,  in  the  order  of  their 
excellence  as  shown  by  their  examination  papers,  except  that  those 
from  the  same  State  or  Territory  may  be  entered  upon  the  register  to- 
gether, in  the  order  of  relative  excellence,  to  facilitate  apportionment. 
Separate  registers  may  be  kept  of  those  seeking  to  enter  any  part  of  the 
service  in  which  special  qualifications  are  required. 

Rule  XV. 

The  Commission  may  give  a certificate  to  any  person  examined, 
stating  the  grade  which  such  a person  attained  and  the  proficiency  in 
the  several  subjects,  shown  by  the  markings. 

Rule  XVI. 

1.  Whenever  any  officer  having  the  power  of  appointment  or  em- 
ployment shall  so  request,  there  shall  he  certified  to  him,  by  the  Com- 
mission or  the  proper  examining  board,  four  names  for  the  vacancy 
specified,  to  be  taken  from  those  graded  highest  on  the  proper  register 
of  those  in  his  branch  of  the  service  and  remaining  eligible,  regard 
being  had  to  the  apportionment  of  appointments  to  States  and  Ter- 
ritories ; and  from  the  said  four  a selection  shall  be  made  for  the 
vacancy. 

2.  These  certifications  for  the  service  at  Washington  shall  be  made 
in  such  order  as  to  apportion,  as  nearly  as  may  be  practicable,  the 
original  appointments  thereto  among  the  States  and  Territories  and  the 
District  of  Columbia,  upon  the  basis  of  population  as  ascertained  at 
the  last  preceding  census. 

3.  In  case  the  request  for  any  such  certification  or  any  law  or  regu- 
lation shall  call  for  those  of  either  sex,  the  four  highest  of  that  sex 
shall  be  certified,  otherwise  sex  shall  be  disregarded  in  such  certifi- 
cation. 

4.  No  person  upon  any  register  shall  be  certified  more  than  four  times 
to  the  same  officer  m the  customs  or  postal  service,  or  more  than  twice 
to  any  department  at  Washington,  unless  upon  request  of  the  appoint- 
ing officer;  nor  shall  anyone  remain  eligible  more  than  one  year  upon 
any  register.  No  person  while  remaining  eligible  on  any  register  shall 
be  admitted  to  a new  examination,  and  no  person  having  failed  upon 
any  examination  shall  within  six  months  thereafter  be  admitted  to 
another  examination  without  the  consent  of  the  Commission.  But 
these  restrictions  shall  not  extend  to  examinations  under  clause  5 of 
Rule  7. 

5.  Any  person  appointed  to  or  employed  in  any  part  of  the  classified 
service,  after  due  certification  for  the  same  under  these  rules,  who 
shall  be  dismissed  or  separated  therefrom  without  fault  or  delinquency 
on  his  part,  may  be  re-appointed  or  re-employed  in  the  same  part  or 
grade  of  such  service  at  the  same  office,  within  eight  months  next  fol- 
lowing such  dismissal  or  separation,  without  further  examination. 

Rule  XVII. 

1.  Every  original  appointment  or  employment  in  said  classified 


726 


CIVIL  SERVICE  RULES. 


service  shall  be  for  the  probationary  period  of  six  months,  at  the  end 
of  which  time,  if  the  conduct  and  capacity  of  the  person  appointed 
have  been  found  satisfactory,  the  probationer  shall  be  absolutely  ap- 
pointed or  employed;  but,  otherwise,  be  deemed  out  of  the  service. 

2.  Every  officer  under  whom  any  probationer  shall  serve  during  any 
part  of  the  probation  provided  for  by  these  rules  shall  carefully  observe 
the  quality  and  value  of  the  service  rendered  by  such  probationer,  and 
shall  report  to  the  proper  appointing  officer,  in  writing,  the  facts  ob- 
served by  him,  showing  the  character  and  qualifications  of  such  pro- 
bationer, and  of  the  service  performed  by  him  ; and  such  reports  shall 
be  preserved  on  file. 

3.  Every  false  statement  knowingly  made  by  any  person  in  his  ap- 
plication for  examination,  and  every  connivance  by  him  at  any  false 
statement  made  in  any  certificate  which  may  accompany  his  applica- 
tion, shall  be  regarded  as  good  cause  for  the  removal  or  discharge  of 
such  person  during  his  probation. 


passed  the  examination  under  clause  1 of  Rule  7,  if  such  person  does  not 
object  before  such  certification  is  made. 

Rule  XXII. 

The  Civil  Service  Commission  will  make  appropriate  regulations  for 
carrying  these  rules  into  effect. 

Rule  XXIII. 

Every  violation,  by  any  officer  in  the  executive  civil  service,  of  these 
rules,  or  of  the  11th,  12th,  13th,  or  14th  section  of  the  civil  service  act, 
relating  to  political  assessments,  shall  be  good  cause  for  removal. 

[Rules,  G,  7,  8,  11,  13,  16,  18,  and  19  were  amended  and  promulgated 
Nov.  7.  Rule  12  was  amended  and  promulgated  Dec.  5,  1883.  Rule  16 
was  amended  and  promulgated  Jan.  18, 1881.  Present  Rule  21  was  pro- 
mulgated Jan.  18,  1884.  Former  Rule  21  is  now  22  ; and  22  is  Rule  23.] 

REGULATIONS. 


Rule  XVIII. 

Every  head  of  a department  or  office  shall  notify  the  Commission  of 
the  name  of  every  person  appointed  to,  or  employed  in,  the  classified 
service  under  him  (giving  the  date  of  the  appointment  and  the  desig- 
nation of  the  office  or  place)  from  those  examined  under  the  Com- 
mission ; and  shall  also  inform  the  Commission  of  the  date  of  any  re- 
jection or  final  appointment  or  employment  of  any  probationer,  and  of 
the  promotion,  removal,  discharge,  resignation,  transfer,  or  death  of 
any  such  person  after  probation.  Every  head  of  any  office  in  the  postal 
or  customs  service  shall  give  such  information  on  these  subjects  to  the 
Board  of  Examiners  for  his  office  as  the  regulations  of  the  Commission 
may  provide  for. 

Rule  XIX. 

There  are  excepted  from  examination  the  following:  1.  The  confi- 
dential clerk  or  secretary  of  any  head  of  a department  or  office.  2. 
Cashiers  of  collectors.  3.  Cashiers  of  postmasters.  4.  Superinten- 
dents of  money-order  divisions  in  post-offices.  5.  The  direct  custo- 
dians of  money  for  whose  fidelity  another  officer  is  under  official  bond; 
but  these  exceptions  shall  not  extend  to  any  official  below  the  grade  of 
assistant  cashier  or  teller.  6.  Persons  employed  exclusively  in  the 
secret  service  of  the  Government,  or  as  translators,  or  interpreters,  or 
stenographers.  7.  Persons  whose  employment  is  exclusively  profes- 
sional. 8.  Chief  clerks,  deputy  collectors,  and  superintendents,  or 
chiefs  of  divisions  or  bureaus.  But  no  person  so  excepted  shall  be 
either  transferred,  appointed,  or  promoted,  unless  to  some  excepted 
place,  without  an  examination  under  the  Commission.  Promotions 
may  be  made  without  examination  in  offices  where  examinations  for 
promotion  are  not  now  held,  until  rules  on  the  subject  shall  be  promul- 
gated. 

Rule  XX. 

If  the  failure  of  competent  persons  to  attend  and  be  examined,  or  the 
prevalence  of  contagious  disease  or  other  sufficient  cause,  shall  make 
it  impracticable  to  supply  in  due  season  for  any  appointment  the 
names  of  persons  who  have  passed  a competitive  examination,  the  ap- 
pointment may  be  made  of  a person  who  has  passed  a non-competitive 
examination,  which  examination  the  Commission  may  provide  for;  but 
its  next  report  shall  give  the  reason  for  such  resort  to  non-competitive 
examination. 

Rule  XXI. 

1.  No  person  shall  be  promoted,  without  examination  under  these 
rules,  from  any  position  for  which  an  examination  is  not  required  to 
any  position  for  which  an  examination  is  required  under  the  rules;  nor 
shall  any  person  who  has  passed  only  a limited  examination  under 
clause  4 of  Rule  7,  for  the  lower  classes  or  grades  in  the  departmental 
or  customs  service,  be  promoted  within  two  years  after  appointment  to 
any  position  giving  a salary  of  $1,000,  or  upwards,  without  first  passing 
an  examination  under  clause  1 of  said  rule,  and  such  examination  shall 
not  be  allowed  within  the  first  year  after  appointment. 

2.  But  a person  who  has  passed  the  examination  under  said  clause  1, 
and  has  accepted  a position  giving  a salary  of  $900  or  less,  shall  have 
the  same  right  of  promotion  as  if  originally  appointed  to  a position 
giving  a salary  of  $1,000  or  more. 

5.  The  Commission  may  at  any  time  certify  for  a $900  or  any  lower 
piac ; in  the  classified  service  any  person  upon  the  register  who  has 


The  United  States  Civil  Service  Commission,  actinsr 
under  the  authority  of  the  Civil  Service  Act  of  January 
16,  1883,  and  the  rules  promulgated  by  the  President, 
makes  the  following  regulations : 


CHIEF  EXAMINER. 

1.  The  Chief  Examiner  shall,  as  far  as  practicable,  except  when  other- 
wise directed  by  the  Commission,  attend  the  examinations  held  by  the 
several  boards  of  examiners.  He  shall  take  care  to  secure  accuracy, 
uniformity,  and  justice  in  all  their  proceedings,  which  shall  at  all  times 
be  open  to  him  ; but  leaving  the  duty  of  the  examiners,  in  marking  and 
grading  those  examined,  unimpaired.  The  Commission  will,  in  its 
discretion,  designate  one  of  its  own  members,  or  request  the  detail  of  a 
suitable  person,  to  supervise  examinations  whenever  deemed  needful. 

2.  He  shall  prepare  and  submit  to  the  approval  of  the  Commission 
proper  forms  and  questions.  He  shall  take  care  that  the  rules  and  reg- 
ulations are  complied  with,  and  bring  every  case  of  injustice  and  irreg- 
ularity observed  by  him  to  the  attention  of  the  Commission.  He  shall 
take  such  part  as  the  Commission  shall  assign  him  in  the  work  at  Wash- 
ington. It  shall  be  his  duty  to  confer,  from  time  to  time,  with  the 
heads  of  the  postal  and  customs  offices  which  he  officially  visits  con- 
cerning the  regularity,  sufficiency,  and  convenience  of  the  examinations 
for  the  service  under  them. 

SECRETARY. 

3.  The  Secretary  shall  keep  the  minutes  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
Commission  and  have  charge  of  and  be  responsible  for  the  safe  keeping 
of  the  books,  records,  papers,  and  other  property  in  its  office.  He  shall 
make  the  proper  certification  of  those  eligible  for  the  Departmental 
service.  He  shall  generally  conduct  the  correspondence  of  the  Com- 
mission and  perform  such  other  appropriate  duties  as  it  may  assign  to 
him. 


BOARDS  OF  EXAMINERS. 

4.  The  general  Board  of  Examiners  for  the  Departmental  service  shall 
consist  of  two  persons  from  the  Treasury  Department,  two  from  the 
Post-Office  Department,  two  from  the  Interior  Department,  and  one 
from  each  of  the  other  Departments.  But  any  three  members  may  be 
designated  by  the  Commission  to  constitute  the  acting  Examining 
Board  for  any  examination. 

The  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Examiners  for  the  Departmental  ser- 
vice shall  keep  a record  of  its  proceedings  and  have  charge  of  its  papers. 

5.  In  case  of  examinations  to  be  held  at  other  places  than  those  hav- 
ing the  classified  service,  the  Commission  will  designate  an  Examining 
Board  for  that  purpose. 

6.  For  each  post-office,  the  Board  of  Examiners  shall  consist  of 
three  persons. 

7.  The  Examiners  for  each  customs  district  shall  consist  of  two  per- 
sons selected  from  the  office  of  the  collector,  and  one  from  each  of  the 
other  customs  offices  which  are  subject  to  the  rules  ; but  if  there  be  no 
office  subject  thereto  except  that  of  the  collector,  the  three  shall  be 
selected  from  his  office. 

8.  The  Examiners  may  serve  as  a Board  for  conducting  any  exam- 
ination ; aud  the  Examiners  for  any  customs  district  will  determine 
which  three  shall  hold  any  examination,  taking  care  that,  if  an  exam- 


CIVIL  SERVICE  RULES. 


727 


ination  is  wholly  or  mainly  for  any  office,  one  or  more  of  the  examiners 
from  that  office  shall  be  on  the  acting  Board.  In  6ase  of  a failure  or 
disagreement  as  to  which  three  shall  be  the  Board  for  any  examination, 
the  Commission  or  Chief  Examiner  shall  designate  the  local  examiners 
who  shall  serve.  In  case  of  the  disability  or  necessary  absence  of  one 
of  the  three  examiners  selected,  the  other  two  may  conduct  the  exam- 
ination. 

9.  Each  Examining  Board  in  the  postal  and  customs  service  shall 
select  one  of  its  members  to  serve  as  secretary,  and  it  shall  be  his  duty 
to  keep  a complete  record  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Board  and  of  all 
examinations  held.  He  shall  also  keep  the  Record  of  Applicants  and 
Examinations,  and  the  Register  of  Persons  Eligible  for  Appointment. 
He  shall  have  charge  of  all  books  and  papers  belonging  to  the  Board 
and  shall  be  responsible  for  their  safe-keeping.  On  application  of  the 
proper  appointing  officer,  he  shall  certify  to  such  officer,  in  conformity 
to  the  rules,  the  names  of  the  four  persons  of  highest  grade  remaining 
on  the  register.  He  shall  also  answer  all  proper  requests  for  application 
blanks,  and  send  due  notifications  to  applicants  to  be  examined,  and 
shall  give  all  other  notices  required  to  be  given  by  the  Boaid. 

10.  No  examiner  or  officer  serving  under  the  Commission  must  at- 
tempt to  control  or  influence  appointments,  removals,  or  promotions. 

11.  Care  must  be  taken  by  the  examiners  not  to  allow  such  visitors  as 
they  may  admit,  nor  any  conversation  or  other  cause,  to  obstruct  or 
distract  those  being  examined. 

12.  Examiners  must  not  disclose  for  public  information,  unless  by 
consent,  the  names  of  those  examined,  nor  more  than  the  general  results 
of  examinations. 

13.  Complaints,  which  show  injustice  or  unfairness  on  the  part  of  any 
Examining  Board,  or  any  one  acting  under  the  Commission,  will  be 
considered  by  the  Commission,  and  if  necessary  it  will  revise  the  mark- 
ing an  1 grading  on  the  papers,  or  order  a new  examination,  or  other- 
wise do  j ustice  in  the  premises . 

14.  The  head  of  each  post-office  and  of  each  customs  office,  to  which 
the  rules  are  applicable,  should  inform  the  local  Board  of  Examiners  of 
probable  vacancies,  that  examinations  for  filling  them  maybe  held  in 
due  season,  and  should  also  inform  such  local  Board  of  the  name  of 
every  person  appointed  or  employed  in  the  classified  service  under  him 
(giving  the  date  of  the  employment  or  appointment  and  the  designation 
of  the  office  or  place)  from  those  examined  under  said  Board. 

15.  The  Board  of  Examiners  for  each  office  or  district  must  promptly 
notify  the  Commission  of  the  need  of  holding  an  examination  in  and  for 
such  office  or  district,  and  may  appoint  the  time  for  the  same,  but  sub- 
ject to  any  change  the  Commission  may  find  it  necessary  to  make  for 
the  more  convenient  and  effective  discharge  of  its  duty  to  see  that  the 
examinations  are  accurate,  uniform,  and  just.  The  notice  must  state 
under  which  clause  or  clauses  of  Rule  7 the  applicants  are  to  be  ex- 
amined, and  must,  when  practicable,  be  given  at  least  twenty  days  be- 
fore the  time  appointed  therein  for  the  examinations. 


EXAMINATIONS. 

16.  Notices  in  writing  should  be  mailed  to  applicants  for  examination 
in  the  postal  and  customs  service  at  least  eight  days  before  the  exam- 
ination, except  in  cases  of  non-competitive  and  special  examinations, 
and  they  snail  clearly  specify  the  place  and  the  time,  including  the 
hour,  of  holding  the  same. 

17.  All  competitive  examinations  for  admission  to  the  civil  service 
shall  be  in  writing,  except  that  tests  of  physical  qualities  or  expertness 
may  be  added  as  the  Commission  shall  approve. 

[Sum  of  credits  in  each  subject  divided  by  nt 


18.  The  examination  sheets  will  he  given  out  in  the  order  of  their 
numbers ; each,  after  the  first,  being  given  only  when  the  applicant 
shall  return  to  the  examiners  the  last  sheet  taken  by  him, 

19.  Not  more  than  ten  questions  shall  be  given  in  any  subject  of  the 
examination  ; and,  to  facilitate  the  marking,  the  questions  in  the  same 
subject  shall,  as  far  as  practicable,  be  equal  in  difficulty.  Care  shall 
also  be  taken  that  the  time  allotted  for  the  examination  shall  be  reason- 
ably sufficient  for  answering  the  questions. 

20.  In  general  no  competitive  examination  should  occupy  more  than 
five  hours,  and  every  Examiner  will  exercise  all  due  diligence  to  secure 
fairness,  and  to  prevent  all  collusion  or  fraud  in  the  examinations. 

21.  The  examination  papers  of  each  applicant  shall  be  marked  only 
with  a number,  and  his  name  with  his  number  shall  be  placed  in  a 
sealed  envelope  which  shall  not  be  opened  till  after  his  papers  are 
marked. 

22.  The  examination  papers  shall,  so  far  as  practicable,  be  reviewed 
by  each  Examiner  separately,  and  in  any  case  of  disagreement  the  aver- 
age of  the  markings,  to  be  made  on  the  papers  by  all,  shall  be  the  final 
marking  on  each  question,  subject  to  the  regulation  as  to  revision. 

23.  The  views  of  the  heads  of  post-offices  and  customs  offices,  as  to 
whether  applicants  for  the  several  parts  of  the  service  under  them  shall 
be  examined  in  the  five  subjects  under  clause  1 of  Rule  7,  or  only  in  a 
less  number  of  subjects  under  clause  4 of  that  rule,  will  be  accepted  by 
the  Commission  so  far  as  its  duty  to  require  uniformity,  and  adequate 
tests  of  capacity  for  doing  the  public  work,  will  permit. 

MARKING  AND  GRADING. 

24.  To  whichever  of  the  five  subjects,  or  parts  thereof,  mentioned  in 
Rule  7 a competitive  examination  may  extend,  the  marking  and  grad- 
ing of  the  applicant  upon  each  is  to  be  conducted  in  the  same  way. 

25.  To  determine  the  Standing  of  the  applicant  in  any  subject,  mark 
and  credit  each  answer  in  proportion  to  its  completeness  and  accuracy 
according  to  regulations  prescribed  for  each  subject ; the  perfect  answer 
being  credited  100.  Divide  the  sum  of  the  credits  by  the  number  of 
questions  upon  the  subject : the  quotient  will  be  the  applicant’s  Stand- 
ing in  that  subject. 

26.  To  determine  whether  any  applicant  has  reached  an  Average 
Standing  of  65  per  centum  in  the  first  two  or  the  first  three  subjects, 
add  the  figures  marking  the  applicant’s  Standing  in  each  ; divide  their 
sum  by  the  number  of  the  subjects  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  Average 
Standing  therein. 

27.  No  applicant  is  entitled  to  go  upon  the  Register  of  those  eligible 
for  appointment,  whose  Average  Standing  upon  the  first  three  subjects, 
or  such  parts  thereof,  as  are  covered  by  the  examination  is  below  05  per 
centum  ; therefore,  when  the  marking  and  grading  have  been  carried  so 
far  as  to  show  such  Average  Standing  to  be  below  65  per  centum,  they 
need  not  be  carried  farther;  and  if  the  examination  includes  no  part  of 
the  4th  or  6th  subject,  such  Average  Standing  will  be  the  General 
Average  to  be  entered  on  the  Register. 

28.  To  whatever  number  of  subjects  the  examination  may  extend, 
the  General  Average  will  be  ascertained  by  dividing  the  sum  of  the 
marking  showing  the  Standings  in  each  of  the  subjects  by  jthe  number 
of  subjects. 

29.  Every  example,  though  it  be  a case  of  dictation  or  copying,  is 
regarded  as  a question  under  these  regulations,  and,  although  only  a 
portion  of  the  topics  included  in  a subject  under  Rule  7,  is  embraced  in 
the  examination,  it  will,  for  the  purpose  of  the  marking,  be  treated  as  a 
subject. 

The  following  example  illustrates  these  directions  : 
her  of  questions  gives  credit  in  that  subject.] 


First  subject. 

Credit  to  each 
question. 

Second 

subject. 

Credit  to  each 
question. 

Third 

subject. 

Credit  to  each 
question. 

Fourth 

subject. 

Credit  to  each 
question. 

Fifth 

subject. 

Credit  to  each 
question. 

Question  1 

80 

Question  1 . . 

40 

Question  1 . . 

70 

Question  1 . . 

60 

Question  1 . . 

O') 

Question  2 

45 

Question  2 . . 

90 

Question  2.. 

45 

Question  2. 

50 

Question  2.. 

90 

Question  3 

71 

Question  3 . . 

74 

Question  3.. 

90 

Question  3 . 

35 

Question  3. . 

80 

50 

Question  4 . 

5G 

Question  4.. 

85 

Question  4. 

90 

Question  5 

65 

Question  5 . . 

100 

Question  5. 

100 

311 

260 

390 

335 

230 

Divide  credits  by  number  of  questions 

5 

4 

5 

5 

3 

„ - 

62.2 

65 

78 

G7 

76.66 

The  grade  at  which  the  applicant  will  go  upon  the  Register,  is,  therefore — 

348.80 


02.2  -t-  05 


07 


rO.GO  = 348.86. 


69.77. 


CIVIL  SERVICE  RULES. 


NON-COMPETITIVE  EXAMINATIONS  UNDER  RULE  20. 

In  case  the  necessity  shall  exist  at  any  office  or  Department  for  hold- 
ing a non-competitive  examination  under  Rule  20,  the  following  con- 
ditions shall  be  observed  ; 

30.  The  Commission  shall  he  immediately  notified  of  such  necessity 
and  of  the  grounds  thereof,  showing  that  it  is  impracticable  to  supply 
in  due  season  for  any  appointment  the  names  of  persons  who  have 
passed  a competitive  examination  by  reason  of  the  failure  of  competent 
persons  to  attend  to  be  examined,  or  the  prevalence  of  contagious  dis- 
ease, or  other  sufficient  cause. 

31.  If  the  Commission  shall  not  disapprove  the  holding  of  a non-com- 
petitive examination,  the  Secretary  of  the  Commission  in  Washington, 
or  of  the  Examining  Board  for  any  post-office  or  customs  district,  shall 
notify  for  such  examinations  any  persons  whose  names  may  be  on  the 
record,  as  applicants  for  places  analogous  to  those  to  be  filled,  and 
whom  the  exigency  of  time  may  allow  to  be  notified,  not  less  in  number 
than  the  vacancies  and  places  to  be  provided  for,  nor  more  than  four 
for  each  of  them. 

32.  If  the  number  of  applicants  on  the  record  be  insufficient  to  furnish 
such  supply,  then  the  examining  Board,  or  in  its  absence  the  Secretary, 
may  notify  other  suitable  persons,  nominated  by  said  Board  or  Secre- 
tary, upon  consultation  with  the  head  of  the  office,  who,  taken  together 
with  said  regular  applicants  notified,  shall,  if  practicable,  be  not  less  in 
number  than  four  to  each  place  to  be  filled.  The  persons  selected  for 
appointment  or  employment  shall  be  required  to  make  oath  to  the 
proper  application  paper,  before  entering  upon  their  official  duties. 

33.  The  non-competitive  examination  shall  conform  as  nearly  as  prac- 
ticable, in  subjects,  questions,  and  marking,  to  the  competitive  exam- 
inations of  the  same  grade;  but  no  person  shall  be  appointed  under 
such  non-competitive  examination  whose  average  standing  upon  the 
first  three  subjects,  clause  1,  Rule  7,  or  such  parts  thereof  as  maybe 
used,  is  less  than  G5  per  centum  ; Provided,  There  are  those  who  pass 
at  or  above  that  grade  from  whom  the  place  can  be  filled. 

34.  The  names  of  all  the  persons  passing  the  examination  shall  be 
certified  to  the  proper  officer,  and  the  existing  vacancies  shall  be  filled 
therefrom;  but  no  person  by  reason  of  snch  non-competitive  examina- 
tion shall  be  appointed  at  any  other  time  than  during  such  exigency  or 
to  any  other  vacancy  or  place. 

35.  A record  shall  be  kept  by  the  local  Examining  Board,  and  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Commission  at  Washington,  of  the  persons  thus  noti- 
fied, examined  and  appointed,  or  employed,  and  copies  of  notices  and 
the  examination  papers  shall  be  preserved  ; and  said  Board  shall  after 
each  such  examination  and  appointment  make  full  report  to  the  Civil 
Service  Commission  of  all  the  facts. 

36.  In  case  a majority  of  the  Commission  may  not  be  present,  when 
an  examination  hereunder  may  need  to  be  held  at  Washington,  the  same 
may  be  conducted  under  the  charge  of  the  chief  examiner  and  any  two 
members  of  the  Board  of  Examiners. 


SPECIAL  EXAMINATIONS. 

37.  Special  Boards  of  Examiners  will,  when  deemed  necessary,  be 
designated  by  the  Commission  for  the  examinations  in  special  and 
technical  subjects  under  clause  5,  Rule  7,  and  one  or  more  members  of 
each  such  Board  will  be  selected  from  the  office  or  bureau  for  which 
the  Board  is  to  serve.  These  special  Boards  shall  be  subject  to  the 
regulations  prescribed  by  the  Commission  for  the  general  Examining 
Boards  as  far  as  they  are  applicable,  except  as  herein  otherwise  pro- 
vided. 

38.  Applications  for  any  special  examination  must  be  made  in  the 
form  prescribed  by  the  Commission,  and  must  be  accompanied  by 
certificates  as  required  in  the  case  of  ordinary  applications.  The  min- 
imum limitations  of  age  shall  be  the  same  as  those  prescribed  by  Rule 
12  for  the  several  branches  of  the  service,  but  no  maximum  limitations 
shall  be  required  except  such  as  the  Commission  may  from  time  to 
time  prescribe. 

39.  Whenever  a special  examination  is  to  be  held,  notice  in  writing, 
specifying  the  time  and  place  of  the  examination,  shall  be  sent  to  a 
suitable  number  of  the  applicants,  in  the  order  of  their  application  for 
the  same,  in  time  to  allow  their  attendance. 

40.  Each  special  examination  shall  embrace  the  subjects  approved  by 
the  Commission  therefor,  after  consultation  with  the  head  of  the 
office  concerned  or  the  special  Examining  Board  for  such  office  ; and 
shall,  as  far  as  appropriate,  be  conducted  under  the  same  general  regu- 
lations, as  to  the  marking  of  the  examination  papers  and  the  grading  of 
the  persons  examined,  as  those  for  ordinary  examinations. 

41.  A special  record  of  applicants  and  a special  register  of  eligibles 
shall  be  kept  for  each  part  of  the  service  or  office  requiring  special  ex- 
aminaiions  ; and  when  Lthe  Commission,  or  the  proper  Examining 
Board,  shall  be  notified  by  the  appointing  officer  of  a vacancy  in  such 
part  of  the  service,  certification  shall  be  made  to  him  of  the  names  of 
the  four  persons  graded  highest  on  the  special  list  of  eligibles  for  the 
same,  or  of  a less  number,  if  four  names  do  not  remain  thereon. 

42.  In  case  that  competent  special  applicants  do  not  apply,  or  donot 
appear  for  a competitive  examination,  after  suitable  notice,  a non-com- 
petitive examination  may  be  held  in  as  near  conformity  as  may  be  to 
the  regulations  provided  for  non-competitive  examinations  for  admis- 
sion to  the  service.  For  such  examination,  applicants  on  the  general 
Record,  and  persons  on  the  general  Register  of  Eligibles  whose  appli- 
cation papers  claim  the  special  knowledge  required,  may  be  notified, 
and  if  they  appear  shall  be  examined,  as  if  special  applicants  ; but  no 
person  so  examined  shall  forfeit  his  right  to  the  general  examinations, 
or  lose  his  place  on  any  register  of  eligibles  by  reason  of  his  special 
examination. 

Adopted,  December  10,  1883, 


3k 


LADIES  IX  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE. 


729 


desirous  of  entering  the 


Instruction  to  Indies 


Service, 


THE  APPLICATION  FOR  EXAMINATION. 

To  every  person  requesting  to  enter  the  classified  service,  a blank  ap- 
plication paper  is  sent.  The  filing  of  this  paper  is  the  first  step  in  the 
applicants'  examination . In  the  proper  blanks  she  gives  her  name,  age, 
residence  and  occupation,  for  each  of  the  past  five  years,  and  such  other 
facts  in  regard  to  herself  and  her  experience,  education,  and  qualifica- 
tions as  are  important  to  be  known.  All  these  statements  are  made  un- 
der oath,  and  are  required  to  be  confirmed  by  the  vouchers  of  not  less 
than  three,  or  more  than  five  persons,  who  state,  in  blank  certificates  on 
the  same  sheet,  their  knowledge  of  the  applicant,  and  their  belief  in 
the  truth  of  her  statements,  and  vouch  for  her  character,  capacity,  and 
good  reputation.  No  recommendation  outside  of  these  vouchers  are 
allowed  to  be  received  or  considered  by  the  Commission,  the  examiners, 
or  the  appointing  officers. 

The  application  thus  filed  is  returned  to  the  Commission,  or  to  the 
proper  Examining  Board,  and  if  its  statements  show  that  the  applicant 
is  regularly  voched  for,  and  that  she  is  entitled  by  age,  health,  and  citi- 
zenship, to  be  examined  for  the  service  6he  seeks,  her  name  is  entered 
upon  the  proper  record,  with  the  date  of  her  application,  and  her  paper  is 
placed  on  file.  When  the  examination  is  held,  at  a point  which  is  deemed 
convenient  for  her,  she  is  notified  to  be  present.  If  the  applications  on 
file,  at  any  office,  are  in  excess  of  the  number  that  can  be  examined  at 
one  time,  the  earlier  applicants,  by  Rule  13,  are  summoned  first  ; except 
that  at  Washington,  the  duty  of  apportionment  may  require  those  to  be 
first  examined  who  are  from  states  whose  qualified  applications  are  in 
deficient  numbers.  This  excludes  all  preference  of  applicants  through 
favor  or  patronage,  and  is  the  spirit  of  the  act,  section  5,  which  makes 
all  willful  and  corrupt  obstruction  of  the  right  of  examination  a criminal 
offense.  The  applicants  who  are  in  excess  of  the  number  that  can  be 
examined  at  one  time  stand  first  upon  the  record  to  be  notified  for  the 
the  next  examination.  Examinations  are  held  as  frequently  as  the  needs 
of  the  service  require.  Thus  for  all  applicants  (except  some  from  the 
District  of  Columbia,  where  the  number  is  excessive,  and  in  one  or  two 
similar  cases  outside',  have  been  notified  to  attend  the  first  examina- 
tions held  after  their  applications  were  received. 

The  application  paper  is  itself  a sort  of  preliminary  examination,  it 
asks  the  same  questions  that  any  wise  and  experienced  business  man  or 
appointing  officer  would  desire  to  ask  concerning  the  circumstances, 
health,  character,  and  experience  of  the  applicant,  and  it  frequently  de- 
ters from  the  examinations  unworthy  or  incompetent  persons,  who  find 
themselves  uuable  to  answer  satisfactorily  the  inquiries  proposed,  or  un- 
willing to  give  the  information  asked  for.  Of  the  best  of  place-seekers, 
many  may  be  weeded  out  by  the  necessity  of  making  this  sworn  state- 
ment of  their  career,  while  to  genuine  and  worthy  applicants  it  opens 
the  way  for  the  proper  statement  of  their  qualifications. 

WHO  MAY  COMPETE. 

A competition  theoretically  perfect  would  be  one  in  which  every  per- 
son, from  any  part  of  the  country,  could  compete  for  every  vacancy. 
But  the  needs  of  the  public  business,  as  well  as  the  provisions  of  the 
act  that  the  examination  shall  be  practical,  and  shall  fairly  test  capacity 
and  fitness  needed  for  discharging  the  duties  of  the  place  sought,  re- 
quire limitations.  The  qualifications  needed  for  carriers  or  for  weighers 
for  example,  are  quite  different  from  those  needed  for  copyists,  or  for 


some  grades  of  clerks.  Questions  appropriate  for  ordinary  clerkships 
would  be  unfit  tests  for  telegraphers,  or  pension-office  examiners.  Pro- 
visions is  therefore  made  under  which  the  application  paper  designates 
the  grade  or  description  of  places  sought ; and  it  follows  ihat  the  real 
competition  is  between  all  those  who  seek  the  same  grade  or  places. 

Further  than  this,  the  act,  requiring  the  appointments  to  the  service  at 
Washington  to  be  appointed  among  the  States,  Territories,  and  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  practically  makes  the  competition  between  those 
from  the  same  State  or  Territory,  rather  than  an  inter-State  competition. 
In  some  cases,  perhaps,  this  state  competition  may  put  into  the  service  a 
person  inferior  to  the  one  whom  the  broader  competition  would  have 
supplied.  But  it  gives  to  each  State  and  Territory,  what  it  has  not  yet 
had,  a proportion  of  the  appointments  numerically  due  to  the  popula- 
tion, and  it  will  unquestionally  stimulate  education  in  the  states  as  well 
as  increase  the  local  interest  in  all  matters  affecting  the  administration 
of  the  Fedral  Government. 

SUBJECTS  FOR  EXAMINATION. 

The  branches  embraced  in  the  general  examination  for  ordinary  clerk- 
ships and  other  places  of  the  same  grade,  are  given  in  Rule  7.  In  none 
of  these  branches  do  the  questions  go  f urther  than  is  covered  by  the  or- 
dinary instruction  in  the  common  schools  of  the  country.  If  limited  ex- 
amination is  provided  under  Clause!  of  Rule  7,  for  copyists,  messen- 
gers, carriers,  night  inspectors,  and  other  employees  of  similar  grades, 
including  only  a part  of  the  branches  above  named,  the  subjects  and 
questions  being  varied  in  number  and  grade  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
thedifferent  parts  of  the  service.  This  allows  persons  of  only  limited 
attainments  to  secure  the  positions  for  which  t.iey  are  competent.  The 
common  school  education  must  have  been  exceedingly  defective  which 
does  not  enable  one  to  pass  this  examination. 

It  will  be  noticed  that,  even  in  the  general  or  higher  grade  of  examin- 
ation under  Clause  1,  Rule  1,  proficiency  in  the  first  three  subjects 
secures  eligibility  for  appointment.  Therefore  failure  in  the  last  two 
will  exclude  no  one  from  the  service,  though  a good  standing  therein 
raises  the  grade  of  the  applicant  and  gives  her  the  better  chance  for  an 
appointment. 

If  any  shall  notice,  with  regret,  that  only  common-school  education  is 
exacted  for  entering  the  public  service  at  the  higher  grade,  and  that 
thus  only  small  direct  reward  is  offered  to  academic  an  1 college  learn- 
ing, it  may  be  remembered,  on  the  other  hand,  that  both  by  rewarding 
excellence  in  the  common  schools  and  by  barring  out  corrupt  influence 
from  public  office,  learning  of  every  grade,  and  good  charactci  and 
effort  in  every  position  are  stimulated  and  strengthened.  The  common 
schools  are  the  gates  to  the  academies,  and  the  academies  are  the  gates 
to  the  colleges. 

SPECIAL  AND  TECHNICAL  EXAMINATIONS. 

While  only  the  common-school  education  is  required  of  the  applicant 
for  the  ordinery  clerkship  and  subordinate  places  in  the  classified  service, 
there  are  other  places,  comparatively  few  in  number,  for  which  higher 
qualifications  are  requisite.  Among  these  are  clerkships  iu  the  State 
Department,  which  demand  some  knowledge  of  modern  languages,  and 
of  other  special  subjects  ; assistant  examiners,  draughtsmen,  and  other 
places  requiring  technical  knowledge  or  skill,  in  the  Patent  office  ; pen- 
sion examiners  and  other  clerkships  in  several  Departments  requiring 
some  knowledge  of  law  ; draughtsmen  and  other  employees  in  the  Super- 


73° 


LADIES  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE. 


vitiing,  Architect's  office,  and  Engineer  Department,  and  employees  in 
other  technical  or  scientific  Bureaus  or  divisions  of  the  service.  Rule  7, 
Clause  5,  provides  for  the  special  examinations  for  snch  places.  Special 
Boards  of  Examiners  have  already  heen  designated  in  the  State  Depart- 
ment, the  Patent  Office,  and  the  Pension  Bureau.  Special  examinations 
have  heen  held  of  a telegrapher  for  the  Department  of  Justice,  and  a 
telegraphic  draughtsman  for  the  Engineer  Department. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXAMINATIONS. 

In  order  to  secure  uniformity  and  justice,  the  questions  for  tbeexami- 
nations  are  almost  invariably  prepared  by  the  Commission ; those  for  any 
Examining  Board  outside  Washington  being  forwarded  for  its  use  just 
before  any  examination  is  to  be  held.  They  are  printed  upon  sheets 
with  adequate  space  below  each  question  for  writing  or  solution.  The 
applicantgets  her  first  knowledge  of  thequestion  as  the  sheets  are  given 
her,  one  after  the  other  as  her  work  advances,  at  her  examination  table. 
The  examinations  are  open  to  such  spectators  as  can  be  accommodated 
without  interfering  with  the  quiet  due  to  those  being  examined,  but  the 
answers  are  not  exhibited  without  the  consent  of  the  person  who  wrote 
them.  The  question  sheets,  with  answers  thereon,  are  preserved  as  a 
part  of  the  permanent  records  of  the  Commission,  so  that  the  fairness 
of  the  marking  and  grading  can  be  tested  as  well  a year  as  a week  after 
they  are  made.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that,  except  in  the  very  few 
examinations  needed  for  places  requiring  technical  or  scientific 
knowledge,  no  very  difficult  questions  have  been  used  The  examples 
in  arithmetic  do  not  go  beyond  the  needs  of  the  public  business.  Every 
question  in  geography,  history,  or  government  is  confined  to  that  of  the 
United  States.  Not  a word  of  a foreign  language,  nor  a technical  term 
of  art  or  science,  nor  any  example  in  algebra,  geometry,  or  trigonometry 
has  been  employed  in  any  one  of  the  general  or  limited  examinations,  and 
these  examinations  alone  are  used  for  at  least  ninety-five  out  of  every 
hundred  places  within  the  classified  service. 

CERTIFYING  FOR  APPOINTMENT, 

Those  who  have  attained  a grade  showing  fitness  for  appointment  at 
Washington  are  placed  upon  the  proper  register  kept  by  the  Commis- 
sion, for  the  service  there;  and  at  other  places  by  the  Examining  Board 
at  each  place.  (See  Rules  13,  14  and  1G,  and  Regulations  4 to  10.)  These 
registers  are  permanent  books  of  record,  showing  the  age,  grade,  resi- 
dence, date  of  entry  thereon  as  elegible  for  appointment  for  all  parts  and 
grades  of  the  service.  When  a vacancy  occurs  at  Washing  on,  the  Com- 
mission, and  when  at  a Post  Office  or  Customs  Office  the  Examining 
Board  of  the  same,  certifies  from  the  proper  register  four  persons  who 
are  graded  highest  among  those  entered  thereon  for  the  grade  or  part  of 
the  service  in  which  the  vacancy  exists.  In  the  latter  offices,  where  no 
appointment  is  required,  the  four  graded  highest  must  in  every  case  be 
certified.  At  Washington,  the  Commission  takes  the  four  names  from 
the  list  of  those  from  one  or  more  States  (having  names  upon  the  regis- 
ter), which  have  the  strongest  claim  on  the  basis  of  the  appointment. 
But  the  highest  in  the  grade,  from  the  State  or  States  which  have  such 
claim,  must  be  taken  ; and  the  whole  action  in  that  regard  appears  on 
record.  The  grade  is  won  by  the  applicant  herself.  The  order  of  selec- 
tion is  fixed  by  the  law  and  the  rules.  This  excludes  both  favor  and 
patronage. 

WOMEN  IN  THE  SERVICE. 

Nowhere,  on  the  part  of  the  Commission  or  its  subordinants,  is  there 
any  favor  or  disadvantage  allowed  by  reason  of  sex.  Only  under  free, 
open,  competitive  examinations  have  the  worthiest  women  the  opportu- 
nities, and  the  government  the  pretection,  which  arise  from  allowing 
character  and  capacity  to  win  the  precedence,  and  the  places  their  due. 
The  need  for  political  influence,  or  for  ‘importunate  solicitations,  es- 
pecially disagreeable  to  women,  for  securing  appointments  in  the  class- 
ified Bervice  exists  no  longer.  Rule  16,  Clause  3,  control  the  certifica- 
ion  of  women  for  appointment  so  completely  that  the  Commission  has 
no  discretion  on  the  subject.  The  law  in  force  before  the  passage  of 
the  Civil  Service  act  gave  the  heads  of  Departments  authority  to  decide 
when  women  are  required  or  can  be  accepted.  Both  the  Civil  Service 
act  and  the  rules  have  that  authority  unimpared. 

In  order  to  prevent  disappointment  we  ought  to  add  that,  perhaps,  be- 
cause the  examinations  naturally  appeal  to  the  hopes  and  the  ambition 
of  women,  a greater  number  of  them,  in  proportion  to  the  places  treated 
by  the  Departments  as  open  to  their  sex,  have  been  examined  and 


hence  the  number  of  women  waiting  to  be  certified  is  large  in  a like 
ratio. 

REMOVALS. 

The  power  of  removal  and  its  exercise,  for  just  reasons,  are  essential 
both  to  discipline  and  the  efficiency  of  the  public  service.  A life  tenure 
would  be  indefensible. 

The  Civil  Service  act  and  rules  have  the  authority  and  duty  of  removal 
undisturbed,  with  this  exception,  that  the  second  rule  forbids  a removal 
for  refusing  to  perform  a political  service,  or  to  pay  a politicol  assess- 
ment, and  the  last  rule  adds  every  violation  of  either  rule,  or  of  the  pro- 
visions of  the  act  against  assessments  to  the  good  causes  for  removal 
which  existed  before.  The  act  and  rules  have  greatly  diminished  the 
pressure  upon  appointing  officers  for  removals,  and  have  taken  from 
them  the  temptation  to  make  removals  of  their  own  notion  for  the  mere 
purpose  of  making  a vacancy  for  a favorite.  Many  removals,  and  those 
the  most  indefensible  in  former  years,  were  unquestionably  made  not  be- 
cause the  person  removed  was  not  a useful  public  servant,  but  because 
some  powerful  Influence  was  to  be  conciliated.  Some  friend  was  to  be 
gratified,  or  some  dangerous  enemy  was  to  be  placated  by  putting  a par- 
ticular person  in  the  vacancy. 

Nevertheless,  save  in  the  particulars  mentioned,  the  power  to  remove 
for  even  the  most  partisan  and  seifish  reasons  remains  unchanged . The 
changes  are  only  in  the  opportunity  of  filling  the  vacancy  with  favorites 
and  henchman,  and  in  the  greater  peril  from  a frowning,  hostile  public 
opinion. 

PROMOTIONS  AND  OTHER  EXCEPTIONS  FROM  THE 
RULES. 

Rule  19,  recognizing  needs  in  the  public  service  familiar  to  those  ac- 
quainted  with  the  conditions  of  good  administraiion,  allows  the  appli- 
cant for  certain  places  to  be  appointed  without  examination.  The  con- 
fidential or  fiduciary  relations  sustained  by  those  who  fill  some  of 
these  places,  the  occasional  need  of  employing  persons  of  professional 
standing  or  of  peculiar  capacity  in  others,  and  the  lack  of  temptation 
for  disregarding  the  public  interests  in  filling  others,  are  the  reasons  for 
all  but  one  of  these  exceptions. 

The  entire  exceptions  (outside  from  that  relating  to  promotions),  cover 
but  few  places — not  exceeding  135  in  all  the  Departments  at  Washing- 
ton; and  in  the  postal  and  customs  service  the  ratio  of  excepted  places 
is  smaller  still. 

PROBATION. 

The  rules  provide  for  a probationary  service  of  six  months  before  any 
absolute  appointment  can  be  made.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the  ap- 
pointee goes  out  of  the  service,  unless  then  re-appointed.  During  the 
probation,  the  character  of  the  service  rendered  by  the  probationer  and 
her  fidelity,  are  carelully  observed,  as  the  question  of  a permanent  ap- 
pointment depends  upon  them. 

The  probation  is  a practical  scrutiny  continued  through  six  months 
in  the  very  work  which  the  applicant  is  to  do.  In  this  part  of  the  system 
and  oft-repeated  objections  based  on  the  assumption  that  no  merely  lit- 
erary examination  can  show  all  the  qualities  required  in  a good  officer. 
Nobody  pretends  that  an  examination  in  any  branch  of  learning  is  an 
adequate  test  of  business  capacity.  Congress  clearly  recognized  its  in- 
adequacy, and  therefore  provided  that  in  all  cases  there  shall  be  a 
period  of  probation  before  any  absolute  appointment  or  employment. 
Instead  of  this  practical  test  being  foreign  to  the  competitive  system,  it 
is  original  with  that  system,  and  is  everywhere  an  important  part  of  it. 

It  has  been  shown  moreover,  upon  each  of  the  several  trials  of  com- 
petitive  examinations,  that  in  a larg  majority  of  instances  the  superior 
men  in  the  competitions  are  also  the  superior  men  in  the  public  work 
The  proportion,  among  the  bright  minds,  of  those  who  have  good  busi- 
ness capacity,  is  at  least  as  great  as  the  proportion  of  those  having  that 
capacity  among  men  of  very  dull  minds.  Between  these  extremes,  they 
who  excel  in  the  schools  do  so  by  reason  of  the  fidelity,  patient  labor, 
and  good  habits— qualities  which  also  fit  them  for  the  public  service. 

The  first  person  to  enter  the  public  service  anywhere  under  the  pre- 
sent rules— a young  man  at  the  post-office  at  St.  Louis — was  the  first  in 
the  competition,  and  he  was  the  first  to  be  promoted  for  merit  at  the  end 
of  his  probation.  The  first  person  appointed  under  the  rules  to  a de- 
partment at  Washington,  was  a lady  who  stood  first  on  the  competitive 
list  of  her  sex.  Her  practical  capacity  has  proved  to  be  as  excellent  as 
her  attainments. 


PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  GIRLS. 


UK 


is  difficult  to  see  why  photography  has 
not  been  more  taken  up  by  girls,  either 
as  a recreation  or  as  a profession,  for  it 
seems  to  be  an  art  for  which  they  are 
peculiarly  fitted.  There  are,  indeed, 
few  pursuits  which  require  such  rigid 
attention  to  cleanliness,  delicacy  of  ma- 
nipulation and  patience ; these  things,  which  are  virtues 
at  all  times,  in  photography  become  positive  necessities ; 
but  girls  are  not  generally  deficient  in'  these  qualities, 
and  those  who  possess  the  additional  requisite  of  taste, 
may  look  forward  to  at  any  rate  a fair  success  in  photog- 
raphy. Without  taste,  indeed,  it  is  a mere  mechanical 
process,  incapable  of  producing  a pleasant  picture,  ex- 
cept as  the  result  of  chance. 

On  commencing,  the  beginner  will  be  called  on  to 
choose  her  apparatus,  and  a few  words  of  advice  on  this 
head  may  not  be  amiss.  She  must  first  decide  what 
size  of  plate  she  intends  to  work  with,  that  is,  the  size 
of  the  glass  plate  on  which  the  negative  (or  reversed 
picture)  is  to  be  taken.  The  size,  and  consequently  the 
cost,  of  the  apparatus  required,  will  be  regulated  by 
this.  There  are  many  sizes  of  plates,  from  2^x2  up  to 
12  x 10  inches.  The  former  is  too  sm..ll  to  be  of  much 
use,  and  the  latter  larger  than  most  amateurs  will  work 
with,  or,  at  any  rate,  begin  with.  Perhaps  7£  x is  the 
most  useful  size  for  an  amateur,  supposing  that  she 
intends  to  confine  herself  chiefly  to  landscape,  with  an 
occasional  portrait.  A camera  to  take  this  size  of  plate 
can  be  used  also  for  any  of  the  smaller  sizes,  including 
cabinet  and  carte  portraits.  We  need  hardly  explain 
that  the  camera  resembles  a box,  in  front  of  which  the 
lens  is  fixed;  while  the  back  carries  the  ground  glass  on 
which  the  image  is  focused,  and  which  is  replaced  by  the 
sensitive  plate  in  a “ dark  slide  ” when  the  portrait  is  to 
be  taken.  The  “bellows”  camera  will  be  found  a most 
convenient  and  portable  form;  in  it  the  front  and  back 
are  united  by  an  expanding  body  of  leather,  like  that  of  a 
concertina,  and  the  back  is  moved  gradually  to  and 
from  the  front  by  an  adjusting  screw,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  proper  focus.  The  body  should  have  a vertical  par- 
tition along  the  middle,  and  the  lens  should  be  capable 
of  movement  along  the  front  to  admit  of  two  pictures 
being  taken  on  the  same  plate.  This  partition  can  be 
removed,  and  the  lens  placed  in  the  middle,  when  a pict- 


ure occupying  the  whole  plate  is  required.  The  back 
of  the  camera  which  carries  the  ground  glass,  should  be 
capable  of  swinging  a little  out  of  the  vertical.  The 
reason  for  this  is,  that  the  focus  of  near  objects  being 
longer  than  that  of  distant  ones,  by  swinging  the  top  of 
the  plate  a little  from  the  lens  the  foreground  can  be 
brought  into  focus  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  picture. 
The  foreground  will  be  at  the  top,  as  objects  appear  up- 
side down  in  the  camera. 

The  “dark  slide”  which  will  be  purchased  with  the 
camera  is  used  to  contain  the  plate,  and  to  convey  it 
from  the  dark  room  to  the  camera  and  back  again.  The 
back  of  the  slide  opens  outwards  on  a hinge  to  allow 
the  plate  to  be  introduced,  while  the  front  draws  out 
after  the  whole  has  been  placed  in  the  camera,  where  it 
occupies  the  position  of  the  ground  glass.  The  most 
convenient  stand  for  an  amateur’s  camera  is  a folding 
tripod. 

The  lens  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  outfit,  for 
with  a bad  lens  no  satisfactory  picture  can  be  obtained. 
The  truest  economy  is  to  get  one  from  a good  maker,  the 
cost  for  one  covering  a plate  of  the  size  recommended 
will  be  about  $25. 

The  beginner  will  find  a doublet  lens,  with  an  angle  of 
about  50°,  a very  useful  one  for  landscapes  and  build- 
ings, and  at  the  same  time  not  too  slow  for  portraits.  A 
second-hand  lens  would  probably  cost  very  little  less  if 
in  good  condition,  and  if  not,  will  of  course  be  useless. 
It  should  be  mounted  in  brass,  and  be  provided  with  a 
flange  to  screw  on  to  the  camera,  and  a set  of  dia- 
phragms, the  use  of  which  will  afterwards  be  explained. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  describe  all  the  different 
forms  of  apparatus.  Only  one  form  will  be  described; 
but  the  beginner  must  not  feel  herself  bound  to  adhere 
to  it,  as  many  appliances  for  the  same  purpose  will  be 
found  equally  good.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
formulae  given  for  developing,  &c.  All  that  is  at- 
tempted is  to  give  a formula  which  has  been  found  to 
work  well  without  wishing  to  exclude  others. 

The  camera  and.  lens  have  been  treated  of  first,  as 
being  perhaps  the  most  important  pieces  of  apparatus. 
All  other  apparatus  will  be  described  as  it  comes. 

The  processes  at  present  in  use  in  photography  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  known  as  the  “wet”  and 
“dry  ” processes.  Plates  prepared  by  the  former  must 


732 


PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  GIRLS. 


be  used  immediately  after  preparation,  while  the  latter 
will  keep  some  time.  One  wet  process  is  in  general  use, 
and  a description  of  it  will  be  given.  There  are  dry 
processes  without  end;  of  these,  one,  which  has  of  late 
attracted  much  attention,  will  be  carefully  described. 
Both  processes  produce  a negative  on  glass — that  is,  a 
picture  in  which  all  the  lights  and  shadows  are  reversed. 
For  instance,  in  a portrait  of  a child,  the  collar  is  quite 
black,  the  dress  (which  was  dark  blue)  appears  nearly 
quite  transparent,  and  the  face  is  very  dark.  This  will 
all  come  right  in  the  finished  picture,  which  is  produced 
by  exposing  a sheet  of  sensitized  paper  under  the  nega- 
tive to  the  action  of  light.  The  paper  is  darkened  more 
or  less,  according  to  the  amount  of  light  which  can  pass 
through  the  negative.  None  will  get  through  that  part 
representing  the  collar;  this,  therefore,  remains  white, 
as  it  ought  to  be.  But  the  light  has  hardly  any  hin- 
drance from  the  transparent  part  representing  the  dress, 
so  we  shall  have  this  reproduced  almost  black.  The 
face  will  also  appear  of  its  proper  shade.  This  pro- 
duction of  pictures  from  the  negative  is  called  “print- 
ing,” and  will  be  treated  of  in  its  place. 

The  order  in  which  the  processes  will  be  described  is: 

1. — The  wet  process,  as  generally  used. 

I, — The  dry  process,  known  as  “ Gelantino-Bromide.” 
3. — The  printing  process. 

I.— THE  WET  PROCESS. 

1. — Cleansing  the  Plate. — New  plates  should  have  the 
sharp  edges  removed  by  rubbing  with  a file.  This  will 
save  the  fingers  from  cuts,  and  give  a firmer  hold  to  the 
collodion  film.  A piece  of  wood,  roughened  with  con- 
undum,  is  also  used  for  this  purpose.  They  should  then 
be  allowed  to  stand  for  an  hour  or  two  in  water  to 
which  one-tenth  of  nitric  acid  has  been  added  ; this  solu- 
tion may  be  used  many  times.  Each  plate  should  then  be 
washed  separately,  by  holding  it  under  a tap.  After  it 
has  drained  for  a little  time,  the  following  mixture 
should  be  applied : 


Spirits  of  wine 5 parts. 

Ammonia 1 part. 


Tripoli  powder  enough  to  make  it  thick. 

This  should  be  rubbed  on  both  sides  of  the  plate  with  a 
tuft  of  cotton-wool,  using  some  pressure.  After  the 
whole  of  the  plate  has  been  gone  over,  the  mixture 
should  be  washed  off  under  a tap.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  the  powder  is  thoroughly  washed  from  the  edges, 
where  it  is  liable  to  adhere.  The  plate  should  then  be 
dried  on  a soft  linen  cloth,  two  or  three  of  which  will 
be  required,  the  final  polish  being  given  with  a chamois 
leather.  The  cloths  and  leather  must  be  washed  in  soda 
and  water,  and  rinsed  in  clean  water.  Soap  must  on  no 
account  be  used. 

If  the  plate  has  been  properly  cleaned,  when  breathed 
on  gently  the  moisture  will  leave  it  evenly.  If  it  does 


not,  the  tripoli  mixture  must  be  applied  again.  Touch- 
ing the  surface  of  the  plate  with  the  fingers  will  quite 
spoil  it,  rendering  recleaning  absolutely  necessary. 

2.  — Coating  the  Plate. — The  plate  has  now  to  be  cov- 
ered with  a thin  film  of  collodion.  This  is  a solution  of 
pyroxyliue  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  will  be  more  eco- 
nomical and  satisfactory  for  the  beginner  to  buy  her 
collodion  than  to  attempt  to  make  it.  It  is  sold  in  two 
bottles,  the  contents  of  which  are  to  be  mixed  a day  or 
two  before  using.  Full  directions  for  this  will  be  ob- 
tained with  the  collodion.  It  should  be  used  from  a 
wide-mouthed  bottle  made  for  the  purpose,  which  is 
closed  by  a cap  fitting  over  the  neck  instead  of  a stop- 
per. The  plate  should  be  taken  up  and  held  firmly  by 
the  corner  A,  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  left 
hand.  Now  pass  a clean,  broad,  camel’s-hair  brush  over 

the  surface,  to  free  it  from 
dust.  Take  up  the  collodion 
bottle  with  the  right  hand, 
and  remove  the  cap  with  the 
three  lower  fingers  of  the 
left,  holding  it  there  till  the 
operation  is  concluded.  Pour 
the  collodion  upon  the  plate 
about  E ; during  this  the 
plate  must  be  held  perfectly  level.  By  the  time  the 
pool  of  liquid  has  reached  the  corner  C,  there  will  be 
enough  on  the  plate.  Leave  off  pouring,  and  incline  the 
glass  slightly,  so  that  the  collodion  may  run  to  the  cor- 
ner D,  then  to  A,  and  lastly  to  B.  From  B the  liquid 
is  allowed  to  return  to  the  bottle,  by  gradually  raising 
the  plate  till  it  is  vertical,  at  the  same  time  rocking  it 
gently  to  and  fro  to  prevent  the  formation  of  wavy  xines 
on  the  film.  When  it  has  drained  thus  for  a few  sec- 
onds, remove  and  recap  the  bottle.  The  whole  opera- 
tion will  take  much  less  time  than  reading  the  descrip- 
tion. If  it  has  succeeded,  none  of  the  collodion  will 
have  been  spilt,  and  the  plate  will  be  covered  with  a 
thin  transparent  film,  free  from  all  spots  and  markings. 
As  soon  as  this  film  has  assumed  a jelly-like  consistency, 
which  may  be  known  by  cautiously  touching  the  edge 
with  the  finger,  it  will  be  ready  for  the  next  part  of  the 
process. 

3.  — Sensitizing  the  Plate. — This  is  done  by  immersion 
in  a bath  containing  a solution  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
whicli  may  be  made  in  the  following  manner: 

Dissolve  an  ounce  and  a quarter  of  re-crystallized 
nitrate  of  silver  in  four  ounces  of  distilled  water.  One 
grain  of  iodide  of  potassium  is  dissolved  in  half  an 
ounce  of  water,  and  the  two  solutions  mixed  and  shaken. 
Then  make  up  the  mixture  to  a pint  by  adding  distilled 
water,  and  filter  it.  It  should  be  slightly  acid,  as  tested 
by  the  gradual  reddening  of  a piece  of  blue  litmus- 
paper  immersed  in  it.  A few  drops  of  a weak  solution 


PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  GIRLS. 


733 


of  nitric  acid  will  remedy  want  of  acidity.  The  solu- 
tion may  also  be  purchased  ready  made  up,  which  may 
be  more  convenient  for  a beginner,  as  an  improperly- 
made  bath  will  be  a constant  source  of  annoyance. 
The  bath  to  contain  this  solution  is  an  upright  vessel, 
preferably  made  of  glass,  and  enclosed  in  a wooden 
case,  with  a light  tight  cover.  In  it  stands  the  “dip- 
per,” by  means  of  which  the  plate  is  lowered  into  the 
bath.  The  dipper  is  a long  strip  of  glass  or  ebonite, 
with  a ledge  at  the  bottom  on  which  the  plate  rests.  It 
is  sometimes  made  of  silver  wire,  turned  up  at  the  bot- 
tom. When  the  film  has  assumed  the  consistency  indi- 
cated in  the  last  section,  it  is  taken  into  the  dark  room. 
The  door  is  shut,  and  the  plate  laid  on  the  dipper  and 
lowered  steadily  into  the  fiath,  where  it  is  allowed  to 
remain  about  four  minutes,  more  or  less,  according  to 
the  temperature.  [It  may  be  noted  here  that  the  whole 
process  is  more  rapid  in  hot  weather  than  in  cold,  and 
that  it  is  convenient  to  have  the  bath  and  other  solu- 
tions at  a temperature  of  about  60°  Fahr.]  The  plate 
should  be  moved  up  and  down  in  the  bath  until  all 
streaky  appearance  has  vanished.  If  the  door  of  the 
dark  room  is  opened  during  this  operation  the  cover 
must  be  on  the  bath ; any  action  of  light  on  the  film 
after  its  immersion  would  be  fatal.  Meanwhile,  get 
ready  the  dark  slide.  See  that  the  sliding  front  is  firmly 
closed,  upon  the  hinged  back,  and  remove  all  dust,  wet 
from  the  last  plate,  and  old  pieces  of  blotting  paper. 
Put  a small  piece  of  clean  blotting  paper  on  each  of  the 
wires  at  the  corner,  and  have  ready  another  piece 
rather  less  in  size  than  the  plate.  Lift  up  the  plate  by 
means  of  the  dipper,  raising  it  slowly  but  steadily.  Al- 
low it  to  drain  for  a moment  on  a piece  of  blotting 
paper,  resting  it  on  that  edge  which  is  to  occupy  the 
lowest  position  in  the  camera.  Place  it  in  the  dark 
slide  in  that  position,  its  sensitized  face  towards  the 
sliding  front,  and  its  four  corners  resting  on  the 
wires.  Put  the  bit  of  blotting  paper  on  its  back, 
and  close  the  hinged  back.  The  plate  is  now  ready  for 
exposure. 

4 .--Exposure  in  the  Camera . — The  subject  or  ttie  picture 
must  be  accurately  focused  on  the  ground  glass  of  the 
camera  by  turning  the  screw  of  the  sliding  body  till  the 
inverted  image  appears  quite  sharp.  It  will  be  found, 
especially  when  focusing  for  a picture  in  which  some  of 
the  objects  are  near  the  camera  while  the  background  is 
far  off,  that  some  of  the  objects  are  out  of  focus,  while 
others  are  perfectly  sharp.  This  may  be  remedied  by 
the  insertion  of  a “diaphragm”  (or  “stop,”  as  it  is 
usually  called).  Stops  are  pieces  of  metal  plate,  sharp, 
eued  as  in  the  figure;  they  fit  into  the  lens,  and  reduce 
the  actual  size  of  the  aperture  of  the  lens.  (The  whole 
aperture,  without  a stop,  is  shown  by  the  dotted  circle, 
the  aperture  with  this  particular  stop  by  the  inner 
circle.)  This  produces  sharpness,  but  at  the  same 


time  reduces  the  amount  of  light  which  can  enter,  and 
necessitates  a longer  exposure. 

No  rule  can  be  given  for  the 
time  of  exposure,  varying  as  it 
does  with  the  light,  the  kind  of 
lens,  and  the  state  of  the  bath 
and  other  solutions  used.  Ex- 
perience is  the  only  guide. 

When  all  is  ready  the  ground 
glass  is  removed,  and  the  dark 
slide  inserted  in  its  place.  The 
cap  is  to  be  on  the  lens,  and 
the  • focusing  cloth,  of  black 
velvet,  thrown  over  the  camera. 
This  cloth  should  be  about  a yard  square;  the  manner 
of  its  use  must  be  familiar  to  everyone. 

It  is  convenient  to  make  a hole  in  it  at  the  middle  of 
one  of  the  sides,  the  lens  passes  through  this,  and  the 
cloth  is  thus  kept  from  slipping  off  the  camera.  The 
hand  is  inserted  under  the  cloth,  and  the  slide  drawn 
out.  The  exposure  is  then  given  by  removing  the  cap 
for  the  time  decided  on.  As  soon  as  the  exposure  is 
finished  the  cap  is  replaced,  the  slide  shut  up,  and  the 
dark  slide  carried  back  again  to  the  dark  room,  where 
the  development  should  be  instantly  proceeded  with. 

5. — Development. — This  consists  in  causing  to  appear 
the  as  yet  invisible  image  which  has  been  impressed  on 
the  film  by  the  action  of  light.  Until  this  process  is 
gone  through  the  film  looks  the  same  as  it  did  when 
taken  from  the  bath,  that  is,  of  an  uniform  opal  tint. 
The  developing  solution  has  previously  been  made  up  in 
accordance  with  the  following  or  some  other  suitable 
formula: 

Iron  proto-sulphate,  - 5 drachms. 

Glacial  acetic  acid,  - 5 “ ) Or  more  if  the 

Alcohol,  - - 4 “ > bath  has  been 

Water  distilled,  - 20  oz.  ) much  used. 

The  plate  is  held  by  the  same  corner  as  in  coating, 
and  enough  of  the  solution  to  cover  it  is  poured  on  from 
a small  glass  cup  in  such  a manner  that  the  whole  film 
is  covered  almost  by  one  motion,  at  the  same  time  spill- 
ing as  little  as  possible.  The  solution  is  then  at  once 
returned  to  the  glass  from  the  nearest  right-hand  corner 
and  poured  on  again  as  before;  at  the  same  time  the  op- 
erator inclines  the  plate  in  different  directions,  that  Ihe 
solution  may  be  kept  in  motion  on  it  and  so  act  evenly 
on  the  whole  film.  If  all  has  gone  well  the  picture  will 
gradually  appear,  first  the  high  lights  (coming  out 
black),  then  the  medium  tones,  and  lastly  the  deep 
shadows.  As  soon  as  sufficient  detail  is  obtained  in  the 
latter,  the  developer  is  washed  off  thoroughly  by  holding 
the  plate  under  a stream  of  water.  There  is  no  fear  of 
breaking  the  film  if  the  stream  is  only  moderately  slrong 
and  falls  in  the  middle  of  the  plate,  which  is  held  hori- 
zontally. 


734 


PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  GIRLS. 


6. — Itensification. — This  operation  is  resorted  to  in  or- 
der to  obtain  sufficient  density  in  the  negative  to  enable 
a good  print  to  be  got  from  it. 

The  right  density  can  only  be  judged  by  practice,  a 
properly  exposed  negative  will  give  as  much  as  is  re- 
quired by  the  use  of  the  developer  alone. 

The  following  solution  may  be  made  up: 


Nitrate  of  silver 20  grs. 

Citric  acid 30  “ 

Distilled  water 1 oz. 


A few  drops  of  this  are  mixed  with  sufficient  of  the 
developing  solution,  and  applied  in  the  same  manner 
till  the  required  density  is  obtained. 

Instead  of  the  developing  solution,  the  following  is 
often  used  for  this  purpose: 


Pyrogallic  acid 2 grs. 

Distilled  water 1 oz. 


These  must  be  thoroughly  washed  off  before  proceed- 
ing to  the  next  operation. 

7.  — Fixing. — A saturated  solution  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda  is  used  for  this  purpose.  It  may  be  poured  on  the 
plate,  or  the  plate  immersed  in  a dish  containing  it.  The 
action  must  be  allowed  to  continue  until  the  shadows 
are  quite  clear  and  transparent. 

The  plate  must  now  be  thoroughly  washed  for  some 
time,  being  finally  placed  for  a few  minutes  in  a dish  of 
distilled  water;  it  is  then  taken  out  and  set  up  to  dry  in 
a place  free  from  dust,  its  lower  end  resting  on  a piece 
of  blotting  paper,  which  may  be  changed  after  a few 
minutes.  When  tolerably  dry  it  is  readv  for  the  next 
process.  Many  photographers  prefer  to  use  a weak  so- 
lution of  cyanide  of  potassium,  but  it  is  open  to  the 
objection  of  being  very  poisonous: 

8.  — Varnishing. — The  object  of  this  is  to  protect  the 
film  from  injury  by  dust,  damp,  etc.  The  plate  w.hen 
dry,  or  nearly  dry,  is  heated  until  the  back  of  it  feels 
decidedly  warm.  The  varnish  is  then  poured  on  and  re- 
turned to  the  bottle  in  the  same  manner  as  collodion, 
and  the  corner  where  most  has  collected  is  wiped  with 
a bit  of  blotting  paper.  The  plate  is  then  made  rather 
warmer  than  before,  and  when  cool  presents  a smooth 
and  hard  coating  of  the  varnish.  Dust  must  be  care- 
fully avoided  in  this  operation. 

2.— TOE  GELATINO-BROMIDE  PROCESS. 

This  process  has  lately  attracted  much  attention,  and 
many  have  entirely  discarded  the  wet  process  in  its 
favor.  The  plates  may  be  purchased  at  any  photo- 
graphic warehouse ; those  of  a good  maker  should  be 
obtained,  as  some  are  by  no  means  satisfactory;  they 
are  ready  for  use  when  bought,  but  will  keep  any  reason- 
able time  before  exposure,  and  between  exposure  and 
development.  Directions  for  use  are  enclosed  with 
them  and  vary  with  different  makes,  but  in  all  case3  the 
development  is  effected  by  means  of  a solution  of  pyro- 


gallic acid  with  a few  drops  of  ammonia,  bromide  of 
potassium  being  used  to  restrain  a too  rapid  action.  The 
plate  is  covered  with  a solution  in  an  ebonite  or  porce- 
lain tray,  instead  of  being  held  in  the  hand  as  in  the 
wet  process.  These  plates  may  be  intensified  by  a satu- 
rated solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury.  This,  when 
applied  to  the  well-washed  film,  turns  it  to  a brownish 
white,  and  this  color  becomes  black  on  the  application 
of  a weak  solution  of  ammonia.  The  plate  must  be 
thoroughly  washed  between  the  two  applications,  and 
also  after  the  second.  It  must  be  allowed  to  dry  spon- 
taneously before  varnishing,  as  the  application  of  heat 
would  cause  the  gelatine  of  which  the  film  consists,  to 
dissolve  in  the  water  still  on  the  plate. 

When  dry  it  may  be  varnished  in  the  usual  manner. 
A clear  fire  is  a suitable  source  of  heat  for  varnishing 
either  gelatine  negatives  or  those  obtained  by  the  wet 
process.  The  water  and  solutions  used  in  this  process 
should  be  kept  at  a temperature  of  about  60°  Fahr.,  but 
should  not  exceed  this.  The  method  of  preparing  these 
plates  is  too  long  to  be  described  here,  nor  is  it  at  all 
likely  to  prove  successful  in  the  hands  of  a beginner, 
but  with  good  commercial  plates  she  is  more  likely  to 
succeed  at  first  than  with  the  wet  process.  The  ex- 
posure required  by  gelatine  plates  is  much  less  than  that 
with  the  wet  process,  and  it  is  often  advisable  to  use 
small  stops  in  order  to  be  able  to  increase  it  to  a time 
which  can  be  easily  appreciated,  and  therefore  accurate- 
ly given.  For  instance,  if  the  exposure  be  one  second, 
an  error  of  one  quarter  of  a second  will  be  an  error  of 
one-fourth  of  the  whole  exposure,  but  if  the  time  be  in- 
creased to  eight  seconds  by  the  use  of  stops,  the  same 
error  will  only  amount  to  one-tweuty-fourth,  and  will 
be  of  comparatively  small  importance. 

THE  DARK  ROOM. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  white  light  be  excluded 
during  the  sensitizing  and  development  of  the  plates. 
The  most  suitable  dark  room  would  contain  a sink  with 
water  laid  on,  cupboards  and  drawers  for  apparatus, 
shelves  to  hold  bottles,  and  a stove  for  warming  it.  It 
would  be  lighted  by  a window  glazed  with  yellow  glass 
for  the  wet  process,  and  ruby  glass  for  the  gelatine 
plates.  But  a much  cheaper  arrangement  than  this  will 
answer  the  purpose.  Any  small  room  or  even  cupboard 
in  which  there  is  space  to  move  about  may  be  made 
available.  If  there  is  a window,  it  should  be  pasted 
over  with  brown  paper  so  that  all  light  is  excluded. 
Two  kinds  of  light  may  be  employed  to  work  by,  either 
that  obtained  from  a lantern  glazed  with  yellow  or  red 
glass,  or  one  pane  of  the  window  may  be  left  free  from 
brown  paper  and  covered  with  several  thicknesses  of 
orange. paper  sold  for  the  purpose.  The  former  plan 
must  of  course  be  adopted  when  there  is  no  window. 

If  no  room,  however  small,  can  be  devoted  to  the  pur- 


PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  GIRLS. 


pose  by  day,  dry  plates  may  be  used,  either  the  gelatine 
kind  or  those  made  by  some  other  process.  These  may 
be  placed  in  the  slides  at  night  by  the  aid  of  the  lantern 
mentioned  above,  exposed  next  day,  and  developed  the 
next  night  by  the  lantern.  For  Landscape  work  by 
the  wet  process  a “dark  tent”  is  used;  a description 
of  this  is  not  called  for  here.  With  dry  plates  of  course 
this  is  not  required. 

The  sink  may  be  replaced  by  a pail,  and  a pitcher  used 
instead  of  the  more  convenient  tap  of  water. 

3.— THE  PRINTING  PROCESS. 


are  many  ways  of  making  up  this ; the  following  will  be 
found  satisfactory: 


Chloride  of  gold 3 grs. 

Chloride  of  lime  (Bleaching  Powder) ...  3 grs. 
Water 20  oz. 


A little  precipitated  chalk  should  be  kept  in  this,  and 
the  clear  liquid  above  it  carefully  poured  off  for  use. 
The  prints  are  immersed  in  this  solution  until  a tone 
somewhat  stronger  than  the  one  required  is  attained. 
They  must  be  moved  about  and  not  allowed  to  stick 
together.  The  prints  must  now  be  carefully  washed  in 
several  changes  of  water,  and  are  then  ready  for  fixing 
in  the  following  solution  : 


Hyposulphite  of  soda 3 oz. 

Water 20  oz. 


A little  ammonia  may  be  added  with  advantage.  About 
10  minutes  immersion  will  probably  be  suflicient.  The 
priuts  must  now  be  thoroughly  washed  from  every  trace 
of  the  hyposulphite,  as  upon  this  depends  their  future 
permanency.  Twelve  hours  washing,  with  frequent 
changes  of  water,  will  not  be  found  too  much . Hot 
water  may  be  used  with  advantage.  They  maybe  dried 
in  a warm  place,  after  the  greater  part  of  the  moisture 
has  been  removed  by  pressure  between  blotting  paper. 
They  should  be  placed  between  two  sheets  of  clean 
smooth  paper  and  ironed  with  a hot  iron,  considerable 
pressure  being  used.  For  mounting,  use  India-rubber 
solution  or  patent  size.  The  smell  of  the  former  will 
leave  the  prints  if  they  are  warmed.  The  prints  must 
on  no  account  be  touched  with  the  fingers  on  the  face 
during  sensitizing,  toning,  or  fixing,  or  stains  will  in- 
fallibly result. 

A glass  rod  should  be  used  to  move  them  from  one 
solution  to  the  other. 

Some  trouble  may  be  saved  by  buying  the  paper 
already  sensitized;  it  can  be  obtained  of  a very  uniform 
quality,  and  will  remain  fit  for  use  for  a considerable 
time. 

The  beginner  must  be  careful  to  avoid  working  with 
cuts  or  scratches  on  the  fingers,  especially  if  cyanide  of 
potassium  is  used.  The  only  other  really  dangerous 
chemical  is  bichloride  of  mercury,  which  is  sometimes 
used  for  intensifying  negatives  taken  by  the  gelatine 
process.  Stains  on  the  fingers  may  be  removed  by 
moistening  with  a solution  of  iodine  in  iodide  of  potas- 
sium, washing  and  treating  with  a solution  of  cynaide  of 
potassium,  and  finally  washing  well,  but  unless  the 
stains  are  fresh,  some  difficulty  will  be  found  in  remov- 
ing them.  They  are  caused  chiefly  by  nitrate  of  silver. 
The  toning  solution  will  also  stain;  but  there  is  no  ex- 
cuse for  getting  that  on  the  fingers  at  all.  India-rubber 
gloves  may  be  worn,  which,  though  slightly  cumbersome, 
will  effectually  prevent  all  chance  of  dirty  hands.  The 


The  shiny  surface  of  the  paper  on  which  photographs 
are  printed  is  given  by  a coating  of  albumen  (white 
of  egg).  The  paper  is  bought  ready  albumenized,  and 
is  rendered  sensitive  by  floating  face  downwards  for 
about  a minute  and  a half  on  a solution  of  nitrate  of 
silver  (strength,  60  grains  to  1 ounce  of  distilled  water). 
The  paper  is  cut  to  convenient  sizes  and  taken  by  two 
opposite  corners.  The  middle  is  then  allowed  to  touch 
the  solution,  and  the  corners  are  lowered  gently  down. 

Air  bubbles  must  be  avoided,  nor  should  the  back 
of  the  paper  be  wetted.  It  is  then  hungup  to  dry,  each 
sheet  being  suspended  by  means  of  a glass  clip  attached 
to  a corner;  a small  hook  of  silver  wire,  or  even  a bent 
pin,  may  also  be  used  for  this  purpose.  When  dry  it  is 
ready  for  use,  but  may  be  kept  for  some  time  between 
sheets  of  blotting  paper  which  have  been  dipped  in  a 
weak  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  and  dried.  All  this 
is  to  be  done  in  the  dark  room.  The  paper  is  exposed 
to  the  action  of  light  beneath  the  negative  in  a printing 
frame.  This  piece  of  apparatus  resembles  a picture 
frame,  in  which  the  glass  is  replaced  by  the  negative, 
the  picture  itself  by  the  sensitive  paper,  and  the  back  by 
two  pieces  of  wood  hinged  together.  Each  half  is  re- 
tained in  position  by  a spring  catch,  so  that  one  may  be 
turned  back  and  the  progress  of  the  print  examined 
without  disturbing  the  position  of  the  paper.  More  vig. 
orous  prints  are  obtained  by  the  action  of  sunlight,  but 
printing  in  the  shade  requires  less  watching.  The  time 
required  varies  with  the  light  and  density  of  the  nega- 
tive, from  a few  minutes  in  bright  sunlight,  to  some 
hours  on  very  dull  days.  The  print  must  be  examined 
in  weak  light,  or  the  purity  of  the  whites  will  be  im- 
pared.  As  the  operations  of  toning  and  fixing  weak- 
ens the  print,  it  must  appear  somewhat  darker  than 
the  shade  finally  required.  On  removal  from  the  print- 
ing frame  the  prints  are  cut  to  the  size  required,  by 
placing  on  them  a glass  shape,  and  running  round  the 
edges  with  a sharp  knife.  They  are  now  to  be  washed 
in  two  or  three  changes  of  water,  remaining  about  a 
couple  of  minutes  in  each.  They  are  toned  by  immer- 
sion in  a solution  containing  chloride  of  gold.  There 


4 


PHOTOGRAPHY  FOR  GIRLS. 


gelatine  process  can  be  worked  without  staining  the 
hands. 

In  the  choice  of  a landscape  be  guided  by  the  same  rules 
as  in  choosing  the  subject  for  a sketch,  remembering 
always  the  following  points  : (1)  that  you  have  no  power 
of  altering  your  subject  as  in  sketching;  you  cannot  sub- 
due what  you  consider  objectional,  or  bring  into  prom- 
inence a point  which  is  subdued  in  your  view,  except 
by  carefully  choosing  your  point  of  view  : (2)  that  a 
photograph  renders  a view  in  light  and  shade,  and 
therefore  a picture  which  depends  upon  color  for  its 
beauty  may  be  eminently  unsuitable  for  representation 
by  photography.  With  regard  to  portraiture,  volumes 
might  be  written  on  posing  and  lighting  the  sitter. 
Those  who  have  not  a studio  at  their  command  will 
find  screens  of  white  paper  very  useful  in  lingbting  up 
(by  reflection)  those  parts  of  the  face  which  would 
otherwise  be  in  too  great  shadow.  Care  must,  however, 
be  taken  to  avoid  lighting  the  face  equally  all  over,  or 
the  result  will  be  a flat  and  uninteresting  portrait. 

For  vignettes,  a sheet  of  white  paper  in  the  lap  will 
often  remove  the  sunken  look  of  the  eyes.  A common 


blanket  will  form  a suitable  back-ground  for  such  pict- 
ures. 

Do  no  hurry  any  part  of  the  process;  this  is  the  com- 
mon fault  of  beginners.  The  results  are,  badly  cleaned 
plates,  under  exposed  and  insufficiently  washed  nega- 
tives. 

Do  not  be  discouraged  by  want  of  success ; no  one 
can  expect  to  succeed  at  once.  Get  the  best  materials 
you  can,  and  do  your  best  with  them  when  you  have 
got  them. 

All  chemicals  and  apparatus  should  be  purchased  at  a 
store  which  makes  a specialty  of  photographic  articles; 
you  will  thus  be  sure  of  getting  what  you  want  at  a 
reasonable  price. 

In  conclusion,  we  would  recommend  the  beginner  to 
take  a few  lessons  from  a practical  photographer;  the 
cost  would  be  in  any  case  very  small ; but  the  sellers 
of  apparatus  will  generally  give  instruction  gratis  to  a 
purchaser.  She  will  thus  learn  many  things  which  can- 
not be  detailed  in  the  space  of  this  article,  and  will  by 
so  doing  save  expense,  as  much  waste  of  material  is  in- 
volved in  beginners  experimenting  quite  alone. 


PAINTING. 


7 37 


LANDSCAPE  PAINTING. 

ANDSCAPE  painting  is  comparatively  a 
modern  art.  Titian,  who  lived  in  the 
16th  century,  is  generally  looked  upon 
as  its  founder.  By  landscape  painting 
one  means  the  representation  of  natural 
scenery  for  its  own  sake.  Now,  of 
course,  long  before  Titian,  you  find 
painters  painting  sky,  and  sea,  and  mountains,  and 
trees,  and  painting  them  with  extreme  beauty  and  skill. 
But  you  will  not  find  a single  instance  amongst  the 
early  Italians  of  a picture  existing  wholly  or  primarily 
for  the  sake  of  its  landscape.  Nay,  more  than  this; 
you  will  find  scarcely  an  instance  in  which  the  land- 
scape is  much  more  thau  a beautifully  designed  sur- 
rounding for  figures ; a surrounding  founded  indeeci  up- 
on love  and  observation  of  nature,  but  painted  primarily 
for  exactly  the  same  reason  as  still  earlier,  the  gold  pat- 
tern back-grounds  were  painted,  that  is  to  say  simply 
as  a beautifully  designed  surrounding  for  figures.  Titian 
commenced  a new  order.  Natural  scenery  had  for  him 
a meaning  and  a fascination  in  itself  apart  from  human 
beings.  And  so  Titian  commenced  the  modern  art  of 
landscape;  the  art  with  which  we  connect  the  great 
names  of  Holbein  and  Ruysdale  and  Gaspar  Poussin, 
and  Crowe  and  Gourd ette  and  Turner.  These  men  and 
their  followers  rejoiced  in  natural  scenery  purely  for  its 
own  beauties,  and  tried  to  represent  it  as  they  saw  it 
under  its  different  aspects;  they  tried,  as  we  may  say, 
to  give  portraits  of  it,  to  give  its  genuine  effect;  they 
did  not  use  it  simply  as  material  from  which  to  work 
out  beautiful  designs;  but  they  went  to  it  that  they 
might  know  its  appearance,  and  bear  record  of  that. 
And  this  is  true  landscape  painting. 

It  is  a matter  of  wonder  that  the  art  of  landscape 
painting,  which  is  now  so  popular,  should  have  been 
such  a late  development  of  art  ! The  answer  to  that 
question  would  lead  us  probably  into  a somewhat  diffi- 
cult discussion  hardly  suited  to  these  pages.  But  we 
may  say  this — in  early  times,  nature,  as  we  call  it,  was 
not  rejoiced  in  by  the  people  as  it  is  nowadays,  because 
it  was  for  them  full  of  known  or  dreaded  perils,  and 
they  cared  neither  to  visit  it,  nor  to  look  at  its  repre- 


sentation. Many  of  these  perils  were  real,  such  for  in- 
stance as  those  of  a robber  or  a wild  beast;  some 
were  imaginary,  such  as  those  from  supernatural  beings. 
If  every  time  you  went  up  to  a mountain  you  were  in 
dread  of  meeting  a spirit,  and  every  time  you  went  into 
a forest  you  were  iu  dread  of  meeting  a robber  or  a wild 
beast,  you  would  not  much  care  about  going  up 
mountains  or  into  forests,  nor  would  you  care  about 
paintings  of  these  dreadful  places.  But  bye-and-bye 
civilization  increased,  superstition  passed  away,  people 
came  to  be  more  and  more  at  their  ease  with  nature,  and 
able  to  gaze  on  her  with  enjoyment. 

TECHNIQUE. 

The  first  business  of  a student  is  to  learn  how  to  re- 
produce with  exactness  the  scene  before  him  or  her. 
When  you  go  out  to  draw,  determine  that  you  will  do 
your  best  to  match  the  colors  and  the  tones  of  the  land- 
scape as  nearly  as  ever  you  can.  Do  not  be  content 
with  imperfect  knowledge  and  resources.  Do  not  try  to 
make  pretty  pictures;  endeavor  simply  to  make  a study 
which  shall  be  like  the  thing  before  you.  Bye-and-bye 
you  will  get  command  over  your  materials,  and  then  it 
will  be  time  enough  to  commence  painting  pictures. 
But  over  your  materials  get  command  so  soon  as  ever 
you  can.  Grudge  no  time  or  trouble  which  helps  you 
on  with  this.  Learn  how  to  do  whatever  you  want  to 
do,  to  imitate  whatever  you  want  to  imitate;  this  is 
studentship,  and  do  not  shirk  it. 

DETAIL.— MASS.— TONE. 

The  great  difficulty  which  most  pcopple  find  when 
they  begin  landscape  painting  from  nature,  arises  from 
detail.  Detail  is  a terrible  task.  Let  us  by  way  of  illus- 
tration try  and  imagine  some  simple  scene.  Supposing 
then,  we  want  to  paint — shall  we  say  a cottage,  with 
some  trees  in  the  back-ground,  and  in  front  a stream  in 
which  they  are  reflected.  Now,  in  the  trees  there  will 
be  visible  innumerable  leaves,  no  doubt,  and  branches, 
and  variations  of  color,  In  the  roof  it  is  perfectly  cer- 
tain that  there  will  be  a thousand  tints,  and  in  the 
walls  a thousand  streaks  and  reflected  lights  and  tours 
and  then  all  this  more  or  less  over  again  in  the  water 
with  increased  intricacy. 

Most  amateurs  when  they  sit  down  to  paint  such  a 


738  PAINTING. 


thing,  begin  trying  bit  by  bit  to  copy  each  leaf  and 
twig,  and  tile  and  stain.  One  knows  so  well  the  result 
— a thin,  toneless  unproportional  drawing,  that  has 
no  true  art-value  whatever.  Well,  the  first  thing  is 
to  forget  absolutely  all  detail,  and  to  aim  simply  at 
mass  and  tone;  to  aim  simply  at  getting  down  a 
ground-work  of  the  general  color,  which  shall  be  true 
in  its  broad  relation  of  light  and  dark,  and  of  tint. 
Into  this  you  may  work  any  amount  of  detail  you 
choose;  but  unless  you  have  got  this,  all  detad  is  worth- 
less, and  when  you  have  gotten  it,  when  your  tone  ac- 
quired by  broad  relation  of  light  and  dark  and  of  tint; 
true,  even  supposing,  that  you  carry  the  drawing  no 
further,  it  has  real  value  as  a representation  of  the 
scene,  and  as  a a piece  of  art. 

You  will  find  it  an  excellent  plan  at  the  commence- 
ment of  a drawing  to  half-close  your  eyes  as  you  look  at 
the  landscape ; in  this  way  you  will  shut  out  all  detail 
and  will  see  the  scene  before  you  as  a whole;  you  will 
see  it  in  its  broad  relations,  that  is,  of  light  and  dark, 
and  of  tint.  It  is  exceedingly  useful  too,  when  you 
have  the  time,  to  first  of  all  make  a pencil  sketch  of  the 
scene  on  the  same  principle,  attending,  that  is,  wholly 
to  masses  and  tone.  You  will  get  these  down  rightly 
with  greater  ease,  because  you  will  not  have  to  be  think- 
ing yet  of  what  the  colors  are  and  have  to  match  them. 
When  you  have  got  your  black  and  white  study  correct, 
using  your  pencil,  we  should  advise  you,  as  one  uses 
charcoal,  rubbing  it,  that  is,  with  your  finger,  then  on  a 
new  piece  of  paper  begin  coloring,  keeping  the  pencil 
study  by  you  as  your  scheme  of  mass  and  tone. 

BLOCKS.— BODY  COLOR.— INK.— COLORS. 

Unless  you  have  a long  while  before  you,  and  can  re- 
turn to  your  subject  again  and  again,  so  as  to  work  it 
carefully  out,  we  advise  you  not  to  make  your  landscape 
studies  too  large.  For  a morning’s  or  an  afternoon’s 
work  a block  the  size  of  a piece  of  note-paper  folded 
out,  or  even  of  a piece  of  note-paper  folded  in  two,  as 
we  ordinarily  write  on  it,  is  large  enough.  Paint  on 
white  paper,  and  on  white  paper  that  has  a tolerable 
but  not  too  rough  grain.  You  will  find  it  useful  to  use 
body-color  with  a fair  sized  brush,  and  in  a fluid  state; 
when  you  are  commencing  your  drawing,  when  you  are 
getting  in  the  broad  relation  of  light  and  dark,  and  of 
tint.  Into  the  body-color,  while  it  is  still  fluid,  work 
different  tints  more  or  less  pure  as  you  want  them; 
then,  when  the  ground-work  is  dry,  draw  into  it  the 
main  form,  with  a pen  charged  with  indelible  brown 
ink,  and  then  work  on  towards  finishing  with  pure 
colors.  You  need  not  in  this  way  fear  that  your  draw- 
ing will  look  chalky ; it  will  not  in  the  least,  if  you  work 
your  pure  colors  in  with  tolerable  skill.  And  as  for  the 
brown  pen-lines,  also  they  will  disappear  if  you  like  to 
work  on  them  enough. 


As  to  colors,  it  is  well  to  have  a moderate  number 
only  in  one’s  box.  The  following  list  will  serve  you  for 
painting  most  ordinary  landscapes.  Raw  umber,  burnt 
sienna,  raw  sienna,  light  red,  rose  madder,  brown  mad- 
der. aureolin,  cobalt  blue,  visidian,  olive  green,  black 
and  Chinese  white.  Every  artist,  of  course,  has  special 
colors  that  he  or  she  is  fond  of,  just  as  he  or  she  has 
special  methods;  but  with  these  colors  you  will  be  able 
to  do  most  of  what  you  find  to  do  as  soon  as  you  get 
a tolerable  facility  in  combining  them. 

SKETCHING. 

Amateurs  are  exceedingly  fond  of  what  they  call 
sketching.  We  all  know  what  that  generally  comes  to 
— to  going  out  and  choosing  some  large  piece  of  land- 
scape, and  then  making  nonsense  of  it;  spoiling  a piece 
of  paper  with  something  which  has  no  drawing,  no 
tone,  no  color,  but  which  is  purely  rubbish.  Fly  from 
the  temptation  to  sketc,  has  you  would  fly  from  the  evil 
one  itself.  If  you  do  not  really  feel  that  you  can  mus- 
ter energy  enough  to  learn  how  to  draw  and  how  to 
color,  do  not  set  your  hand  to  the  business  at  all.  But 
if  you  do,  go  to  nature  and  to  the  masters  reverently 
continuing,  and  try  to  let  this  witchery  work  on  you, 
grudging  no  pains  or  no  sacrifice.  You  may  not  do 
great  things,  but  if  you  have  any  true  art  instinct  at  all 
you  will  in  time  do  some  beautiful  things,  things  which 
however  small  and  quiet,  it  is  well  to  do;  they  will 
bring  you  happiness,  and  they  will  bring  some  others, 
for  whom  it  is  worth  thinking,  happiness  also. 

PAINTING  ON  TERRA  COTTA. 

In  painting  on  terra-cotta  it  is  best  to  treat  your  whole 
subject  first  of  all  in  light  and  shade,  with  white  enamel, 
using  it  thinly  for  the  shadows,  and  thickiy  in  the 
light.  As  the  unglazed  pottery  is  more  absorbent  than 
the  glazed,  more  oil  is  required  in  the  enamel  when 
used  for  this  purpose  than  for  ordinary  work.  Remem- 
ber that  the  brush  must  never  be  filled  with  enamel, 
but  take  as  much  on  the  tip  as  it  will  hold,  and  you 
will  begin  to  replenish  it  for  every  brush-mark.  It  will 
not  be  found  at  all  easy  to  do  this  well,  as  white  enamel 
is  difficult  to  lay  on  cleanly  and  smoothly,  until  the 
student  has  had  a good  deal  of  practice.  When  the 
whole  design  has  been  painted  in  this  manner,  it  must 
be  fired,  and  then,  if  the  white  has  been  put  on  suf- 
ficiently thickly,  the  design  will  be  glazed.  You  may 
then  tint  it  with  the  ordinary  china-painting  colors  and 
have  it  re-fired. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  painting  on  terra-cotta  will  be 
overcome  if  your  subject  is  well  chosen.  Let  the  flowers 
be  of  a simple,  open  nature,  such  as  daisies,  harthorn, 
blackthorn,  wild  roses,  any  sort  of  fruit  blossoms,  but- 
tercups, or  primroses.  Any  of  those  and  many  others 
are  very  appropriate,  and  look  well;  but  if  the  stu- 


PAINTING. 


739 


* 


dent  has  chosen  anything  of  a bell-shaped  nature,  or, 
more  still,  anything  elaborate,  such  as  columbine  or  an- 
tirehinium,  success  will  be  most  difficult  of  attainment. 

Colors  should  be  very  subdued  on  terra-cotta:  Pale 
Yellows,  White,  Dull  Greens,  and  Biowns  all  look  well, 
with  possibly  of  a little  Turquoise  Blue.  It  is  best  for 
the  student  not  to  paint  on  terra-cotta  until  he  can  con- 
scientiously assure  himself  that  his  taste  is  well  trained, 
and  his  manipulations  good. 

It  is  quite  allowable  to  mix  color  with  the  enamel  for 
the  first  firing,  but  there  is  no  advantage  in  doing  so, 
as  the  enamel  makes  too  rough  a surface  for  shading 
upon,  and  it  therefore  requires  a second  firing  before 
it  can  be  finished.  If,  however,  for  anything  very  sim- 
ple, you  would  like  to  try  it,  let  the  proportions  be 
about  four  of  enamel  to  one  of  color. 

Colored  glazed  plates  and  tiles  may  also  be  painted 
in  the  manner  described  for  terra-cotta.  Beautiful 


sort,  and  not  crazed,  i.  e.  requiring  either  a greater  or 
less  degree  of  heat  in  order  to  fuse  it. 

The  following  implements  and  colors  are  absolutely 
necessary.  Those  contained  in  the  supplementary  list 
will  be  found  a great  convenience  after  some  progress 
has  been  made : 

1 Steel  Palette  Knife. 

1 Glass  Muller. 

1 Hand  Rest. 

1 Medium-sized  Dabber. 

1 Small  Dabber  in  Quill. 

1 Sable  Crow  Writer. 

1 Plate  (glazed). 

2 or  3 sizes  of  Camel’s-Hair  Brushes  for  China 
Painting. 

Several  6-inch  or  8-inch  Tiles  (also  glazed)  to  be 
used  for  Palettes. 

Turpentine. 

Fat  Oil  of  Turpentine. 

Spirits  of  Lavender,  or  Oil  of  Cloves. 


shades  are  to  be  had  of  Celadon,  Chocolate,  Orange, 
Blue,  Green,  and  others. 

PAINTING  ON  CHINA. 

In  commencing  the  study  of  China  Painting  it  will  be 
well  if  the  student  starts  with  the  firm  determination 
of  completely  mastering  the  use  of  his  materials.  Even 
though  he  may  be  proficient  in  oils  or  water  colors,  the 
technique  is  so  different  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  begin 
at  the  very  beginning. 

If  the  student  knows  nothing  of  pottery  painting,  by 
all  means  let  him  begin  with  over-glaze  in  preference  to 
under  glaze  painting.  In  the  former,  all  faults  (for  in- 
stance, brush  marks,  inefficient  dabbling,  the  use  of  too 
much  turpentine,  too  much  or  too  little  oil)  are  apparent 
on  the  surface.  They  are  only  too  visible  the  instant 
they  are  perpetrated.  There  is  seen  to  be  something  ob- 
viously wrong,  and  if  the  student  does  not  know  how 
to  remedy  it,  he  feels,  if  he  is  a conscientious  worker, 
that  the  least  he  can  do  is  to  take  it  out,  and  hope  for 
more  skill  in  a second  attempt.  But  in  under-glaze 
painting,  work  often  has  the  appearance  of  being  very 
tolerably  well  done  until  it  is  glazed  and  fired,  when 
brush  marks,  bad  edges  and  harsh  lines  start  forth  in  a 
manner  that  is  most  unexpected  and  disappointing. 

We  shall  confine  our  attention  entirely  to  over-glaze 
painting,  and  throughout  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
colors  mentioned  arc  invariably  over-glaze  or  manual 
colors.  Enamel  colors  should  be  kept  carefully  apart 
from  under-glaze  colors,  as  the  smallest  grain  of  the 
latter  mixed  with  the  former  would  completely  spoil  the 
effect.  The  same  remark  applies  to  oil  paints,  and  even 
to  the  turpentine  in  which  brushes  used  for  them  have 
been  rinsed. 

In  choosing  your  earthenware  or  china,  notice  that 
the  glaze  is  smooth  and  even,  without  specks  of  any 

k 


MOIST  WET  COLORS. 


Deep  Azure  Blue. 
German  Brown. 
Brunswick  Brown. 
Vandyke  Brown. 
Grey  Black. 

Royal  Purple. 
Rose-Leaf  Green. 
Dark  Orange. 

Red. 

Strong  Yellow. 
China  Meglip. 


Outremer  Turquoise. 
Olive  Brown. 

Sepia. 

Deep  Black. 
Carmine. 

Deep  Green. 

Light  Sevres. 

Pearl  Grey. 

Persian  Yellow. 
White  Enamel. 


DRY  COLORS  (For  Beginners). 


Rouge  Orange. 

Noil-  d’  Ivoire. 
Carmine  No.  2. 

Gris  Perle. 

Ocre. 

Vert  Chrome  Riche. 
Vert  Noir. 


Violet  de  Fer. 

Bleu  Riche. 

Pourpre  Riche. 

Jaune  Orange. 

Brun  No.  4. 

Vert  Brun. 

White  Crome  (English). 


SUPPLEMENTARY  LIST  (For  the  More  Advanced 
Student). 


Jaune  a Meier 
Vert  Bleu  Riche. 
Brun  No.  3. 
Ivory  Palette. 


Rouge  Chair  No.  1 
Carmine  No  3. 
Evan’s  Brown. 
Knife. 


All  the  colors  mentioned  in  the  list  will  work  freely 
together,  with  the  exception  of  Brunswick  Brown  and 
Red,  which  will,  however,  mix  together,  and  with  black 
and  purple,  but  not  with  the  other  colors.  Working 
with  the  moist  water  colors  will  be  found  very  pleasant. 

In  sketching,  use  the  crayon  purchased  for  that  pur- 
pose, which,  being  of  an  oily  nature,  will  not  be  washed 
out  by  the  water-color  passing  over  it.  It  will,  how- 
ever, disappear  completely  in  the  firing.  The  manner 
of  working  is  very  much  the  same  as  if  the  colors  were 
mixed  with  oil.  The  brush  must  be  kept  square,  and 
the  mark  of  color  may  be  retouched  again  and  again  in 
order  to  make  it  smooth.  If  a large  space  is  to  be 


740 


PAINTING. 


covered,  use  the  dabber.  More  water  or  meglip  must 
be  added  as  occasion  requires;  but  too  much  of  the  for- 
mer is  apt  to  produce  a very  worky  appearance,  and  if 
too  much  of  the  latter  is  used  the  color  will  take  a long 
time  to  dry.  For  a broad  sweep  of  color,  a combination 
of  the  two  is  best.  When  the  ground  is  laid,  and  your 
drawing  is  of  such  a nature  that  you  have  been  obliged 
to  take  the  color  over  it,  you  may  clean  out  your  design 
with  great  ease,  by  merely  washing  away  the  surplus 
color  with  a brush  just  moistened  with  water,  but  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  brush  is  not  too  wet,  lest  the 
work  shall  be  made  messey.  The  pattern  may  also  be 
cleaned  out  either  with  a pen-knife  or  with  the  pointed 
end  of  a brush  handle.  These  colors  are  perfectly  well 
ground  and  free  from  grit.  One  of  the  few  technical 
difficulties  connected  with  their  use  will  be  overcome 
if  the  student  will  never  try  to  shade  his  work  without 
drying  the  first  washes  at  the  fire.  When  these  colors 
are  dry  they  are  easy  to  work  upon,  but  we  cannot  suf- 
ficiently impress  upon  the  student  that  they  will  not 
dry  of  their  own  accord.  If  the  underworks  are  dis- 
turbed, it  will  show  that  these  remarks  have  not  been 
attended  to. 

With  reference  to  the  French  colors  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  Iron  Reds  (all  Reds  of  a brick-dust 
shade)  will  mix  with  each  other,  or  with  Black  or  Vio- 
let de  Fer,  and,  to  a moderate  extent,  with  Jaune  a, 
MOler,  or  Jaune  d’Ivoire,  but  not  with  other  colors.  If 
mixed  with  Carmine,  Blue,  &c.,  and  fired,  the  Red 
would  all  disappear.  However,  if  a little  thought  is  be- 
stowed on  the  subject,  this  is  no  very  great  disadvant- 
age, as  by  using  Jaune  a Meier  as  a sort  of  go-between, 
you  may  blend  or  graduate  Red  into  almost  any  other 
color  you  wish.  Say,  for  example,  that  you  desire  to 
shade  Red  into  Green;  a good  Green  for  the  purpose 
can  be  made  with  Noir  d’Ivoire  and  Jaune  a Meier,  both 
of  which  colors  will  mix  with  Red.  Or  if  a brighter 
green  is  required,  put  plenty  of  oil  into  your  Jaune  & 
Meier,  and,  with  different  brushes,  wash  the  Red  on  to 
one  end  of  the  space  to  be  covered,  and  the  Green  on 
to  the  other,  blending  them  with  Jaune  a Meier  in  the 
middle.  If  well  done,  the  effect  should  be  smooth  and 
the  gradation  uniform;  but  if  you  use  too  little  oil,  the 
colors  will  join  with  a harsh  line.  Ocre  is  useful  for 
shading  Yellow,  or,  used  by  itself,  for  the  warm  glow  in 
a sunset  sky;  but  it  will  not  mix  at  all  satisfactorily 
with  greens.  All  the  other  colors  will  mix  freely  to- 
gether; but  after  a little  experience  you  will  find  that 
Browns  are  very  apt  to  fire  out,  i.  e.,  to  disappear  in  the 
firing,  leaving  the  other  color  with  which  they  were 
mixed  somewhat  of  the  same  tone  as  if  it  had  been  used 
pure;  you  will  also  find  that  Blues,  Purples,  and  Car- 
mines are  very  strong  in  their  effect,  being  apt,  when 
mixed  with  other  colors,  to  show  more  after  they  are 
fired  than  before.  White  enamel  is  most  useful  for 


little  touches  of  white,  or  for  painting  on  terra-cotta. 
It  must  be  kept  scrupulously  clean,  and  a separate 
palette  sould  be  reserved  for  it,  a glsss  one  being  pref- 
erable to  an  ordinary  tile.  Then  grind  it  with  a steel 
knife,  bnt  use  a glass  muller  or  ivory  palette-knife, 
otherwise  it  will  probably  be  discolored  in  firing.  If  in 
painting  with  Enamel  you  find  it  is  inclined  to  spread, 
breathe  into  the  color  on  your  palette,  at  the  same  time 
mixing  it  with  a little  more  turpentine.  As  you  require 
to  put  it  on  rather  thickly,  do  not  use  too  much  oil. 

The  liand-rest,  if  placed  over  your  work,  for  your 
hand  to  rest  on  whilst  painting,  will  greatly  help  you  to 
avoid  rubbing  or  scratching  your  work,  to  which  be- 
ginners are  very  prone.  It  will  also  assist  you  to  ac- 
quire a light  touch.  A tall  easel  is  a convenience,  as 
it  will  save  much  stooping,  and  you  can  also  see  the 
general  effect  of  your  work  better  when  it  is  not  flat  on 
the  table. 

If  you  have  any  facility  in  drawing  we  recommend 
you  to  sketch  your  work  with  Indian  Ink,  water-color 
carmine,  or  smoke;  and  if  with  the  first,  let  it  be  of 
the  first  quality,  or  there  may  be  impurities  it  it  which 
will  remain  after  firing.  If  the  last  is  used,  it  is  merely 
necessary  to  hold  a saucer  or  tile  over  the  flame  of  a 
candle,  and  then  use  the  carbon  while  it  collects  with  a 
little  turpentine.  If  your  design  is  very  elaborate  and 
you  wish  to  trace  it,  you  may  do  so  by  making  use  of 
either  of  the  following  methods.  First,  and  least  ob- 
jectionable, is  the  process  known  as  ‘pouncing,’  Ar- 
range a piece  of  tracing  paper  over  your  design,  and 
with  a fine  hard  pencil  make  a careful  outline  of  your 
drawing.  When  this  is  complete,  place  it  on  a cushion 
or  anything  soft,  and  with  a fine  needle,  prick  along 
every  line.  Finally,  arrange  your  tracing  on  your  plate, 
secure  it  at  the  corners  with  a wafer,  and  dust  over  it 
with  a little  black-lead  or  fine  charcoal  powder.  The 
drawing  will  by  this  means  be  transferred  to  your  plate 
in  a series  of  dotted  lines.  It  is  then  ready  to  be 
sketched  with  India  Ink.  Afterward  remove  all  the 
dust  with  a soft  brush  or  cloth,  or  it  may  interfere  with 
your  painting.  The  second  process  is  to  place  a sheet 
of  black  tracing  paper  on  the  china,  and  over  it  your 
tracing;  then  go  over  all  the  lines  again  with  a hard 
fine-pointed  pencil,  or  the  sharp  end  of  a porcupine 
quill.  The  patterns  so  transferred  to  the  china  should  be 
strengthened  and  corrected  with  a fine  brush  and  India 
Ink.  The  process  is  quicker,  but  it  is  also  dirtier,  and 
you  are  more  likely  to  lose  the  delicacy  of  your  draw- 
ing, although  in  simple  conventional  borders  there  is 
no  objection  to  this  method  being  used.  As  the  great 
advantage  which  amateurs  possess  over  professional 
china  painters  is  the  power  of  spending  unlimited  time 
over  the  smallest  piece  of  work,  they  should  never  run 
the  risk  of  spoiling  their  painting  by  using  inferior 
methods. 


INDEX. 


74i 


PAGE 

Absence 52,  69 

Accent 31 

Accomplishments 69 

Accusation 69 

Action,  Limitation  of 295 

Actions 52,  69 

Activity 69 

Addition 222 

Adieu 70 

Adjectives 2 

Game  of 390 

Administration  of  Estates 288 

Admiration 52 

Adverbs 19 

Adversity 52,  69 

Advice 70 

to  Newly  Married  Couple. . 625 

Affection 52,  70 

Age 52,  70 

Agency 289 

Agreement,  Various  forms  of, 

304-5,  10- 1 1 

Agricultural  Crops  in  Europe 349 

Agriculture 525 

Air 645 

Expansion  of 445 

Alabama 359 

Alaska 362 

Algebra 242 

Addition  in 243 

Division  in'. 244 

Fractions  in 244 

Involution  and  Evolution  in  245 

Multiplication  in 244 

Subtraction  in 243 

Alliteration 31 

Ambition 52,  70 

America 70 

Discovery  of 351 

Americus  Vespucius 351 

Amusements 634 

An  Aviary  in  a Hat 441 


PAGE 

Ancestors 52,  71 

Andre,  Major 356 

Anger 52,  71 

Antietam,  Battle  of 361 

Anti-rent  rebellion 360 

Anxiety 52 

Apparel 71 

Appeals 302 

Applause 71 

Applicants 299 

Amendments  and  actions 

by  301 

Application  for  letters  patent 300 

Appomatox 362 

Arbitration 289 

Archery 386 

Architecture 488 

Various  styles  of. . .489-494 

Styles  of  English 334 

Argument 71 

Arguments 52 

Arithmetic 22  x 

Arithmetical  Amusements,  Various 

specimens  of 228 

Progression 233 

Arkansas 359 

Army  of  United  States 340 

Arnold,  Benedict 356 

Arrest 290 

Arrow,  The 386 

Art 71 

Assignments 302 

Various  forms  of..3ii-i3 

Associations,  How  Organized 456 

Duties  of  Officers  of.  .458 

Astronomy 449 

Atheist 52 

Atmosphere,  The 495 

Properties  and  uses  of  495 

Attachment 291 

Property  exempt  from. . 297 
Attention 52 


PAGE 

Attorneys 299 

Attributives 2 

Authority 52,  71 

Autumn 71 

Avarice 53,  71 

Bacon,  Essay  of 1 

Bag,  Game  of 230 

Balboa 351 

Ball 631 

Ball-room  toilette 605 

etiquette 605 

Baltimore,  Lord 353 

Banks  and  Banking 688 

Baptism 633 

Bar,  the  Horizontal 251 

the  Hanging 255 

Barometers 349 

Barytone 159 

Baseball 375 

Basket  and  Stones,  Game  of 232 

Bass 159 

Bathing 653 

Battle 72 

Bazaar,  Articles  for  a 501 

Novelties  for  a 501 

Beauty 53,  72 

Beggar 72 

Benevolence 53 

Bicycle  Riding 272 

Bigotry 53 

Bills  of  Exchange 295 

Birds 72 

Birthday 72 

Black-Hawk  War 359 

Blessings 53 

Bluntness 73 

Blush 73 

Board,  Rate  of 241 

Boat  and  Rail 634 

Bonds 314-16 

Book-keeping 207 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Book-keeping,  by  Double  Entry.  . . 217 

Books 53)  73 

Boston 353-363 

Bow,  The 386 

Bowstring,  The 3§7 

Bracer,  The 387 

Bran-Tubs 5°7 

Breathing,  To  Restore 281-282 

Brevity 73 

Bridegroom-elect,  Duty  of 623 

Bridegroomsmen 624 

Bridesmaids 624 

British  Empire 334 

Buck  Jumping 265 

Buena  Vista,  Battle  of 360 

Business,  Letters  on 187 

Bull  Run,  Battle  of 361 

Bunker  Hill,  Battle  of 355 

Cabot 35 1 

Calamities 53 

Calamity 73 

Calendar  for  the  Week 330 

A Perpetual 346 

California 360 

Calling 53 

Calls 632 

Calm 73 

Calumniator 53 

Calvert 353 

Camden,  Battle  of 356 

Canada 353 

Invasion  of 355-35s 

Statistics  of 700 

Candor 53 

Cards,  Games  of 396 

Tricks  with 431 

Caroline 354 

Cartier 352 

Carving 585 

Cattle 541 

Caveats 302 

Caution 73 

Celebrations,  Public 456 

Centennial  Exhibition 363 

Champlain  353 

Battle  of 358 

Chance 53 

Chancellorsville,  Battle  of 361 

Change 73 

Character 53 

Charity 53 

Chastity 73 

Chess 414 

Chicago  Burned 363 

Chickens 569 

Childhood 73 


PAGE 

Children 53 

Christianity 53 

Church 53 

Churchman 74 

Citizenship,  Certificate  of 309 

City 74 

Cleanliness 649 

Clergymen 53 

Climbing  Ladders,  Ropes,  Poles,  etc.  259 

Clouds 74 

Cobs 555 

Coin,  Experiment  with 448 

Coins,  Values  of  Foreign 346 

Cold  Harbor,  Battle  of 362 

Coligni 353 

Colorado ...  363 

Columbus 351 

Comedy 53 

Comets 453 

Commerce 675 

Common  Sense 53 

Company 53 

Composition 53 

Composts 529 

Confederacy  inaugurated 361 

Confederate  Congress  assembled.. . 361 

Confidence 53 

Connecticut 353 

Conscience 53,  74 

Consequences,  Game  of 390 

Constancy 53,  74 

Constitution  of  the  United  States..  368 

Adoption  of  the 357 

Constitutions,  Forms  of 457 

Construction,  Grammatical 29 

Contempt 53 

Content 74 

Contentment 53 

Continental  Congress 355 

Contracts 291 

Conventions 457 

Conversation 53,  54 

for  Ladies 591 

for  Gentlemen 598 

Conveyancing 305 

Copartnership 305 

Copyright  Law  of  U.  S 345 

Coquette 74 

Corporation,  Bond  to  a 313 

Corporations 292 

Country  Life 75 

Courage 54,  75 

Courtship 54,  75 

Etiquette  of 617-626 

Covetous 54 

Coward 75 

Cowpens 356 


PAGE 

Crambo 378 

Cricket 380 

Croquet 391 

Cunning 54 

Curiosity 54,  75 

Curious  Calculation. 233 

Custom 54,  75 

Dancing 75 

Parties 604 

Death 54,  75 

Debate,  Rules  of 455-470 

Debt,  when  Outlawed 295 

Debts,  Revenues,  Commerce,  etc.  of 

Nations 335 

Decatur 359 

Deceit 76 

Deception 54 

Declaration  of  Rights 363 

of  Independence. .... . 366 

Defiance 76 

Definitions,  Game  of 391 

Delaware 353 

Delay 76 

Descent  and  Distribution  of  Estates  292 

De  Soto 352 

Despair 54,  76 

Despotism 54 

Devise  of  Estate 308 

Dictionary  of  Law  Terms 317 

Dinner 633 

Party 593 

Table 601 

Discontent 54,  76 

Discretion 54 

Division 224 

Divorce 295 

Article  of 307 

Dominoes 426 

Doubt 76 

Draining 53° 

Drake,  Sir  Francis 352 

Draughts,  Game  of 422 

Draw-poker 409 

Dreams 76 

Dress  for  Gentlemen.' 599 

for  Ladies 593 

Drivers,  Difficult  Situation  for  ....  269  * 

Driving 268 

a single  horse 268 

two  horses 270 

Drowning 281 

Treatment  for  the 281 

Dutch  Settlement  in  America 353 

Duty 54.  76 

Economy 54 


INDEX. 


743 


PAGE 

Education 54 

Ellipsis 30 

Eloquence 54,  76 

Emancipation  Proclamation,  by 

Lincoln 361 

Emigration 76 

Emphasis 29 

Employment 54 

Energy 54 

England,  Kings  and  Queens  of. . . . 331 
English  Mile  compared  with  other 

measures 336 

Enthusiasm 77 

Envy 54,  77 

Equality 77 

Equations 246 

Quadratic 248 

Error 54 

Estates,  Administration  of 288 

Descent  and  Distribution  of  292 

Etiquette  for  Ladies 589 

for  Gentlemen 597 

for  Party  and  Ball-room.  604 
of  Courtship  nd  Matri- 
mony  617 

of  Wedding 624 

of  Mourning 627 

Golden  Rules  of 631 

Etymology 7 

Euchre 406 

Evaporation 495-496 

Evening 77 

Evil 54 

Example 54,  77 

Exchange,  Notes  and  Bills  of 295 

Exercise 649 

Exile 77 

Expansion  of  Air 445 

Expectation 77 

Experience 54,  77 

Extravagant 54-5 

Eyes 77 

Faculties  of  the  Mind 471-476 

Fair,  How  to  get  up  a 497 

How  to  Prepare  Articles  for  a 499 

How  to  Dress  for 507 

Faith 55 

Falsehood 55,  78 

Fame 55,  78 

Fancy 55,  78 

Farewell 78 

Farm  Crops 535 

Implements 532 

Management 533 

Fate 55,  78 

Fear 55,  78 


PAGE 

Fences 532 

Fidelity 78 

Fifteenth  Amendment  announced  . 363 

First  Day  of  the  Year 334 

Flattery 55,  79 

Florida,  Discovery  of 351 

Boundary  Fixed 357 

Ceded  to  the  United  States  359 

War 359 

Admitted  to  the  Union. . . . 360 

Flowers 79 

Language  of 636 

Royal  road  to  Language  of  641 

Folly 55 

Food 646-648 

Choice  of  Articles  of 662-674 

Foot-ball 385 

Foppery 55 

Forfeits,  Game  of 394 

Forgetfulness 79 

Forgiveness 55,  79 

Forms  of  Legal  Documents 304 

Fort  Mimms,  Massacre  of 358 

Moultrie,  Attack  on 355 

Fortitude 79 

Fortune 55,  79 

Fourteenth  Amendment  Adopted  . . 362 

Fractions 225 

Fredericksburg,  Battle  of 361 

Freedom 79 

French  Self  taught 96 

Vocabulary 97 

Declensions 102 

Easy  Expressions  in 109 

Sovereigns 332 

Weights  and  Measures. . . . 337 

War 354 

Friendship 55,  79 

Frolic  captured  by  Wasp 358 

Fruit,  The  cultivation  of 577 

Fulton’s  First  Trip 357 

Funerals 634 

Futurity 80 

Game  of  the  Bag 230 

Dominoes 426 

Draughts 422 

Ring 229 

Games,  Outdoor 375 

Parlor 390 

of  Cards 396 

skill 414 

Garffeld  assassinated 363 

Geese 575 

Generosity 80 

Genius 55 

Gentleman 80 


PAGB 

Gentleman,  Etiquette  foi 597 

Geology 692 

Georgia  founded 354 

German  self-taught 113 

Vocabulary 113 

Necessary  words  differing 

from  English  in 116 

Necessary  phrases  in 122 

Early  expressions  in 123 

Gettysburg,  Battle  of 362 

Gifts 80 

Glory 55,  80 

Gold 80 

Good 55 

Breeding 55 

Humor 55 

Nature 55 

Goodness 55 

Government 55 

Bonds 314 

Grace 55,  80 

Grammar 1 

Divisions  of 7 

Gratitude 55,  80 

Grave 80 

Greatness 56 

Greek,  Specimen  in 181 

Grief 56,  So 

Groom 555 

Guilt 81 

Gymnastics 249 

without  special  appa- 
ratus  260 

Habit 56 

Hack 553 

Hand 81 

Hanging  bar 255 

Happiness 56,  8x 

Hate 81 

Health 56,  81 

How  to  preserve  your 645 

Heart 81 

Heaven 56 

Historian 56 

History  of  United  States 351 

Holiness 56 

Home 81 

studies  for  Young  Ladies. . . . 483 

Honesty 57 

Honor . 57,  82 

Hope 57,  82 

Horizontal  bar 25 1 

Horse 545 

History  and  habits  of 545 

Varieties  of 548 

How  to  purchase  a 553 


INDEX. 


744 


PAGE 

Horse  for  light  harness 555 

Horses,  Diseases  and  faults  of.  . . . 555 
Stable,  management  of... . 555 

Harness  for 557 

Drugs  used  for 559 

Record  of  trotting 271 

Hospitality 57 

Hotels 634 

House  of  Commons 332 

Housekeepers,  Hints  to 662 

How  do  you  like  it,  Game  of 392 

Hudson 353 

Humility 57,  82 

Humor 57 

Hunter 554 

Husbands 82 

Hypocrisy 82 

Idleness 57,  82 

Idolatry 57 

Ignorance 83 

Illinois 359 

Ill-nature 57 

Imagination 58,  83 

Immortal 83 

Inconstancy 83 

Indiana 359 

Indolence  58 

Industry : 58,  83 

Infidelity 58 

Ingratitude 58,  83 

Injustice 58 

Innocence 58,  83 

Instinct 58,  83 

Insurance,  Assignment  of  policy  of.  313 

Intellect 58 

Intemperance » 59 

Interest 227 

and  usury 293 

of  bonds 316 

Interjections g 

Internal  Revenue  Taxes  of  U.  S. . . 333 

Introduction,  Letters  of 186 

Introductions  589,  597 

in  general 631 

Invention 59 

Invitation  to  a wedding 623 

Invitations,  Various  forms  of 195 

Iowa 360 

Irreverence 59 

Irrigation 529 

Italian,  Specimen  of 182 

Jealousy 59,  83 

Jesting 5g 

Jesuits 354 

I°y 59.  84 


kr 


PAGE 

Judgment 59 

Justice 59,  84 

Kansas 361 

Kindness 84 

King 84 

of  the  Castle 377 

Kiss 84 

Knots  and  Splices 477 

Knowledge 59,  84 

Labor 60,  84 

Ladies,  Etiquette  for 589 

Home  studies  for 483 

Lafayette 359 

Landlord  and  tenant 294 

Notice  to  quit 

by 311 

Language 60 

of  Flowers 636 

Royal  road  to  641 

Languages 181 

Specimens  of 181 

Formation  of 182 

Latin 182 

Latitude  and  longitude 336 

Laughter 60 

Law 60,  85 

Mercantile 288 

terms 317 

Lawn  tennis 377 

Leap  years 330 

Learning 85,  60 

Lease,  Forms  of 310 

Assignment  of 313 

Legal  documents,  Forms  of 304 

Letter  writer 183 

Letters,  Capital 184 

European,  Etiquette  in  ad- 
dressing  ; 193 

Various  specimens  of 187 

of  introduction 597 

Lexington,  Battle  of 355 

Liberty 60,  85 

Lien  laws 294 

Life 61,  85 

Duration  of 350 

Lightning  calculator. 234 

Limitation  of  action 295 

Literature 6r 

Long  Island,  Battle  of 355 

Louisiana 357-8 

Love 61,  85 

Lovers 85 

Luxury 6i 

Lyceums 457 

Lying 61 


PAGE 

Madness. 86 

Man 6i,  86 

Manners 62 

Manures 527 

Marriage,  Certificate  of 306 

Marriages 62,  86,  295 

Married  women,  Rights  of 297 

Massachusetts 353 

Matrimony,  Etiquette  of 617 

Maximilian,  Death  of 362 

Meeting 86 

Melancholy 62,  87 

Memory 62,  87 

Mercantile  law 288 

Mercy 87 

Merit 87 

Merrimac  and  Monitor 361 

Mesmerism,  Game  of 394 

Meter 31 

Mexico 705 

Michigan 359 

Mind 62,  87 

Faculties  of 471-476 

Minnesota 360 

Mirth 87 

Misery 62 

Misfortune 87 

Mississippi 359 

Missouri 359 

Modesty 62,  87 

Mohammedan  calendar 330 

Money 62,  680 

Morality 62 

Morning 87 

Mortgage,  Forms  of 308 

Common  chattel 313 

Mortgages 291 

Mother 88 

Mountains  and  Rivers 348 

Mourning 63 

Etiquette  of 627 

Multiplication 223 

Music 88 

Definitions  of 132 

Name 88 

Naturalization 309 

Nature 63,  88 

Navies  of  the  World 335 

Navy  Yards  of  the  United  States. . 335 

Nebraska 362 

Necessity 88 

Nevada 362 

New  Mexico 352 

New  Orleans,  Battle  of 358 

Night 88 

Nobility 88 

Notes  and  bills  of  exchange 2gj 


^ 


INDEX. 


745 


PACE 

Notes  and  bills,  Forms  of 312 

Novelty 63,  88 

Numeration 221 

Nursery,  The 653 

Diseases  of  the 654-661 

Oaths 89 

Obstinacy 63 

Ocean 89 

Opinion 89,  63 

Opportunity 63,  89 

Oratory 63 

Orchard,  The 540 

Order 63 

Oregon 360 

Originality 63 

Pacific  Ocean  discovered 351 

Pain 63,  89 

Parents 63 

Parlor  Magic 431 

Parting 89 

Partnership 296 

Agreement  to  continue . 313 

Articles  of 305 

Party 63 

Passion  63 

Passions 89 

Patent,  Assignment  of 302 

Office,  Rules  of 299 

Patents,  Applicants  for 299 

Date,  duration  and  form  of  302 

Patriotism 63,  89 

Peace 90 

Pen 90 

Penmanship,  History  of 167 

How  to  learn 169 

Position,  rests,  and 

movements  in 170 

Elements  and  princi- 
ples of 173 

Pennsylvania  settled 354 

Perception 63 

Perfection 90 

Perseverance 64,  go 

Peter  Stuyvesant. 354 

Philadelphia  founded 354 

Philosophy 64,  90 

Phonography,  Easy  lesson  in 176 

Phrenology 471 

Physic 90 

Physics  without  appliances 444 

Pianoforte  Player,  Guide  for 127 

Point  of  touch  for 127 

Exercises 130 

Fingering 140 

Phrasing 143 

The  trill 150 


PAGE 

Piety 64 

Pilgrim  Fathers 353 

Pity 90 

Pleasure 64,  90 

Poetry 64 

Poets 90 

Politics 64 

Population  of  European  Capitals  . . 344 
of  the  United  States  at 
each  Census,  1790-1880.  707 

Poultry 563 

Fancy  varieties  of 571 

Diseases  of 576 

Poverty 64,  90 

Power 64 

Praise 64 

Prayer 64,  91 

Preaching 64 

Presidents  of  United  States 332 

Pride 64,  91 

Princeton,  Battle  of 355 

Procrastination 64 

Promises 91 

Property 65 

Properties  of  certain  numbers 230 

exempt  from  attachment.  297 

Prosody 31 

Prosperity 65,  91 

Proverbs,  Game  of 393 

Scriptural 509 

English 510 

Scotch 517 

Latin 523 

Providence 65,  91 

Prudence 65,  91 

Pruning  fruit-trees 583 

Purity 91 

Quotations,  Prose 53 

Poetical 69 

(bonds) 316 

Rail  and  Boat 634 

Rain 495,496 

Rainfall  in  the  United  States 708 

Raleigh 352 

Rate  of  Mortality  in  AmericanCities 
— Number  of  deaths  per  annum 

out  of  1,000  inhabitants 708 

Reading 65 

Real  Estate,  Agreement  for  sale 

of 305 

Reason 65,  91 

Rebellion 91 

Receipts,  Forms  of 312 

Receptions 63 1 

Recreation 65 


TAGS 

Reflection 65 

Religion 65,  91 

Remembrance 91 

Remorse 65 

Repentance 65,  92 

Reputation , 66,  92 

Resignation 66 

Resolution 92 

Revenge 92,  66 

Rhetoric 30 

Rhode  Island  settled 353 

Ribault 352 

Riches 66 

Richmond  captured 362 

Ridicule 66 

Riding 262 

Rocks 692-699 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  General 

Councils  of 334 

Rowing 283 

Rule  of  Three 226 

Rules  of  Debate 455-470 

of  Practice  in  U.  S.  Patent 
Office 299 

Salutations 632 

Satire 66,  92 

Science 66 

Scorn 92 

Scotland,  Sovereigns  of 332 

Secession  of  the  South 360 

Secrecy 92 

Self-denial 66 

Selfishness 92 

Shame 66 

Ship 92 

A full-rigged 482 

Sickness 66 

Silence 92 

Simplicity 66 

Sin 92 

Sincerity • 66,  92 

Singers,  Practical  Guide  for. 154 

Habits  and  diet  for 154 

Study  of  pronunciation  and 

words  by 155 

Singing 160 

Skating  and  sliding 388 

Slander 66,  92 

Slavery  introduced  into  U.  S 353 

Sleep 67,  92,  654 

Soils 534 

Analysis  of 52^ 

Solar  System 449-454 

Soldier 93 

Solitude 93 

Sorrow 67,  gj 


INDEX. 


r 


746 


PAGE 

Soul 93 

Sound 348 

Transmission  of 446 

Specific  Gravities,  Table  of 340 

Speeches 200 

Splices  and  Knots 477 

Spring 93 

Stalls  for  a Fair 498 

Stammerers,  Hints  to 165 

Stamp  Act 354 

Stars,  The 454 

Statesmen 93 

Stony  Point  surrendered 356 

Street,  On  the 634 

Studies 1 

Subtraction 223 

Success * 67 

Suicide 67,  93 

Summer 93 

Sunshine 93 

Superstition 67 

Surds 246 

Surrender  of  Lee 362 

Suspiciousness 67 

Swimming 277 

Sympathy 67,  93 

Synonyms 33 

Syntax 20 

Tables,  Miscellaneous 330 

Tears 93 

Temperance 67 

Temperature 651 

Temptation 67,  94 

Tenant 294 

Tennessee 357 

Texas 360 

Thermometers,  Comparison  of  ... . 346 
Ticonderoga  captured 355 


PAGE 

Time 67,  94 

Variations  in 336 

Toasts  and  Sentiments 203 

Trenton,  Battle  of 355 

Tricks 431-443 

Truth 67,  94 

Understanding 67 

United  States,  Army  of 340 

Cereal  productions  of 345 

Constitution  of 368 

Cotton  production  of 340 

Executive  officers  of 343 

Gold  and  silver  production  in  342 
Historical  and  statistical 

tables  of 341 

History  of 351 

Lakes  of 348 

Money  of 341 

Postal  table  of 347 

Table  of  time  and  distance 

in 342 

Usury 293 

Vanity 67,  94 

Vice 67 

Vicksburg  surrendered 362 

Vine,  Treatment  of  the 581 

Virtue 67>  94 

Visiting  Cards 590 

Visits 598>  635 

Voices  and  their  qualities 157 

Male  and  female 157 

Wages,  Rate  of 239 

Wales,  Sovereigns  of 332 

War 68,  94 

King  George’s 354 

King  William’s 354 


PAGfc 

War,  Queen  Anne’s 354 

with  Great  Britain 358 

Mexico 360 

Seminoles 359 

Sioux  ...  361-363 

Tripoli 355 

Wealth 68,  94 

Wedding,  Etiquette  of  a 622-624 

Invitation  to 623 

Weights  and  Measures 336 

Table  for  converting  into 

English 338 

Foreign 338 

West  Virginia 361 

What  is  my  Thought  like  ? 392 

Whist 396 

Wickedness 68 

Wife 95 

Wilderness,  Battle  of 362 

Wills 298 

of  real  estate 307 

Codicil  to 307 

Wine  95 

Wisdom 68,  95 

Wit 68,  95 

Woman 95 

Women 68 

Rights  of  Married 297 

Words,  Derivation  and  formation 

of 8 

Classes  of 9 

Synonyms  of 33 

World 95 

Wyoming  Massacre 356 

YORKTOWN  Surrendered 356 

Youth 68,  95 

Zeal 68,  93 


GENERAL  INDEX  TO  CONTENTS  OF  NEW  AND  EEYISED  EDITION. 


A Digest  of  the  Laws  re- 
lating to  the  Rights  of 

American  Women 109 

Marriage 109 

Foreign  Marriages 109 

Divorce 110 

Contracts  to  Marry 110 

Rights  of  Married  Women  110 

Administration Ill 

Distribution 112 

Dower  of  Widow 113 

Wills 114 

Births  and  Deaths 115 

Landlord  and  Tenant ....  115 

Sculpture— Modelling Ill 

Brass  Work 120 


Civil  Service  Rules 124 

Civil  Service  Regulations  2 

Instruction  to  Ladies  de- 
sirous OF  ENTERING  THE 

Civil  Service 129 

The  Application  for  Ex- 
amination   129 

Who  may  compete 129 

Subjects  for  Examination  129 
Special  and  Technical  Ex- 
aminations   129 

Questions  and  Examina- 
tions  130 

Certifying  for  Appoint- 
ment  130 


Women  in  the  Service. . . 130 

Removals 130 

Promotions 130 

Probation 130 

Photography  for  Girls — 131 

1.  The  Wet  Process 732 

2.  The  Gelatine-Bromide 

Process 134 

3.  The  Printing  Process.  135 

Painting 131 

Lancscape  Painting 131 

Sketching 138 

Painting  on  Terra  Cotta. . 138 
Painting  on  China 139 


